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THE 


BOOK  OF  THE  FAEM : 


DETAILING    THE    LABORS    OF    THE 


FARMER,  STEWARD,  PLOWMAN,  IIEDGER,  CATTLE-MAN, 
SHEPHERD,  FIELD-WORKER,  AND  DAIRYMAID. 


BY  HENRY  STEPHENS. 


WITH  FOUR  HUNDRED  AND  FIFTY  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


TO    WHICH    ARE    ADDED 


EXPLANATORY  NOTES,  REMARKS,  ETC. 

BY  JOHN  S.  SKINNER, 

EDITOR   OF   THE   FARMERS'    LIBRARY. 


VOLUME   I. 


NEW  YORK: 
C.  M.  SAXTON,  AGRICULTURAL  BOOK  PUBLISHER. 

1851. 


THE 


BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 


1.  OF  THE  DIFFICULTIES  WHICH  THE  YOUNG  FARMER  HAS  TO 
ENCOUNTER  AT  THE  OUTSET  OF  LEARNING  PRACTICAL  HUS- 
BANDRY. 

"  One,  but  painted  thus. 
Would  be  interpreted  a  thing  perplex'd 
Beyond  self-explication."  Cymbki-ink. 

The  young  farmer,  left  to  hia  own  guidance,  when  beginning  to  learn 
his  profes.sion,  encounters  many  pei-jilexing  difficulties.  The  difficulty 
which  at  first  most  prominently  obtrudes  itself  on  his  notice  consists  in  the 
distribution  of  the  labor  of  the  farm  ;  and  it  presents  itself  in  this  way  : — 
He  observes  the  teams  employed  one  day  in  one  field,  at  one  kind  of  vvork, 
and  perhaps  the  next  day  in  another  field,  at  a  different  sort  of  work.  He 
observes  the  persons  employed  as  field-workers  assisting  the  teams  one 
day,  and  in  the  next,  perhaps,  working  by  themselves  in  another  field  or 
elsewhere.  He  observes  those  changes  with  attention,  considers  of  their 
utility,  but  cannot  discover  the  reasons  for  making  so  very  varied  an-ange- 
raents  ;  not  because  he  entertains  the  least  doubt  of  their  propriety,  but, 
being  as  yet  uninitiated  in  the  art  of  farming,  he  cannot  foresee  the  pur- 
pose for  which  those  labors  are  perfonned.  The  reason  why  he  cannot  at 
once  foresee  this  is,  that  in  all  cases,  excepting  at  the  finishing  operations, 
the  end  is  unattained  at  the  time  of  his  obsei-vation. 

The  next  difficulty  the  young  farmer  encounters  is  in  the  variety  of  the 
labors  performed.  He  not  only  sees  various  arrangements  made  to  do  the 
same  sort  of  work,  but  various  kinds  of  work.  He  discovers  this  differ- 
ence on  examining  more  closely  into  the  nature  of  the  work  he  sees  per- 
f:>rming.  He  observes  one  day  the  hoi'ses  at  work  in  the  plow  in  one 
field,  moving  in  a  direction  quite  opposite,  in  regard  to  the  ridfes,  to 
what  they  were  in  the  plow  in  another  field.  On  another  day  he  observes 
the  horses  at  work  with  quite  a  different  implement  from  the  plow.  The 
field-workers,  he  perceives,  have  laid  aside  the  implement  with  which  they 
were  working,  and  are  perfonning  the  labor  engaged  in  with  the  hand. 
He  cannot  comprehend  why  one  sort  of  work  should  be  prosecuted  one 
day,  and  quite  a  different  sort  of  work  the  next.  This  difficulty  is  inex- 
plicable for  the  same  reason  why  he  could  not  overcome  the  former  one  : 
because  he  cannot  foresee  the  end  for  which  those  varieties  of  work  are 
performed.  No  doubt  he  is  aware  that  evei-y  kind  and  variety  of  work 
which  are  performed  on  a  farm,  are  preparatives  to  the  attainment  of  cer- 
tain crops  ;  but  what  portion  of  any  work  is  intended  as  a  certain  part  o{ 
the  preparation  for  a  particular  ci'op,  is  a  knowledge  which  he  cannot  ac- 
quire by  intuition.  Every  preparatory  work  is  thus  perplexing  to  the 
young  farmer. 

'"  ^^"^^    ,  38966 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 


Field  work  being  thus  chiefly  anticipatory,  is  the  circumstance  which 
renders  its  object  so  perplexing  to  the  learner.  He  cannot  possibly  per- 
ceive the  connection  between  preparatory  labors  and  their  ultimate  ends  ; 
and  yet,  until  he  leam  to  appreciate  their  necessary  connection,  he  will 
remain  incapable  of  managing  a  farm.  It  is  in  the  exercise  of  this  faculty 
of  anticipation  or  foresight  that  the  experienced  and  careful  farmer  is  con 
tradistinguished  from  the  ignorant  and  careless.  Indeed,  let  the  experi 
ence  of  farming  be  ever  so  extensive,  or,  in  other  words,  let  the  know- 
ledge of  minutiae  be  ever  so  intimate,  unless  the  farmer  use  his  experience 
by  foresight,  he  will  never  be  enabled  to  conduct  a  farm  aright.  Both 
foresight  and  experience  are  acquired  by  observation,  though  the  former 
is  matured  by  reflection.  Observation  is  open  to  all  farmers,  but  all  do 
not  profit  by  it.  Every  farmer  may  acquire,  in  time,  suflicient  experience 
to  conduct  a  farm  in  a  passable  manner  ;  but  many  farmers  never  acquire 
foresight,  because  they  never  reflect,  and  therefore  cannot  make  their  ex- 
perience tell  to  the  most  advantage.  Conducting  a  farm  by  foresight  is 
thus  a  higher  acquirement  than  the  most  intimate  knowledge  of  the  mi- 
nutiae of  labor.  Foresight  cannot  be  exercised  without  the  assistance  of 
experience  ;  though  the  latter  may  exist  independently  of  the  former.  As 
the  elements  of  every  art  must  first  be  acquired  by  observation,  a  know- 
ledge of  the  minutiae  of  labor  should  be  the  first  subject  for  acquii-ement 
by  the  young  farmer.  By  carefully  tracing  the  connection  betwixt  com- 
bined operations  and  their  ultimate  ends,  he  will  acquire  foresight. 

The  necessity  of  possessing  foresight  in  an'anging  the  minutiae  of  labor, 
before  the  young  farmer  can  with  confidence  undertake  the  direction  of  a 
farm,  renders ^ar^wm^  more  difficult  of  acquirement,  and  a  longer  time  of 
being  acquired,  than  most  other  arts.  This  statement  may  appear  incredi- 
ble to  those  who  have  been  accustomed  to  hear  of  farming  being  easily 
and  soon  learned  by  the  meanest  capacity.  No  doubt  it  may  be  acquired 
in  time,  to  a  certain  degree,  by  all  who  are  capable  of  improvement  by 
observation  and  experience  ;  but,  nevertheless,  the  ultimate  ends  for  which 
the  various  kinds  of  field-work  are  prosecuted,  are  involved  in  obscurity  to 
every  learnei*.  In  most  other  arts  no  great  space  usually  elapses  between 
the  commencement  and  completion  of  the  piece  of  work,  and  the  piece  is 
worked  at  i^ntil  finished.  The  beginner  can  thus  soon  perceive  the  connec- 
tion between  the  minutest  portion  of  the  work  in  which  he  is  engaged,  and 
the  object  for  which  it  is  intended.  There  is  in  this  no  obscurity  to  per- 
plex his  mind.  He  is  purposely  led,  by  degrees,  from  the  simplest  to  the 
most  complicated  parts  of  his  art,  so  that  his  mind  is  not  bewildered  at  the 
outset  by  paiticipating  in  a  multiplicity  of  works  at  one  time.  He  thus 
begins  to  acquire  true  experience  from  the  outset. 

The  young  farmer  has  no  such  advantages  in  his  apprenticeship.  There 
is  no  simple,  easy  work,  or  one  object  only  to  engage  his  attention  at  first. 
On  the  contrary,  many  minutiae  connected  with  the  various  works  in  pro- 
gress, claim  his  attention  at  one  and  the  same  time,  and  if  the  requisite  at- 
tention to  any  one  of  them  be  neglected  for  the  time,  no  other  opportunity 
for  observing  it  can  occur  for  a  twelvemonth.  It  is  a  misfortune  to  the 
young  farmer,  in  such  circumstances,  to  be  thrown  back  in  his  progress  by 
a  trifling  neglect.  He  cannot  make  up  his  lee-way  until  after  the  revolu- 
tion of  a  year.  And  though  ever  so  attentive,  he  cannot  possibly  leara  to 
anticipate  operations  in  a  shorter  time,  and  therefore  cannot  possibly  un- 
derstand the  drift  of  a  single  operation  in  the  first  year  of  his  apprentice- 
ship. The  fii'St  year  is  generally  spent  almost  unprofitably,  and  certainly 
unsatisfactorily  to  an  inquisitive  mind.  But  attentive  observation  during 
the  first  year  will  enable  him,  in  the  second,  to  anticipate  the  successive 
(6) 


MEANS  OF  OVERCOMING  DIFFICULTIES. 


operations  ere  they  arrive,  and  an-ange  every  minutia  of  labor  as  it  is  re- 
quired. Many  of  the  events  of  the  first  year,  which  had  left  no  adequate 
impression  of  their  importance  on  his  memory,  crowd  upon  his  observa- 
tion in  the  second,  as  essential  components  of  recognized  operations.  A 
familiar  recognition  of  events  tends,  in  a  rapid  degree,  to  enlarge  the 
sphere  of  experience  and  to  inspire  confidence  in  one's  o^^•n  judgment ; 
and  this  quality  greatly  facilitates  the  acquisition  of  foresight. 

Let  it  not  be  imagined  by  those  who  have  never  passed  through  the 
perplexing  ordeals  incident  to  the  first  year  of  farming,  that  I  have  de- 
scribed them  in  strong  colors,  in  order  to  induce  to  the  belief  that  farming 
is  an  art  more  difficult  of  attainment  than  it  really  is.  So  far  is  this  from 
being  the  case,  I  may  safely  appeal  to  the  experience  of  every  person  who 
had  attained  manhood  before  beginning  to  learn  farming,  whether  I  have 
not  truly  depicted  his  own  condition  at  the  outset  of  his  professional  ca- 
reer. So  that  every  young  man  learning  farming  must  expect  to  meet 
v/ith  those  difficulties. 


2.    OF  THE  MEANS  OF  OVERCOMING  THOSE  DIFFICULTIES. 

"  We  can  clear  these  ambiguities." 

Romeo  and  Jitliet. 

Experience  undoubtedly  dissipates  doubt  and  removes  perplexity  ;  but 
experience,  though  a  sure  and  a  safe,  is  a  slow  teacher.  A  whole  year 
must  revolve  ere  the  entire  labors  of  a  farm  can  be  exhibited  in  the  field, 
and  the  young  farmer  satisfactorily  understand  wliat  he  is  about ;  and  a 
whole  year  is  too  much  time  for  most  young  men  to  sacrifice.  Could  the 
young  farmer  find  a  monitor  to  explain  to  him,  during  the  first  year  of  his 
apprenticeship,  the  purpose  for  which  every  operation  on  a  farm  is  per- 
formed,— foretell  to  him  the  results  which  every  operation  is  intended  to 
effect, — and  indicate  to  him  the  relative  progress  which  all  the  operations 
should  make,  from  time  to  time,  toward  the  attainment  of  their  various 
ends,  he  would  thereby  acquire  a  far  greater  quantity  of  professional  in- 
formation, and  have  greater  confidence  in  its  accuracy,  than  he  could  pos- 
sibly obtain  for  himself  in  that  anxious  period  of  his  novitiate.  Such  a 
monitor  would  best  be  an  experienced  and  intelligent  farmer,  were  he  duly 
attentive  to  his  pupil.  Farmers,  however,  can  scarcely  bestow  so  much 
attention  as  would  be  desired  by  pupils  at  all  times ;  because  the  lapses  of 
time  occasioned  by  necessary  engagements,  in  the  fulfilment  of  which 
farmers  are  sometimes  obliged  to  leave  home,  produce  inattention  on  the 
part  of  the  farmer ;  and  inattention  and  absence  combined  constitute  sad 
interruptions  to  tuition,  and  cannot  always  be  avoided  by  the  most  pains- 
taking farmer.  But  a  hook  might  be  made  an  efficient  assistant-monitor. 
If  expressly  written  for  the  purpose,  it  might  not  only  coiToborate  what 
the  farmer  inculcated,  but  serve  as  a  substitute  in  his  temporary  absence. 
In  this  way  tuition  might  proceed  uninterruptedly,  and  the  pupil  never 
want  a  monitor  upon  whom  he  could  confidently  rely.  Were  a  book,  pur- 
posely so  aiTanged,  put  into  the  hands  of  young  farmers  so  circumstanced, 
the  usual  deprecations  against  recommending  the  acquirement  of  practical 
farming  from  books  alone  would  not  here  apply.  I  would  give  no  such 
counsel  to  any  young  farmer ;  because  books  on  farming,  to  be  really  ser- 
viceable to  the  learner,  ought  not  to  constitute  the  arena  on  which  to  study 
farming — the  field  being  the  best  place  for  perceiving  the  fitness  of  laboi 


8  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

to  the  purposes  it  is  designed  to  attain — but  as  monitors  for  indicating  the 
best  modes  of  management,  and  showing  the  way  of  learning  those  modes 
most  easily.  By  these,  the  practice  of  experienced  farmers  might  be  commtt- 
nicated  and  recommended  to  beginners.  By  consulting  those  which  had  been 
purposely  written  for  their  guidance,  while  they  themselves  were  carefully  ob- 
serving the  daily  operations  of  the  farm,  the  import  of  labors — which  are 
often  intricate,  always  protracted  over  con.siderable  portions  of  time,  and 
necessarily  separated  from  each  other — would  be  acquired  in  a  much  shortf-r 
time  than  if  left  to  be  discovered  by  the  sagacity  of  beginners. 

It  is  requisite  to  explain  that,  by  the  phrase  "  young  farjner,"  I  mean 
the  young  man  who,  having  finished  his  scholastic  and  academical  educa- 
tion, directs  his  attention,  for  the  first  time,  to  the  acquirement  of  practical 
fanning ;  or  who,  though  bom  on  a  farm,  having  spent  the  greater  part  of 
his  life  at  school,  determines,  at  length,  on  following  his  father's  profession. 
For  the  latter  class  of  young  men,  tuition  in  farming,  and  infonnation  from 
books,  ai'e  as  requisite  as  for  the  former.  Those  who  have  constantly  seen 
farming  from  infancy  can  never  be  said  to  have  been  young  farmers  ;  for, 
by  the  time  they  are  fit  to  act  for  themselves,  they  are  proficients  in  farm- 
ing. Having  myself,  for  a  time,  been  placed  precisely  in  the  position  of 
the  first  description  of  young  men,  I  can  bear  sincere  testimony  to  the 
truth  of  the  difficulties  I  have  described  as  having  to  be  encountered  in 
the  first  year  of  apprenticeship.  I  felt  that  a  guide-book  would  have  been 
an  invaluable  monitor  to  me,  but  none  such  existed  at  the  time.  No  doubt 
it  is  quite  reasonable  to  expect  of  the  farmer  ability  to  instruct  the  pupils 
committed  to  his  charge  in  a  competent  manner.  This  is  certainly  his 
duty  ;  Avhich,  if  rightly  performed,  no  guide-book  would  be  required  by 
pupils ;  but  very  few  farmers  who  receive  pupils  undertake  the  onerous 
task  of  instruction.  Practical  farming  they  leave  the  pupils  to  acquire  for 
themselves  in  the  fields,  by  imperfect  observation  and  slow  experience,  as 
they  themselves  had  pre\"iou6ly  done  ;  theoretical  knowledge,  very  few,  if 
any,  are  competent  to  impart.  The  pupils,  being  thus  very  much  left  to 
their  own  application,  can  scarcely  avoid  being  beset  with  difficulties,  and 
losing  much  time.  At  the  same  time  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  the 
practice  gained  by  slow  experience  is,  in  the  end,  the  most  valuable  and 
enduring.  Still,  a  book  on  farming,  expressly  written  to  suit  his  circum- 
stances, might  be  a  valuable  instructor  to  the  young  fanner ;  it  might 
guard  him  against  the  difficulties  which  learners  are  apt  to  encounter ;  and 
it  would  recompense  him  for  loss  of  time,  by  imparting  sound  professional 
information. 

Such  a  book,  to  be  really  a  useful  instructor  and  correct  guide,  should, 
in  my  estimation,  possess  these  necessary  qualifications.  Its  principal 
matter  should  consist  of  a  clear  narrative  of  all  the  labors  of  the  fann,  as 
they  occur  in  succession ;  and  it  should  give  the  reasons  fully  for  which 
each  piece  of  work  is  undertaken.  While  the  principal  operations  are 
narrated  in  this  way,  the  precise  method  of  executing  every  species  of 
work,  whether  manual  or  implemental,  should  be  minutely  detailed.  The 
construction  of  the  various  implements  by  which  work  is  performed — the 
mode  of  using  them — the  accidents  to  which  each  is  liable — should  be  cir- 
cumstantially described.  A  seasonable  narrative  of  the  principal  opei^a- 
tions  will  show  the  young  fanner  that  fanning  is  really  a  systematic  bnsi- 
ness,  haAnng  a  definite  object  in  view,  and  possessing  the  means  of  attain- 
ing it.  The  reasons  for  doing  every  piece  of  work  in  one  way,  rather  than 
another,  will  convince  him  that  farming  is  an  art  founded  on  rational  and 
knowTi  principles.  A  description  of  the  implements,  and  of  the  method  of 
using  them,  will  give  him  a  closer  insight  into  the  nature  and  fitness  of 


MEANS  OF   OVERCOMING   DIFFICULTIES. 


field-work  for  attaining  its  end,  than  by  any  other  means.  A  pemsal  of 
these  narratives,  all  having  a  common  object,  will  impart  a  more  compre- 
hensive and  clearer  view  of  the  management  of  a  farm  in  a  given  time, 
than  he  could  acquire  by  himself  from  witnessing  ever  so  many  isolated 
operations.  The  influence  of  the  seasons  on  all  the  labors  of  the  field  is 
another  consideration  which  should  be  attended  to  in  such  a  book.  In 
preparing  the  ground,  and  during  the  growth  of  the  crops,  the  labor  ap- 
propriated to  each  kind  of  crop  terminates  for  a  time,  and  is  not  resumed 
until  a  fit  season  an-ive.  These  periodical  cessations  from  labor  form  nat- 
ural epochs  in  the  progress  of  the  crops  toward  maturity,  and  afford  con- 
venient opportunities  for  performing  the  work  peculiarly  appropriate  to 
each  epoch ;  and,  since  every  operation  of  the  farm  is  made  to  conform 
with  its  season,  these  epochs  correspond  exactly  with  the  natural  seasons 
of  the  year.  I  say  with  the  natural  seasons,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
common  yearly  seasons,  which  are  entirely  conventional.  This  necessary 
and  opportune  agreement  between  labor  and  the  natural  seasons  induces 
a  corresponding  division  of  the  labors  of  the  farm  into  four  great  portions, 
or  seasons,  as  they  are  usually  termed.  Labor  should,  therefore,  be  de- 
scribed with  particular  reference  to  its  appropriate  season. 

[Reflecting  on  the  preceding  chapters  with  a  view  to  give  them  practical  bearing  on  our  own 
country,  one  is  led  to  remark  that  the  struggles  which  ensued  immediately  after  the  establishment 
of  our  National  Ind?pendcnce,  and  which  had  for  their  object  the  settlement  of  the  gi-eat  working 
principles  of  the  Constitution,  produced  intense  political  excitement  throughout  the  country.  Un- 
fortunately, this  rage  for  politics,  dignified  in  its  commencement  by  great  national  aims,  settled 
down  into  a  sort  of  political  monomania  ;  and  hence  these  struggles  have  become  perennial,  but 
with  sad  degeneracy  as  to  motive.  Anxiety  about  the  great  administrative  principles  of  the  Gov- 
ernment  has  been  superseded  by  an  abiding  and  unquenchable  thirst  for  office,  for  the  .sake  of  offi- 
cial emolument  and  power.  $-25,000,000  constitute  the  annual  premiums  to  be  contended  for  and 
distributed  among  party  competitors,  sufficiently  numerous  and  active,  and  so  widely  dispersed 
among  the  people  as  to  draw  off  their  minds  from  the  practical  bearing  of  public  legislation  and  its 
indissoluble  connection  with  the  landed  interest  of  the  country.  Thus  has  it  happened  that,  while 
the  People  of  the  United  States — landholders  in  very  large  proportion — pay  annually,  and,  as  it 
would  seem,  willingly,  so  many  millions  to  provide  for  military  instruction  and  to  maintain  mili- 
tary institutions,  little  or  nothing  is  done  by  their  Representatives  for  tlie  diffusion  of  agricultural 
knowledge,  or  for  the  construction  of  highways  or  conveniences  to  develop  and  improve  the  in- 
dustrial reaonrces  of  the  country  ! 

If  the  people — the  cultivators  of  the  soil — would  force  their  legislators  to  appropriate,  for  the 
dis.=emination  of  agricultural  knowledge  through  all  the  common  schools  of  the  country,  one-tenth 
of  that  which  the  landholders  now  pay  for  prolonged  debates  and  useless  legislation,  and  for  the 
pay  and  maintenance  of  the  military  machinery  of  the  Government,  our  young  men  dosiineil  for 
farming  might  enter  on  their  career  in  full  posse.ssion  of  the  knnwledge  recommended  in  the  pre- 
ccdi.ig  chapters;  and  such  knowledge  could  not  fail  to  be  followed  by  an  immcn.<e  increase  in  all 
the  fruits  of  productive  industry,  as  well  as  in  that  additional  securitj-  for  the  public  peace  and 
prosperity  which  is  the  natural  fruit  of  superior  intelligence.  The  young  men  of  the  country  would 
then  enter  upon  life  with  a  well-founded  conviction  that  farming,  truly,  "  is  an  art,  founder}  on  ra- 
tional and  known  principles." 

With  the.se  views  it  was  that  Wadsworth  and  "Van  Rensselaer,  of  New-York,  exerted  their  in- 
fluence for  the  establishment  of  Common  Schools,  in  all  of  which  the  Sciences  connected  with  Ag- 
ricvlfiire  ought  now  to  have  preference  and  prominence  over  all  others.  The  spontaneous  and 
unassisted  growth  of  agricultural  schools,  which  may  now  be  seen  springing  up  in  various  sections 
of  the  country,  clearly  indicates  that  public  sentiment  is,  fortunately,  beginning  to  gather  force  and 
to  take  a  right  direction  on  this  great  subject  of  popular  agricultural  education — giving  reason  to 
hope  that,  eventually,  even  those  who  deny  that  the  Government  possesses  any  constitutional  con- 
trol over  it,  will  at  lea.st  agree  that  if  public  treasure  is  to  be  collected  and  appropriated  to  the  dif- 
fusion of  any  sort  of  knowledge,  or  the  construction  of  any  sort  of  road,  or  survej'  or  map,  or  the 
publication  of  any  sort  of  book,  it  were  far  better  for  the  interests  of  the  people  of  the  Uc  ited  States, 
and  of  humanity,  that  such  expenditures  should  be  applied  to  the  dissemination  of  that  sort  of 
(9) 


10  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

knowledge,  and  to  the  construction  of  that  sort  of  road,  or  map,  or  book,  which  shall  have  &  tend 
ency  to  increase  the  "staff  of  life" — to  make  bread  abundant — and  provide,  in  a  word,  the  materi- 
als of  manufactures — the  elements  of  commerce — and  the  basis,  not  so  much  of  military  glory,  as 
of  7iational  prosperity. 

There  seems,  in  truth — and  every  Christian  will  hail  all  such  omens  with  delight — to  be  a  grow- 
ing conviction  that,  as  the  field  of  Science  enlarges,  the  practical  man  cannot  fulfil  his  calling, 
wliatever  that  calling  may  be,  without  some  acquaintance  with  those  branches  of  Science  which 
hear  upon  it.  The  Divine,  the  Lawyer,  the  Physician,  the  Merchant — and  he,  still  honored  and 
rewarded  above  the  best,  whose  art  it  is  to  destroy  his  fellov/-raan — are  all  of  them  acting  upon 
this  principle.  The  advance  of  Science  in  all  other  pursuits,  except  farming,  is  making  empiri- 
cism in  them  degrading  and  unprofitable.  Yet  the  follower  of  each  of  them  was  once  an  empiric. 
The  Farmer  alone  is  so  still.  Does  not,  then,  the  advance  of  Science — may  we  not  say,  his  own 
character  and  self  respect — require  him,  too,  to  be  a  man  of  certainty — independent  on,  or  rather 
a  controller  of,  circumstances  ?  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 


3.     OF  THE   KIND  OP    INFORMATION    TO    BE    FOUND    IN    EXISTENT 
WORKS  ON  AGRICULTURE. 

"  Tire  the  hearer  with  a  book  of  words." 

Much  Ado  about  Nothing. 

Unless  the  business  of  a  farm  he  treated  in  books  somewhat  in  the 
manner  thus  described,  I  consider  it  impossible  for  a  young  farmer  to  de- 
rive from  them  the  requisite  information  for  conducting  a  farm,  even 
though  he  should  be  constantly  resident  upon  it.  By  even  the  most  care- 
ful perusal  of  books,  w^hich  relate  methods  of  cultivating  crops  and  treat- 
ing live  stock  in  the  most  general  terms  and  in  detached  sections  having 
no  relative  connection  with  each  other,  the  young  farmer  will  never,  in 
my  opinion,  understand  how  to  apportion  labor  and  modify  its  application 
to  the  raising  of  crops  and  rearing  of  live-stock,  in  accordance  with  the 
nature  of  the  season.  He  will  never  learn  to  know  by  perusing  a  narra- 
tive couched  in  the  most  general  terms,  when  an  operation  is  really  well 
performed ;  because,  to  be  able  to  judge  of  the  quality  of  work,  all  its 
minutiae  ought  previously  to  have  been  fully  and  carefully  detailed  to  him. 
NaiTatives  couched  in  general  terms,  to  the  exclusion  of  essential  minutiae, 
will  never  impart  that  pi-ecision  of  ideas  which  the  mind  should  possess 
in  conducting  any  piece  of  field  work  ;  and  without  precision  of  ideas  in 
regard  to  labor,  no  man  will  ever  be  able  to  conduct  a  farm  aright.  But 
to  be  told  how  to  conduct  a  farm  aright,  is  the  chief  motive  of  the  young 
farmer  for  consulting  a  book  at  all. 

Now,  on  examining  works  of  any  pretensions  which  have,  for  years 
past,  been  written  on  practical  Agriculture,  none  will  be  found  to  have 
been  written  and  arranged  on  the  principles  I  have  recommended,  and 
much  less  for  the  special  benefit  of  beginners  in  farming.  All  are  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  constitute  books  of  reference  for  experienced,  rather  than  as 
guides  for  young  farmers.  Yet,  how  few  of  the  former  will  condescend 
to  consult  agricultural  works  !  The  aversion  of  experienced  farmers  to 
to  consult  books  on  Agriculture  has  long  been  proverbial.*     No  doubt  this 


^"Tlli.s  aversion  uonbil<;s8  arises  in  a  great  measure  from  the  neglect  of  parents  to  have  Agricul- 
ture and  studies  nearly  nkin  to  it  made  a  part  oj  the,  rAiication  of  their  sons.  Amusements  fol- 
lowed, courses  of  reading  indulged  in,  and  habits  contracted  when  wo  are  young,  conilnno  to 
tiave  their  influence  over  ns  in  after  life,  and  to  possess  attraction,  if  only  by  force  of  early  asso- 
ciation, while  he  who  grows  to  man's  estate  in  ignorance  of  that  great  perennial  source  of  enjoy- 


EXISTENT  WORKS  ON  AGRICULTURE.  H 

aversion  may  be  explained  ;  but  whether  the  explanation  is  to  be  found 
in  a  general  indifference  to  book-farming,  or  in  the  quality  of  the  books 
themselves,  or  in  both  ciixumstances  combined,  it  is  not  easy  to  deter- 
mine. The  aversion,  however,  appears  to  be  felt  more  toward  systematic 
than  periodical  works  on  Agriculture.  The  latter  class  receives  favor 
because,  possibly,  they  may  contain  something  that  is  not  generally  known, 
and  their  information  bears  the  character  of  freshness.  As  to  younor 
farmers,  if  they  cannot  find  books  suited  to  their  particular  state  of  know- 
ledge, they  have  no  alternative  but  to  peruse  those  that  are  extant. 

For  the  sake  of  the  young  fanner,  the  usual  contents  of  agricultural 
books  require  farther  consideration.  Let  any  systematic  work  on  prac- 
tical Agriculture  be  examined,  and  it  will  be  found  to  contain  an  aixange- 
ment  of  the  various  particulars  of  farming,  somewhat  in  this  order.  The 
soil  and  the  various  methods  of  working  it  are  first  described.  The  im- 
plements are  then  most  probably  particularized,  or  their  description  de- 
fended to  a  later  portion  of  the  work.  The  methods  of  raising  and  secur- 
ing the  different  kinds  of  crops  are  then  detailed ;  and  the  treatment  of 
live-stock  is  delayed  to  the  last.  We  suppose  that  no  satisfactory  reasons 
can  be  given  for  adopting  this  particular  arrangement  of  subjects.  It  is, 
perhaps,  considered  a  simple  arrangement,  because  it  proceeds  from  what 
is  considered  the  elementary  process  of  preparing  the  soil,  to  the  more 
complicated  process  of  cultivating  the  plants  for  which  the  soil  has  been 
prepared.  But  the  simplicity  of  the  arrangement,  I  apprehend,  is  to  be 
found  rather  in  what  is  assumed  than  what  is  apparent ;  for  plowing  land 
is  not  a  more  simple  process,  or  more  elementary  than  sowing  seed.  In- 
deed, some  sorts  of  plowing  require  far  greater  dexterity  and  ingenuity  in 
the  performance  than  any  process  connected  with  the  production  of  crops. 
Perhaps  it  is  considered  a  natural  arrangement,  because  the  ground  is 
first  prepared,  and  the  crop  is  then  sown.  The  ground,  it  is  true,  must 
be  partially,  if  not  wholly,  prepared  before  the  crop  be  put  into  it ;  but, 
in  the  cultivation  of  the  summer  crops,  much  of  the  labor  bestowed  on 
the  land  is  performed  while  the  crops  are  in  a  rapid  progi'ess  toward  ma- 
turity. 

Although  the  seasons  \nsibly  influence  the  operations  and  products  of 
the  farm,  systematic  works  on  Agriculture  scarcely  disclose  the  subdivi- 
sion of  the  year  into  seasons,  much  less  the  very  different  operations  per- 
formed in  different  seasons,  and  still  less  the  difference  of  character  of  the 
same  season  in  different  years.  For  all  that  is  given  in  them  by  way  of 
advice,  every  operation  may  as  well  be  performed  in  one  season  as  in  an- 
other. No  doubt,  reference  is  made,  and  cannot  altogether  be  avoided 
being  made,  to  the  season  in  which  the  piece  of  work  described  should  be 
performed  ;  but  the  reference  seems  to  allude  to  the  season  more  as  an 
accidental  concomitant,  than  as  constituting  the  sole  influential  power  that 


ment.  the  love  of  books,  verj-  rarely  contracts  a  fondness  for  them  in  after  life.  To  put  them  in  his 
\va3',  when  his  habits  are  already  fixed,  and  expect  to  force  them  on  his  attention,  is  like  attempt- 
ing to  espalierise  trees  already  half  grown:  hence  the  force  of  the  maxim  that  you  should  "  bring 
up  the  child  in  the  way  he  should  go."  The  boy  should  be  led,  while  yet  a  boy,  to  take  plea- 
sure in  books,  and  especially  in  such  books  as  are  best  calculated  to  store  his  mind  with  the 
practice,  and  to  embellish  it  with  the  literature  o{his  particular  calling.  All  that  can  enlighten 
Agriculture  and  instruct  in  the  natural  historj'  and  properties  of  whatever  belongs  to  the  country, 
should,  at  country  schools,  take  the  place  of  the  antiquated  trash  which  continues  to  form  the 
bulk  of  Common  School  education,  with  the  exception,  in  a  great  and  honorable  measure,  of  the 
schools  in  New- York,  Massachusetts,  and  some  other  Northern  States,  where  the  subject  has  at- 
tracted the  earnest  regards  of  able,  benevolent  and  conscientious  men,  who  so  well  deserve  and 
80  rarely  receive  the  tribute  due  to  the  real  benefactors  of  mankind.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

(11; 


12  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

regulates  the  order  of  time  in  which  the  work  should  be  performed.  The 
allusion  to  the  season,  in  short,  only  forms  an  isolated  hint,  which,  being 
singly  repeated  in  a  number  of  places,  it  is  impossible  for  the  reader  to 
keep  in  mind  the  particular  operation  that  should  be  performed  in  its  own 
season.  This  apparent  neglect  of  the  great  influential  power  which  regu- 
lates all  farm  business,  constitutes  an  insuperable  objection  to  describing, 
in  an  uninterrupted  narrative,  a  piece  of  work  which  is  performed  at  in- 
tervals. Such  a  dissertation  might  bewilder  the  reader  on  its  perusal,  but 
could  not  satisfy  the  mind  of  the  young  inquiring  farmer. 

But  the  minuter  an-angements  in  the  books  I  am  remarking  on,  are  fully 
more  objectionable  than  the  general.  The  entire  process  usually  adopted 
for  workino-  the  land  for  a  particular  crop,  is  described  in  an  uninterrupted 
narrative,  before  a  description  of  the  nature  of  the  crop  is  given  for  which 
the  soil  is  preparing ;  and,  in  consequence,  before  the  connection  between 
the  preparation  and  the  crop  can  be  understood  by  the  young  farmer. 
This  is  not  the  usual  procedure  on  farms,  and  cannot  therefore  be  account- 
ed natural ;  and  it  certainly  tends  to  mislead  the  beginner.  The  usual 
practice  is,  that  the  laud  destined  for  any  particular  crop  is  prepared  to  a 
certain  degree,  at  stated  times,  in  accordance  with  the  natural  seasons,  and 
between  those  times  many  operations  intervene  which  bear  no  relation  to 
that  particular  crop.  Every  operation  thus  occupies  a  portion  of  time,  in- 
termittent in  its  season,  and  cannot  truly  be  described  in  a  continued  dis- 
sertation. The  finishing  operation  of  every  crop  is  always  deferred  until 
the  appropriate  season. 

The  descriptions  of  implements  are  very  unsatisfactory,  and  their  con- 
struction, for  the  most  part,  is  very  imperfectly  represented.  None  trace 
their  action  from  the  first  start  to  the  entire  completion  of  the  work.  Im- 
plements of  husbandry  having,  only  a  few  years  ago,  been  made  in  the 
nidest  manner,  their  actions  were  necessarily  imperfect,  and  their  abso- 
lute weight  a  serious  drag  on  the  draught.  They  are  now  constructed  on 
ti-ue  principles  of  mechanical  science — are  light  in  motion,  perfect  in  ac- 
tion, and  elegant  in  foi'ra.  It  is  remarkable  that  a  correct  description  of 
improved  implements  has  not  ere  this  been  undertaken  by  some  skillful 
machinist.* 

Some  works  treat  first  of  the  science  of  Agriculture,  and  then  of  the 
practice,  as  if  the  science  of  the  art  had  been  ascertained  by  studying 
abundance  of  facts  derived  from  practice  ;  or,  as  if  its  science  already  pos- 
sesses such  a  superiority  as  to  be  allowed  the  precedence  of  practice.  Oth- 
ers make  science  follow  practice,  as  if  the  science  had  been  derived  from 
the  practice  described  ;  whereas  what  is  offered  as  science  is  generally  pre- 
sented in  isolated  speculations,  volunteered  chiefly  by  theorists  unacquaint- 
ed with  the  practice  of  Agi'iculture.  Some  authors  theorize  on  agricul- 
tural subjects  from  as  slight  a  foundation  of  facts  as  in  the  experimental 
sciences,  although  they  profess  to  give  no  preference  to  science  over  prac- 
tice. Theorizing  writers,  however,  sometimes  throw  out  hints  which, 
when  improved  by  more  practical  experimenters,  really  lead  to  useful 
results  ;  but  whatever  may  be  the  origin  of  the  hints  of  theorists,  the 
ability  to  give  a  convincing  and  philosophical  reason  for  every  operation 
in  husbandry,  is  an  accomplishment  which  every  young  fanner  should  en- 
deavor to  attain.       Efforts  to  discover  reasons  for  practice  derived  from 


[•  It  is  to  be  presumed  that  when  this  was  written,  the  author  had  not  seen  "  Raksome's  Book  or 
THE  Implements  of  Agriculture."  It  contains  drawings  and  descriptions  of  all  the  imple- 
ments of  Agriculture  employed  in  England.  Such  of  them  as  are  adapted  to  our  countiy  will 
be  given  in  the  Farmers'  Library  and  Monthly  Journal  or  Agriculture,  as  two  of  the 
harrows  were  in  Vol.  1.  pp.  591-2.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

(12) 


EXISTENT  WORKS  ON  AGRICULTURE.  13 

principles  applicable  alike  to  science  and  good  husbandry,  is  a  healthfiil 
exercise  of  the  mind,  and  tend  to  rendei'  it  capable  of  accommodating 
practice  to  existing  circumstances.  Conformity  of  practice  with  the  sea- 
son exhibits  in  the  farmer  superior  ability  for  conducting  fanning  opera- 
tions :  like  the  expeinenced  mariner,  who  renders  every  change  in  the  gale 
Bubsei-vient  to  the  safety  of  his  ship,  navigation  itself  not  being  more  de- 
pendent on  weather  than  is  farming.  By  pursuing  a  course  of  observa- 
tion and  investigation  such  as  this,  the  mind  of  the  young  farmer  will  soon 
become  scientifically  enlightened  ;  but  books  on  farming  usually  afford  no 
assistance  in  pursuing  such  a  course  of  study. 

The  treatment  of  live-stock  is  usually  deferi'ed  to  the  conclusion  in 
works  on  Agiiculture,  as  if  it  were  either  the  most  important,  or  the  most 
complicated,  occupation  of  the  farm.  Breeding  for  the  improvement  of  a 
particular  race  of  animals,  and  judicious  ci'ossing  betwixt  two  fixed  races, 
are  indeed  occupations  which  tax  the  judgment  severely  ;  but  the  ordinary 
treatment  of  live-stock  is  as  easily  managed  as  most  of  the  operations  of 
the  field.  The  complete  separation,  moreover,  made  in  books  betwixt 
live-stock  and  field-operations,  is  apt  to  impress  the  mind  of  the  inexpe- 
rienced reader  that  no  necessary  connection  subsists  betwixt  stock  and 
crop,  whereas  neither  can  be  treated  with  advantage  either  to  the  farm- 
er or  themselves,  unless  both  are  attended  to  simultaneously. 

From  what  I  have  stated  i-egarding  the  airangement  of  the  subjects  in 
systematic  works  on  Agriculture,  it  will  be  obsened  that  they  are  better 
adapted  for  reference  than  tuition.  Tliey  form  a  sort  of  dictionary  or 
cyclopedia,  in  which  the  different  subjects  are  treated  independently  of 
each  other,  under  different  heads,  though  they  may  not  be  placed  in  al- 
phabetical order.  Being  strictly  works  of  reference,  they  may  be  con- 
sulted at  any  time ;  and  ai-e  only  valuable  as  such,  in  pi-oportion  to  the 
accuracy  of  the  information  they  contain  ;  and  being  such,  they  are  unfit- 
ted to  impart  agiicultural  knowledge  suited  to  beginners ;  because,  1st, 
operations  are  not  described  in  the  order  in  which  they  occur  on  the  farm ; 
2d,  the  descriptions  omit  many  of  the  minutiae  of  management,  and  yet 
constant  attention  to  these  constitutes  an  essential  characteristic  of  a  good 
farmer  ;  3d,  they  contain  no  precautionary  warnings  against  the  proba- 
bility of  failure  in  operations  from  various  incidental  causes,  which  ought 
to  be  anticipated,  and  attempted  to  be  shunned  ;  and,  4th,  they  afford  no 
idea  of  the  mode  of  carrying  on  various  opei-ations  simultaneously  in  the 
different  departments  of  management.  Such  works,  therefore,  impart  no 
notion  of  horo  to  set  about  to  conduct  a  farm  ;  and  yet,  without  this  essen- 
tial infonnation,  to  obtain  which  the  earnest  young  farmer  toils  inces- 
santly, they  can  render  him  no  assistance  as  guides.  Indeed,  the  authors 
of  such  works  do  not  profess  to  be  teachers  of  young  fanners. 

Experience  has  made  me  well  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  the  diffi- 
culties tyros  in  Agriculture  have  to  contend  with  ;  and  I  clearly  see  that 
the  books  on  farming  extant  are  incompetent  to  assist  them  in  overcom- 
ing those  difficulties.  I  consider  it,  therefore,  very  desirable  that  a  work 
should  be  written  for  the  express  purpose  of  presenting  facilities  to  young 
farmei-s  in  the  acquirement  of  their  profession.  This  opinion  I  have  en- 
tertained for  many  years,  and  see  no  cause  to  change  it  for  all  the  works 
on  Agriculture  that  have  been  published  of  late  years.  To  me  it  is  mat- 
ter of  sui-prise  that  such  a  work  has  never  been  written  by  any  of  the 
prominent  writers  on  Agiiculture  in  this  prolific  age  of  books,  when  as- 
sistance in  the  acquirement  of  learning  is  proffered  in  so  many  shapes  to 
the  youths  of  all  classes.  In  most  other  branches  of  art,  there  is  no  want 
of  facilities  in  books  for  acquiring  their  elementary  principles  and  practice. 


14  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

On  the  kindred  art  of  gardening,  in  particular,  every  possible  variety  of 
publication  exists,  from  the  pondei-ous  folio  to  the  tiny  duodecimo,  con- 
taining all  the  minutiae  of  practice  and  the  elucidation  of  principles.  It  is 
difficult  to  account  for  the  want  of  solicitude  sho%vn  by  agricultural  wiiters, 
for  the  early  advancement  of  the  young  farmer.  Perhaps  many  of  them 
have  never  experienced  the  irksome  difficulties  of  acquiring  a  practical 
knovi^ledge  of  Agriculture,  and  therefore  cannot  extend  their  sympathies 
to  those  who  have  ;  perhaps  the  exhibition  of  an  intimate  acquaintance 
with  the  minutiae  of  farming  appears  too  trivial  an  accomplishment  to  ar- 
rest the  attention  of  general  writers ;  perhaps  they  think  when  a  young 
man  begins  to  farm,  it  is  sufficient  for  him  to  have  a  steward  in  whose 
skill  he  can  confide  ;  perhaps  the  tuition  of  young  farmers  is  beneath  their 
dignity,  and  they  would  rather  aspire  to  the  higher  object  of  instructing 
experienced  men  ;  or  perhaps  they  have  never  condescended  to  trouble 
themselves  with  practical  farming,  which,  to  judge  of  their  lucubrations 
by  the  sterlingness  of  their  practical  worth,  many  of  them,  I  dare  say, 
never  have. 


4.  OF  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  "THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM.*' 

"  A  book  ?    O  rare  one  I 
Be  not  as  is  our  fangled  world,  a  garment 
Nobler  than  that  it  covers  :  let  thy  effects 
So  follow,  to  be  most  unlike  our  courtiers, 
As  good  as  promise." 

Cymbeline. 

A  BOOK  for  the  special  purpose  of  instructing  young  farmers,  such  as  it 
should  be,  and  such  as  they  are  entitled  to  expect  from  the  hands  of  ex- 
perienced agriculturists,  is  yet  a  desideratum  in  the  agricultural  literature 
of  this  country.  I  am  disposed  to  question  the  ability  of  any  one  man  to 
write  such  a  work,  as  its  accomplishment  would  require  a  rare  combina- 
tion of  qualities.  The  writer  would  require,  as  a  primary  qualification,  to 
be  a  highly  experienced  agriculturist,  able  to  indite  lucid  instructions  for 
conducting  a  fann.  He  should  also  be  a  clear-headed  mechanician,  to  de- 
scribe with  minute  distinctness  the  principles  and  constmction  of  agricul- 
tural implements.  He  should,  moreover,  be  an  accomplished  man  of  sci- 
ence, to  explain  to  con\dction  the  rationale  of  every  operation.  Onerous 
as  the  task  thus  appears,  I  shall,  nevertheless,  attempt  to  write  such  a 
book.  With  adequate  assistance,  I  trust  I  shall  be  able  to  overcome,  at 
least,  the  practical  difficulties  of  the  undertaking;  and,  as  to  the  scientific 
part,  men  of  science  have  not  yet  brought  Science  to  bear  upon  Agricul- 
ture in  so  satisfactory  a  manner  as  to  justify  them  in  contemning  the  ra- 
tional explanations  given  of  the  various  operations  by  practical  men. — 
Could  I  but  succeed  in  arranging  the  various  operations  as  they  success- 
ively and  actually  occur  on  a  farm,  in  so  lucid  a  manner  as  that  any  young 
farmer  might  comprehend  the  exact  purport  of  each  piece  of  work,  as  it 
developed  itself  in  the  field,  I  should  certainly  do  him  essential  service. — 
In  accomplishing  this,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  invest  with  sufficiently  at- 
tractive interest  the  descriptions  of  the  minute  details  of  the  various  oper- 
ations, so  that  their  aptitude  to  the  purpose  intended  may  be  appreciated. 
Careful  attention  to  these  details — in  themselves,  I  own,  irksome — vnll 
the  sooner  enable  the  young  farmer  to  understand  thoroughly  the  connec- 
tion of  successive  operations  ;  and  by  the  understanding  of  which  he  wil\ 
be  forewarned  of  the  approach,  and  be  able  to  ascertain  the  import,  of  the 

(14) 


THE   CONSTRUCTION  OF  15 

uarticular  end  for  which  they  are  preparatory.  Besides  showing  by  anti 
cipalion  the  successive  operations  as  they  arrive,  could  I  also  give  clear 
descriptions  of  the  labor  performed  for  each  crop,  as  it  is  can-ied  on  siviul 
ianeously  on  a  farm,  I  should  achieve  a  still  greater  service  "for  the  young 
i'armer.  He  would  then  clearly  comprehend  a  difficult  department  of  his 
art. 

To  accomplish  these  ends,  I  purpose  to  arrange  the  matter  in  the  fol 

»ving  manner,  and  for  the  following  reasons.  The  entire  business  of  a 
arm  necessarily  occupies  a  year ;  but  that  year  embraces  in  some  years 
more,  and  in  others  less,  than  twelve  months.  The  agricultural  year, 
moreover,  both  in  its  commencement  and  termination,  does  not  correspond 
with  that  of  the  calendar ;  and  those  periods  are  determined  in  this  way. 
The  beginning  and  ending  of  every  agricultural  year  are  entirely  depend- 
ent on  the  duration  of  the  life  of  cultivated  vegetables,  which  constitute 
the  chief  product  of  the  farm.  In  the  temperate  regions  of  the  globe, 
vegetable  life  becomes  dormant,  or  extinct,  according  as  the  vegetable  is 
perennial  or  annual,  at  the  beginning  of  winter.  The  beginning  of  winter 
is  therefore  chosen,  in  the  temperate  zones,  to  commence  the  agricultural 
year,  and,  of  course,  the  labors  of  the  farm ;  and,  when  winter  again  ap- 
proaches, the  labors  of  the  field  have  performed  their  annual  revolution. 
The  same  sort  of  work  is  performed  year  after  year.  To  understand 
those  labors  throughout  the  year  is  the  chief  aim  of  the  young  farmer; 
and  to  describe  them  to  him  satisfactorily  is  the  principal  object  of  this 
book. 

Two  modes  of  describing  farm-business  may  be  adopted.  One  is  to  ar- 
range it  under  different  heads,  and  describe  all  similar  operations  under 
the  same  head,  as  has  hitherto  been  done  in  systematic  works  on  Agricul- 
ture. The  other  mode  is  to  describe  the  operations  as  they  actually  occur, 
singly,  in  succession,  as  is  to  be  done  in  this  work.  Both  methods  describe 
the  general  farm  business,  and  both  may  be  consulted  for  any  particular 
pait  of  the  business.  But  how  the  relative  position  of  any  particular  part 
of  the  business  stands  in  regard  to,  and  influences  any  other,  can  only  be 
shown  by  the  latter  method,  and  it  does  so  at  a  glance  of  the  eye.  More- 
over, as  some  parts  of  farm  business  commence,  and  others  terminate,  at 
one  or  other  period  of  the  year,  the  latter  method  can  clearly  indicate, 
what  the  other  cannot  so  well  do,  in  which  period  any  particular  operation 
is  commenced,  continued,  or  terminated ;  and  it  gives  the  details  of  each 
operation  much  more  minutely  than  the  other  method. 

The  agricultural  year,  like  the  common  year,  is  distinctly  and  conveni- 
ently divided  into  seasons,  which  regulate  all  farm  work.  I  have  given 
the  seasons  as  full  an  influence  over  the  arrangements  of  the  matter  in  this 
book  as  they  really  possess  over  the  business-matter  of  the  farm.  The 
whole  business-matter  is  divided  into  four  parts,  each  bearing  the  name 
of  the  season  that  influences  the  operations  that  are  performed  in  it.  By 
this  arrangement  every  operation,  whether  requiring  longer  or  shorter 
time  for  completion,  is  described  as  it  takes  its  turn  in  the  fields.  The 
work  that  occupies  only  a  short  time  to  begin  and  complete,  in  any  one 
season,  is  described  in  a  single  narrative.  Very  few  of  the  operations  of  a 
farm,  however,  are  begun  and  completed  in  one  of  the  seasons ;  some  ex- 
tending over  the  whole  four,  and  most  into  two  or  three.  Any  piece  of 
work  that  extends  over  almost  all  the  seasons  can,  nevertheless,  be  de- 
scribed with  great  accuracy ;  for  although,  in  its  progress  toward  comple- 
tion, it  may  altogether  occupy  an  extended  range  of  time,  each  season  im- 
poses a  peculiar  kind  of  operation  toward  the  advancement  of  the  work ; 
which  peculiar  operation  ceases,  and  a  different  kind  is  entered  upon,  at 

(15) 


16  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

the  season  which  concludes  the  work.  These  cessations  of  labor,  cottnect" 
ed  with  the  same  work  which  extends  over  several  seasons,  are  thus  n^t 
mere  conveniences,  but  necessary  and  temporary  finishings  of  work,  whicr 
it  would  be  improper  to  resume  but  at  a  subsequent  and  appropriate  sea^ 
son.  In  this  way  all  the  more  extensive  pieces  of  work  are  giadually  ad- 
vanced, in  progressive  steps,  season  after  season,  until  their  completion ; 
while  the  smaller  are  concunently  brought  onward  and  completed,  each 
in  its  proper  season. 

Before  proceeding  farther,  let  me  guard  the  young  farmer  against  im- 
bibing a  misconception  regarding  the  length  of  the  seasons.  In  the  year 
of  the  calendar,  each  season  extends  over  a  period  of  three  calendar 
months  ;  and  the  same  three  months  every  year  compose  the  same  season, 
whatsoever  may  be  the  nature  of  the  weather.  Every  season  of  the  calen- 
dar is  thus  of  the  same  length.  The  seasons  of  the  agricultural  year, 
though  bearing  the  same  names  as  those  of  the  calendar,  are,  on  the  other 
hand,  not  of  the  same  length  every  year,  but  their  duration  is  regulated  by 
the  state  of  the  weather.  The  agricultural  seasons  have  characteristic 
signs  to  distinguish  them.  The  spring  revives  the  dormant  powers  of  veg- 
etables ;  the  summer  enlarges  their  growth  ;  the  autumn  develops  the 
means  of  reproduction ;  and  the  winter  puts  a  stop  to  vegetable  energy. 
In  the  year  of  the  calendar  these  characteristics  are  assumed  to  last  just 
three  months  in  each  season ;  but  in  the  agricultural  year,  notwithstand- 
ing that  the  characteristics  of  one  season  extend  over  or  are  contracted 
within  three  months,  still  that  season  bears  its  proper  name,  whether  it 
encroaches  on  or  is  encroached  upon  by  another  season.  The  spring,  for 
example,  may  be  enci-oached  on  by  the  protraction  of  winter  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  earliness  of  summer  on  the  other ;  a  case  in  which  results 
both  a  late  and  short  spring — a  state  of  spring  which  creates  very  bustling 
work  to  the  farmer.  So  with  the  rest  of  the  seasons.  This  elastic  prop- 
erty in  the  agricultural  seasons  contradistinguishes  them  from  the  seasons 
of  the  calendar  which  possess  no  elasticity.  The  commencement,  contin- 
uance, and  termination  of  field  work  being,  therefore,  entirely  dependent 
on  the  seasons  of  the  agricultural  year — and  those  seasons,  in  their  turn, 
being  as  dependent  on  the  weather — it  follows  that  field  operations  arie 
entirely  dependent  on  the  state  of  the  weather,  and  not  on  the  conven- 
tional seasons  of  the  calendar.  Whether  an  agricultural  season  be  long  or 
short,  the  work  that  properly  belongs  to  it  must  be  finished  in  it  while  it 
lasts.  If  it  be  of  sufficient  length,  the  work  to  be  performed,  admitting 
of  a  considerable  latitude  of  time,  may  be  well  finished  ;  and,  if  not  so  fin- 
ished, the  crop  nins  the  risk  of  failure.  Should  any  season  happen  to  be 
shortened  by  the  weather,  by  the  preceding  season  encroaching  upon  it, 
the  work  should  be  so  far  advanced  during  the  preceding  prolonged  sea- 
son that,  when  the  proper  season  for  its  completion  amves — as  anive  it 
will — the  finishing  may  be  accomplished  before  its  expiring.  Should  any 
season  be  curtailed  by  the  earliness  of  the  succeeding  one,  and  the  weather 
improve,  as  in  the  case  of  summer  appearing  before  its  time,  no  apprehen- 
sion need  be  entertained  of  accomplishing  the  finishing  work  in  a  satisfac- 
tory manner;  but  should  the  weather  prove  worse,  as  in  the  premature 
approach  of  winter  upon  autumn,  then  extraordinary  exertions  are  re- 
quired to  avert  the  disastrous  consequences  £>f  winter  weather  upon  the 
crops.  The  unusual  protraction  of  any  of  the  seasons  in  which  a  work 
should  be  completed  is  attended  with  no  risk,  except  that  too  fi-equently, 
from  the  consciousness  of  having  plenty  of  time  to  complete  the  work,  un- 
necessary delay  is  permitted,  until  the  succeeding  season  unexpectedly 
makes  its  appearance.     In  such  cases,  procrastination  is  truly  the  thief  of 

(16) 


THE   CONSTRUCTION  OF  17 

thne.  During  the  protraction  of  a  season,  much  time  is  often  wasted  in 
waiting  for  the  arrival  of  the  succeeding  one,  in  which  a  particular  work 
is  most  properly  finished;  but,  in  a  contracted  season,  a  gi-eat  part  of  the 
work  is  hun-iedly  gone  through,  and  of  course  slovenly  performed.  The 
most  perfect  field-work  is  perfoiTned  when  the  agricultural  and  conven- 
tional seasons  happen  to  coincide  in  duration.* 

The  greatest  difficulty  which  the  farmer  experiences,  when  first  assum- 
ing the  management  of  a  farm,  is  in  distributing  and  adjusting  labor.  To 
accomplish  this  distribution  and  adjustment  correctly,  in  reference  to  the 
work,  and  with  ease  as  regards  the  laborer,  a  thorough  knowledge  is  re- 
quisite of  the  quantity  of  work  that  can  be  performed  in  a  given  time  by 
all  the  instruments  of  labor,  animal  and  mechanical,  usually  employed.  It 
is  the  duty  of  the  young  farmer  to  acquire  this  knowledge  %vith  all  dili- 
gence and  dispatch ;  for  a  correct  distribution  of  the  instruments  of  labor 
enables  the  work  to  be  performed  in  the  most  perfect  manner  in  regard 
to  the  soil — with  the  smallest  exertion  as  regards  physical  force — and 
with  the  greatest  celerity  in  regard  to  time  ;  and,  in  the  adjustment  of 
those  instniments,  every  one  should  just  perform  its  own  share  of  work. 
These  essential  particulars  I  shall  point  out,  in  their  connection  with  the 
■work  in  hand.  In  descanting  on  the  distribution  of  labor,  I  shall  incur 
the  hazard  of  being  prolix  rather  than  superficial.  The  general  reader 
may  dislike  the  perusal  of  minute  details ;  but  the  ardent  student  will  re- 
cieve  with  thankfulness  the  minutest  portion  of  instruction,  especially  as 
he  can  only  otherwise  acquire  this  kind  of  instruction  by  long  experience. 
The  distribution  and  adjustment  of  labor  is  a  branch  of  farm  management 
that  has  been  entirely  overlooked  by  every  writer  on  systematic  Agricul- 
ture. 

Constant  attention  on  the  part  of  the  young  farmer  to  the  minutiae  of 
labor  evinces  in  him  that  sort  of  acuteness  which  perceives  the  quickest 
mode  of  acquiring  his  profession.  The  distribution  of  the  larger  pieces 
of  work  may  proceed  satisfactorily  enough  under  the  skill  of  ordinary 
work-people ;  but  the  minuter  can  best  be  adjusted  by  the  master  or  stev/- 
ard.  The  larger  operations  would  always  be  left  in  a  coarse  state,  were 
the  smaller  not  to  follow,  and  finish  them  off  neatly.  There  are  many  mi- 
nor operations,  unconnected  with  gi-eater,  which  should  be  skillfully  per- 
formed for  the  sake  of  their  own  results ;  and  they  should  be  so  arranged 
as  to  be  pei^formed  with  neatness  and  dispatch.  Many  of  them  are  fre- 
quently performed  concurrently  Avith  the  larger  operations ;  and,  to  avoid 
confusion,  both  their  concun-ent  labors  should  harmonize.  Many  of  the 
minuter  operations  are  confined  to  the  tending  of  live-stock,  and  the  vari- 
ous works  performed  about  the  farmstead.  Attention  to  minutife  consti- 
tuting the  chief  difference  betwixt  the  neat  and  careless  fanner,  I  have  be- 


[*  Every  young  farmer  may  lay  it  down  as  a  good  rule  to  endeavor  in  all  his  work  to  be  a  lit- 
tle before  the  best  manager  in  his  neighborhood,  "  Drive  your  work  or  your  work  will  drive 
you,"  eays  Dr.  Franklin,  and  "Time  enough  always  proves  little  enough."  The  best  way.  as  a 
general  rule,  and  which  is  a  cardinal  one  with  all  successful  farmers,  is  to  begin  early — get  yonr 
land  in  the  most  perfect  tilth — plant  and  sow  as  early  as  the  season  will  admit,  but  let  nothing 
tempt  j-on  to  plow  stiff  or  clay  land  when  wet  enough  to  bake  into  clods — endeavor  to  be  the  first 
to  harvest  and  house  your  crops,  and  then  prepare  and  send  them  at  once  to  market,  and  sell  them 
for  the  best  price  you  can  get.  By  that  means  you  keep  your  work  before  you,  avoid  much  mor- 
tification, and  save  your  crop  from  waste  and  depredation  by  rats  that  gnaw,  and  thieves  that 
"  break  in  and  steal." 

N.  B. — It  is  doubtful  if  any  farmer  ever  yet  lost  anything  by  catting  his  tekeat  too  early  and  too 
green — not  that  it  could  not  be  done,  but  probably  never  is  done — while  millions  have  been  lost 
by  leaving  it  too  long  in  the  field  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

(17) a 


18  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 


Btowed  due  consideration  on  them.     They  form  another  particular  which 
has  been  too  much  overlooked  by  systematic  writers  on  Agriculture, 

Implements  of  husbandry  may  be  considered  the  right  hand  of  the 
farmer;  because,  without  their  aid,  he  could  not  display  the  skill  of  his 
art.  Modem  mechanical  skill  has  effected  much  by  the  improvement  of 
old,  and  the  invention  of  new  implements.  Modifications  of  constniction 
and  unusual  combinations  of  parts  are  frequently  attempted  by  mechanics  ; 
and,  though  many  such  attempts  issue  in  failure,  they  nevertheless  tend  to 
divulge  new  combinations  of  mechanical  action.  It  is  desirable  that  all 
mechanists  of  implements  should  understand  practical  Agriculture,  and  all 
farmers  study  the  principles  of  mechanics  and  the  construction  of  machines, 
so  that  their  conjoined  judgment  and  skill  might  be  exercised  in  testing 
the  practical  utiUty  of  implements.  When  unacquainted  with  farming, 
mechanists  are  apt  to  construct  implements  that  are  obviously  unsuited  to 
the  work  they  are  intended  to  execute  ;  but  having  been  put  together  after 
repeated  alterations,  and,  probably,  at  considerable  expense,  the  makers 
endeavor  to  induce  those  farmers  who  are  no  adepts  at  mechanics  to  give 
them  a  trial.  After  some  unsatisfactory  trials  they  are  thrown  aside, — 
Were  farmers  acquainted  with  the  principles  of  mechanics,  the  discrimi- 
nation which  such  knowledge  would  impart  would,  through  them,  form  a 
barrier  against  the  spread  of  implements  of  questionable  utility,  and  only 
those  find  circulation  which  had  been  proved  to  be  simple,  strong,  and  ef- 
ficient,* It  may  be  no  easy  matter  to  contrive  implements  possessing  all 
those  desirable  quahties ;  but,  as  they  are  much  exposed  to  the  weather, 
and  the  gi-ound  upon  which  they  have  to  act  being  ponderous  and  uncouth, 
it  is  necessary  they  should  be  of  simple  construction.  Simplicity  of  con- 
struction, however,  has  its  useful  limits.  Most  farm  operations  being  of 
themselves  simple,  should  be  performed  with  simple  implements ;  and  all 
the  primary  operations,  which  are  simple,  requiring  considerable  power, 
the  implements  executing  them  should  also  be  strong  ;  but  operations  that 
are  comphcated,  though  stationary,  require  to  be  performed  with  compar- 
atively complicated  machinery,  which,  being  stationary,  maybe  used  with- 
out derangement.  Operations  that  are  both  complicated  and  locomotive 
should  be  performed  with  implements  producing  complicated  action  by 
simple  means,  in  order  to  avoid  derangement  of  their  constituent  parts. — 
This  last  is  a  difficult,  if  not  impossible  problem,  to  solve  in  practical  me- 
chanics. The  common  plow  approaches  more  nearly  to  its  practical  so- 
lution than  any  other  implement ;  yet  that  truly  wonderful  implement,  ex- 
ecuting difficult  work  by  simple  means,  should  yet  be  so  modified  in  con- 
struction as  to  permit  the  plowman  to  wield  it  with  gi-eater  ease.  These 
considerations  tend  to  show  that  the  form  and  construction  of  implements 
of  husbandry,  and  the  circumstances  in  which  they  may  be  used,  are  still 
subjects  affording  ample  scope  upon  which  mechanical  skill  can  exercise 
itself 

Implements  have  not  received  in  works  on  Agriculture  that  considera- 
tion which  their  importance  demands.  The  figures  of  them  have  been 
made  by  draftsmen  who  have  evidently  had  no  accurate  conception  of  the 


[*  Who  can  deny  that  the  principles  of  Mechanics,  as  far  as  all  agricultural  machinery  is  con- 
cerned, ought  to  take  the  place  of  some  other  things  on  which  so  much  time  is  bestowed  in  all  our 
country  schools  ?  Should  any  boy,  who  is  to  be  a  farmer,  come  to  the  possession  of  his  estate 
without  having  been  made  to  understand  the  principles  of  action — for  example,  of  the  wedge,  the 
screw,  the  inclined  plane,  and  the  lever  1  How  plainly  such  principles  are  illustrated  by  men  of 
science,  and  how  easily  they  may  be  comprehended  by  the  commonest  capacity,  may  be  seen  in 
the  December  and  January  (1845-6)  Numbers  of  the  Monthly  Journal  of  Agriculture. 

Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 
(18) 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  19 

functions  of  their  constituent  parts.  The  descriptions  given  of  those  con- 
stituent parts  are  generally  meager,  and  not  unfrequently  eiToneous ;  and 
as  to  the  best  mode  of  using  implements,  and  the  accidents  to  which  they 
are  liable,  one  would  never  discover  that  there  was  any  peculiarity  in  the 
one,  or  liability  to  the  other.  In  order  to  avoid  both  these  classes  of 
errors,  much  care  has  been  bestowed  in  this  work  in  delineating  the  fig- 
ures, and  giving  descriptions  of  all  the  implements  requisite  for  conduct- 
ing a  farm. 

To  ensure  accuracy  in  these  respects,  I  consider  myself  fortunate  in 
having  acquired  the  assistance  of  5lr.  James  Slight,  Curator  of  the  Ma- 
chines and  Models  in  the  Museum  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Soci- 
ety of  Scotland,  whose  high  qualifications  as  a  describer  and  maker  of 
machines  are  duly  appreciated  in  Scotland.  His  son  George,  yet  a  very 
young  man,  is  a  beautiful  delineator  of  them,  as  the  drawings  of  the  cuts 
and  engravings  in  the  work  amply  testify.  And  having  myself  paid  close 
attention  to  the  applicability  of  most  of  the  implements  used  in  farm  oper- 
ations, I  have  undertaken  to  describe  the  mode  of  using  them — to  state 
the  quantity  of  work  which  each  should  perfomi,  the  accidents  to  which 
each  is  liable,  and  the  precautions  which  should  be  used  to  avoid  accidents. 
With  our  united  efforts,  I  have  confidence  of  giving  such  an  expose  of  farm 
implements  as  will  surpass  every  other  work  of  the  kind.  We  have  the 
advantage  of  having  the  field  to  ourselves.  To  assist  the  right  understand- 
ing of  the  implements,  they  are  represented  by  figures. 

So  much  for  the  practical,  and  now  for  the  scientific  portion  of  the  work. 
Agriculture  may,  perhaps,  ti-uly  be  considered  one  of  the  experimental 
sciences,  as  its  principles  are,  no  doubt,  demonstrable  by  the  test  of  ex- 
periment, although  farmers  have  not  yet  been  able  to  deduce  principles 
from  practice.  It  is  remarkable  that  very  few  scientific  men  have,  as  yet, 
been  induced  to  subject  agricultural  practice  to  scientific  research ;  and 
those  of  them  who  have  devoted  a  portion  of  their  time  to  the  investiga- 
tion of  its  principles  have  impaited  little  or  no  satisfactory  information  on 
the  subject.  This  unfortunate  result  may  probably  have  arisen  from  the 
circumstance  that  Agiiculture  has  so  intimate  a  relation  to  every  physical 
science  that,  until  all  those  relations  are  first  investigated,  no  sufficient 
data  can  be  offered  for  a  satisfactoiy  scientific  explanation  of  its  practice. 
The  difficulty  of  the  investigation  is,  no  doubt,  much  enhanced  by  hus- 
bandry being  usually  jDursued  as  a  purely  practical  art,  because  the  facil- 
ity of  thus  pursuing  it  successfully  renders  practical  men  indifferent  to  Sci- 
ence. They  consider  it  unnecessary  to  burden  their  minds  with  scientific 
research,  while  practice  is  sufficient  for  their  pui-pose.  Could  the  man  of 
practice,  however,  supply  the  man  of  science  with  a  series  of  accurate  ob- 
servations on  the  leading  operations  of  the  farm,  the  principles  of  those 
operations  might  be  much  elucidated ;  but  I  conceive  the  greatest  obsta- 
cle to  the  advancement  of  scientific  Agi-iculture  is  to  be  sought  for  in  the 
unacquaintance  of  men  of  science  with  practical  Agriculture.  Would  the 
man  of  science  become  acquainted  with  practice,  much  greater  advance- 
ment in  scientific  Agriculture  might  be  expected  than  if  the  practical  man 
were  to  become  a  man  of  science,  because  men  of  science  are  best  capa- 
ble of  conducting  scientific  research,  and,  being  so  qualified,  could  best 
understand  the  relation  which  their  investigations  bore  to  practice ;  and, 
until  the  relation  betwixt  principles  and  practice  is  well  understood,  sci- 
entific researches,  though  perhaps  important  in  themselves,  and  interest- 
ing in  their  results,  tend  to  no  practical  utility  in  Agriculture.  In  short, 
until  the  facts  of  husbandry  be  acquired  by  practice,  men  of  science  will 


^  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

in  vain  endeavor  to  construct  a  satisfactory  theory  of  Agriculture  on  the 
principles  of  the  inductive  philosophy. 

If  this  view  of  the  present  position  of  the  science  of  Agriculture  be 
correct,  it  may  be  expected  to  remain  in  a  state  of  quiescence  until  men 
of  science  become  practical  agriculturists,  or,  what  would  still  prolong  its 
state  of  dormancy,  until  farmers  acquire  scientific  knowledge.  It  is  a 
pity  to  damp  the  ardor  of  scientific  pursuit  where  it  is  found  to  exist ;  but, 
from  what  I  have  observed  of  the  scanty  services  science  has  hitherto  con- 
feiTed  on  Agiiculture,  and  knowing  the  almost  helpless  dependency  of 
farming  on  the  seasons,  I  am  reluctantly  impelled  to  the  belief  that  it  is 
less  in  the  power  of  science  to  benefit  Agriculture,  than  the  sanguine  ex- 
pectations of  many  of  its  true  friends  would  lead  farmers  to  beheve.  It 
is  -^Tono^  to  doubt  the  power  of  science  to  assist  Agiiculture  materially ; 
and  it  is  possible,  in  this  age  of  successful  art,  that  an  unexpected  dis- 
covery in  science  may  yet  throw  a  flood  of  light  on  the  path  of  the  hus- 
bandman ;  but  I  am  pretty  sure,  unless  the  man  of  science  become  also 
the  practical  husbandman,  it  will  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  for  him  to 
discover  which  department  of  the  complicated  ait  of  husbandry  is  most 
accessible  to  the  research  of  science. 

Hitherto,  as  it  appears  to  me.  Agriculture  has  derived  little  benefit  from 
the  sciences,  notwithstanding  its  obvious  connection  with  many  of  them. 
A  short  review  of  the  relation  which  the  physical  sciences  bear  to  Agi-i- 
culture  will  render  this  opinion  more  reasonable.  In  the  first  place,  the 
action  of  the  electric  agency  in  the  atmosphere  and  on  vegetation  is  yet 
as  little  understood  in  a  practical  sense  as  in  the  days  of  Franklin  and  of 
Ellis.  No  doubt,  the  magnetic  and  electric  influences  are  now  nearly 
identified ;  but  the  mode  of  action  of  either,  or  of  both,  in  producing  and 
regulating  atmospherical  phenomena,  is  still  ill  understood ;  and,  so  long 
as  obscurity  exists  in  regard  to  the  influence  of  their  elementary  princi- 
ples, the  history  of  atmospherical  phenomena  cannot  advance,  and  the  an- 
ticipations of  atmospherical  changes  cannot  be  trusted. 

Geologists,  at  first  engaged  in  ascertaining  the  relative  positions  of  the 
harder  rocks  composing  the  crust  of  the  earth,  have  only  of  late  years  di- 
rected their  attention  to  the  investigation  of  the  more  recent  deposits  ;  but, 
even  with  these,  they  have  afforded  no  assistance  in  the  classification  of 
■natural  soils  and  subsoils.  They  have  never  yet  explained  the  origin  of  a 
surface-soil,  almost  always  thin,  though  differing  in  thickness,  over  sub- 
soils composed  of  different  kinds  of  deposits.  They  have  never  yet  ascer- 
tained the  position  and  structure  of  subsoil  deposits,  so  as  to  inform  the 
farmer  whether  land  would  be  most  effectually  drained  with  drains  nin- 
Tiing  parallel  with,  or  at  right  angles  to,  the  courses  of  valleys  and  rivers. 

Systematic  botany  can  only  be  useful  to  Agriculture  in  describing  the 
natural  plants  which  are  indigenous  to  different  soils.  Botanists  have  suc- 
cessfully shown  the  intimate  relation  subsisting  betwixt  plants  and  the 
soils  on  which  they  grow  ;  but  much  yet  remains  to  be  ascertained  of  the 
relation  betwixt  different  soils  and  trees,  and  the  effects  of  different  sub- 
soils on  the  same  kind  of  tree.  Planting  cannot  be  pursued  on  fixed  prin- 
ciples, if  planters  are  unacquainted  with  this  knowledge  ;  and,  until  a 
fixed  and  generally  received  classification  of  soils  and  subsoils  is  deter- 
mined on,  it  is  impossible  to  comprehend,  by  description,  what  particular 
soil  or  soils  the  plants  referred  to  affect. 

Botanical  physiology  has  developed  many  remarkable  phenomena,  and 
explained  most  of  the  important  functions  of  plants — investigations  which 
tend  to  give  a  clearer  insight  into  the  growth  of  crops.  In  this  depart- 
ment of  science,  too  much  discussion  to  be  of  benefit  to  Agriculture  has, 

(20) 


THE  CONSTRUCTION.  OP  21 


as  I  conceive,  been  expended  on  what  really  constitutes  the  food  of  plants. 
Whether  the  food  is  taken  up  by  the  plant  in  a  gaseous,  a  solid,  or  a 
liquid  state,  may  in  itself  be  a  very  interesting  inquiry,  but  it  tends  to  no 
utility  in  Agriculture  so  long  as  no  manures  are  supplied  to  crops  in  a 
gaseous  or  liquid  state.  All  that  can  practically  be  done  in  supplying 
food  to  plants,  is  to  observe  the  increased  quantity  of  their  secretions  in  a 
given  condition  from  an  increased  given  quantity  of  manure.  Thus  may 
the  increased  quantities  of  mucilage,  farina,  gluten,  in  the  various  culti- 
vated plants,  be  observed.  It  is  of  little  moment  to  the  farmer  whether 
the  manure  administered  is  taken  up  by  the  crops  in  a  gaseous,  liquid,  or 
solid  state,  since  all  these  secretions  are  elaborated  fi-om  the  same  ma- 
nure. The  anatomical  structure  of  plants,  the  situations,  soils,  and  ma- 
nures which  crops  affect,  the  secretions  which  they  elaborate,  and  the 
prolificacy  and  value  of  their  products,  are  the  results  that  most  interest 
the  farmer;  and,  if  botanical  physiologists  desii-e  to  benefit  Agi-iculture 
they  must  direct  their  attention  to  the  emendation  and  increase  of  products. 
Again,  the  results  from  the  cross  impregnation  of  plants  of  the  same  kind, 
so  as  to  produce  valuable  permanent  varieties,  may  confer  as  valuable  a; 
boon  on  Agriculture  as  the  successful  crossings  of  different  breeds  of  live- 
stock have  already  conferred  by  increasing  their  value.  Many  varieties 
of  plants  having  their  origin  in  this  way  have  been  brought  into  notice, 
and  some  are  now  established  and  extensively  cultivated  ;  but  most  of  the 
varieties  in  use  have  been  obtained  fi-om  casual  impregnations  effected  by 
Nature  herself,  and  not  by  the  efforts  of  man  to  obtain  varieties  possess- 
ing superior  properties,  as  in  the  case  of  the  domesticated  animals.  Thus 
botanical  physiology  might  confer  great  benefit  on  Agriculture,  if  its 
views  were  directed  to  increasing  the  prolificacy  of  valuable  plants  al- 
ready in  cultivation,  and  inti-oducing  others  that  would  withstand  the 
modes  of  culture  and  changes  of  climate  incidental  to  this  country. 

But  there  is  one  view  in  which  botanical  physiology  may  be  of  use  to 
Agriculture,  and  that  is,  in  ascertaining  correctly  the  nature,  properties, 
and  relative  values  of  plants.  To  show  the  importance  of  such  an  inves- 
tigation, a  case  may  here  be  specified.  A  variety  of  rye-gi-ass,  called 
Italian,  has  been  lately  introduced  into  this  country.  It  is  found  to  be  a 
very  free  grower  in  this  climate ;  and  it  is  highly  acceptable  to  all  kinds 
of  live-stock,  whether  in  a  gieen  or  dried  state.  Could  this  grass  be  ren- 
dered certainly  perennial,  it  would  be  an  invaluable  acquisition  to  the  pas- 
tures of  this  country.  Its  character,  however,  is  rather  capricious,  for  in 
some  places  it  disappears  after  two  years'  cultivation,  while  in  others  it 
displays  undiminished  vigor  of  gi'owth  for  four  or  five  years,  and  may  per- 
haps continue  so  to  do  for  an  indefinite  period  of  time.  Judging  by  these 
various  results,  it  is  probable  that  there  is  more  than  one  variety  of  the 
plant,  and  distinguishing  varieties  seem  to  be  known  to  foreigners.  Keep- 
ing in  view  the  existence  of  varieties,  if  different  varieties  were  affected 
differently  by  the  same  locality,  there  would  be  nothing  in  the  phenome- 
non to  excite  surprise  ;  but  when  the  same  variety,  derived  from  the  same 
stock,  and  placed  in  similar  circumstances,  exhibits  different  instances  of 
longevity,  there  must  be  characteristics  of  the  plant  still  unknown  to  culti- 
vators. In  this  dilemma,  the  assistance  of  the  botanical  physiologist 
would  be  desirable  to  discover  those  latent  characteristics.  It  would 
be  desirable  to  know  the  conditions  that  regulate  the  existence  of 
plants  into  permanent  and  temporary  varieties — a  property  of  plants 
at  present  involved  in  mystery.  Hitherto,  no  practical  explanation 
of  the  subject  has  been  proffered  to  the  farmer;  and  so  long  as  he 
shall  be  permitted  to  discover  the  true  properties  of  plants  for  himself, 


22  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

botanical    physiology   cannot  be  regarded  by  him  as   of    much  use  to 
Agriculture. 

The  Italian  rye-gprass  exhibits  in  its  nature  en  anomaly  that  no  other 
variety  of  rye-grass  does.  The  annual  rye-grass,  as  it  is  commonly  called, 
is  seldom  seen  in  the  ground,  even  to  the  extent  of  a  few  plants,  in  any 
kind  of  soil,  and  under  any  treatment,  after  the  second  year ;  and  the 
perennial  is  as  seldom  observed  to  fail  in  any  circumstances,  except  when 
it  may  have  been  too  closely  cropped  by  sheep  to  the  gi'ound  too  late  in 
autumn,  when  it  generally  dies  off  in  the  following  spi'ing.  But  the  Ital- 
ian may  be  annual  or  perennial  in  the  same  circumstances.  Farmers  can- 
not account  for  such  an  anomaly.  High  condition  of  good  soil  may  tend 
to  prolong,  while  the  opposite  state  of  poor  soil  may  tend  to  shorten,  its 
existence.  But  2vhy  those  circumstances  should  not  produce  the  same 
effects  on  all  varieties  of  rye-grass,  it  is  for  science  to  explain. 

Entomology  might  be  made  to  sei-ve  Agiiculture  more  than  it  has  yet 
done.  In  this  department  of  science  farmers  might  greatly  assist  the  en- 
tomologist, by  observing  the  minute,  but  varied  and  interesting,  habits  of 
insects.  The  difficulty  of  comprehending  the  true  impulses  of  insects,  as 
well  as  of  identifying  species  in  the  different  states  of  transformation, 
render  the  obsei-vations  of  farmers  less  exact  than  those  of  entomologists 
who  have  successfully  studied  the  technicalities  of  the  science.  The  field 
of  observation  in  the  insect  creation  being  very  wide,  and  there  being 
comparatively  but  few  explorers  in  it,  a  large  portion  of  a  man's  life  would 
be  occupied  in  merely  observing  species  and  their  habits,  and  a  much 
larger  in  forming  general  deductions  from  repeated  observ'ation.  The  re- 
sult would  be,  were  farmers  to  study  entomology,  that  a  long  period  must 
elapse  ere  the  habits  of  even  the  most  common  destructive  insects,  and  the 
marks  of  their  identity,  would  become  familiarized  to  them.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  obstacle  to  the  study  of  the  farmer,  the  obligation  ought  to 
be  the  greater  to  those  entomologists  who  daily  obser\'e  the  habits  of  in- 
sects in  the  fields  and  woods,  and  simplify  their  individual  characteristics; 
and  at  the  same  time  devise  plans  to  evade  their  extensive  ravages,  and 
recommend  simple  and  effective  means  for  their  destniction.  The  Eng- 
lish farmer,  living  in  a  climate  congenial  to  the  development  of  insect  life, 
painfully  experiences  their  destructiAO  powers  on  crops  and  woods  ;  and, 
although  in  England  entomologists  are  ever  vigilant  and  active,  yet  their 
efforts  easily  to  overcome  the  tenacity  of  insect  life,  with  a  regard  to  the 
safety  of  the  plant,  have  hitherto  proved  unavailing.* 

Chemistiy  is  somehow  imagined  to  be  the  science  that  can  confer  the 

["Writers  on  Entomology,  though  they  have  described  the  structure  and  habits  of  insects,  have 
probably  done  little  to  prevent  their  ravages.  The  mischief  done  by  the  Hessian  Fly  has  been 
mitigated  by  the  labors  of  those  vi'hose  studies  have  enabled  them  to  indicate  the  period  of  their 
nidification,  or  egg-laying  ;  and  thus  teaching  the  farmer  to  delay  bis  time  of  sowing — whereby, 
however,  his  crop  is  necessarily  diminished.  But  it  does  not  follow  that  because  a  knowledge 
of  the  physiology  and  habits  of  insects  may  lead  to  no  practical  remedy  against  their  ravages,  that 
their  natura'  history  should  not  be  studied.  All  such  studies  form  a  part,  and  an  elegant  part  too, 
of  agricultural  literature,  and  deserve,  therefore  to  be  cultivated  by  every  country  gentleman. 
KoLLAR  on  the  Insects  injurious  to  Farmers  and  Gardeners,  and  Harris  on  the  Insects  injuri- 
ous to  Vegetation  in  Massachusetts,  ought  assuredly  to  form  a  part  of  every  farmer's  library. 
There  are  books  enough  of  the  most  entertaining  character,  closely  allied  to  his  own  profession, 
sufficient  to  beguile  and  improve  every  leisure  hour  the  country  gentleman  can  command,  and 
it  behooves  every  farmer  to  supply  them  to  his  sons.  The  time  is  coming,  may  we  not  hope, 
when  to  be  a  good  farmer  will  carry  with  it  the  presumption  of  being  a  man  of  various  and  ele- 
gant, as  well  as  of  practical  knowledge — when  the  agriculturist,  ceasing  to  be  a  mere  empiric, 
will  know  as  well  the  why  and  the  wherefore  as  the  how  and  the  when.  The  foundation  fof 
all  this,  it  cannot  be  too  often  repeated,  must  be  laid  in  our  schools.  Ed,  Farm.  Lib.\ 

(22) 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  23 

greatest  benefits  on  Agriculture.  This  opinion  seems  confirmed  in  the 
minds  of  most  writers  and  agriculturists,  and  especially  the  English,  most 
probably  from  the  circumstance  of  an  eminent  chemist  having  been  the 
first  to  undertake  the  explanation  of  agricultural  practice  on  strictly  sci- 
entific principles.  Sir  Humphry  Davy  has,  no  doubt,  been  the  cause  of 
bestowing  on  that  science  the  character,  whose  influence  was  imagined  to 
be  more  capable  of  benefiting  Agriculture  than  its  eulogists  have  since 
been  able  to  establish.  He  endeavored  to  explain  Avith  great  acuteness 
many  of  the  most  familiar  phenomena  of  Agriculture,  when  in  possession 
of  very  limited  acquaintance  with  practical  facts  ;  and  the  result  has  been, 
that  while  his  own  chemical  researches  have  confeiTed  no  practical  bene- 
fit on  Agriculture — his  conclusions  being  in  collision  with  practice — the 
field  of  observation  and  experiment  which  he  explored  and  traversed  has 
since  been  carefully  avoided  by  succeeding  chemists,  in  the  conviction,  no 
doubt,  that  wherein  he  failed  they  were  not  likely  to  succeed.  The  idea 
seemed  never  to  have  struck  them  that  Sir  Humphry  had  attempted  to 
enforce  a  connection  betwixt  Chemistry  and  Agi-iculture  which  both  were 
incapable  of  maintaining.  Viewing  the  relation  betwixt  them  merely  in 
a  practical  point  of  view,  I  can  see  no  veiy  obvious  connection  betwixt 
tilling  the  soil  and  forcing  crops  by  manure  for  the  support  of  man  and 
beast — which  is  the  chief  end  of  Agriculture — and  ascertaininfj  the  con- 
stituent  parts  of  material  bodies,  organic  and  inorganic — which  is  the 
principal  business  of  Chemistry.  A  knowledge  of  the  constituent  parts 
of  soils,  or  plants,  or  manures,  now  forms  a  necessary  branch  of  general 
chemical  education,  but  liow  that  knowledge  can  improve  agricultural 
practice,  has  never  yet  been  practically  demonstrated.  No  doubt,  Chem- 
istiy  informs  us  that  plants  will  not  vegetate  in  pure  earths,  and  that  those 
earths  constitute  the  principal  basis  of  all  soils  ;  but  as  pure  earths  are 
never  found  in  soils  in  their  ordinary  state,  farmers  can  have  no  chance 
of  raising  crops  on  them.  It  maybe  true,  as  Chemistry  intimates,  that 
plants  imbibe  their  food  only  when  in  a  state  of  solution  ;  but  what  avails 
this  fact  to  Agi-iculture,  if  fact  it  be,  when  manures  are  only  applied  in  a 
solid  state  ]  It  may  be  quite  ti'ue,  as  Chemistry  declares,  that  plants  can- 
not supply,  from  their  composition,  any  substance  they  have  not  previ- 
ously derived  fi-om  the  air,  earth,  or  decomposed  organic  matter ;  but  of 
what  practical  use  to  Agriculture  is  this  declaration,  as  long  as  farmers 
successfully  raise  every  variety  of  crop  from  the  same  manure?  Chemis- 
try may  be  quite  coiTect  in  its  views  with  regard  to  all  these  particulars, 
but  so  is  practice,  and  yet  both  are  very  far  from  agi'eeing ;  and  as  long 
as  this  Constitutes  the  only  sort  of  information  that  Chemistry  affords,  it 
is  unimportant  to  the  farmer.  He  wishes  to  be  shown  hotv  to  render  the 
soil  more  fertile,  manures  more  effective,  and  crops  more  prolific,  by  the 
practical  application  of  chemical  principles. 

There  are  many  writers,  I  am  convinced,  who  recommend  the  study  of 
Chemistry  to  farmers  little  acquainted  with  the  true  objects  of  chemical 
research,  and  not  much  more  with  practical  Agriculture.  At  all  events, 
they  expatiate,  only  in  vague  generalities,  on  the  advantages  of  analyzing 
soils,  manures,  &c.  but  do  not  attempt  to  demonstrate  liow  any  practice 
of  husbandry  may  certainly  be  improved  by  the  suggestions  of  Chemistry. 
The  truth  is,  until  chemists  become  thoroughly  acquainted  Avith  agricul- 
tural facts,  they  cannot  see  the  bearings  of  chemical  principles  on  agricul- 
tural practice,  any  more  than  the  most  uncouth  farmer  ;  and  until  they 
prove  the  farmer's  practice  in  any  one  instance  wrong,  and  are  certatn  of 
its  being  put  right  by  their  suggestions,  there  is  no  use  of  lauding  Chem- 
istry as  a  paramount  science  for  Agriculture. 


24  THE  BOOK  OF   THE   FARM. 


In  this  view  of  the  science,  I  would  rather  underrate  the  ability  of 
Chemistry  to  benefit  Agriculture  than  excite  the  fallacious  hopes  of  the 
farmer  by  extolling  it  with  undue  praise.  At  the  same  time,  were  a 
chemist  to  recommend  suggestions  promising  a  favorable  issue,  that  might 
tend  to  excite  a  well-grounded  hope  in  chemical  assistance,  and  I  am  sure 
the  suggestions  would  even  be  fairly  tried  by  farmers  who  entertain  pretty 
strong  suspicions  against  science.  If,  for  example,  on  carefully  analyzing 
a  plant  in  common  culture,  it  was  found  to  contain  an  ingredient  which  it 
could  not  obviously  have  derived  from  the  manure  or  the  soil,  were  a  sug- 
gestion made  to  mix  a  quantity  of  that  particular  ingiedient  with  the  soil 
or  manure,  it  would  at  once  be  cheerfully  put  to  the  test  of  experiment 
by  farmers.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  were  the  same  chemist  to  suggest 
making  heavy  clay  land  friable  by  the  mechanical  admixture  of  sand,  the 
physical  impracticability  of  the  proposal  would  at  once  convince  the 
farmer  that  the  chemist  had  no  adequate  notion  of  farm  work.  And  yet 
propositions  as  absurd  as  this  have  frequently  been  suggested  to  farmers 
by  writers  who  are  continually  maintaining  the  ability  of  Chemistiy  to 
benefit  Agriculture.     But  let  me  appeal  to  facts — to  ordinary  experience. 

I  am  not  aware  of  a  single  agricultural  practice  that  has  been  adopted 
from  the  suggestions  of  Chemistry.  I  am  not  speaking  unadvisedly  while 
making  this  unquaUfied  statement.  In  truth,  I  do  not  know  a  single 
operation  of  the  farm  that  has  not  originated  in  sheer  practice.  But  is  it 
not  somewhat  unreasonable  to  expect  improvement  in  agricultural  prac- 
tice, and  still  more,  an  entirely  improved  system  of  Agriculture,  from  the 
suggestions  of  Chemistry  %  Some  chemical  results  may  appear  to  bear 
analogy  to  certain  operations  of  the  farm,  such  as  the  preparation  of  ma- 
nures ;  but  such  analogies,  being  chiefly  accidental,  are  of  themselves  in- 
sufiicient  grounds  upon  which  to  recommend  chemical  affinity  as  the  prin- 
ciple which  ought  to  regulate  a  system  of  practically  mechanical  opera- 
tions. How  can  the  most  familiar  acquaintance  with  the  chemical  con- 
stituents of  all  the  substances  found  on  a  farm,  suggest  a  difi'erent  mode 
of  making  them  into  manure,  inasmuch  as  practice  must  first  pronounce 
the  treatment  to  be  an  improvement,  before  it  can  really  be  an  improve- 
ment, whatever  Chemistry  may  suggest  ]  Besides,  Chemistry,  with  all  its 
knowledge  of  the  constituent  parts  of  substances,  cannot  foretell,  more 
confidently  than  practice,  the  results  of  the  combinations  \\nth  the  soil,  of 
the  substances  analyzed  among  themselves,  and  the  combined  effects  of 
these  and  the  soil  upon  cultivated  plants.  I  am  aware  that  hints  may  be 
suggested  by  science  which  may  prove  beneficial  to  practice  ;  but  unless 
they  accord  with  the  nature  of  the  practice  to  which  they  are  proposed  to 
be  applied,  they  are  certain  of  proving  unserviceable.  Many  hints  thrown 
out  at  random  have  frequently  been  put  to  the  test  of  experiment ;  but  to 
experimtntize  on  hints  is  quite  a  different  thing  in  farming  from  that  sort 
of  farming  which  is  proposed  to  be  entirely  based  on  theoretical  sugges- 
tions, whether  of  Chemistry  or  of  any  other  science. 

For  these  reasons,  I  conceive.  Chemists  would  be  more  usefiilly  em- 
ployed in  following  than  in  attempting  to  lead  practical  Agriculture.  If 
it  were  practicable,  it  would  certainly  be  very  desirable  for  the  farmer  to 
be  assured"  that  his  practice  was  in  accordance  with  chemical  principles  ; 
if,  for  example,  it  could  be  explained  on  chemical  principles  why  a  certain 
class  of  soils  is  better  suited  to  a  certain  kind  of  crop  than  other  classes, 
and  why  animal  manure  is  better  suited  than  vegetable  to  a  certain  kind 
of  crop  ;  when  Chemistry  shall  explain  why  certain  results  are  obtained 
by  practice,  it  will  accomplish  much,  it  will  elucidate  that  which  was  be- 
fore obscure  in  principle.     Were  chemists   to  confine  the  first  stage  of 

(24) 

Library 
N.  C.   S^a  e   College 


THE  CONSTRUCllON  OF  25 

their  investigations  of  agricultural  matters  to  this  extent,  farmers  would 
be  much  gratified  with  the  assurance  of  their  practice  being  in  unison  with 
the  principles  of  chemical  science  ;  and  this  would  tend  more  than  any 
other  circumstance  to  inspire  them  with  confidence  in  the  utility  of  that 
science.  This  is  the  position  which  Chemistry,  in  my  opinion,  should  oc- 
cupy in  relation  to  Agriculture  ;  for  how  successful  soever  it  may  be  in 
assisting  other  arts,  such  as  dyeing,  soap-making,  and  ink-making,  it  as- 
sists them  both  by  synthesis  and  analysis ;  whereas  it  can  only  investigate 
agricultural  subjects  by  analysis,  because  every  substance  employed  in 
Agriculture,  especially  a  manure,  is  used  by  farmers  in  the  state  it  is  found 
in  the  markets,  without  reference  to  its  chemical  constituent  parts  ;  and, 
when  used,  should  an  analytical  or  synthetical  process  go  on  among  those 
parts,  or  with  the  soil,  with  which  they  are  intimately  brought  into  con- 
tact, the  process  going  on  in  the  soil  would  charge  the  chemical  compo- 
sition of  the  whole,  and  place  them  beyond  the  reach  of  chemical  research. 
The  investigation  of  the  soil  after  the  removal  of  the  crop  might  then  be 
curious,  but  nothing  more.*  In  this  investigation  the  farmer,,  the  vegeta- 
ble physiologist,  and  the  chemist,  would  all  disagree  as  to  the  extent  of 
the  influence  exercised  by  the  favorite  substance  of  each  in  producing  the 

[*  In  all  these  views  we  cannot  agree,  bat  the  author  would  seem  to  be  supported  in  them  by 
David  Law,  Esq.  Professor  of  Agriculture  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  who  says  in  refer- 
ence to  the  use  of  chemistry  in  analyzing  soils,  "  The  chemist  may  draw  useful  conclu.sions  from 
a  careful  analysis  of  the  matter  of  the  soil,  and  may  from  time  to  time  be  able  to  communicate  re- 
sults that  may  be  serviceable  to  the  practical  farmer  ;  but  it  is  not  necessary  for  the  ends  of  prac- 
tice that  the  farmer  himself  should  be  a  chemist.  The  farmer  cannot  arrive  at  the  science  of 
mineral  analysis,  without  a  knowledge  of  chemistry  and  the  business  of  the  laboratory,  which 
he  can  rarely  acquire,  and  which  it  is  in  no  degree  necessary  to  his  success  as  a  farmer  that  he 
should  be  pos.^^essed  of" 

Mr.  Coi.MAN.  too,  whose  judgment  and  zeal  in  the  cause  of  education  and  science  as  applied 
to  Agriculture  are  so  well  known,  seems  to  think  the  actual  importance  of  chemistry,  in  its  connec- 
tion with  that  pursuit,  so  far,  has  been  overrated.  He  says  "  the  application  of  sulphuric  acid 
to  bones  seems  as  yet  to  be  the  only  case  of  the  application  of  chemical  science  to  the  improve- 
ment of  Agriculture  upon  scientific  principles,  and  this  affords  strong  grounds  to  hope  for  much 

more." 

In  relation  to  agricultural  schools,  Mr.  Colman's  Report  may  be  read  with  profit.  One  ought 
to  take  for  granted  that  it,  too,  will  be  in  all  our  country  schools.  On  the  principle  that  the  Fa- 
ther who  wished  to  beget  in  his  sons  a  capacity  for  labor,  told  them  he  had  buried  his  treasure 
in  the  garden,  without  telling  the  spot,  leaving  them  to  dig  it  all  over,  we  recommend  the  reader 
not  to  adopt,  in  extenso,  the  opinions  of  these  two  distinguished  authors,  until  he  shall  have  read 
carefully  Davy  and  Boussingault  and  Liebigand  Petzholdt  and  John.stone,  and  then  form  his  own 
judgment.  Surely  every  young  Farmer  .should  know  enough  of  chemistry  to  be  able,  as  he  may 
by  a  very  simple  process,  to  analyze  his  own  soil  that  he  may  know  in  what  most  important 
ingredients  it  is  redundant  or  deficient,  to  the  end  that  having  learned  from  analysis  made  by  pro- 
fessional chemists  the  ingredients  which  make  the  necessary  food  for  certain  crops,  he  may  be 
able  to  supply  such  as  are  needful  in  the  soil,  or  to  avoid  the  expense  of  applying  others,  in 
•which  he  finds  his  land  to  be  redundant.  Mr.  Colman,  in  his  personal  observations  on  European 
Agriculture,  vol.  1,  part  3,  gives  us  the  best  accounts  of  the  practical  working  and  benefit  of  Ag- 
ricultural schools  in  Ireland,  and  of  the  one  then  about  to  be  established  at  Cirencester,  England. 
Referring  to  the  school  at  Larne,  he  says  : 

"  It  was  from  this  establishment  that  a  detachment  of  five  pupils  was  sent  for  examination  to 
the  great  meeting  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland  the  last  autumn,  where  their  attain- 
ments created  a  great  sensation,  and  produced  an  impression,  on  the  subject  of  the  importance  of 
agricultural  education,  which  is  likely  to  lead  to  the  adoption  of  some  universal  system  on  the 
Bubject.  _ 

"  I  shall  transcribe  the  account  given  of  the  occasion  :  '  Five  boys  from  the  school  at  i,ame 
■were  introduced  ufthe  meeting,  headed  by  their  teacher.  They  seemed  to  belong  to  the  better 
class  of  peasantry,  being  clad  in  homely  garbs ;  and  they  appeared  to  be  from  twelve  to  htteen 
years  of  age.  They  were  examined,  in  the  first  instance,  by  the  inspector  of  schools,  m  gram- 
mar, geography,  and  arithmetic ;  and  scarcely  a  single  question  did  they  fail  to  answer  correcUy. 
They  were  then  examined,  by  an  agricultural  professor,  in  the  scientific  branches,  and  by  two 
(25) 


26  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

crop.  In  settlinor  the  question,  however,  the  farmer  would  have  the  same 
advantage  over  his  rivals,  in  taking  possession  of  the  crop  as  the  reward 
of  his  2)ractical  skill,  as  the  lawyer  who,  in  announcing  the  judgment  of 
the  court  to  two  contending  parties,  gave  a  shell  to  each,  and  kept  the  oys- 
ter to  himself. 

Of  all  the  sciences,  mechanics  have  proved  the  most  useful  to  Agricul- 
tui-e.  If  implements  may  be  characterized  as  the  right  hand  of  Agricul- 
ture, mechanical  science,  in  impro\*ing  their  form  and  construction,  may 
be  said  to  have  given  cunning  to  that  right  hand;  for,  mechanical  science, 
testinsT  the  sti-ength  of  materials,  both  relatively  and  absolutely,  employs 
no  more  material  in  implements  than  is  sufficient  to  overcome  the  force  of 
resistance,  and  it  induces  to  the  discovery  of  that  form  which  overcomes 
resistance  with  the  least  power.  Simplicity  of  consti-uction,  beauty  of 
form  of  the  constituent  parts,  mathematical  adjustment,  and  symmetrical 
proportion  of  the  whole  machine,  are  now  the  characteristics  of  our  im- 
plements ;  and  it  is  the  fault  of  the  hand  that  guides  them,  if  field-work 
is  not  now  dextei'ously,  neatly,  and  quickly  performed.  In  sapng  thus 
much  for  the  science  that  has  improved  our  implements  to  the  state  they 
now  are,  when  compared  with  their  state  some  years  ago,  I  am  not  aver- 
ring they  are  quite  perfect.  They  are,  however,  so  far  perfect  as  to  be 
correct  in  mechanical  principle,  and  light  in  operation,  though  not  yet 
simple  enough  in  construction.  No  doubt  many  may  yet  be  much  simpli- 
fied in  consti-uction ;  and  I  consider  the  machinist  who  simplifies  the  ac- 
tion of  any  usefiil  implement,  thereby  rendering  it  less  liable  to  derange- 
ment, does  a  good  sen-ice  to  Agriculture  as  the  inventor  of  a  new  and 
useful  implement. 

These  are  the  principles  which  determine  the  an-angement  adopted  in 
this  book.  In  applying  these  principles,  as  the  seasons  supremely  rule  the 
destiny  of  every  farming  operation,  so  to  them  is  given  full  sway  over  the 
whole  arrangement.  This  is  accomplished  by  describing  every  operation 
in  the  season  it  should  be  performed,  and  this  condition  necessarily  implies 
the  subdivision  of  the  arrangement  into  four  seasons.  Authors  of  Farm- 
ers' Calendars  divide  their  subject-matter  into  calendar  or  fixed  months, 
being  apparently  inattentive  to  the  infuences  of  the  seasons.  Such  an  ar- 
rangement cannot  fail  to  create  confusion  in  the  minds  of  young  farmers; 
as  any  operation  that  is  directed  to  be  done  in  any  month,  may  not  ip  ev- 
ery year,  be  performed  in  the  same  month,  on  account  of  the  fluctuating 
nature  of  the  seasons. 

In  adoptinor  the  seasons  as  the  great  dirisor  of  the  labors  of  the  farm, 
the  months  which  each  season  occupies  are  not  specified  by  name,  because 
the  same  season  does  not  occupy  the  same  number  of  months,  nor  even 
exactly  the  same  months,  in  every  year.  The  same  work,  however,  is  per- 
formed in  the  same  season  every  year,  though  not,  perhaps,  in  the  same 
month  or  months. 

In  arranging  the  seasons  themselves,  the  one  which  commences  the  ag- 
ricultural year,  which  is  Winter,  has  the  precedence.  The  rest  follow  in 
the  natural  succession  of  Spring,  Summer,  and  Autumn  ;  in  which  last  all 
farming  operations,  haring  finished  their  annual  circuit,  finally  terminate. 
A  few  remarks,  illustrative  of  its  nature,  and  the  work  performed  in  it,  are 

practical  farmers  in  the  practical  departments  of  Aerriculture.  Their  acquaintance  with  these 
■was  alike  delii-'hlful  and  astonishin?.  They  detailed  the  chemical  constitution  of  the  soil  and  the 
effect  of  manures,  the  land  best  fitted  for  ereen  crops,  the  different  kinds  of  gr^n,  the  dairy,  and 
the  Bystem  of  rotation  of  crops.  Many  of  these  answers  required  considerable  exercise  of  re- 
flection ;  and  as  previous  concert  between  themselves  and  the  gentiemen  who  examined  them 
\raa  out  of  the  question,  their  acquirements  seemed  to  take  the  meeting  by  surprise  ;  at  the  same 
time  they  afforded  the  utmost  satisfaction,  as  evincing  how  much  couW  be  done  by  a  proper  sys- 
tem of  training.'" 
(26) 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  27 

given  at  the  commencement  of  each  season.  By  comparing  these  intro- 
ductory remarks,  one  with  the  others,  the  nature  of  the  principal  opera- 
tions throughout  the  year  may  be  discovered ;  and,  by  perusing  them  in 
succession  as  they  follow,  an  epitome  of  the  entire  farm  operations  for  thn 
year  may  be  obtained. 

Throughout  the  four  seasons,  from  the  commencement  of  winter  to  the 
end  of  autumn,  the  operations  of  the  farm,  both  great  and  small,  are  de- 
scribed in  a  continued  narrative.  This  narrative  is  printed  in  the  larger 
type  (long  primer).  The  reader  will  soon  discover  that  this  narrative 
does  not  extend  uninteiTuptedly  through  the  whole  pages — portions  of 
smaller  type  (brevier)  intervening,  and  apparently  inten-upting  it.  On 
passing  over  the  small  type,  it  will  be  perceived  that  it  is  really  written,  and 
may  be  perused  without  interruption.  The  object  of  this  plan  is  to  per- 
mit the  necessary  descriptions  of  all  the  operations,  performed  in  succes- 
sion throughout  the  year,  to  be  read  in  the  large  type,  to  the  exclusion  of 
every  other  matter  that  might  distract  the  attention  of  the  reader  from  the 
principal  subject.  A  peristrephic  view,  so  to  speak,  of  the  entire  opera- 
tions of  the  fann  is  thus  obtained.  The  leading  operations,  forming  the 
principal  subjects  of  the  narrative,  are  distinguished  by  appropriate  titles 
in  CAPITALS  placed  across  the  middle  of  the  page.  The  titles  are  num- 
bered, and  constitute,  in  the  aggregate,  a  continuous  succession,  running 
through  all  the  seasons.  The  leading  operations  thus  easily  attract  the 
eye.  Wood-cut  figures  of  implements,  and  other  objects,  requiring  node- 
tailed  descriptions,  and  representing  at  once  their  form  and  use,  are  in- 
serted in  the  paragraph  which  alludes  to  thein  in  the  narrative. 

Implements  that  require  detailed  descriptions  to  explain,  and  compli- 
cated figures  to  represent  them  ;  reasons  for  prefemng  one  mode  to  an- 
other of  doing  the  same  kind  of  work ;  and  explanations  of  agricultural 
practice  on  scientific  principles — together  constituting  the  subsidiary  por- 
tion of  the  work — are  given  in  paragraphs  in  the  medium-sized  type  (bre- 
vier), and  this  matter  is  that  which  apparently  interrupts  the  principal 
narrative.  Each  paragraph  is  numbered  within  parentheses,  the  same  as 
in  the  principal  narrative,  and  these  paragi-aphs  cany  on  the  numbers 
arithmetically  with  the  paragraphs  of  the  principal  naiTative.  When  ref- 
erences are  made  from  the  large  to  the  small  type,  they  are  made  in  cor- 
responding numerals.  The  words  most  expressively  characteristic  of  the 
illustration  contained  in  the  paragraph  are  placed  in  italics  at  or  near  the 
beginning  of  it. 

Marking  all  the  parag^-aphs  with  numerals  greatly  facilitates  the  finding 
out  of  any  subject  alluded  to — saves  repetition  of  descriptions  when  the 
same  operation  is  performed  in  different  seasons — and  furnishes  easy  ref- 
erence to  subjects  in  the  index. 

Wood-cut  figures  of  the  intricate  implements  and  other  objects  requir- 
ing detailed  descriptions,  are  placed  among  the  descriptions  of  them  in 
the  brevier  type.  The  portraits  of  the  animals  given  are  intended  to  illus- 
trate the  points  required  to  be  attended  to  in  the  breeding  of  the  domesti- 
cated animals.  The  portraits  are  taken  from  life  by  eminent  artists.  The 
wood-cuts  are  enumerated  as  they  occur  in  the  order  of  succession,  whether 
they  belong  to  the  large  or  the  small  type,  and  each  wood-cut  is  desig- 
nated by  its  distinctive  appellation — both  the  numeral  and  appellative  be- 
ing requisite  for  quick  and  easy  reference. 

The  matter  in  the  small  type  appears  somewhat  like  foot-notes  in  ordi- 
nary books  ;  but,  in  this  instance,  it  differs  in  character  from  foot-notes,  m- 
asmuch  as  it  occurs  in  unbroken  pages  at  the  end  of  the  description  of  ev- 
ery leading  operation.     By  this  plan  the  principal  narrative  is  not  inter- 


28  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

fered  with,  and  both  it  and  its  illustrations  may  be  perused  before  the  suc- 
ceeding leading  operation  and  its  illustrations  are  taken  into  consideration. 
This  plan  has  the  advantage  of  relieving  the  principal  nairative  of  heavy 
foot-notes — the  perusal  of  which,  when  long,  not  only  seriously  interrupts 
the  thread  of  the  naiTative,  but  causes  the  leaves  gone  over  to  be  turned 
back  again ;  both  interferences  being  serious  drawbacks  to  the  pleasant 
perusal  of  any  book. 

Foot-notes  required  either  for  the  principal  narrative  or  illustrations 
are  distinguished  by  the  usual  marks,  and  printed  at  the  bottom  of  the 
page  in  the  smallest  type  used  in  this  work. 

The  paragi'aphs  containing  the  matter  supplied  by  Mr.  Slight  are  en- 
closed within  brackets  (thus,  [  ]),  and  attested  by  his  initials,  J.  S. 

[The  additions  by  John  S.  Skinner  are  designated  by  his  title  of  "  Ed- 
itar  of  the  Farmers^  hihraryj^^ 


5.    OF  THE  EXISTING    METHODS   OF    LEARNING    PRACTICAL    HUS- 
BANDRY. 

"I  have  vowed  to  hold  the  plow  for  her  sweet  love  three  year." 

Love's  Labob  Lost. 

1  HAVE  hinted  that  there  are  three  states,  in  one  of  which  the  young 
farmer  will  be  found  when  beginning  to  learn  his  profession.  One  is  when 
he  himself  is  bom  and  brought  up  on  a  farm,  on  which,  of  course,  he  may 
acquire  a  knowledge  of  farming  intuitively,  as  he  would  his  mother  tongue. 
Another  is  when  he  goes  to  school  in  boyhood,  and  remains  there  until 
ready  to  embark  in  the  active  business  of  farming ;  the  impressions  of  his 
younger  years  will  become  much  effaced,  and  he  will  require  to  renew  his 
acquaintance  with  farming  as  he  would  of  a  language  that  he  had  forgot- 
ten. Young  men  thus  early  grounded  generally  make  the  best  farmers, 
because  the  gieat  secret  of  knowing  practical  fanning  consists  in  bestow- 
ing particular  attention  on  minor  operations,  which  naturally  present 
themselves  to  the  youthful  mind  before  it  can  pei'ceive  the  use  of  general 
principles.  Farmers  so  brought  up  seldom  fail  to  increase  their  capital  ; 
and,  if  their  education  has  been  superior  to  their  rank  in  life,  frequently 
succeed  in  improving  their  status  in  society.  It  is  to  the  skillful  conduct 
and  economical  management  of  fanners  so  situated,  that  Scotland  owes 
the  high  station  she  occupies  among  the  agricultural  nations  of  the  world. 

The  third  state  in  which  the  learning  of  fanning  is  requisite  is  when  a 
young  man  who  has  been  educated  and  entirely  brought  up  in  a  town,  or 
perhaps  passed  his  boyhood  in  the  country,  but  may  have  bestowed  little 
attention  on  farming,  wishes  to  learn  it  as  his  profession.  In  either  of 
these  cases,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  for  him  to  learn  it  practically  on  a 
farm ;  for  total  ignorance  of  his  business,  and  entire  dependence  on  the 
skill  and  integiity  of  his  servants,  will  soon  involve  him  in  pecuniary  diffi- 
culties. To  meet  the  wishes  of  seekers  of  agricultural  knowledge,  there 
are  farmers  who  receive  pupils  as  boarders,  and  undertake  to  teach  them 
practical  husbandry. 

The  chief  inducement,  as  I  conceive,  which  at  first  prompts  young  men 
who  have  been  nurtured  in  towns  to  adopt  farming  as  a  profession,  is  an 
undefined  desire  to  lead  a  country  life.  The  desire  ofien  originates  in 
this  way.     Most  boys  spend  a  few  weeks  in  the  country  during  the  school 

(28) 


METHODS  OF  LEARNING  PRACTICAL  HUSBANDRY.      29 


vacation  in  summer,  on  a  visit  to  relations,  friends,  or  school  companions. 
To  them  the  period  of  vacation  is  a  season  of  true  enjoyment.  Free  of 
the  task — in  the  possession  of  unbounded  liberty — untiammeled  by  the 
restraints  of  time,  and  partaking  of  sports  new  to  them  and  solely  apper- 
taining to  the  country,  they  receive  impressions  of  a  state  of  happiness 
which  are  ever  after  identified  with  a  country  life.  They  regret  the  pe- 
riod of  return  to  school — leave  the  scene  of  those  enjoyments  with  reluc- 
tance— and  conceive  that  their  happiness  would  be  perpetual,  Avere  their 
hearts  Avedded  to  the  objects  that  captivated  them.  Hence  the  dehire  to 
return  to  those  scenes. 

It  is  conducive  to  the  promotion  of  Agriculture  that  young  birds  of  for- 
tune are  thus  occasionally  ensnared  by  the  love  of  rural  life.  They  bring 
capital  into  the  profession ;  or,  at  all  events,  it  will  be  forthcomino-  when 
the  scion  of  his  father's  house  has  made  up  his  mind  to  become  a  farmer. 
Besides,  these  immigrations  into  farms  are  requisite  to  supply  the  places 
of  farmers  who  retire  or  die  out.  Various  motives  operate  tobring  farms 
into  the  market.  Sons  do  not  always  follow  their  father's  profession,  or 
there  may  not  be  a  son  to  succeed,  or  he  may  die,  or  choose  another  kind 
of  life,  or  may  have  experienced  ill  treatment  at  home,  or  been  guilty  of 
errors  which  impel  him  to  quit  the  paternal  roof.  For  these  drains,  a  sup- 
ply must  flow  from  other  quarters  to  maintain  the  equilibrium  of  agricul- 
tural industiy.  This  young  race  of  men,  converted  into  practical  farmers, 
being  generally  highly  born  and  well  educated,  assume  at  once  a  superior 
status  in,  and  improve  the  tone  of,  rural  society.  Though  they  may  amass 
no  large  fortunes,  they  live  in  good  style.  In  the  succeeding  generation, 
another  change  takes  place.  Unless  he  is  well  provided  with  a  patrimony, 
the  son  seldom  succeeds  his  father  in  the  farm.  The  father  finds  he  can- 
not give  the  farm  free  of  burdens  to  one  son  in  justice  to  the  rest  of  the 
family.  Rather  than  undertake  to  liquidate  such  a  burden  by  means  of  a 
farm — that  is,  from  land  that  is  not  to  be  his  OAvn — the  son  wisely  relin- 
quishes farming,  which,  in  these  circumstances,  would  be  to  him  a  life  of 
pecuniary  thralldom. 

The  young  man  who  wishes  to  learn  farming  practically  on  a  farm, 
should  enter  upon  his  task  at  the  end  of  harvest,  as  immediately  after 
that  the  preparatory  operations  commence  for  raising  the  next  year's 
crop ;  and  that  is  the  season,  therefore,  which  begins  the  noAv-year  of 
fanning.  He  should  provide  himself  Avith  an  ample  stock  of  stout  clothing 
and  shoes,  capable  of  repelling  cold  and  rain,  and  so  made  as  to  ansAver 
at  once  for  Avalking  and  riding.  From  the  outset,  he  must  make  up  his 
mind  to  encounter  all  the  difficulties  I  have  described  under  the  first  head. 
Formidable  as  they  may  seem,  I  encourage  him  Avith  the  assurance  that 
it  is  in  his  power  to  overcome  them  all.  The  most  satisfactory  way  of 
overcoming  them  is  to  resolve  to  learn  his  business  in  a  truly  practical 
manner.  Merely  being  domiciled  on  a  farm  is  not  of  itself  a  sufficient 
means  of  OA-ercoming  them,  for  the  advantages  of  residence  maybe  squan- 
dered aAvay  in  idleness,  by  fi-equent  absence,  by  spending  the  hours  of 
work  in  the  house  in  light  reading,  or  by  casual  and  capricious  attendance 
on  field  operations.  Such  habits  must  be  eschoAved,  before  there  can  be 
a  true  desire  to  become  a  practical  farmer.  Every  operation,  whether 
important  or  trifling,  should  be  personally  attended  to,  as  there  is  none 
but  what  tends  to  produce  an  anticipated  result.  Attention  alone  can  ren- 
der them  familiar ;  and,  without  a  familiar  acquaintance  lyith  every  opera- 
tion, the  management  of  a  farm  need  never  be  undertaken. 

Muc\  assistance  in  promoting  this   attention  should  not  be  expected 
from  the  farmer.     No  doubt  it  is  his  duty  to  communicate  all  he  knows  to 

(29) 


30  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 


his  pupils ;  and,  as  I  believe,  most  are  willing  to  do  so ;  but,  as  efficient 
tuition  implies  constant  attendance  on  work,  the  fanner  himself  cannot 
constantly  attend  to  every  operation,  or  even  explain  any,  unless  his  at- 
tention is  directed  to  it ;  and  much  less  will  he  deliver  extempore  lectures 
at  appointed  times.  Reservedness  in  him  does  not  necessarily  imply  un- 
wilUng)iess  to  communicate  his  skill ;  because,  being  himself  familiar  with 
every  operation  that  can  arrest  the  attention  of  his  pupils,  any  explanation 
of  minutiae  at  any  other  time  than  when  the  work  is  in  the  act  of  being 
performed,  and  when  only  it  could  be  understood  by  the  pupils,  would  only 
serve  to  render  the  subject  more  perplexing.  In  these  circumstances  the 
best  plan  for  the  pupil  to  follow  is  to  attend  constantly,  and  personal! y  ob- 
serve every  change  that  takes  place  in  every  piece  of  work.  Should  the 
farmer  happen  to  be  present,  and  be  appealed  to,  he  will,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  immediately  clear  up  every  difficulty  in  the  most  satisfactory  way ; 
but  should  he  be  absent,  being  otherwise  engaged,  then  the  steward  or 
grieve,  or  any  of  the  plo\\Tnen,  or  shepherd,  as  the  nature  of  the  work 
may  be,  will,  on  inquiry,  afflard  as  much  information  on  the  spot  as  will 
serve  to  enlighten  his  mind  until  he  associates  with  the  farmer  at  the  fire- 
side. 

To  be  enabled  to  discover  that  particular  point  in  every  operation  which, 
when  explained,  renders  the  whole  intelligible,  the  pupil  should  put  his 
hand  to  every  kind  of  work,  be  it  easy  or  difficult,  irksome  or  pleasant. — 
Experiences  acquired  by  himself,  however  slightly  affecting  his  mind — de- 
sirous of  becoming  acquainted  with  every  professional  incident — will  solve 
difficulties  much  more  satisfactorily  than  the  most  elaborate  explanations 
given  by  others.  The  larger  the  stock  of  these  personal  experiences  he 
can  accumulate,  the  sooner  will  the  pupil  understand  the  pui-port  of  every 
thing  that  occurs  in  his  sight.  Daily  opportunities  occur  on  a  farm  for 
ioining  in  work,  and  acquiring  those  experiences.  For  example,  when 
the  plows  are  employed,  the  pupil  should  walk  from  the  one  to  the  other, 
and  obserse  which  plowman  or  pair  of  horses  perform  the  work  with  the 
greatest  apparent  difficulty  or  ease.  He  should  also  mark  the  diffisrent 
styles  of  work  executed  by  each  plow.  A  considerate  comparison  of  these 
particulars  will  enable  him  to  ascertain  the  best  and  worst  specimens  of 
work.  He  should  then  endeavor  to  discover  the  cause  why  different  styles 
of  work  are  produced  by  apparently  very  similar  means,  in  order  to  ena- 
ble himself  to  rectify  the  worst  and  practice  the  best.  The  surest  way  of 
detecting  error  and  discovering  the  best  method  is  to  take  hold  of  each 
plow  successively,  and  he  will  find,  in  the  endeavor  to  maintain  each  in  a 
steady  position,  and  perform  the  work  evenly,  that  all  require  considerable 
labor — every  muscle  being  awakened  into  energetic  action,  and  the  brow 
most  probably  moistened.  As  these  symptoms  of  fatigue  subside  with 
repetitions  of  the  exercise,  he  will  eventually  find  one  of  the  plows  more 
easily  guided  than  any  of  the  rest.  The  reasons  for  this  difference  he 
must  himself  endeavor  to  find  out  by  comparison,  for  its  holder  cannot  in- 
form him,  because  he  professes  to  have — indeed,  can  have — no  knowledge 
of  any  other  plow  but  his  own.  In  prosecuting  this  system  of  trials  with 
the  plows,  he  will  find  himself  becoming  a  ploAvman,  as  the  mysteries  of 
the  art  divulge  themselves  to  his  apprehension  ;  but  the  reason  why  the 
plow  of  one  of  the  men  moves  more  easily,  does  better  work,  and  op- 
presses the  horses  less  than  any  of  the  rest,  is  not  so  obvious  ;  for  the  land 
is  in  the  same  state  to  them  all — there  cannot  be  much  difference  in  the 
strength  of  the  J)airs  of  horses,  as  each  pair  are  generally  pretty  well 
matched — and,  in  all  probability,  the  construction  of  the  plows  is  the  same, 
if  they  have  been  made  by  the  saroe  plow-wright,  yet  one  plowman  evi- 

(30) 


METHODS  OF  LEARNING  PRACTICAL  HUSBANDRY.      31 


dently  exhibits  a  decided  superiority  in  his  work  over  the  rest.  The  in- 
evitable conclusion  is,  that  plowman  understands  his  business  better  than 
the  others.  He  shows  this  by  trimming  the  irons  of  his  plow  to  the  state 
of  the  land,  and  the  nature  of  the  work  he  is  about  to  perform,  and  by 
training  his  horses  more  in  accordance  with  their  natural  temperament, 
whereby  they  are  guided  more  tractably.  Having  the  shrewdness  to  ac- 
quire these  essential  accomplishments  to  a  superior  degree,  the  execution 
of  superior  work  is  an  easier  task  to  him  than  inferior  work  to  the  other 
plowmen.  This  case,  which  I  have  selected  for  an  example,  is  not  alto- 
gether a  supposititious  one ;  for,  however  dexterous  all  the  plowmen  on  a 
fann  may  be,  one  will  always  be  found  to  show  a  superiority  over  the  rest. 
Having  advanced  thus  far  in  the  knowledge  and  practice  and  capability 
of  judging  of  work,  the  pupil  begins  to  feel  the  importance  of  his  acquisi- 
tion ;  and  this  success  will  fan  the  flame  of  his  enthusiasm,  and  prompt 
him  to  greater  acquirements.  But  even  in  regard  to  the  plow,  the  pupil 
has  much  to  learn.  Though  he  has  picked  out  the  best  plowman,  and 
knows  why  he  is  so,  he  is  himself  still  ignorant  of  how  practically  to  trim 
a  plow,  and  to  drive  the  horses  with  discretion.  The  plowman  will  be 
able  to  afford  him  ocular  proof  Jiow  he  places  (tempers)  all  the  irons  of 
the  plow  in  relation  to  the  state  of  the  land,  and  wJiy  he  yokes  and  drives 
the  horses  as  he  does  in  preference  to  any  other  plan.  Illiterate  and  un- 
mechanical  as  he  is,  and  his  language  full  of  technicalities,  his  explanations 
will  nevertheless  give  the  pupil  a  clearer  sight  into  the  minuticB  of  plow- 
ing than  he  could  acquire  by  himself  as  a  spectator  in  an  indefinite  lenfrth 
of  time.  ° 

I  have  selected  the  plow  as  being  the  most  useful  implement  to  illus- 
trate the  method  which  the  pupil  should  follow,  in  all  cases,  to  learn  a 
practical  knowledge  of  every  operation  in  farming.  In  like  manner,  he 
may  become  acquainted  with  the  particular  mode  of  managing  all  the 
larger  implements  which  require  the  combined  agency  of  man  and  horse 
to  put  into  action ;  as  well  as  become  accustomed  to  wield  the  simpler 
implements  used  by  the  hand  easily  and  ambidexterously,  a  great  part  of 
farm-work  being  executed  with  simple  but  very  efficient  tools.  Frequent 
personal  attendance  at  the  farm-stead,  during  the  winter  months,  to  view 
and  conduct  the  threshing-machine,  while  threshing  com,  and  afterward 
to  superintend  the  winnowing-machine,  in  cleaning  it  for  the  market,  will 
be  amply  repaid  by  the  acquisition  of  essential  knowledge  regarding  the 
nature  and  value  of  the  cereal  and  leguminous  grains.  There  is,  more- 
over, no  better  method  of  acquiring  an  extensive  knowledge  of  all  the 
minor  operations  of  the  farm,  than  for  the  pupil  personally  to  superintend 
the  labors  of  the  field- workers.  Their  labors  are  essential,  methodical, 
almost  ahvays  in  requisition,  and  mostly  consisting  of  minutije ;  and  their 
general  utility  is  shown,  not  only  in  their  intrinsic  worth,  but  in  relation  to 
the  labors  of  the  teams. 

The  general  introduction  of  sowing-machines,  particularly  those  which 
sow  broadcast,  has  nearly  superseded  the  beautiful  art  of  sowing  com  by 
hand.*     Still  a  great  deal  of  corn  is  sown  by  the  hand,  especially  on  small 

^  *  It  were  to  be  wished  that  this  remark  were  more  applicable  to  the  U.  S.  Since  the  introduc- 
tion of  an  English  sowing-machine  near  Wilmington,  Delaware,  and  the  improvement  on  it,  as 
it  is  alleged,  by  Pennock,  it  may  be  expected  that  this  operation,  recommended  as  well  by  its 
neatness  as  by  its  economy,  will  be  extended-ghrough  the  country.  It  will  be  seen  on  refei^ng 
to  the  June,  1846,  Monthly  Journal  of  Agriculture  (which,  be  it  always  understood,  is  published 
along  with  the  Farmers'  Library)  that  Mr.  Jones,  a  very  observing  and  diligent  practical  Farmer, 
gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  use  of  Pennock's  drill  or  sowing-machine  effects  a  saving  or  in- 
crease  of  25  per  cent. 
(31) 


32  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

farms,  on  which  expensive  machines  have  not  yet  found  their  way.  In 
the  art  of  hand-sowing,  the  pupil  should  endeavor  to  excel,  for,  being  dif- 
ficult to  perform  it  in  an  easy  and  neat  manner,  the  superior  execution  of 
it  is  regarded  as  an  accomplishment.  It  is,  besides,  a  manly  and  health- 
ful exercise,  conducive  to  the  establishment  of  a  robust  frame  and  sound 
constitution. 

The  feeding  of  cattle  in  the  farm-stead,  or  of  sheep  in  the  fields  on 
turnips,  does  not  admit  of  much  participation  of  labor  with  the  cattle-man 
or  shepherd ;  but  nevertheless,  either  practice  will  form  an  interesting 
subject  of  study  to  the  pupil,  and  without  strict  attention  to  both,  he  will 
never  acquire  a  knowledge  of  fattening  live-stock,  and  of  computing  their 
value. 

By  steadily  pursuing  the  course  of  observation  which  I  have  thus  chalked 
out,  and  particularly  in  the  first  year  of  his  apprenticeship,  the  pupil 
in  a  short  time,  will  acquire  a  considerable  knowledge  of  the  minutiag  of 
labor ;  and  it  is  only  in  this  way  that  the  groundwork  for  a  familiar  ac- 
quaintance with  them  can  be  laid.  A  truly  familiar  acquaintance  with 
them  requires  years  of  experience.  Indeed,  observant  farmers  are  learn- 
ing some  new,  or  modifications  of  some  old,  practice  eveiy  day,  and  such 
new-like  occuiTences  serve  to  keep  alive  in  them  a  regard  for  the  most 
tri^^al  incident  that  happens  on  a  farm. 

In  urging  on  the  pupil  the  necessity  of  putting  his  hand  to  every  kind 
of  labor,  I  do  not  mean  to  say  he  should  become  a  first-rate  workman. 
To  become  so  would  require  a  much  longer  time  than  he  could  spare  in 
a  period  of  pupilage.  His  personal  acquaintance  with  every  implement 
and  operation  should,  however,  enable  him  by  that  time  to  decide  quickly 
whether  work  is  well  or  ill  done,  and  whether  it  has  been  executed  in  a 
reasonable  time.  No  doubt  this  extent  of  knowledge  may  be  acquired  in 
tittle,  without  the  actual  labor  of  the  hands  ;  but,  as  it  is  the  interest  of 
the  pupil  to  learn  his  profession  not  only  in  the  shoitest  possible  time,  but 
in  the  best  manner,  and  as  these  can  be  acquired  sooner  through  the  joint 
cooperation  of  the  head  and  hands,  than  by  either  singly,  it  would  seem 
imperative  on  him  to  begin  to  acquire  his  profession  by  labor. 

Other  considerations  regarding  the  acquisition  of  practical  knowledge 
deserve  the  attention  of  the  pupil.  It  is  most  conducive  to  his  interest  to 
learn  his  profession  in  youth,  and  before  the  meridian  of  life  has  set  in, 
when  labor  of  every  kind  becomes  irksome.  It  is  also  much  better  to 
have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  farming,  before  engaging  in  it  on  his  own 
account,  than  to  acquire  it  in  the  course  of  a  lease,  during  which  heavy 
losses  may  be  incurred  by  the  commission  of  comparatively  trivial  en'ors, 
especially  at  the  early  period  of  its  tenure,  when  farms  in  all  cases  are 
most  diflScult  to  conduct.  It  is  an  undeniable  fact,  that  the  work  of  a  farm 
never  proceeds  so  smoothly  and  satisfactorily  to  all  parties  engaged  in  its 
culture,  as  when  the  farmer  is  thoroughly  master  of  his  business.  His  or- 
ders are  then  implicitly  obeyed,  not  because  they  are  pronounced  more 
authoritatively,  but  because  a  skillful  master's  plans  and  directions  inspire 
that  degree  of  confidence  in  the  laborers  as  to  believe  them  to  be  the 


The  spread  of  improved  agricultural  implements  is  proverbially  slow  over  the  world,  but  less 
so  in  this,  probably,  than  in  any  other  part  of  it,  owing  to  the  fi-eedom  of  our  institutions,  the  fre- 
K  quent  and  extensive  intercourse  of  our  people  and  their  aptness  both  at  invention  and  imitation. 
But  even  here  the  adoption  of  the  costly  machipery  of  improved  construction  in  England,  is 
much  restrained  by  the  want  of  capital,  which  counteracts  even  our  greater  necessity  for  all  la- 
bor-saving contrivances.  All  associations  or  uses  of  capital,  therefore,  to  supply  means  to  the  in- 
dustrious and  frugal  agriculturist,  on  fair  terms  and  for  periods  corresponding  with  the  nature  of 
his  pursuits,  would  deserve  to  be  rewarded  with  honor  and  with  profit. 
(32) 


METHODS   OF   LEARNING    PRACTICAL   HUSBANDRY.  33 


best  that  could  be  devised  in  the  circumstances.  Shame  is  often  acutely 
felt  by  servants,  on  being  detected  in  error,  whether  of  the  head  or  heart, 
by  so  competent  and  discriminating  a  judge  as  a  skillful  master;  because 
rebuke  from  such  a  one  implies  ignorance  or  negligence  in  those  against 
whom  it  is  directed.  The  fear  of  having  ignorance  and  idleness  imputed 
to  them,  by  a  fanner  w^ho  has  become  acquainted  with  the  capabilities  of 
work-people  by  dint  of  his  own  experience,  and  can  estimate  their  ser- 
vices as  they  really  deserve,  urges  laborers  to  do  a  fair  day's  work  in  a 
workmanlike  style. 

Let  the  converse  of  all  these  circumstances  be  imagined  ;  let  the  losses 
to  which  the  ignorant  farmer  is  a  daily  prey,  by  many  ways — by  hypoc- 
risy, by  negligence,  by  idleness,  and  by  dishonesty  of  servants — be  calcu- 
lated, and  it  must  be  admitted  that  it  is  infinitely  safer  for  the  farmer  to 
trust  to  his  own  skill  for  the  fulfillment  of  his  engagements,  than  entirely 
to  depend  on  that  of  his  servants,  which  he  will  be  obliged  to  do  if  they 
know  his  business  better  than  he  himself  does.  No  doubt  a  trustworthy 
steward  may  be  found  to  manage  well  enough  for  him — and  such  an  as- 
sistant is  at  all  times  valuable — but,  in  such  a  position,  the  steward  him- 
self is  placed  in  a  state  of  temptation,  in  which  he  should  never  be  put ; 
and,  besides,  the  infeiior  servants  never  regard  him  as  a  master,  and  his 
orders  are  never  so  punctually  obeyed,  where  the  master  himself  is  resi- 
dent. I  Avould,  therefore,  advise  every  young  farmer  to  acquire  a  compe- 
tent knowledge  of  his  profession,  before  embarking  in  the  complicated  un- 
dertaking of  conducting  a  farm.  I  only  say  a  competent  knowledge ;  for 
the  gift  to  excel  is  not  imparted  to  all  who  select  farming  as  their  profes- 
sion ;  "  it  is  not  in  man  who  walketh  to  direct  his  steps"  aright,  much  less 
to  attune  his  mind  to  the  highest  attainments. 

Before  the  pupil  fixes  on  any  particular  farm  for  his  temporary  abode, 
he  should  duly  consider  the  objects  he  wishes  to  attain.  I  presume  his 
chief  aim  is  to  attain  such  an  intimate  knowledge  of  farming  as  to  enable 
him  to  employ  his  capital  safely  in  the  prosecution  of  the  highest  depart- 
ment of  his  profession.  This  will,  probably,  be  best  attained  by  learning 
that  system  which  presents  the  greatest  safeguards  against  unforeseen  con- 
tingencies. Now,  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  kind  of  farming  which  cul- 
tivates a  variety  of  produce  is  more  likely  to  be  safe,  during  a  lease,  in 
regard  both  to  highness  of  price  and  quantity  of  produce,  than  that  which 
only  raises  one  kind  of  produce,  whether  wholly  of  animals,  or  wholly  of 
grain.  For,  although  one  kind  of  produce,  when  it  happens  to  be  prolific 
or  high  priced,  may,  in  one  year,  return  a  greater  profit  than  a  variety  of 
produce  in  the  same  year,  yet  the  probabilities  are  much  against  the  fre- 
quent recurrence  of  such  a  circumstance.  The  probability  rather  is  that 
one  of  the  varieties  of  produce  will  succeed,  in  price  or  produce,  every 
year ;  and,  therefore,  in  every  year  there  will  be  a  certain  degi-ee  of  suc- 
cess in  that  mode  of  farming  which  raises  a  variety  of  produce.  Take,  as 
an  example,  the  experience  of  late  years.  All  kinds  of  live-stock  have 
been  reared  with  profit  for  some  years  past ;  but  the  case  is  different  in 
regard  to  grain.  Growers  of  grain  have  suffered  greatly  in  their  capital 
in  that  time.  And  yet,  to  derive  the  fullest  advantages  from  even  the  rear- 
ing of  stock,  it  is  necessary  to  cultivate  a  certain  extent  of  land  upon  which 
to  raise  straw  and  green  crops  for  them  in  winter.  Hence,  that  system  is 
the  best  for  the  young  farmer  to  learn,  which  cultivates  a  relative  propor- 
tion of  stock  and  crop,  and  not  either  singly.  This  has  been  characterized 
as  the  mixed  system  of  husbandry.  It  avoids,  on  the  one  hand,  the  monot- 
ony and  inactivity  attendant  on  the  raising  of  grain,  and  subdues,  on  the 
othei',  the  roving  disposition  ensrendered  in  the  tending  of  live-stock  m  a 

(33) 3     ^         ^  ^  ^    - 


34  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

pastoral  district;  so  it  blends  both  occupations  into  a  happy  union  of 
cheerfulness  and  quiet. 

Most  farmers  in  the  lowlands  of  Scotland  practice  the  mixed  husbandry, 
but  it  is  reduced  to  a  perfect  system  nowhere  so  fully  as  in  the  Border 
Counties  of  England  and  Scotland.  There  many  farmei-s  accept  pupils, 
and  thither  many  of  the  latter  go  to  prepare  themselves  to  become  farm- 
ers. The  usual  fee  for  pupils,  in  that  part  of  the  country,  is  one  hundred 
pounds  [$500]  per  annum  for  bed  and  board,  with  the  use  of  a  horse  to 
occasional  markets  and  shows.*  If  the  pupil  desire  to  have  a  horse  of  his 
own,  about  thirty  pounds  a-year  more  are  demanded.  On  these  moderate 
terms,  pupils  are  generally  very  comfortably  situated. 

I  am  very  doubtful  of  it  being  good  policy  to  allow  the  pupil  a  horse 
of  his  own  at  first.  Constant  attention  to  field-labor  is  not  unattended 
with  irksomeness ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  exercise  on  horseback  is  a 
tempting  recreation  to  young  minds.  It  is  enough  for  a  young  man  to 
feel  the  removal  of  parental  restraint,  without  also  having  the  dangerous 
incentive  of  an  idle  life  placed  at  his  disposal.  They  should  consider  that, 
upon  young  men  an'ived  at  the  years  when  they  become  fanning  pupils, 
it  is  not  in  the  power,  and  is  certainly  not  the  inclination,  of  farmers  to 
impose  ungracious  resti-aints.  It  is  the  duty  of  their  parents  and  guardians 
to  impose  these ;  and  the  most  effectual  way  that  I  know  of,  in  the  cir- 
cumstances, to  avoid  temptations,  is  the  denial  of  a  riding-horse.  Atten- 
tion to  business  in  the  first  year  will,  most  probably,  induce  a  liking  for  it 
in  the  second ;  and,  after  that,  the  indulgence  of  a  horse  may  be  granted 
to  the  pupil  with  impunity,  as  the  reward  of  diligence.  Until  then,  the 
horse  occasionally  supplied  by  the  farmer  to  attend  particular  markets, 
or  pay  friendly  visits  to  neighbors,  should  suffice  ;  and,  as  that  is  the  farm- 
er's own  property,  it  will  be  more  in  his  power  to  curb  in  his  pupils  any 
propensity  to  wander  abroad  too  ft-equently,  and  thereby  preserve  his  own 
character  as  a  tutor. 

Three  years  of  apprenticeship  are,  in  my  opinion,  requisite  to  give  a 
pupil  an  adequate  knowledge  of  farming — such  a  knowledge,  I  mean,  as 
would  impress  him  with  the  confidence  of  being  himself  able  to  manage  a 
farm ;  and  no  young  man  should  undertake  such  a  management  until  he 
feels  this  confidence  in  himself.  Three  years  may  be  considered  by  many 
as  too  long  a  time  to  spend  in  learning  jfarming  ;  but,  after  all,  it  is  much 
less  time  than  that  given  to  many  other  professions,  whose  period  of  ap- 
prenticeship extends  to  fire  and  even  seven  years  ;  and,  however  highly 
esteemed  those  professions  may  be,  none  possess  a  deeper  interest,  in  a 
national  point  of  view,  than  that  of  Agriculture.  There  is  a  condition  at- 
tendant on  the  art  of  farming — which  is  common  to  it  and  gardening,  but 
inapplicable  to  most  other  arts — that  a  year  must  elapse  before  the  same 
work  can  again  be  performed.    Whatever  may  be  the  ability  of  the  learner 

[*  A  gentleman  of  ample  fortune,  residing  at  Paterson,  New-Jersey,  has  lately,  with  his  son's 
entire  concurrence  and  desire,  sent  him  to  reside  with  a  Scotch  farmer,  of  Shields,  near  Ayr;  to 
whom  he  pays  one  hundred  pounds  sterling  a  year — say  $500 — for  board  and  education  as  a 
farmer.  Mr.  Turnant  (that  appears  to  be  the  namp)  is  Vice  President  of  the  Ayrshire  Agricultural 
Society ;  and  is,  withal,  a  gentleman,  and  lives  as  such.  The  young  man  alluded  to  keeps  no 
horse,  but  is  fully  instructed  in  all  the  departments  of  Agriculture.  We  mention  this  particular 
case  of  a  young  gentleman,  not  urged  by  necessity,  betaking  himself  to  Agriculture  as  a  profes- 
sion, with  the  acquiescence  of  his  father,  to  show  that  public  sentiment  is  taking  a  right  turn,  and 
that  those  who  have  been  so  assiduously  laboring  to  elevate  this  pursuit  in  the  public  esteem 
have  not  entirely  lost  their  labor,  but  may  hope  yet  to  see  practical  Agriculture  followed  as  an  in- 
tellectual occupation — one  in  which  success  may  warrant  the  presumption  of  some  merit  besides 
the  mere  faculties  of  imitation  and  plodding  industry.  Ei.  Farm.  Lib.] 

(34)  § 


INSTITUTIONS   OF    PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.  35 

to  acquire  farming,  time  must  thus  necessarily  elapse  before  he  can  have 
the  opportunity  of  again  witnessing  a  bygone  operation.  There  is  no  doubt 
of  his  natural  capacity  to  acquire,  in  two  years,  the  art  to  manage  a  farm, 
but  the  operations  necessarily  occupying  a  year  in  their  performance,  pre- 
vent that  acquisition  in  less  time  than  three.  This  circumstance,  of  itself, 
will  cause  him  to  spend  a  year  in  merely  observing  passing  events.  This 
is  in  his  first  year.  As  the  operations  of  farming  are  all  anticipatory,  the 
second  year  may  be  fully  employed  in  studying  the  progress  of  work  in 
preparation  of  anticipated  results.  In  the  third  year,  when  his  mind  has 
been  stored  with  all  the  modes  of  doing  work,  and  the  purposes  for  which 
they  are  performed,  the  pupil  may  attempt  to  put  his  knowledge  into  prac- 
tice ;  and  his  first  efforts  at  management  cannot  be  attempted  with  so  much 
ease  of  mind  to  himself  as  on  the  farm  of  his  tutor,  under  his  correcting 
guidance. 

This  is  the  usual  progi'ess  of  tuition  during  the  apprenticeship  of  the 
pupil ;  but,  could  he  be  brought  to  anticipate  results  while  watching  the 
progi'ess  of  passing  events,  one  year  might  thus  be  cut  off  his  apprentice- 
ship. Could  a  hook  enable  him  to  acquire  the  experience  of  the  second 
year  in  the  course  of  the  first,  a  year  of  probationary  trial  would  be  saved 
him,  as  he  would  then  acquire  in  two  what  requires  three  years  to  accom- 
plish. This  book  will  accomplish  no  small  achievement — will  confer  no 
small  benefit  on  the  agricultural  pupil — if  it  accomplish  this. 


6.      OF    THE    ESTABLISHMENT    OF    SCIENTIFIC    INSTITUTIONS    OF 
PRACTICAL    AGRICULTURE. 

"  Here  let  us  breathe,  and  happily  institute 
A  course  of  learning  and  ingenious  studies." 

Taming  of  the  Sheew. 

Although  I  know  of  no  existing  plan  so  suited  to  the  learning  of  prac- 
tical farming  as  a  protracted  residence  on  a  farm,  yet  I  feel  assured  a  more 
efficient  one  might  easily  be  proposed  for  the  purpose.  An  evident  and 
serious  objection  against  the  present  plan  is  the  want  of  that  solicitous  su- 
perintendence over  the  progress  of  the  pupils,  on  the  part  of  the  farmer, 
which  is  implied  in  his  receiving  them  under  his  charge.  The  pupils  are 
left  too  much  to  their  own  discretion  to  learn  farming  effectually.  They 
are  not  sufficiently  warned  of  the  obstacles  they  have  to  encounter  at  the 
outset  of  their  career.  Their  minds  are  not  sufficiently  guarded  against 
receiving  a  wrong  bias  in  the  methods  of  performing  the  operations.  The 
advantages  of  performing  them  in  one  way  rather  than  another  are  not 
sufficiently  indicated.  The  effects  which  a  change  of  weather  has  in  alter- 
ing the  aiTangements  of  work  fixed  upon,  and  of  substituting  another 
more  suited  to  the  change,  is  not  sufficiently  explained.  Instead  of  re- 
ceiving explanatory  infonnation  on  these  and  many  more  particulars,  the 
pupils  are  mostly  left  to  find  them  out  by  their  own  diligence.  If  they 
express  a  desire  to  become  acquainted  with  these  things,  no  doubt  it  will 
be  cheerfully  gratified  by  the  farmer ;  but  how  can  the  uninitiated  pupil 
know  the  precise  subject  with  which  to  express  his  desire  to  become  ac- 
quainted 1 

In  such  a  system  of  tuition,  it  is  obvious  that  the  diligent  pupil  may  be 


36  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM.  • 

daily  perplexed  by  doubtful  occurrences,  and  the  indifferent  pupil  permit 
unexplained  occun-ences  to  pass  before  him,  -without  notice.  Reiterated 
occurrences  will,  in  time,  force  themselves  upon  the  attention  of  every 
class  of  pupils :  but,  unless  their  attention  is  purposely  drawn  to,  and  ex- 
pHcations  proffered  of,  the  more  hidden  difficulties  in  the  art  of  farming, 
they  will  spend  much  time  ere  they  be  capable  of  discovering  important 
occult  matters  by  their  own  discernment. 

It  is  in  this  respect  that  farmers,  who  profess  to  be  tutors,  show,  as  1 
conceive,  remissness  in  their  duty  to  their  pupils  ;  for  all  of  them  can  im- 
part the  information  alluded  to,  and  give,  besides,  a  common-sense  expla- 
nation of  every  occurrence  that  usually  happens  on  a  farm,  otherwise  they 
should  decline  pupils. 

It  is  obvious  that  pupils  should  not  be  placed  in  this  disadvantageous 
position.  They  ought  to  be  taught  their  profession ;  because  the  art  of 
husbandry  should  be  acquired,  like  every  other  art,  by  teaching,  and  not 
by  intuition.  On  the  other  hand,  pupils  in  this,  as  in  every  other  art,  ought 
to  endeavor  to  acquire  the  largest  portion  of  the  knowledge  of  external 
things  by  their  own  observation ;  and  they  should  be  made  aware,  by  the 
farmer,  that  he  can  at  most  only  assist  them  in  their  studies ;  so  that,  with- 
out rnuch  study  on  their  parts,  all  the  attention  bestowed  on  their  tuition 
by  the  most  pains-taking  farmer  will  prove  of  little  avail.  Practical  expe- 
rience forms  the  essential  portion  of  knowledge  which  farmers  have  to  im- 
part, and  it  is  best  imparted  on  the  farm ;  but  they  have  not  always  the 
leisure,  by  reason  of  their  other  avocations,  to  communicate  even  this  on 
the  spot  in  its  due  time.  More  than  mere  practical  knowledge,  however, 
is  requisite  to  satisfy  the  mind  of  the  diligent  pupil.  He  wishes  to  be  sat- 
isfied that  he  is  learning  the  best  method  of  conducting  a  farm  :  he  wishes 
to  be  informed  of  the  reasons  why  one  mode  of  management  is  preferable 
to  every  other  :  he  wishes  to  become  familiar  with  the  explanations  of  all 
the  phenomena  that  are  obsei'\'able  on  a  farm. 

To  afford  all  the  requisite  information  to  the  pupil  in  the  highest  per- 
fection, and  to  assist  the  farmer  in  affording  it  to  him  in  the  easiest  man- 
ner, I  propose  the  following  plan  of  tuition  for  adoption,  where  circum- 
stances will  permit  it  to  be  established.  The  more  minutely  its  details  are 
explained,  the  better  will  it  be  understood  by  those  who  may  wish  to  form 
such  establishments. 

Let  a  farmer  of  good  natural  abilities,  of  firm  character,  fair  education, 
and  pleasant  manners — leasing  a  farm  of  not  less  than  five  hundred  acres, 
and  pursuing  the  mixed  system  of  husbandry — occupy  a  house  of  such  a 
size  as  would  afford  accommodation  to  fii'om  ten  to  twenty  pupils.  The 
faiTn  should  contain  different  varieties  and  conditions  of  soil — be  well 
fenced,  well  Avatered,  and  not  at  an  inconvenient  distance  from  a  town. 

With  regard  to  the  internal  arrangements  of  the  house,  double-bedded 
rooms  would  foiTn  suitable  enough  sleeping  apartments.  Besides  a  dining- 
room  and  drawing-room,  for  daily  use,  there  should  be  a  large  room,  fitted 
up  with  a  library,  containing  books  affording  sound  infoiTnation  on  all  agii- 
cultural  subjects,  in  various  languages — forming  at  one  time  a  lecture-room 
for  the  delivery  of  lectures  on  the  elementary  princijiles  of  those  sciences 
which  have  a  more  immediate  reference  to  Agi-iculture,  and  at  another  a 
reading  or  writing  room  or  parlor  for  conversations  on  fanning  subjects. — 
There  should  be  fixed,  at  suitable  places,  a  barometer,  a  symplesometer, 
thermometers  (one  of  which  should  mark  the  lowest  degree  of  temperature 
in  the  night),  a  rain-gauge,  an  anemometer,  and  a  weathercock.  No  very 
usefiil  information,  in  my  opinion,  can  be  derived  by  the  farmer  from  a 
bare  register  of  the  bights  and  depths  of  the  barometer  and  thermometer. 

(36) 


INSTITUTIONS  OF  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.  37 

A  more  useful  register  for  him  would  be  that  of  the  directions  of  the  wind, 
accompanied  with  remarks  on  the  state  of  the  weather,  the  heat  of  the  air 
as  indicated  by  the  feelings,  and  the  character  of  the  clouds  as  expressed 
by  the  most  approved  nomenclature.  The  dates  of  the  commencement  and 
termination  of  every  leading  operation  on  the  farm  should  be  noted  down, 
and  appropriate  remarks  on  the  state  of  the  weather  during  its  perform- 
ance recorded.  A  small  chemical  laboratory  would  be  useful  in  affording 
the  means  of  analyzing  substances  whose  component  parts  were  not  well 
known.  Microscopes  would  be  useful  in  observing  the  structure  of  plants 
and  insects,  for  the  better  understanding  of  their  respective  functions. 

The  slaughter-house  required  for  the  preparation  of  the  meat  used  by 
the  family  should  be  fitted  up  to  afford  facilities  for  dissecting  those  animals 
which  have  been  affected  by  peculiar  disease.  Skeletons  and  preparations 
for  illusti-ating  comparative  anatomy  could  thus  be  formed  with  little 
trouble.  A  roomy  dairy  should  be  fitted  up  for  performing  experiments 
on  the  productive  properties  of  milk  in  all  its  various  states.  A  portion 
of  the  farm-offices  should  be  fitted  up  with  apparatus  for  making  experi- 
ments on  the  nutritive  properties  of  different  kinds  and  quantities  of  food, 
and  the  fattening  properties  of  different  kinds  of  animals.  A  steelyard,  for 
easily  ascertaining  the  live-weight  of  animals,  is  a  requisite  instrument. — 
The  bakery,  which  supplies  the  household  bread,  would  be  a  proper  place 
for  trying  the  relative  panary  properties  of  diff'erent  kinds  of  flour  and 
meal.  Besides  these,  apparatus  for  conducting  experiments  on  other  sub- 
jects, as  they  were  suggested,  could  be  obtained  when  required. 

Another  person  besides  the  farmer  will  be  required  to  put  all  this  appa- 
ratus into  use.  He  should  be  a  man  of  science,  engaged  for  the  express 
purpose  of  showing  the  relation  betwixt  science  and  Agriculture.  There 
would  be  no  difficulty  of  obtaining  a  man  of  science,  quite  competent  to 
explain  natural  phenomena  on  scientific  principles.  For  that  purpose,  he 
would  require  to  have  a  familial'  acquaintance  with  the  following  sciences  : 
With  meteorology  and  electi-icity,  in  order  to  explain  atmospherical  phe- 
nomena, upon  the  mutations  of  which  all  the  opei'ations  of  fanning  are  so 
dependent :  with  hydrostatics  and  hydraulics,  to  explain  the  action  of 
streams  and  of  dammed-up  water  on  embankments,  to  suggest  plans  for  the 
recovery  of  land  from  rivers  and  the  sea,  and  to  indicate  the  states  of  the 
weather  which  increase  or  diminish  the  statical  power  of  the  sap  in  vege- 
tables :  with  botany  and  vegetable  physiology,  to  show  the  relations  be- 
tween the  natural  plants  and  the  soils  on  which  they  grow,  with  a  view  to 
establish  a  closer  affinity  between  the  artificial  state  of  the  soil  and  the  per- 
fect grovi^th  of  cultivated  plants ;  to  exhibit  the  structure  of  the  different 
orders  of  cultivated  plants  ;  and  to  explain  the  nature  and  uses  of  the 
healthy,  and  the  injurious  effects  of  the  diseased  secretions  of  plants  :  with 
geology,  to  explain  the  nature  and  describe  the  stnicture  of  the  superficial 
crust  of  the  eaith,  in  reference  to  draining  the  soil  ;  to  show  the  effects  of 
subsoils  on  the  growth  of  trees ;  to  explain  the  effects  of  damp  subsoils  on 
trees,  and  of  the  variations  of  the  surface  of  the  ground  on  climate  :  with 
mechanics,  to  explain  the  principles  which  regulate  the  action  of  all  ma- 
chines, and  which  acquirement  previously  implies  a  pretty  familiar  ac- 
quaintance with  the  mathematics :  with  chemistry,  to  explain  the  nature 
of  the  composition  of,  and  changes  in,  mineral,  vegetable,  and  animal  sub- 
stances :  with  anatomy  and  animal  physiology,  to  explain  the  structure  and  ' 
functions  of  the  animal  economy,  with  a  view  to  the  prevention  of  disease, 
incidental  to  the  usual  treatment  of  animals,  and  to  particular  localities.—*; 
AH  young  men,  educated  for  what  are  usually  termed  the  learned  profes-'- 
sioiis — theology,  law,  and  medicine — are  made  acquainted  with  these  sci-  •■ 

(37) 


38  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

ences,  and  a  young  man  from  either  faculty  would  be  competent  to  take 
charge  of  such  an  establishment.  Of  the  three  I  would  give  preference  to 
the  medical  man,  as  possessing  professionally  a  more  intimate  knowledge 
of  chemistry,  and  animal  and  vegetable  physiology,  than  the  others.  But 
the  most  learned  graduate  of  either  profession  will  display  his  scientific 
acquii'ements  to  little  advantage  in  teaching  pupils  in  Agriculture,  unless 
he  has  the  judgment  to  select  those  parts  of  the  various  sciences  whose 
principles  can  most  satisfactorily  explain  the  operations  of  Agriculture. — 
Ere  he  can  do  this  successfully,  he  would,  I  apprehend,  require  to  know 
Agriculture  practically,  by  a  previous  residence  of  at  least  two  years  on  a 
faiTn.  Without  such  a  preparation,  he  would  never  become  a  useful  teacher 
of  agi'icultural  pupils. 

On  the  supposition  that  he  is  so  qualified,  his  duty  is  to  take  the  direct 
charge  of  the  pupils.  His  chief  business  should  be  to  give  demonstrations 
and  explanations  of  all  the  phenomena  occurring  during  operations  in  the 
farm  field.  The  more  popular  demonstrations  on  botany,  animal  and  vege- 
table physiology,  and  geology,  as  also  on  meteorology,  optics,  and  astron- 
omy, whenever  phenomena  occur  which  would  call  forth  the  application 
of  the  principles  of  any  of  those  sciences,  would  be  best  conducted  in  the 
fields.  In  the  library,  short  lectures  on  the  elementary  principles  of  sci- 
ence could  be  regularly  delivered — conversations  on  scientific  and  practical 
subjects  conducted — and  portions  of  the  most  approved  authors  on  Agri- 
culture, new  and  old,  read.  These  latter  subjects  could  be  most  closely 
prosecuted  when  bad  weather  inteiTupted  field-labor.  In  the  laboratoiy, 
slaughter-house,  farmstead,  and  dairy,  he  could  command  the  attendance 
of  the  pupils,  when  any  subject  in  those  departments  was  to  be  explained. 

The  duty  of  the  farmer  himself,  the  governor  or  head  of  the  establish- 
ment, is  to  enforce  pi'oper  discipline  among  the  pupils,  both  within  and 
without  doors.  He  should  teach  them  practically  how  to  perform  every 
species  of  work,  explain  the  nature  and  object  of  every  operation  per- 
forming, and  foretell  the  purport  of  every  operation  about  to  be  performed. 
For  these  important  puiposes  he  should  remain  at  home  as  much  as  is 
practicable  with  his  avocations  abroad. 

The  duties  of  the  pupils  arc  easily  defined.  They  should  be  ready  at  all 
times  to  hear  instruction,  whether  in  science  or  practice,  within  or  without 
doors.  Those  pupils  who  wish  to  study  practice  more  than  science,  should 
not  be  constrained  to  act  against  their  inclinations,  as  science  possesses  little 
allurement  to  some  minds  ;  and  it  should  be  Ijorne  in  mind  by  the  tutors, 
that  practical  farming  is  what  the  pupils  have  chiefly  come  to  learn,  and 
that  practice  may  prove  successful  in  after  life  without  the  assistance  of 
science,  whereas  science  can  never  be  applied  without  practice. 

The  duty  common  to  all,  is  the  mutual  conducting  of  experiments,  both 
in  the  fields  and  garden ;  for  which  purpose  both  should  be  of  ample  di- 
mensions. All  new  varieties  of  plants  might  be  first  tried  in  the  garden, 
until  their  quantity  waiTanted  the  more  profuse  and  less  exact,  though 
more  satisfactory  culture  of  the  field.  On  ridges  in  the  fallow-field,  with 
different  kinds  and  (juantities  of  manure,  and  different  modes  of  working 
the  soil  and  sowing  the  seeds,  experiments  should  be  continually  making 
with  new  and  old  kinds  of  grains,  roots,  tubers,  bulbs,  and  herbaceous 
plants.  In  course  of  time,  the  sorts  best  suited  to  the  locality  will  show 
themselves,  and  should  be  retained,  and  the  worthless  abandoned.  In 
like  manner,  experiments  should  be  made  in  the  crossing  of  animals, 
whether  with  the  view  of  maintaining  the  purity  of  blood  in  one,  the  im- 
provement of  the  blood  of  another,  or  the  institution  of  an  entirely  new 
Dlood.  In  either  class  of  experiments,  many  new  and  interesting  facts 
(38) 


INSTITUTIONS  OF  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.  39 


regarding  the  constitutional  differences  of  animals,  could  not  fail  to  be 
elicited. 

Any  farmer  establishing  such  an  institution,  which  could  only  be  done 
at  considerable  expense,  in  fitting  up  a  house  in  an  adequate  manner,  and 
securing  the  services  of  a  man  of  science,  would  deserve  to  be  well  re- 
munerated, I  before  mentioned  that  one  hundred  pounds  a  year  as  board 
were  cheerfully  given  by  pupils  to  farmers  under  ordinary  circumstances. 
In  such  an  institution,  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  a  yeju.- 
would  not  sufllice  to  remunerate  the  farmer.  Supposing  that  ten  pupils 
at  that  fee  each,  were  accommodated  on  one  farm,  the  board  would 
amount  to  fifteen  hundred  pounds  a  year.  In  regard  to  the  expense  of 
maintaining  such  an  establishment,  with  the  exception  of  foreign  produce 
and  domestic  luxuries,  all  the  ordinary  means  of  good  living  exist  on  a 
farm.  The  procuring  of  these  necessaries  and  luxuries  and  maintaining 
a  retinue  of  grooms  and  domestic  servants,  together  with  the  salary  of  an 
accomplished  tutor,  which  should  not  be  less  than  three  hundred  pounds 
a  year  besides  board,  would  probably  incur  an  annual  disbursement  of  a 
thousand  pounds  a  year.  The  farmer  would  thus  receive  five  hundred 
pounds  a  year  for  risk  of  the  want  of  the  full  complement  of  pupils,  and 
for  interest  on  the  outlay  of  capital.  Such  a  profit  may  be  considered  a 
fair,  but  not  an  extravagant  remuneration  for  the  comfortable  style  of  liv- 
ing and  superior  kind  of  tuition  afforded  in  such  an  estabhshment. 

Were  the  particulars  pitched  at  a  lower  scale,  a  profit  might  be  derived 
from  ten  pupils,  of  not  less  a  sum  than  that  derived  from  the  usual  board 
of  one  hundred  pounds  a  year.  Were  two  hundred  a  year  exacted,  pu- 
pils of  the  highest  class  of  society  might  be  expected.  Were  different  in- 
stitutions at  different  rates  of  board  established,  all  the  classes  of  society 
would  be  accommodated. 

Would  farmers  who  have  accommodation  for  conducting  such  an  insti- 
tution, but  duly  consider  the  probable  certainty  of  obtaining  a  considera- 
ble increase  to  their  income,  besides  the  higher  distinction  of  conducting 
so  useful  an  institution,  I  have  no  doubt  many  would  make  the  attempt. 
There  are  insuperable  obstacles  to  some  farmers  making  the  attempt ;  but 
there  are  many  who  possess  the  requisite  quahfications  of  accommodation 
in  house  and  farm  locality,  personal  abilities,  influence,  and  capital,  for 
instituting  such  an  establishment.  But  even  where  all  these  qualifications 
do  not  exist,  most  of  the  obstacles  might  be  overcome.  In  the  case  of  the 
house,  it  could  be  enlarged  at  the  farmer's  own  expense,  for  the  landlord 
cannot  be  expected  to  erect  a  farm-house  beyond  the  wants  of  an  ordinary 
family ;  nor,  perhaps,  would  every  small  landed  proprietor  permit  the 
unusual  enlargement  of  a  farm-house,  in  case  it  should  be  rendered  un- 
suitable to  the  succeeding  tenant.  To  avoid  this  latter  difficulty,  the 
farmer  who  could  afford  accommodation  to  the  fewest  number,  could  re- 
ceive the  highest  class  of  pupils,  were  his  oAvn  education  and  manners 
competent  for  the  highest  society,  while  those  who  had  more  accommo- 
dation could  take  a  more  numerous  and  less  elevated  rank  of  pupils.  In 
either  way  the  profit  might  be  equally  compensatory. 

In  regard  to  other  considerations,  a  tutor  entirely  competent  could  not 
at  once  be  found.  It  may  safely  be  aven-ed,  that  a  really  scientific  man, 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  practice  of  Agriculture,  is  not  to  be  found 
in  this  country.  But  were  a  demand  for  the  services  of  scientific  men  to 
arise  from  the  increase  and  steady  prosperity  of  such  establishments,  no 
doubt,  men  of  science  would  qualify  themselves  for  the  express  purpose. 
As  to  pupils,  the  personal  interest  of  the  farmer  might  not  avail  him  much 
at  first  in  influencing  parents  in  his  favor,  but  if  he  possess  the  reputa- 


40  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

tion  of  being  a  good  fanner,  he  would  soon  acquire  fame  for  his  institu- 
tion. I  have  no  doubt  of  an  eminent  farmer  entirely  succeeding  to  his 
wishes,  who  occupies  a  commodious  house,  on  a  large  farm,  in  an  agricul- 
tural distiict  of  high  repute,  and  possessing  sufficient  capital,  were  he  to 
make  the  experiment  by  engaging  a  competent  scientific  tutor,  and  teach- 
ing the  practical  department  himself.  Such  a  combination  of  alluring  cir- 
cumstances could  not  fail  of  attracting  pupils  from  all  parts  of  the  country, 
wjio  were  really  desirous  of  learning  Agi-iculture  in  a  supeiior  manner. 

There  might  still  be  another,  though  less  attractive  and  efficacious,  mode 
of  accomplishing  a  similar  end.  Let  a  scientific  tutor,  after  having  ac- 
quired a  competent  knowledge  of  practical  Agiiculture,  procure  a  com- 
modious and  comfoxtable  house  in  any  village  in  the  vicinity  of  some  large 
farms,  in  a  fine  agiicultural  district.  Let  him  receive  pupils  into  his 
house,  on  his  own  account,  in  such  numbers  and  at  such  fees  as  he  con- 
ceives would  remunerate  him  for  his  trouble  and  risk.  Every  thing  re- 
lating to  science  within  doors,  could  be  conducted  as  well  in  such  a  house 
as  in  any  farm-house ;  and  as  to  a  field  for  practice,  let  the  tutor  give  a 
douceur  to  each  of  the  large  farmers  in  his  neighborhood,  for  liberty  for 
himself  and  pupils  to  come  at  will  and  inspect  all  the  operations  of  the 
farms.  In  this  way  a  very  considerable  knowledge  of  farming  might  be 
imparted.  Having  every  article  of  consumption  to  purchase  at  market- 
price,  such  an  establishment  would  cost  more  to  maintain  than  that  on  a 
farm  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  salary  of  the  tutor  would  in  this  case  be 
saved,  and  there  would  be  no  farmer  and  his  family  to  support.  To  assist 
in  defraying  the  exti'a  expenses  of  such  an  establishment,  let  the  tutor  per- 
mit, for  a  moderate  fee,  the  sons  of  those  farmers  whose  farms  he  has  lib- 
erty to  inspect,  and  of  those  who  live  at  a  distance,  to  attend  his  lectures 
and  readings  in  the  house,  and  his  prelections  in  the  fields.  A  pretty  ex- 
tensive knowledge  of  and  liking  for  the  science  of  Agriculture  might  thus 
be  diffused  throughout  the  country,  among  a  class  of  young  farmers  who 
might  never  have  another  opportunity  of  acquiring  it,  because  they  would 
never  become  permanent  inmates  in  any  such  establishment. 

I  have  known  a  mode  of  learning  farming  adopted  by  young  farmers  of 
limited  incomes,  fi-om  remote  and  semi-cultivated  parts  of  the  countiy,  of 
lodging  themselves  in  villages  in  cultivated  districts  adjacent  to  large 
farms,  occupied  by  eminent  fanners,  and  procuring  leave  from  them  to 
give  their  daily  personal  labor  and  supei'intendence  in  exchange  for  the 
privilege  of  seeing  and  participating  in  all  the  operations  of  the  farm. 

There  are  still  other  modes  than  those  described  above  of  learning 
farming,  which  deserve  attention,  and  require  remark.  Among  these  the 
only  one  in  this  country,  apart  from  the  general  practice  of  boarding  Avith 
practical  farmers,  is  the  Class  of  Agriculture  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. This  chair  was  endowed  in  1790  by  Sir  William  Pulteney,  with  a 
small  salary,  and  placed  under  the  joint  patronage  of  the  Judges  of  the 
Court  of  Session,  the  Senatus  Academicus  of  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  the  Town  Council  of  the  City  of  Edinburgh.  The  first  pro- 
fessor elected  by  the  patrons  to  this  chair  in  1791,  was  the  late  Dr.  Cov- 
entry, whose  name,  in  connection  with  the  Agi'iculture  of  the  country, 
stood  pi'ominent  at  one  time.  He  occupied  the  chair  until  his  death  in 
1831.  His  prelections,  at  the  earlier  period  of  his  career  as  a  professor, 
were  successful,  when  his  class  numbered  upward  of  seventy  students. 
When  I  attended  it,  thie  number  of  students  was  upward  of  forty.  Dr. 
Coventry  was  a  pleasing  lecturer,  abounding  in  anecdote,  keeping  his 
hearers  always  in  good  humor,  coui'ting  interrogation,  and  personally 
showing  gi'eat  kindness  to  every  student.     At  the  latter  period  of  his  in- 


INSTITUTIONS  OF  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.  41 

cumbency,  the  class  dwindled  away,  and  for  some  years  before  his  death 
he  delivered  a  course  of  lectures  only  every  two  years.  He  delivered,  1 
understand,  thirty-four  courses  in  forty  years. 

The  present  Professor  Low  succeeded  Dr.  Coventry.  Since  his  installa- 
tion into  the  chair,  he  has  rekindled  the  dying  embers  of  the  agi-icultural 
class,  by  delivering  an  annual  course  of  lectures  suited  to  the  improved 
state  of  British  Agiiculture,  and  by  forming  a  museum  of  models  of  agi-i- 
cultural  implements,  and  portraits  of  live-stock  illustrative  of  his  lectures, 
of  the  most  extensive  and  valuable  description.  In  Dr.  Coventry's  time 
there  was  no  museum  deserving  the  name,  and  seeing  this,  Professor  Low 
had  no  doubt  been  impressed  with  the  important  truth,  that  without  mod- 
els of  the  most  approved  implements,  and  portraits  of  the  domesticated 
animals,  serving  to  illustrate  the  principal  operations  and  breeds  of  animals 
to  be  seen  on  the  best  cultivated  farms,  and  pastoral  districts,  a  mere 
course  of  lectures  would  prove  nugatory.  This  museum  is  attached  to  the 
University,  and  to  show  the  zeal  and  industry  by  which  the  present  Pro- 
fessor has  Iseen  actuated  in  its  formation,  the  objects  in  it  must  be  Worth 
more  than  ^£2,000.  The  funds  which  obtained  those  objects  were  derived 
from  the  revenues  under  the  management  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  for 
the  encouragement  of  Arts  and  Manufactures  in  Scotland.  This  Board 
was  instituted  by  the  15th  Article  of  the  Treaty  of  Union  between  Scot- 
land and  England.  Besides  forming  the  museum,  Professor  Low  has, 
during  his  yet  short  incumbency  in  the  chair,  already  contributed  much 
important  matter  to  the  agricultural  literature  of  the  country,  by  the  pub- 
lication of  his  Elements  of  Practical  Agriculture,  which  contain  almost 
the  entire  substance  of  his  lectures,  and  the  series  of  colored  portraits  of 
animals  taken  from  the  pictures  in  the  museum,  now  coming  out  periodic- 
ally in  numbers. 

There  has  lately  been  appointed  a  lecturer  on  Agi-iculture  in  Marischal 
College,  Aberdeen,  at  a  salary  of  <£40  a  year.  Being  but  an  experiment, 
the  appointment,  I  believe,  has  only  been  made  for  three  years. 

There  is  no  public  institution  in  England  for  teaching  Agriculture.*—- 
Some  stir  is  making  in  the  establishment  of  an  Agricultural  College  in 
Kent,  the  prospectus  of  which  I  have  seen;  and,  some  time  ago,  I  saw  a 
statement  which  said  that  provision  exists  for  the  endowment  of  a  chair 
of  Agriculture  in  one  of  the  Colleges  of  Oxford. 

An  agricultural  seminary  has  existed  at  Templemoyle,  in  the  county  of 
Londonderry,  Ireland,  for  some  years.  It  originated  with  the  members 
of  the  North-west  of  Ireland  Farming  Society,  and  the  first  intention  was 
to  form  it  on  such  a  scale  as  to  teach  children  of  the  higher  orders  every 
science  and  accomplishment,  while  those  of  the  lower  orders,  the  sons  of 
farmers  and  tradesmen,  were  to  be  taught  Agriculture.  But  the  latter 
arrangement  only  has  been  found  to  be  practicable.  In  a  statement  circu- 
lated by  a  member  of  the  committee,  I  find  that  "  the  formation  of  this 
establishment  has  caused  its  founders  an  expenditure  of  above  <:£ 4,000 — 
of  which  about  d£3,000  were  raised  at  its  commencement  by  shares  of  £25 
each,  taken  by  the  noblemen,  gentlemen,  and  members  of  the  North-west 
Society,  The  Grocers'  Company  of  London,  on  whose  estate  it  is  situated, 
have  been  most  liberal  in  their  assistance,  and  have  earned  a  just  reward 
in  the  improvement  of  their  property,  by  the  valuable  example  the  farm 
of  Templemoyle  presents  to  their  tenantry.  • 

"  In  sending  a  pupil  to  Templemoyle,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  nomma- 


[•  The  one  at  Cirencester,  mentioned  by  Mr.  Colman,  is  probably  now  in  operation. 

Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 
(41) 


42  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

tion  from  one  of  the  shareholders,  or  from  a  subscriber  of  >£2  annually.— 
The  annual  payment  for  pupils  is  c£10  a  year,  and  for  this  trifling  sum 
they  are  found  in  board,  lodfjing,  and  washing,  and  are  educated  so  as  to 
fit  them  for  land-stewards,  directing  agents,  practical  farmers,  schoolmas- 
ters, and  clerks.  From  fifteen  to  seventeen  is  the  age  best  suited  to  en- 
trance at  Templemoyle,  as  three  years  are  quite  sufficient  to  qualify  a  stu- 
dent possessed  of  ordinary  talents,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  rudiments  of 
reading  and  writing,  to  occupy  any  of  the  above  situations. 

*'  Upward  of  two  hundred  young  men,  natives  of  sixteen  different  coun- 
ties in  Ireland,  have  passed  or  remain  in  the  school.  Of  these,  between 
forty  and  fifty  have  been  placed  in  different  situations,  such  as  land-stew- 
ards, agents,  schoolmasters,  and  clerks,  or  employed  on  the  Ordnance  Sur- 
vey. Nearly  one  hundred  are  now  conducting  their  own  or  their  fathers' 
farms,  in  a  manner  very  superior  to  that  of  the  olden  time.* 

"  The  school  and  farm  of  Templemoyle  are  situated  about  six  miles  from 
Londonderry — about  a  mile  distant  from  the  mailcoach-road  leading  from 
Londonderry  to  Newtonlimavady.  The  house,  placed  on  an  eminence, 
commands  an  extensive  and  beautiful  view  over  a  rich  and  highly  cultivated 
country,  tenninated  by  Lough  Foyle.  The  base  of  the  hill  is  occupied  by 
a  kitchen  and  ornamental  garden,  cultivated  by  the  youths  of  the  establish- 
ment, under  an  experienced  gardener.  The  house  and  farm-offices  behind 
contain  spacious,  lofty,  and  well  ventilated  schoolrooms  ;  refectory  ;  dormi- 
tories ;  apartments  for  the  masters,  matron,  servants,  &c.  Each  pupil  oc- 
cupies a  separate  bed ;  the  house  can  accommodate  seventy-six,  and  the 
number  of  pupils  is  sixty.     They  receive  an  excellent  education  in  reading, 


[*  It  may  be  of  practical  service  in  the  United  States  to  give  here  the  general  regulations  of  the 
" Larne"  School,  of  which  Mr.  Colman  seems  to  think  so  favorably.  He  says  they  were  given 
to  him  in  printed  form  by  the  intelligent  principal.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib. 

"  1.  As  the  great  object  is  to  make  the  boys  practical  farmers,  one-half  of  them  will  be  at  all 
times  on  the  farm,  where  they  will  be  employed  in  manual  labor,  and  receive  from  the  head 
farmer  such  instructions,  reasons,  and  explanations,  as  will  render  the  mode  of  proceeding,  in  all 
the  various  operations  performed  on  the  farm,  sufficiently  intelligible  to  them.  Every  pupil  is  to 
be  made  a  plowman,  and  taught,  not  only  how  to  u.se,  but  how  to  settle  the  plow-irons  for  every 
soil  and  work,  and  to  be  instructed  and  made  acquainted  with  the  purpose  and  practical  manage- 
ment of  every  other  implement  generally  used.  And  all  are  to  be  kept  clo.sely  to  their  work, 
either  by  the  head  farmer  or  his  assistant,  or,  in  their  unavoidable  absence,  by  the  monitor  placed 
in  charije  of  them. 

"  2.  Their  attention  is  to  be  drawn  to  stock  of  all  kinds,  and  to  the  particular  ptoints  which  de- 
note them  to  be  good,  bad,  indifferent,  hardy,  delicate,  good  feeders,  good  milkers,  &c. 

"  3.  At  the  proper  season  of  the  year,  the  attention  of  the  boys  is  to  be  directed  to  the  making 
and  repairing  of  fences,  that  they  may  know  both  how  to  make  a  new  one,  and,  what  is  of  great 
advantatre,  how  to  repair  and  make  permanent  those  of  many  years'  standing.t 

"  4.  Tlie  head  farmer  will  deliver  evening  lectures  to  the  pupils  on  the  theorj'  and  practice  of 
Agriculture,  explaining  his  reasons  for  adopting  any  crop,  or  any  particular  rotation  of  crops,  as 
well  as  the  mo.st  suitable  soil  and  the  most  approved  modes  of  cultivating  fsr  each ;  the  proper 
management  and  treatment  of  working,  feeding,  and  dairy  stock ;  the  most  approved  breeds,  and 
their  adapt.ition  to  different  soils.  He  will  point  out  the  best  method  of  reclaiming,  draining,  and 
improving  land  ;  and  will  direct  attention  to  the  most  recent  inventions  in  agricultural  implements, 
detailing  the  respective  merits  of  each. 

"  5.  After  the  boys  have  been  taught  to  look  at  stock  on  a  farm  with  a  farmer's  eye,  the  commit- 
tee propose  that  they  should  in  rotation  attend  the  head  farmer  to  fairs  and  markets,  in  order  to 
learn  how  to  buy  and  sell  stock.  At  the  same  time,  the  committee  expect  the  head  farmer  will 
make  hfS  visits  to  fairs  as  few  ns  possible,  as  his  attention  to  the  pupils  of  the  establishment  is  al- 
ways required,  and  he  should  therefore  be  as  seldom  as  po.ssible  absent  from  Templemoyle. 

"  An  annual  examination  of  the  school  is  held  before  the  committee  and  subscribers,  and  con- 
ducted by  examiners  totiiUy  independent  of  the  school.  The  examination  is  attended  by  the  lead- 
ing gentlemen  in  the  neighborhood,  and  many  of  these  take  a  part  in  the  examination,  by  either 
asking  or  suggesting  questions — a  practice  which  is  deserving  of  recommendation,  as  adapted  to 
give  additional«'alue  and  dignity  to  the  examination. 

"Such  are  some  of  the  principal  regulations  of  the  school,  which  I  have  copied,  that  its  man- 
agement might  be  fully  understood."] 

t  This,  of  course,  applies  principally  to  live  fences,  or  hedges.    It  could  at  present  have  little  pertloency 
to  the  United  States,  where  certainly  there  is  very  little  mystery  in  making  the  fences,  and  as  little  iabor 
expended  ia  keeping  them  in  repair. 
(42) 


INSTITUTIONS  OF  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.  43 

writing,  arithmetic,  book-keeping,  mathematics,  land-surveying,  and  geog- 
raphy. This  department  is  managed  by  an  excellent  head-master,  and  as- 
sistant-master, both  resident  in  the  house.  The  pupils  are  so  classed  that 
one-half  are  receiving  their  education  in  the  house,  while  the  remainder 
are  engaged  in  the  cultivation  of  a  farm  of  165  Scotch  acres,  in  the  man- 
agement of  which  they  are  directed  by  the  head-farmer,  an  experienced 
and  clever  man,  a  native  of  Scotland,  who  has  a  skillful  plowman  under 
him.  The  pupils  who  are  employed  one  part  of  the  day  on  the  farm  are 
replaced  by  those  in  the  school,  so  that  the  education  always  advances  in 
and  out  of  doors  pari  passu.''* 

In  enumerating  the  means  of  obtaining  agricultural  knowledge  in  this 
country,  I  cannot  omit  mentioning  those  coassistant  institutions,  the  Veter- 
inary Colleges.  Their  great  object  is  to  form  a  school  of  veterinary  sci- 
ence, in  which  the  anatomical  structure  of  quadrupeds  of  all  kinds — horses, 
cattle,  sheep,  dogs,  &c. — the  diseases  to  which  they  are  subject,  and  the 
remedies  proper  to  be  applied  for  their  removal,  might  be  investigated  and 
regularly  taught ;  in  order  that,  by  this  means,  enlightened  practitioners 
of  liberal  education,  whose  sole  study  has  been  devoted  to  the  veterinary 
art  in  all  its  branches,  may  be  gradually  dispersed  over  all  the  kingdom. 
The  Veterinary  College  of  London  was  instituted  in  1791,  according  to 
the  plan  of  Mr.  Sain  Bel,  who  was  appointed  the  first  professor.  Parlia- 
mentary grants  have  been  afforded  at  times  to  aid  this  institution,  when  its 
finances  rendered  such  a  supply  essential.  It  is  supported  by  subscription. 
Every  subscriber  of  the  sum  of  c£21  is  a  member  of  the  society  for  life. — 
Subscribers  of  two  guineas  annually  are  members  for  one  year,  and  are 
equally  entitled  to  the  benefits  of  the  institution.  A  subscriber  has  the 
privilege  of  having  his  horses  admitted  into  the  infirmary,  to  be  treated, 
under  all  circumstances  of  disease,  at  3s.  6d.  per  night,  including  keep, 
medicines,  or  operations  of  whatever  nature  that  may  be  necessary ;  like- 
wise of  bringing  his  horses  to  the  college  for  the  advice  of  the  professor 
gratis,  in  cases  where  he  may  prefer  the  treatment  of  them  at  home.t— 
Until  last  year,  care  was  chiefly  bestowed  in  this  institution  on  the  horse, 
when  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  deeming  it  as  important 
for  the  promotion  of  Agriculture  to  attend  to  the  diseases  of  the  other  ani- 
mals reared  on  farms  as  well  as  the  horse,  voted  66300  a  year  out  of  their 
funds  for  that  purpose. 

The  Veterinary  College  of  Edinburgh  had  its  origin  in  the  personal  ex- 
ertions of  its  present  professor,  Mr.  William  Dick,  in  1818,  who,  after  five 
years  of  unrequited  labor,  fortunately  for  himself  and  the  progi'ess  of  the 
veterinary  science  in  Scotland,  obtained  the  patronage  of  the  Highland  and 
Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland,  who  have  afforded  him  a  small  salary 
since  1823.  Since  then  the  success  of  his  exertions  has  been  extraordi- 
nary— not  fewer  than  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  pupils  attending  the 
college  every  session,  of  whom  about  twenty  every  year,  after  at  least  two 
years'  study  of  practical  anatomy  and  medicine,  become  candidates  for  the 
diploma  of  veterinary  surgeon.  Their  qualifications  are  judged  of  after  an 
examination  by  the  most  eminent  medical  practitioners  in  Edinburgh.— 
The  students  enjoy  free  admission  to  the  lectures  on  human  anatomy  and 
physiology  in  Queen's  College,  by  the  liberality  of  its  professors.  Through 
the  influence  of  the  Highland  Society,  permission  has  been  obtained  for 
the  graduates  to  enter  as  veterinary  surgeons  into  her  Majesty's  cavalry 
regiments,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Honorable  East  India  Company. 

In  recommending  farmers  to  attend  lectures  on  veterinary  science,  it 

*  Irish  Farmer's  Magazine,  No.  51. 

t  Beauties  of  England  and  Wales,  vol.  x.  Part  IV.  p.  181. 
(43) 


44  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 


must  not  be  imagined  that  I  wish  them  to  become  veterinary  surgeons. — 
Let  every  class  of  people  adhere  to  their  own  profession.  But  there  is  no 
doubt  that  a  knowledge  of  veterinary  science  is  of  great  use  to  the  farmer, 
not  in  enabling  him  to  administer  to  the  diseased  necessities  of  his  live- 
stock— for  that  requires  more  professional  skill  and  experience  than  any 
farmer  can  attain  to,  and  is  the  proper  province  of  the  regularly  bred  ve- 
terinary surgeon — but  to  enable  him  readily  to  detect  a  disease  by  its 
symptoms,  in  order  to  apply  immediate  checks  to  its  progress  until  he  can 
communicate  with  and  inform  the  veterinary  surgeon  of  the  nature  of  the 
complaint,  whereby  he  may  bring  with  him  materials  for  treating  it  cor- 
rectly on  his  arrival.  The  death  of  a  single  animal  may  be  a  serious  loss 
to  the  farmer  ;  and  if,  by  his  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  the  veterinary 
art,  he  can  stay  the  progress  of  any  disease,  he  may  not  only  avert  the 
loss,  but  prevent  his  animal  being  much  affected  by  disease.  Disease,  even 
when  not  fatal  to  animals,  leaves  injurious  effects  on  their  constitutions  for 
a  long  time. 

With  regard  to  attending  lectures  on  Agriculture,  I  should  say,  from 
my  own  experience,  that  more  benefit  will  be  derived  from  attending  them 
after  having  acquired  a  practical  knowledge  of  husbandry  than  before ; 
because  many  of  the  details  of  fai-ming  cannot  be  comprehended,  unless 
the  descriptions  of  them  are  given  where  the  operations  themselves  can  be 
refened  to. 

Abroad  are  several  institutions  for  the  instruction  of  young  men  in  Agri- 
culture, among  which  is  the  far-famed  establishment  of  Hofwyl,  in  the  can- 
ton of  Berne,  in  Switzerland,  belonging  to  M.  de  Fellenberg.*  This  estab- 
lishment is  not  intended  so  much  for  a  school  of  Agriculture,  as  that  of 
education  and  moral  discipline.  All  the  pupils  are  obliged  to  remain  nine 
years,  at  least  until  they  attain  the  age  of  twenty-one — during  which  time 
they  undergo  a  strict  moral  discipline,  such  as  the  inculcation  of  habits  of 
industry,  frugality,  veracity,  docility,  and  mutual  kindness,  by  means  of 
good  example  rather  than  precepts,  and  chiefly  by  the  absence  of  all  bed 
example.  The  pupils  are  divided  into  the  higher  and  lower  orders,  among 
the  former  of  whom  may  be  found  members  of  the  richest  families  in  Ger- 
many, Russia,  and  Italy.  For  these  the  course  of  study  is  divided  into 
three  periods  of  three  years  each.  In  the  first,  they  study  Greek,  Grecian 
history,  and  the  knowledge  of  animals,  plants,  and  minerals  ;  in  the  second, 
Latin,  Roman  history,  and  the  geography  of  the  Roman  world ;  and,  in  the 
third,  modem  languages  and  literature,  modem  history  to  the  last  century, 
geography,  the  physical  sciences,  and  chemistry.  During  the  whole  nine 
years  they  apply  themselves  to  mathematics,  drawing,  music,  and  gymnas- 
tic exercises.  The  pupils  of  the  canton  of  Berne  only  pay  M.  de  Fellen- 
berg 45  louis  each,  and  do  not  cost  their  parents  above  100  louis  or  120 
louis  a  year.  Strangers  pay  him  125  louis,  including  board,  clothing,  wash- 
ing, and  masters. 

The  pupils  of  the  lower  orders  are  divided  into  three  classes  according 
to  their  age  and  strength.  The  first  get  a  lesson  of  half  an  hour  in  the 
morning,  then  breakfast,  and  afterward  go  to  the  farm  to  work.  They 
return  at  noon.  Dinner  takes  them  half  an  hour,  and  after  another  lesson 
of  one  hour,  they  go  again  to  work  on  the  farm  until  six  in  the  evening. 
This  is  their  summer  occupation  ;  and  in  winter  they  plait  straw  for 
chairs,  make  baskets,  saw  logs  and  split  them,  thresh  and  winnow  corn, 
grind  colors,  knit  stockings  ;    for  all  of  which  different  sorts  of  labor  an 

[*  For  a  valuable  notice  of  this  institution,  see  the  Report  of  Professor  Bache,  on  his  return 
from  Europe — having  been  sent  by  the  Girard  College,  on  a  tour  of  observation,  and  to  purchase 
a  library  (we  believe)  for  that  institution.  {Ed.  Farm.  Lib. 

(44) 


INSTITUTIONS  OF  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.  45 

adequate  salary  is  credited  to  each  boy's  class  until  they  are  ready  to 
leave  the  establishment.  Such  as  have  a  turn  for  any  of  the  trades  in  de- 
mand at  Hofwyl,  wheelwright,  carpenter,  smith,  tailor  or  shoemaker,  are 
allowed  to  apply  to  them.  Thus  the  labor  of  the  field,  their  various  sports, 
their  lessons,  their  choral  songs,  and  necessary  rest,  fill  the  whole  circle 
of  the  twenty-four  hours  ;  and  judging  from  their  open,  cheerful,  contented 
countenances,  nothing  seems  wanting  to  their  happiness. 

It  is  admitted  that,  on  leaving  the  establishment,  the  pupils  of  the  higher 
classes  are  emmently  moral  and  amiable  in  their  deportment,  that  they 
are  very  intelligent,  and  that  their  ideas  have  a  wide  range ;  and  though 
they  may  not  be  so  advanced  in  science  as  some  young  men  brought  up 
elsewhere,  they  are  as  much  so  as  becomes  liberal-minded  gentlemen, 
though  not  professors.  The  pupils  of  the  lower  classes  leave  at  the  age 
of  twenty-one,  understanding  Agriculture  better  than  any  peasants  ever 
did  before,  besides  being  practically  acquainted  with  a  trade,  and  with  a 
share  of  learning  quite  unprecedented  among  the  same  class  of  people  ; 
and  yet  as  hard-working  and  abstemious  as  any  of  them,  and  with  the 
best  moral  habits  and  principles.  It  seems  impossible  to  desire  or  ima- 
gine a  better  condition  of  peasantry. 

As  all  the  instiniction  at  this  establishment  is  conveyed  orally,  a  gi-eat 
many  teachers  are  required  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  the  pupils.  In 
1819,  there  were  thirty  professors  for  eighty  pupils.  This  entails  a  con- 
siderable expense  upon  M.  de  Fellenberg,  who  besides  extends  the  erec- 
tion of  buildings  as  he  finds  them  necessaiy.  He  is,  however,  upon  the 
whole,  no  loser  by  the  speculation.  Each  pupil  of  the  lower  orders  costs 
him  ^56  a  year  to  maintain  and  educate,  which  is  ^3  8s.  a  year  beyond 
the  value  of  his  work,  and  yet  the  investment  is  a  profitable  one,  yielding 
something  more  than  81  per  cent,  interest,  net  of  all  charges.  "  The  farm 
is  undoubtedly  benefited  by  the  institution,  which  affords  a  ready  market 
for  its  produce,  and  perhaps  by  the  low  price  at  which  the  labor  of  the 
boys  is  charged.  But  the  farm,  on  the  other  hand,  affords  regular  em- 
ployment to  the  boys,  and  also  enables  M.  de  Fellenberg  to  receive  his 
richer  pupils  at  a  lower  price  than  he  could  otherwise  do.  Hofwyl,  in 
short,  is  a  great  whole,  where  one  hundred  and  twenty  or  one  hundred 
and  thirty  pupils,  more  than  fifty  masters  and  professors,  as  many  servants, 
and  a  number  of  day-laborers,  six  or  eight  families  of  artificers  and  trades- 
men, altogether  about  three  hundred  j^ersons,  find  a  plentiful,  and  in  many 
respects  a  luxurious  subsistence,  exclusive  of  education,  out  of  a  produce 
of  one  hundred  and  seventy*  acres ;  and  a  money  income  of  .£6,000  or 
c£7,000,  reduced  more  than  half  by  salaries,  affords  a  very  considerable 
surplus  to  lay  out  in  additional  buildings."t  It  seems  that,  since  1807, 
two  convents,  one  in  the  canton  of  Fribourg,  and  the  other  in  that  of 
Thurgovie,  have  formed  establishments  analogous  to  those  of  M.  de  Fel- 
lenberg.| 

The  celebrated  German  institution  for  teaching  Agriculture  is  at 
Moeglin,  near  Frankfort  on  the  Oder.  It  is  under  the  direction  of  M.  Von 
Thaer.  There  are  three  professors  besides  himself — one  for  mathematics, 
chemistry,  and  geology  ;  one  for  veterinary  knowledge  ;  and  a  third  for 
botany  and  the  use  of  the  different  vegetable  productions  in  the  materia 
medica,  as  well  as  for  entomology.  Besides  these,  an  expex-ienced  agri- 
culturist is  engaged,  whose  office  it  is  to  point  out  to  the  pupils  the  mode 


*  This  is  the  number  of  acres  in  the  farm  as  stated  in  the  Edinburgh  Review  for  October,  1819;    but  a 
correspondent  in  Hull's  Philanthropic  Repertory  for  1832,  makes  it  250  acres, 
t  Edinburgh  Review,  No.  64. 
t  Ebel,  Manuel  du  Voyagcur  en  Suisse,  tome  ii. 
(45) 


46  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

of  applying  the  sciences  to  the  practical  business  of  Husbandry.  Such  a 
person  would  be  difficult  to  be  found  in  this  country.  The  course  com- 
mences in  September,  the  best  season,  in  my  opinion,  for  commencing  the 
learning  of  Agiiculture.  During  the  winter  months  the  time  is  occupied 
in  mathematics,  and  in  the  summer  the  geometrical  knowledge  is  practi- 
cally applied  to  the  measurement  of  land,  timber,  buildings,  and  other  ob- 
jects. The  first  principles  of  chemistry  are  unfolded.  Much  attention  is 
paid  to  the  analyzation  of  soils.  There  is  a  large  botanic  garden,  with  a 
museum  containing  models  of  implements  of  husbandry.  The  various 
implements  used  on  the  farm  are  all  made  by  smiths,  wheelwrights  and 
carpenters  residing  round  the  institution  ;  the  workshops  are  open  to  the 
pupils,  and  they  are  encouraged  by  attentive  inspection  to  become  masters 
of  the  more  minute  branches  of  the  economy  of  an  estate. 

As  the  sum  paid  by  each  pupil,  who  are  from  twenty  to  twenty-four 
years  of  age,  is  400  rix-dollars  annually  (equal  to  about  ^60  sterling,  if 
the  rix-dollar  is  of  Prussian  cunency),  and  besides  which  they  provide 
their  own  beds  and  breakfasts,  none  but  youths  of  good  fortune  can  attend 
at  Moeghn.  Each  has  a  separate  apartment.  They  are  very  well-behaved 
young  men,  and  their  conduct  to  each  other,  and  to  the  professors,  is  po- 
lite even  to  punctilio. 

The  estate  of  Moeglin  consists  of  twelve  hundred  English  acres.  About 
thirty  years  ago  it  was  given  in  charge  by  the  King  of  Prussia  to  M.  Von 
ITiaer,  who  at  that  time  was  residing  as  a  physician  at  Celle,  near  Lune- 
burg,  in  Hanover,  with  the  view  of  diffusing  agricultural  knowledge  in 
Piussia,  which  it  was  known  M.  Von  Thaer  possessed  in  an  eminent  de- 
gree, as  evinced  by  the  translations  of  numerous  agricultural  works  from 
the  English  and  French,  by  his  management  in  setting  an  example  to  the 
other  great  landed  proprietors,  and  stimulating  them  to  adopt  similar  im- 
provements. His  Majesty  also  wished  him  to  conduct  a  seminary,  in 
which  the  knowledge  of  the  sciences  might  be  applied  to  Husbandry,  for 
tho  instruction  of  the  young  men  of  the  first  families.*  When  M.  Von 
Thaer  undertook  the  management  of  this  estate,  its  rental  was  only  2,000 
rix-dollars  a  year  (dfiSOO),  and  twenty  years  ago  the  rental  had  increased 
to  12,000  rix-dollars  (dCl.SOO).  This  increased  value,  besides  the  build- 
ings erected,  has  arisen  from  the  large  flocks  of  sheep  which  in  summer 
are  folded  on  the  land,  and  in  winter  make  abundant  manure  in  houses 
const!  ucted  for  their  lodging. 

These  particulars  are  taken  from  Mr.  Jacob's  travels,  who  visited  Moe- 
glin in  1819,  and  who,  in  considering  of  the  utility  of  such  an  institution  in 
this  country,  makes  these  remarks  on  the  personal  accomplishments  of 
M.  Von  Thaer.  "  We  have  already  carried  the  division  of  labor  into  our 
Agriculture,  not  certainly  so  far  as  it  is  capable  of  being  canied,  but  much 
farther  than  is  done  in  any  other  country.  We  have  some  of  the  best 
sheep  farmers ;  of  the  best  cattle  and  horse  breeders  ;  of  the  best  hay, 
turnip,  potato,  and  com  farmers  in  the  world ;  but  we  have  perhaps  no 
one  individual  that  unites  in  his  own  person  so  much  knowledge  of  chem- 
istry, of  botany,  of  mathematics,  of  comparative  anatomy,  and  of  the  ap- 
plication of  these  various  sciences  to  all  the  practical  pui-poses  of  Agri- 
culture as  Von  Thaer  does ;  nor  is  the  want  felt,  because  we  have  num- 
bers of  individuals  who,   by   applying  to  each  branch  separately,  have 


[*  For  his  biography  and  a  general  account  of  his  writings,  and  the  whole  of  his  great  work 
on  "The  Principles  of  Agriculture,"  see  the  Farmers'  Library,  commencing  with  Num- 
ber 3,  Vol.  I.  The  whole  has  been  published,  and  may  be  had,  botmd  by  itself,  and  ought  on- 
doubtedly  to  be  a  standard  book  iu  every  school  in  the  United  States.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.\ 

(46) 


INSTITUTIONS  OF  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.  47 


reached  a  hight  of  knowledge  far  beyond  what  any  man  can  attain  who 
divides  his  attention  between  several  objects.  In  chemistry  we  have  now 
most  decidedly  the  lead.  In  all  of  botany  that  is  not  mere  nomenclature 
it  is  the  same.  In  mechanics  we  have  no  equals.  There  are  thus  abun- 
dant resources,  from  which  practical  lessons  may  be  drawn,  and  be  drawn 
to  the  gi-eatest  advantage ;  and  that  advantage  has  excited,  and  will  con- 
tinue to  excite,  many  individuals  to  draw  their  practical  lessons  for  each 
particular  branch  of  Agriculture,  from  that  particular  science  on  which  it 
depends ;  and  thus  the  whole  nation  will  become  more  benefited  by  such 
divisions  and  subdivisions  of  knowledge,  than  by  a  slight  tincture  of  all 
the  sciences  united  in  the  possession  of  some  individuals."* 

France  also  possesses  institutions  for  the  teaching  of  Agi-iculture.  The 
first  was  that  model  farm  at  Roville,  near  Nancy,  founded  by  M.  Mathieu 
de  Dombasle.t  Though  it  is  acknowledged  that  this  farm  has  done  ser- 
vice to  the  Agriculture  of  France,  its  situation  being  so  far  removed  fi-om 
the  centre  of  that  country,  its  influence  does  not  extend  with  sufficient 
rapidity.  Its  Hmited  capital  does  not  permit  the  addition  of  schools,  which 
are  considered  necessary  for  the  instruction  of  young  proprietors  who 
wish  to  manage  their  own  properties  with  advantage,  and  of  agents  capa- 
ble of  following  faithfully  the  rules  of  good  Husbandry. 

To  obviate  the  disadvantages  apparent  in  the  institution  of  Roville,  "  a 
number  of  men  distinguished  for  their  learning  and  zeal  for  the  prosperity 
of  France,  and  convinced  of  the  utility  of  the  project,  used  means  to  form 
an  association  of  the  nature  of  a  joint-stock  company,  with  500  shares  of 
1,200  francs  each,  forming  a  capital  of  600,000  francs  (c£25,000).  The 
first  half  of  this  sum  was  devoted  to  the  advancement  of  superior  culture, 
and  the  second  half  to  the  establishment  of  two  schools,  one  for  pupils 
who,  havmg  received  a  good  education,  wish  to  learn  the  theory  and  the 
application  of  Agriculture,  and  of  the  various  arts  to  which  it  is  applica- 
ble ;  and  the  other  for  children  without  fortune,  destined  to  become  la- 
borers, instructed  as  good  plowmen,  gardeners,  and  shepherds,  worthy  of 
confidence  being  placed  in  them."|  This  society  began  its  labors  in  1826 
by  purchasing  the  domain  of  Grignon,  near  Versailles,  in  the  valley  of 
Gaily,  in  the  commune  of  Thiverval,  and  appointing  M.  Bella,  a  military 
officer  who  had  gained  much  agricultural  information  from  M,  Von  Thaer 
during  two  years'  sojourn  with  his  corps  at  Celle.  M.  Bella  traveled 
through  France,  in  the  summer  of  1826,  to  ascertain  the  various  modes  of 
cultui-e  followed  in  the  different  communes.  Grignon  was  bought  in  the 
name  of  the  king,  Charles  X.  who  attached  it  to  his  domain,  and  gave  the 
society  the  title  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  for  a  period  of  forty 
years.  The  statutes  of  the  society  were  approved  of  by  royal  ordinance 
on  the  23d  May,  1827,  and  a  council  of  administration  was  named  from 
the  list  of  shareholders,  consisting  of  a  president,  two  vice-presidents,  a 
secretary,  a  treasurer,  and  directors. 

The  domain,  which  occupies  the  bottom  and  the  two  sides  of  the  valley, 
in  length  2,254  metres  (a  metre  being  equal  to  3  feet  and  Hi  lines),  is 
divided  into  two  principal  parts  ;  the  one  is  composed  of  a  park  of  290 
hectares  (387  acres),  inclosed  with  a  stone  wall,  containing  the  mansion- 
house  and  its  dependencies,  the  piece  of  water,  the  trees,  the  gardens, 
and  the  land  appropriated  to  the  farm ;  the  other,  called  the  outer  farm, 
is  composed  of  176  hectares  (234  acres),  of  uninclosed  land,  to  the  south 
of  the  park. 

•  Jacob's  Travels  in  Germany.  &c.  pp.  173-188. 
t  Annales  de  Roville. 

I  Rapport  General  sur  la  ferme  de  Grignon,  Juin,  1828,  p.  3. 
(47) 


48  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

With  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  schools  at  Grignon,  this  account  has 
been  published :  "  The  council  of  administration  being  occupied  in  the 
organization  of  regular  schools,  has  judged  that  it  would  be  convenient 
and  useful  to  open,  in  1829,  a  school  for  work-people,  into  which  to  admit 
boys  of  from  twelve  to  sixteen  years  of  age,  to  teach  them  reading, 
WTiting,  arithmetic,  and  the  primary  elements  of  the  practice  of  geometry. 
The  classes  to  meet  two  hours  every  day  in  summer,  and  four  hours  in 
winter,  the  rest  of  the  time  to  be  employed  in  manual  work.  The  fee  to 
be  300  francs  the  first  year,  200  francs  the  second,  and  100  francs  the 
third.  After  three  years  of  tuition  the  fee  to  cease,  when  an  account  is  to 
be  opened  to  ascertain  the  value  of  their  work  against  the  cost  of  their 
maintenance,  and  the  balance  to  go  to  form  a  sum  for  them  when  they 
ultimately  leave  the  institution." 

"  Meanwhile,  as  the  director  has  received  several  applications  for  the 
admission  of  young  men,  who,  having  received  a  good  education,  are  de- 
sirous of  being  instructed  in  Agi-iculture,  the  council  has  authorized  the 
conditional  admission  of  six  pupils.  But  as  there  are  yet  no  professors, 
the  pupils  who  are  at  present  at  Grignon  can  only  actually  receive  a  part 
of  the  instruction  which  it  is  intended  to  be  given.  They  every  day  re- 
ceive lessons  from  the  director  on  the  theory  of  Agriculture,  besides  les- 
sons on  the  veterinaiy  art,  and  the  elements  of  botany,  from  the  pait  of 
the  veterinary  school  attached  to  the  establishment ;  also  lessons  of  the 
art  of  managing  trees  and  making  plantations,  given  by  a  forester  of  the 
crown  forests,  and  some  notions  of  gardening  by  the  gardener.  During 
the  rest  of  the  time,  they  follow  the  agricultural  labors  and  other  opera- 
tions of  the  establishment.  They  pay  100  francs  a  month,  including  bed, 
board,  and  washing. 

"  Several  proprietors  who  occupy  farms,  having  expressed  a  desire  to 
see  young  fann-servants  taught  the  use  of  superior  implements,  and  the 
regular  service  on  a  farm,  the  director  has  admitted  a  few,  lessening  the 
fee  to  the  payment  of  board  and  lodging.  There  are  two  just  now.  To 
such  are  given  the  name  of '  farm  pupils.'  "* 

The  course  of  education  proposed  to  be  adopted  at  Grignon,  is  divided 
into  theoretical  and  practical.  The  course  to  continue  for  two  years.  In 
the  first  year  to  be  taught  mathematics,  topogi'aphy,  physics,  chemistry, 
botany  and  botanical  physiology,  veterinary  science,  the  principles  of  cul- 
ture, the  principles  of  niral  economy  applied  to  the  employment  of  capi- 
tal, and  the  interior  administration  of  farms.  The  second  year  to  compre- 
hend the  principles  of  culture  in  the  special  application  to  the  art  of  pro- 
ducing and  using  products ;  the  mathematics  applied  to  mechanics, 
hydraulics,  and  astronomy  ;  physics  and  chemistry  applied  to  the  analysis 
of  various  objects  ;  mineralogy  and  geology  applied  to  Agriculture  ;  gar- 
dening, rural  ai'chitecture,  legislation  in  reference  to  rural  properties,  and 
the  principles  of  health  as  applicable  both  to  man  and  beast. 

There  are  two  classes  of  pupils,  free  and  internal.  Any  one  may  be 
admitted  a  free  pupil  that  has  not  attained  twenty  years  of  age,  and  every 
free  pupil  to  have  a  private  chamber.  The  pupils  of  the  interior  must  be 
at  least  fifteen  years  of  age. 

The  fee  of  the  free  pupils  is  1,500  francs  a  year;  that  of  the  pupils  of 
the  interior  1,300  francs.  They  are  lodged  in  the  dormitories  in  box-beds ; 
those  who  desire  private  apartments  pay  300  francs  more,  exclusive  of 
furniture,  which  is  at  the  cost  of  the  pupils,t 

There  is  an  agricultural  school  at  Hohenheim,  in  the  Duchy  of  Wir- 

*  Annalee  de  Grignon,  2tl  livraison,  1829,  p.  48. 
t  Annalea  dc  Grignon,  3d  livraison,  1830,  p.  108. 

(48; 


EVILS  OF  NOT   LEARJIING  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.  49 

temberg,  and  another  at  Flottbeck  in  Flanders,  belongintr  to  M.  Voeht 
An  account  of  both  these  institutions  is  given  by  M.  Bella,  in  the  third 
number  of  the  Annales  of  Grignon.  There  are,  I  understand,  schools  of 
Agriculture,  both  in  St.  Petersbui'g  and  Moscow,  but  have  not  been  so 
fortunate  as  to  meet  with  any  account  of  them. 

It  appears  to  me  from  the  best  consideration  I  can  give  to  the  manner 
m  which  Agi-iculture  is  taught  at  these  schools,  that  as  means  of  impart- 
ing real  practical  knowledge  to  pupils,  they  are  inferior  to  the  usual  mode 
adopted  in  this  country,  of  living  with  farmers.  In  reference  to  the  re- 
sults of  the  education  obtained  at  Moeglin,  Mr.  Jacob  says  :  "  It  appeared 
to  me  that  there  was  an  attempt  to  crowd  too  much  instruction  into  too  short 
a  compass,  for  many  of  the  pupils  spend  but  one  year  in  the  institution,  and 
thus  only  the  foundation,  and  that  a  veiy  slight  one,  can  be  laid  in  so  short 
a  space  of  time.  It  is,  however,  to  be  presumed,  that  the  youno-  men  come 
here  prepared  with  considerable  previous  knowledge,  as"  they  are  mostly 
between  the  ages  of  twenty  and  twenty-four,  and  some  few  appeared  to  be 
still  older."*  ^ 

Although  the  pupils  are  kept  at  Hofwyl  for  nine  years,  and  are  fined  if 
they  leave  it  sooner,  it  is  obvious  that  the  higher  class  of  them  bestow  but 
little  attention  on  farming,  and  most  on  classical  literature.  And  the  par- 
ticulars given  in  the  elaborate  programme  of  the  school  of  Aoriculture  at 
Grignon,  clearly  e-s-ince  that  attention  to  minute  discipline,  such  as  mark- 
ing dowTi  results,  and  to  what  are  termed  principles,  which  just  mean 
vague  theorizings,  form  a  more  important  feature  of  tuition  than  the  prac- 
tice of  husbandry.  The  working  pupils  may  acquii-e  some  knowledo-e  of 
practice  by  dint  of  participating  in  Avork,  but  the  other  class  can  derive 
very  little  benefit  from  all  the  practice  they  see. 


7.    OF  THE    EVILS  ATTENDANT  ON    LANDOWNERS  NEGLECTING  TO 
LEARN  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE. 

" leaving  me  no  sign — 

Save  men's  oprinions,  and  my  living  blood — 
To  show  the  world  I  am  a  gentleman." 

RiCHABD  II. 

There  would  be  no  want  of  pupils  of  the  highest  class  for  institutions 
such  as  I  have  recommended  for  promoting  agricultural  education,  did 
landed  proprietors  study  their  true  interests,  and  learn  practical  Agricul- 
ture. Besides  the  usual  succession  of  young  fanners  to  fill  the  places  of 
those  who  retire,  and  these  of  themselves  would  afford  the  largest  propor- 
tion of  the  pupils,  were  every  son  of  a  landowner,  who  has  the  most  dis- 
tant prospect  of  being  a  landed  proprietor  himself,  to  become  an  agricul- 
tural pupil,  in  order  to  qualify  himself  to  fulfill  all  the  onerous  duties  of 
his  station,  when  required  to  occupy  that  important  position  in  the  coun- 
try, that  class  of  pupils  would  not  only  be  raised  in  respectability,  but  the 
character  of  landed  proprietors,  as  agriculturists,  would  also  be  much  ele- 
vated. The  expectant  landlord  should  therefore  undergo  that  tuition, 
though  he  may  intend  to  follow,  or  may  have  already  followed,  any  other 
profession.  The  camp  and  the  bar  seem  to  be  the  especially  favorite  arenas 
upon  which  the  young  scions  of  the  gentry  are  desirous  of  displaying  their 

*  Jacob's  Travels  in  Gennany,  &c.  p.  185. 
(97) 4 


50  THE  BOOK  OF  TI^  FARM. 

first  acquirements.*  These  professions  are  highly  honorable,  none  more 
so,  and  they  are,  no  doubt,  conducive  to  the  formation  of  the  character  of 
the  gentleman;  but,  after  all,  are  seldom  followed  out  by  the  young 
squire.  The  moment  he  attains  rank  above  a  subaltern,  or  dons  his  gown 
and  wig,  he  quits  the  public  service,  and  assumes  the  functions  of  an  in- 
cipient country  gentleman.  In  the  country  he  becomes  at  first  enamored 
of  field  sports,  and  the  social  qualities  of  sportsmen.  Should  these  prove 
too  rough  for  his  taste,  he  travels  abroad  peradventure  in  search  of  sights, 
or  to  penetrate  more  deeply  into  the  human  breast.  Now,  all  the  while 
he  is  pursuing  this  course  of  life,  quite  unexceptionable  in  itself,  he  is 
neglecting  a  most  important  part  of  his  duty — that  of  learning  to  become 
a  good  landlord.  On  the  other  hand,  though  he  devote  himself  to  the 
profession  of  arms  or  the  the  law,  either  of  which  may  confer  distinction 
on  its  votaries ;  yet  if  either  be  prefeiTod  by  him  to  Agriculture,  he  is 
doino-  much  to  unfit  himself  from  being  an  influential  landlord.  To  be- 
come a  soldier  or  a  lawyer,  he  willingly  undergoes  initiatory  drillings  and 
examinations  ;  but,  to  become  a  landlord,  he  considers  it  quite  unneces- 
sary, to  judge  by  his  conduct,  to  undergo  any  initiatory  tuition.  That  is 
a  business,  he  conceives,  that  can  be  learaed  at  any  time,  and  seems  to 
forget  that  it  is  his  profession,  and  does  not  consider  that  it  is  one  as  diffi- 
cult of  thorough  attainment  as  ordinary  soldiership  or  legal  lore.  No  doubt 
the  army  is  an  excellent  school  for  confirming,  in  the  young,  principles  of 
honor  and  habits  of  discipline  ;  and  the  bar  for  giving  clear  insight  into 
the  principles  upon  which  the  rights  of  property  are  based,  and  into  the 
time  theory  of  the  relation  betwixt  landlord  and  tenant ;  but  while  these 
matters  may  be  attained,  a  knowledge  of  Agriculture,  the  weightiest  mat- 
ter to  a  landlord,  should  not  be  neglected.  The  laws  of  honor  and  discip- 
line are  now  well  understood,  and  no  army  is  required  to  inculcate  their 
acceptableness  on  good  society.  A  knowledge  of  law,  to  be  made  appli- 
cable to  the  occurrences  of  a  country  life,  must  be  matured  by  long  expe- 
rience ;  for,  perhaps,  no  sort  of  knowledge  is  so  apt  to  render  landed  pro- 
prietors litigious   and  uncompromising  with  their  tenants  as  a  smattering 

[*  So  is  it  in  the  United  States;  and  who  can  wonder  at  it,  seeing  that  the  bar  and  the  habit 
of  public  speaking  acquired  at  it  open  the  broadest  and  easiest  road  to  public  distinction,  while 
the  military  is  almost  the  only  life  commission  bestowed  by  the  Government.  Having  once 
received  that,  the  ofBcer  is  placed  for  the  remainder  of  his  daj-s  beyond  the  reach  of  political 
vicissitude.  Even  his  education  has  been  at  the  public  expense,  and  having  once  received  his 
sword,  he  has  only  to  keep  his  head  above  ground  and  he  is  sure  of  promotion  and  of  increased 
pay.  Courage  in  the  line  of  his  profession  is,  properly,  sure  of  honors  and  rewards ;  while  the 
same  virtue  in  civil  life  offers  no  immunity  against  proscription  and  party  despotism.  All  liberty 
of  thought  is  deemed  to  be  incompatible  with  party  loyalty.  This  preference  and  elevation  of 
the  military  over  civil  virtues  is  but  a  sei-A'ile  prejudice  derived  from  despotic  Governments, 
where  rulers,  cut  off  from  sympathy  with  and  dependence  on  the  people,  have  to  rely  on  the 
military  arm  for  support  on  all  occasions  of  popular  commotion  and  outbreak  under  irremediable 
oppression.  Nor  will  civil  virtues  and  the  capacity  to  promote  the  substantial  interesfts  of  the 
people  enjoy  that  eminence  in  the  public  esteem,  and  that  encouragement  and  reward  which  it 
should  be  the  care  of  a  republican  government  to  bestow,  until  the  mass  of  the  cultivators  of  the 
soil  become  more  generally  and  thoroughly  instructed,  not  only  in  the  practical  principles  of 
their  calling,  but  in  the  preference  which  they  have  a  right  to  assert  as  due  from  Government  to 
the  landed  interest — an  interest  on  which  all  others  live,  and  without  which  they  would  all 
dwindle  and  perish,  as  does  the  misletoe  when  the  oak  on  which  it  grows  falls  under  the  strokes 
of  the  woodman's  ax. 

When  will  agriculturists  force  a  system  of  legislation  in  which  honor  shall  be  rendered  to  the 
men  of  the  co7/K/r_y  for  talents  and  civil  \nrtue9;    and  miiitarj- and  other  parasitical  institutions 
and  classes  be  reluctantly  tolerated  and  supported  as  necessary  evils,  or  at  least  as  mere  append- 
ages in  the  great  machinery  of  Government  ? 
(98) 


EVILS  OF  NOT  LEARNING  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.    51 

of  law.  Instances  have  come  under  my  own  notice,  of  the  injurious  pro- 
pensities which  a  shght  acquaintance  with  law  engenders  in  landed  pro- 
prietors, as  exhibited  on  their  own  estates,  and  at  county  and  parochial 
meetings.  No  class  of  persons  require  Pope's  admonition  regarding  the 
evil  tendency  of  a  "  little  learning "  to  be  more  strongly  inculcated  on 
them,  than  the  young  hamster  who  doffs  his  legal  garments,  to  assume  in 
ignorance  the  part  of  the  country  squire : 

"A  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing ! 
Brink  deep,  or  taste  not  the  Pierian  spring ; 
There  shallow  draughts  intoxicate  the  brain." 

I  do  not  assert  that  a  knowledge  of  military  tactics,  or  of  law,  is  incon- 
sistent with  Agriculture.  On  the  contrary,  a  competent  knowledge  of  ei- 
ther, and  particularly  of  the  latter,  confers  a  value  on  the  character  of  a 
country  gentleman  versant  with  Agriculture  ;  but  what  I  do  assert  most 
strongly  is,  that  the  most  intimate  acquaintance  with  either  will  never 
ser\-e  as  a  substitute  for  ignorance  of  Agriculture  in  a  country  gentleman. 

One  evil  arising  from  studying  those  exciting  professions  before  Agri- 
culture is,  that,  however  short  the  time  spent  in  acquiring  them,  it  is  suf- 
ficiently long  to  create  a  distaste  to  learning  Agriculture  practically,  for 
such  a  task  can  only  be  undertaken,  after  the  turn  of  life,  by  enthusiastic 
minds.  But  as  farming  is  necessarily  tJie  profession  of  the  country  gentle- 
man, for  all  have  a  farm,  it  should  be  learned,  theoretically  and  practically, 
before  his  education  should  be  considered  finished.  If  he  so  incline,  he 
can  aftex'ward  enter  the  tented  field,  or  exercise  his  forensic  eloquence, 
when  the  tendency  which  I  have  noticed  in  these  professions  will  be  una- 
ble to  efface  the  knowledge  of  Agriculture  previously  acquired.  This  is 
the  proper  course  for  every  young  man  destined  to  become  a  landed  pro- 
prietor to  pursue,  and  who  ^vishes  to  be  otherwise  employed  as  long  as 
he  cannot  exercise  the  functions  of  a  landlord.  Were  this  course  always 
pursued,  the  numerous  engaging  ties  which  a  country  life  never  fails  to 
form,  rendered  more  interesting  by  a  knowledge  of  Agriculture,  would 
tend  to  extinguish  the  kindling  desire  for  any  other  profession.  Such  a 
result  would  be  most  desirable  for  the  country  ;  for  only  contemplate  the 
effects  of  the  course  pursued  at  present  by  landowners.  Does  it  not  strike 
every  one  as  an  incongi-uity  for  a  country  gentleman  to  be  unacquainted 
with  country  affairs  ]  Is  it  not  "  passing  strange  "  that  he  should  require 
inducements  to  learn  his  hereditary  profession — to  know  a  business  which 
alone  can  enable  him  to  maintain  the  value  of  his  estate,  and  secure  his 
income  ]  Does  it  not  infer  a  species  of  infatuation  to  neglect  becoming 
well  acquainted  with  the  true  relation  he  stands  to  his  tenants,  and  by 
which,  if  he  did,  he  might  confer  happiness  on  many  families ;  but  to 
%'iolate  which,  he  might  entail  lasting  misery  on  many  more  1  In  this  way 
the  moral  obligations  of  the  country  gentleman  are  too  fi-equently  neglect- 
ed. And  no  wonder,  for  these  cannot  be  pei-fectly  understood,  or  prac- 
ticed aright  but  by  tuition  in  early  life,  or  by  veiy  diligent  and  irksome 
study  in  maturer  years.  And  no  wonder  that  great  professional  mistakes 
are  frequently  committed  by  proprietors  of  land.  Descending  from  gen- 
eralities to  particulars,  it  would  be  no  easy  task  to  describe  all  the  evils 
attendant  on  the  neglect  of  farming  by  landowners ;  for  though  some  are 
obvious  enough,  others  can  only  be  morally  discerned. 

1.  One  of  the  most  obvious  of  those  evils  is,  when  country  gentlemen 
take  a  prominent  share  in  discussions  on  public  measures  connected  with 
Agriculture,  and  which,  fi-om  the  position  they  occupy,  they  are  frequently 
called  upon  to  do,  it  may  be  remarked  that  their  speeches  are  usually  in- 
troduced with  apologies  for  not  having  sufficiently  attended  to  agricultural 

(99) 


52  THE  BOOK  OF  THE   FaRM. 

matters.  The  avowal  is  candid,  but  it  is  any  thing  but  creditable  to  the 
position  they  hold  in  the  agricultural  commonwealth.  When,  moreover, 
it  is  their  lot  or  ambition  to  be  elected  members  of  the  legislature,  it  is 
deplorable  to  find  so  many  so  little  acquainted  with  the  questions  which 
bear  directly  or  indirectly  on  Agricultui-e.  On  these  accounts,  the  ten- 
antry are  left  to  fight  their  own  battles  on  public  questions.  Were  land- 
owners practically  acquainted  with  Agriculture,  such  painful  avowals 
would  be  spared,  as  a  familiar  accjuaintance  with  it  enables  the  man  of 
cultivated  mind  at  once  to  perceive  its  practical  bearing  on  most  public 
questions. 

2.  A  still  greater  evil  consists  in  their  consigning  the  management  of 
valuable  estates  to  the  care  of  men  as  little  acquainted  as  themselves  with 
practical  Agriculture.  A  factor  or  agent,  in  such  a  condition,  always  af- 
fects much  zeal  for  the  interest  of  his  employer ;  but  it  is  "  a  zeal  not 
accordino-  to  knowledge."  Fired  by  this  zeal,  and  undirected,  as  it  most 
probably  is,  by  sound  judgment,  he  soon  discovers  something  at  fault 
amono-  the  poorer  tenants.  The  rent,  perhaps,  is  somewhat  in  aiTear — the 
strict  terms  of  the  lease  have  been  deviated  from — things  appear  to  him 
to  be  going  down  hill.  These  are  fruitful  topics  of  contention.  Instead  of 
being  "  kindly  affectioned,"  and  thereby  willing  to  interpret  the  terms  of 
the  lease  in  a  generous  spirit,  the  factor  hints  that  the  rent  must  be  better 
secured,  through  the  means  of  another  tenant.  Explanation  of  circum- 
stances affecting  the  condition  of  the  farmer,  over  which  he  has  perhaps 
no  control — the  inapplicability,  perhaps,  of  the  peculiar  covenants  of  the 
lease  to  the  particular  circumstances  of  the  fann — the  lease  having  per- 
haps been  drawn  up  by  himself,  or  some  one  as  ignorant  as  himself — are 
excuses  unavailingly  ofl'ered  to  one  who  is  confessedly  unacquainted  with 
country  aft'airs,  and  the  result  ensues  in  interminable  disputes  betwixt  him 
and  the  tenants.  With  these  the  landlord  is  t/nwilling  to  interfere,  in  or- 
der to  preserve  intact  the  authority  of  the  factor;  or,  what  is  still  worse, 
is  unahle  to  interfere,  because  of  his  own  unacquaintance  with  the  actual 
relations  subsisting  betwixt  himself  and  his  tenants,  and,  of  course,  the 
settlement  is  left  with  the  originator  of  the  disputes.  Hence  originate 
actions  at  law,  criminations  and  recriminations — much  alienation  of  feel- 
ing ;  and  at  length  a  settlement  of  matters,  at  best,  perhaps,  unimportant, 
ia  left  to  the  arbitration  of  practical  men,  in  making  which  submission  the 
factor  acknowledges  as  much  as  he  himself  was  unable  to  settle  the  dis- 
pute. The  tenants  are  glad  to  submit  to  arbitration  to  save  their  money. 
In  all  such  disputes  they,  being  the  weaker  parties,  suffer  most  in  purse 
and  character.  The  landlord,  who  should  have  been  the  natural  pi'otector, 
is  thus  converted  into  the  imconscious  oppressor,  of  his  tenants.  This  is 
confessedly  an  instance  of  a  bad  factor ;  but  have  such  instances  of  op- 
pression never  occurred,  and  from  the  same  cause,  that  of  ignorance  in 
both  landlord  and  factor  ] 

A  factor  accjuainted  with  practical  Agriculture  would  conduct  himself 
very  differently  in  the  same  circumstances.  He  would  endeavor  to  pre- 
vent legitimate  differences  of  opinion  on  points  of  management  terminat- 
ing into  disputes,  by  skillful  investigation  and  well-timed  compromise. — 
He  studies  to  uphold  the  honor  of  both  landlord  and  tenants.  He  can  see 
whether  the  terms  of  the  lease  are  strictly  applicable  to  prevailing  circum- 
stances, and  judging  thereby,  checks  every  improper  deviation  from  ap- 
propriate covenants,  while  he  makes  ample  allowance  for  unforeseen  con- 
tingencies. He  can  discover  whether  the  condition  of  the  tenants  is  in- 
fluenced more  by  their  own  doings,  than  by  the  nature  of  the  fanns  they 
occupy.     He  regulates  his  conduct  toward  them   accordingly ;  encour- 

(100) 


EVILS   OF  NOT  LEARNING  PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE.  53 

aging  the  industrious  and  skillful,  admonishing  the  indolent,  and  amend- 
ing the  unfavorable  circumstances  of  the  farms.  Such  a  man  is  highly 
respected,  and  his  opinion  and  judgment  are  greatly  confided  in  by  the 
tenantry.  Mutual  kindliness  of  intercourse  always  subsists  between  them. 
No  landlord,  whether  himself  acquainted  or  unacquainted  with  farming, 
but  especially  the  latter,  should  confide  the  management  of  his  estate  to 
any  other  kind  of  factor. 

3.  Another  obvious  evil  is  one  which  affects  the  landed  proprietor's  own 
comfort  and  interest,  and  which  is  the  selection  of  a  steward  or  grieve  for 
conducting  the  home-farm.  In  all  cases  it  is  necessary  for  a  landowner 
to  have  a  home-farm,  and  to  have  a  steward  to  conduct  it.  But  the  stew- 
ard of  a  squire,  acquainted  and  unacquainted  with  farming,  is  placed  in 
very  dissimilar  circumstances.  The  steward  of  a  squire  acquainted  with 
farming,  enjoying  good  wages,  and  holding  a  respectable  and  responsible 
situation,  must  conduct  himself  as  an  honest  and  skillful  manager,  for  he 
knows  he  is  superintended  by  one  who  can  criticize  his  management  well. 
A  steward  in  the  other  position  alluded  to,  must  necessarily  have,  and 
will  soon  take  care  to  have,  everything  his  own  way.  He  soon  becomes 
proud  in  his  new  charge,  because  he  is  in  the  service  of  a  squire.  He  soon 
displays  a  haughty  bearing,  because  he  knows  he  is  the  only  person  on 
the  farm  who  knows  anything  about  his  business.  He  becomes  overbear- 
ing to  the  rest  of  the  servants,  because,  in  virtue  of  his  office,  he  is  ap- 
pointed purveyor  to  the  entire  establishment  ;  and  he  knows  he  can  starve 
the  garrison  into  a  surrender  whenever  he  pleases.  He  domineers  over 
the  inferior  work-people,  because,  dispensing  weekly  wages,  he  is  the  cus- 
todier of  a  little  cash.  Thus  advancing  in  his  own  estimation  step  by  step, 
and  finding  the  most  implicit  reliance  placed  in  him  by  his  master,  who 
considers  his  services  as  invaluable,  the  temptations  of  office  prove  too 
powerful  for  his  virtue,  he  aggi'andizes  himself,  and  conceals  his  malprac- 
tices by  deception.  At  length  his  peculations  are  detected,  by  perhaps 
some  trivial  event,  the  insignificance  of  which  had  escaped  his  watchful- 
ness. Then  loss  of  character  and  loss  of  place  overtake  him  at  once. — 
Such  flagrant  instances  of  unworthy  factors  and  stewai'ds  of  country  gen- 
tlemen, are  not  supposititious.  I  could  specify  instances  of  both,  whose 
mismanagment  has  come  under  my  own  observation.  Both  species  of 
pests  are  engendered  from  the  same  cause — the  ignorance  of  landowners 
in  country  affairs.* 

4.  Another  injurious  effect  it  produces  is  absenteeism.  When  farming 
possesses  no  charms  to  the  country  gentleman,  and  field-sports  become 
irksome  by  monotonous  repetition,  his  taste  for  a  country  life  declines, 
and  to  escape  ennui  at  home,  he  banishes  himself  abroad.  If  such  luke- 
warm landed  proprietors,  when  they  go  abroad,  would  always  confide  the 
management  of  their  estates  to  unexceptionable  factors,  their  absence 
would  be  little  felt  by  the  tenants,  who  would  proceed  with  the  substan- 
tial improvement  of  their  farms  with  greater  zest  under  the  countenance 
of  a  sensible  factor,  than  of  a  landlord  who  contemns  a  knowledge  of  Ag- 
riculture. But  it  must  be  admitted  that  tenants  farm  with  much  greater 
confidence  under  a  landlord  acquainted  with  farming,  who  is  always  at 
home,  than  under  the  most  unexceptionable  factor.  The  disadvantages  of 
absenteeism  ai'e  only  felt  by  tenants  left  in  charge  of  a  litigious  factor,  and 


[*  With  obvious  allowance  for  difference  of  circumstances,  some  of  these  remarks  may  be  made 
to  apply  to  gentlemen,  more  especially  in  the  South,  who  devolve  their  affairs  too  much  on  their 
managers  or  overseers ;  and  to  merchants,  and  other  gentlemen  of  fortune,  yvho  cannot  reside 
•hrough  the  year  on  their  estates.  Ed.  Farm.  Lih\ 

(101) 


54  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

it  is  always  severely  felt  by  day-laborers,  tradesmen,  and  shop-keepers  in 
villages  and  small  country  towns. 

Now,  all  these  evils — for  evils  they  certainly  are — and  many  more  I 
have  not  touched  upon,  would  be  avoided,  if  landowners  would  make  it 
a  point  to  acquiie  a  knowledge  of  practical  Agriculture.  This  can  best 
be  done  in  youth,  when  it  should  be  studied  as  a  necessary  branch  of  edu- 
cation, and  learned  as  the  most  useful  business  which  country  gentlemen 
can  know.  It  will  qualify  them  to  appoint  competent  factors — to  deter- 
mine upon  the  terms  of  the  lease  most  suited  to  the  nature  of  each  of  the 
farms  on  their  properties,  and  to  select  the  fittest  tenants  for  them.  This 
qualification  could  not  fail  to  inspire  in  tenants  confidence  in  their  land- 
lords, by  which  they  will  be  encouraged  to  cultivate  their  farms  in  the 
best  manner  for  the  land  and  for  themselves,  in  even  the  most  trj'ing  vi- 
cissitudes of  seasons  ;  and  without  which  confidence  the  land,  especially 
on  estates  on  which  no  leases  are  gianted,  would  never  be  cultivated  with 
spirit.  It  confers  on  landlords  the  power  to  judge  for  themselves  of  the 
proper  fulfillment  of  the  onerous  and  multifarious  duties  of  a  factor.  It 
enables  them  to  converse  freely  in  technical  terms  with  their  tenants  on 
the  usual  courses  of  practice,  to  criticize  work,  and  to  predicate  the  prob- 
ability of  success  or  failure  of  any  proposed  course  of  culture.  The  re- 
proving or  appro\"ing  remarks  of  such  landlords  operate  powerfi.illy  w  ith 
tenants.  How  many  useful  hints  is  it  all  times  in  the  power  of  such  land- 
lords to  suggest  to  their  tenants  or  managers,  on  skillfulness,  economy, 
and  neatness  of  work  ;  and  how  many  salutary  precepts  may  they  incul- 
cate on  cottagers,  on  the  beneficial  effects  of  parental  discipline  and  do- 
mestic cleanliness  !  The  degiee  of  good  which  the  direct  moral  influence 
of  such  landlords  among  their  tenantry  can  effect,  can  scarcely  be  over  es- 
timated ;  its  primaiy  effect  being  to  ensure  respect,  and  create  regard. — 
The  good  opinion,  too,  of  a  judicious  factor  is  highly  estimated  by  the  ten- 
antry ;  but  the  discriminating  observations  of  a  practical  and  well-dis- 
posed landlord  go  much  farther  in  inducing  tenants  to  maintain  their 
farms  in  the  highest  order,  and  to  cherish  a  desire  to  remain  on  them  from 
generation  to  generation.  Were  all  landlords  so  actuated — and  acquaint- 
ance with  farming  would  certainly  prompt  them  thus  to  act — they  could 
at  all  times  command  the  serxaces  of  superior  factors  and  skillful  tenants. 

They  would  then  find  there  is  not  a  more  pleasing,  rational,  and  inter- 
esting study  than  practical  Agriculture  ;  and  soon  discover  that  to  know 
the  minutiae  of  farming  is  just  to  create  an  increasing  interest  in  every 
farm  operation.  In  applying  this  knowledge  to  practice,  they  would  soon 
find  it  to  operate  beneficially  for  their  estates,  by  the  removal  of  objects 
which  offend  the  eye  or  taste,  and  the  introduction  of  others  that  would 
afford  shelter,  promote  improvement,  and  contribute  to  the  beauty  of  the 
landscape  of  the  country  around. 

These  maxims  of  Bacon  seem  not  an  inapt  conclusion  to  our  present 
remarks  :  "  He  that  cannot  look  into  his  own  estate  at  all,  had  need  both 
choose  well  those  whom  he  employeth,  and  change  them  often,  for  new 
are  more  timorous  and  less  subtle.  He  that  can  look  into  his  estate  but 
seldom,  it  behoveth  him  to  turn  all  to  cei'tainties."*     [Essays,  p.  106.] 

[•  It  has  doabtless  already  occurred  to  the  reader  that  some  of  the  preceding  observations  do 
not  apply  to  our  oountrj',  but  where  they  are  not  exactly  applicable,  they  are  mixed  up  with 
others  that  may  be  applied,  or  from  which  hints  may  be  drawn.  In  republishing  an  author,  we 
should  remember  the  anecdote  told  by  Doctor  Franklin  when  Members  of  Congress  were  pick- 
ing holes  in  the  Declaration  of  Independence— how  a  party  from  the  country  criticized  a  hatter's 
sign  with  the  picture  of  a  hat.  and  under  it,  "  Hals  sold  here  for  cash,  hy  John  Smith."  One 
said  the  ^ign  showed  it  was  hats,  and  nothing  else  ;  another,  that  it  was  useless  to  say  sold,  be- 
(102) 


EXPERIMENTAL  FARMS  AS  PLACES  FOR  INSTRUCTION.    55 


8.  EXPERIMENTAL  FARMS  AS  PLACES  FOR  INSTRUCTION  IN 

FARMING. 

"  Things  done  without  example,  in  their  issue 
Are  to  be  feared."  Uenrx  vm. 

It  seems  to  be  a  favorite  notion  with  some  writers  on  agricultural  sub- 
iects  throf  all  places  for  learning  farming,  experimental  farms  are  the 
ies    '   They  even  Recommend  the  formation  of  experimental  farms   wi  h 

lu'lZe-alar^eet^ghextent^for  an  experimental  farm,  and  that  on 
such  a  farm  100  pupils^ould  be  trained  to  become  farmers,  stewards  and 

^^TTery  slic^ht  consideration  of  the  nature  of  an  experimental  farm,  ^rill 
se^e  to  show  how  unsuitable  such  a  place  is  for  learmng  farming  The 
soil  obiect  of  an  experimental  farm  is,  to  become  acquainted  with  the  best 
nroper  ies  of  plants^  and  animals  by  experiment,  and  thereby  to  ascertain 
^X^niose  Wrties  are  such  ^  ^^  VorrtrsTat^t,'^^^^^^^ 
tXrUrintraXeH^n^^^^^^^^^ 

r;Pvrd  plan  'of  cultivating  each  sort  of  plant^  To  confound  the  -nd  oj 
a  becrinnei  bv  presenting  before  it  various  modes  of  doing  the  same  tlim 
withourth'e  abihty  to  inform  it  which  is  the  best,  is  to  do  him  a  lasting 
^  m-v  Were  a  pupil,  who  had  been  trained  up  on  an  ordinary  farm,  to 
hSpportunities'of  witnessing  varieties  of  experiments  conducted  on  aia 
exrerEtaTfarxn,  he  might  Then  derive  benefit  from  numerous  hmt 
Xh  would  be  suggested  in  the  course  of  making  the  experiments  But 
J  Zp's  wouid  be^^unfavorably  placed  on  an  experimental  farm,  by  re- 
ISg  constantly  on  it,  much  more  would  the  farm  itself  be  -jured^^by 
havincrlts  experiments  perfox-med  by  mexpenenced  pupils.^  So  far  ftom 
pupifs  being'able  to  conduct  experiments  to  a  satisfactory  issue,  the  most 

dons  will  apply  to  other  sections  of  the  work,  though  they  may  not  be  repeated^^  ^^^^  ^  .^  ^ 


(103) 


56  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

experienced  cultivators  are  at  times  baffled  by  unforeseen  difficulties  ;  and 
so  far  would  such  experiments  inspire  confidence  in  farmers,  that  they 
would  assuredly  have  quite  an  opposite  tendency.  So  far,  therefore, 
would  the  services  of  pupils  in  any  degree  compensate  for  the  extraor- 
dinary outlay  occasioned  on  experimental  farms,  by  unsuccessful  or  un- 
profitable experiments,  that  even  those  of  the  most  experienced  culti- 
vators would  most  probably  produce  no  such  desirable  result ;  for  no 
experimenter  can  command  success,  and  failure  necessarily  implies  extra- 
ordinary outlay.  So  far,  therefore,  could  the  services  of  pupils  accom- 
plish what  those  of  experienced  cultivatoi's  could  not  command,  that  their 
very  presence  on  an  experimental  farm,  with  the  right  of  cooperating  in 
the  experiments,  would  be  a  constant  source  of  inconvenience  to  the  ex- 
perienced experimenters. 

But,  besides  these  objections,  the  mode  of  conducting  experiments  on 
60  small  farms  as  those  recommended  by  most  wTiters,  would  be  quite  un- 
suitable to  pupils  desirous  of  learning  farming.  Where  varieties  of  cul- 
ture on  various  sorts  of  plants  are  prosecuted  on  a  small  extent  of  ground, 
only  a  very  small  space  can  be  allotted  to  each  experiment.  It  is  true 
that,  should  any  of  the  varieties  of  plants  be  new  to  this  country-,  the  seed 
of  which  at  first  being  of  course  only  obtainable  in  small  quantities,  to 
procure  such  being  a  primary  object  with  the  promoters  of  experimental 
farms  the  space  required  for  them  at  first  must  be  verj'  small.  But 
although  each  lot  of  ground  should  be  small,  the  great  varieties  of  seeds 
cultivated  in  so  many  different  ways,  will  nevertheless  require  a  great 
number  of  lots,  which  altogether  will  cover  a  considerable  extent  of 
ground.  How  all  these  lots  are  to  be  apportioned  on  200  acres,  together 
with  ground  for  experimenting  on  different  breeds  of  animals,  and  differ- 
ent kinds  of  forest  trees,  is  more  than  I  can  imagine.  It  would  require 
more  than  double  that  extent  of  ground  to  give  mere  standing-room  to  all 
the  objects  that  should  be  cultivated  on  an  experimental  farm,  and  over 
and  above  which,  100  pupils  on  such  a  farm  would  form  a  perfect  crowd. 
Besides,  the  lots  being  so  small,  would  require  to  be  worked  with  the 
spade  instead  of  the  plow  ;  and  this  being  the  case,  let  the  experiments 
on  such  a  farm  be  ever  so  perfectly  performed,  they  could  give  pmpils  no 
insight  whatever  into  real  farming,  much  less  secure  the  confidence  of 
farmers. 

It  is  the  pleasure  of  some  writers  on  experimental  farms,  to  institute  a 
comparison,  or  even  strict  analogy,  betwixt  them  and  experimental  gar- 
dens. As  the  latter  have  improved  the  art  of  gardening,  they  argue,  so 
would  the  former  improve  Agriculture.  But  the  truth  is,  there  can  bene 
analogy  betwixt  the  introduction  into  common  gardens  of  the  results  ob- 
tained in  experimental  gardens,  and  the  results  of  experiments  obtained 
in  such  small  experimental  farms  as  recommended  by  agricultural  ^\Titers, 
introduced  into  the  common  field  culture  of  a  farm  ;  because,  the  experi- 
ments in  an  experimental  garden  having  been  made  by  the  spade,  may  be 
exactly  transferred  into  almost  any  common  garden,  and,  of  course,  suc- 
ceed there  satisfactorily  ;  whereas  the  experiments  made  by  the  spade  in 
a  small  experimental  fann,  cannot  be  performed  \\'ith  the  spade  on  a  com- 
mon farm  ;  they  must  there  be  executed  by  the  plow,  and,  of  course,  in 
quite  different  circumstances.  The  rough  culture  of  the  plow,  and  most 
probably  in  different  circumstances  of  soil,  manure,  and  shelter,  cannot 
possibly  produce  results  similar  to  the  culture  of  the  spade,  at  least  no 
farmer  %vill  believe  it ;  and  if  tliey  put  no  confidence  in  experiments,  of 
what  avail  will  experimental  farms  be  1  Announcements  of  such  results 
may  gratify  curiosity,  but  no  benefit  would  be  conferred  on  the  country 

(104) 


EXPERIMENTAL  FARMS  AS  PLACES  FOR  INSTRUCTION.         57 


by  experiments  confined  within  the  inclosures  of  an  experimental  farm. 
No  doubt,  a  few  of  the  most  unprejudiced  of  the  farmers  will  perform 
any  experiment,  with  every  desire  for  its  success,  and  there  is  as  little 
doubt  that  others  will  follow  the  example  ;  and  some  will  be  willing  to 
test  the  worth  of  even  a  suggestion ;  but  as  these  are  the  usual  modes  by 
which  every  new  practice  recommends  itself  to  the  good  graces  of  farm- 
ers, no  intervention  of  an  experimental  farm  is  therefore  required  for  their 
promulgation  and  adoption.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  promoters  of  experi- 
mental farms  to  disseminate  a  proved  experiment  quickly  over  the  coun- 
try, and  the  most  efficient  mode  of  doing  so  is  to  secure  the  confidence  of 
farmers  in  it.  To  ensure  their  confidence,  it  will  be  necessary  to  show 
them  that  they  can  do  the  same  things  as  have  been  done  on  the  experi- 
mental farm  hy  the  usual  means  of  labor  they  possess,  and  they  will  then 
show  no  reluctance  to  follow  the  example.  Take  the  risk,  in  the  experi- 
mental farm,  of  proving  results,  and  show  the  intrinsic  value  of  those 
results  to  the  farmers,  and  the  experiments,  of  whatever  nature,  will  be 
performed  on  half  the  farms  of  the  kingdom  in  the  course  of  the  first 
season. 

For  this  pui-pose  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  the  size  an  experimental 
farm  should  be,  which  will  admit  of  experimients  being  made  on  it,  in  a 
manner  similar  to  the  operations  of  a  farm.  The  leading  operation,  which 
determines  the  smallest  size  of  the  fields  of  an  experimental  farm,  is  plow- 
ing. The  fields  should  be  of  that  size  which  will  admit  of  being  plowed 
in  ordinary  time,  and  at  the  same  time  not  larger  than  just  to  do  justice 
to  the  experiments  performed  in  them.  I  should  say  that^/?e  acres  impe- 
rial is  the  least  extent  of  ground  to  do  justice  to  plowing  ridges  along, 
across,  and  diagonally.  Three  acres,  to  be  of  such  a  shape  as  not  to  waste 
time  in  the  plowing,  would  have  too  few  ridges  for  a  series  of  experiments, 
and  to  increase  their  number  would  be  to  shorten  their  length,  and  lose 
time  in  plowing.  But  even  five  acres  are  too  small  to  inclose  with  a 
fence ;  ten  acres,  a  good  size  of  field  for  small  farms,  being  nearer  the 
mark  for  fencing.  Taking  the  size  of  an  experimental  plot  at  five  acres, 
the  inclosure  might  be  made  to  sun-ound  the  divisions  of  a  rotation  ;  that 
is,  of  a  rotation  of  four  years,  let  twenty  acres  be  inclosed  ;  of  five  years, 
twenty-five  acres,  &c. ;  but  in  this  arrangement  the  experiments  would 
only  prove  really  available  to  small  tenants,  who  frequently  cultivate  all 
their  crops  within  one  fence,  and  the  subject  thus  experimented  on  would 
not  be  individually  inclosed  within  a  fence,  as  is  the  case  with  crops  on 
larger  farms. 

The  whole  quantity  of  land  required  for  an  adequate  experimental  fann 
may  thus  be  estimated.  New  varieties  of  seeds  would  require  to  be  in- 
creased by  all  the  possible  modes  of  reproduction.  Old  varieties  should 
undergo  impregnation — be  subjected  to  different  modes  of  culture — be 
preserved  pure  from  self-impregnation — and  be  grown  in  different  alti- 
tudes. Each  variety  of  seed  already  cultivated,  such  as  wheat,  barley, 
oats,  potatoes,  turnips,  &c.,  to  undergo  these  various  modifications  of 
treatment  on  five  acres  of  land,  would,  including  the  whole,  require  an 
immense  extent  of  ground,  and  yet,  if  each  kind  did  not  undergo  all  these 
varieties  of  treatment,  who  could  then  aver  that  all  our  seeds  had  been 
subjected  to  satisfactory ^e^^  experiments  1  Only  one  kind  of  grain,  treat- 
ed as  variedly  as  might  be,  on  five  acres  for  each  modification  of  treat- 
ment, would  occupy  seventy  acres  ;  and  were  only  five  kinds  of  seed  taken, 
and  only  five  varieties  of  each,  and  the  whole  cultivated  on  both  low  and 
high  ground,  the  quantity  of  ground  required  altogether  would  be  3,500 
acres.     The  extent  of  ground  thus  increases  in  a  geometrical  progression, 

(105) 


58  THE  BOOK  OF  THE   FARM. 


with  an  increase  of  variety  of  plants.  Besides,  the  numerous  useful 
grasses,  for  the  pui-poses  of  being  cut  green,  and  for  making  into  hay, 
would  require  other  1,000  acres.  The  whole  system  of  pasturing  young 
and  old  stock  on  natural  and  artificial  grasses  in  low  grounds  and  on  high 
altitudes,  and  in  sheltered  and  exposed  situations,  would  require  at  least 
3,000  acres.  Then,  experiments  with  forest-trees,  in  reference  to  timber 
and  shelter  in  different  elevations  and  aspects,  would  surely  require  1,000 
acres.  Improvements  in  bog  and  muir  lands  should  have  other  1,000  acres. 
So  that  9,500  acres  would  be  required  to  put  only  a  given  proportion  of 
the  objects  of  cultivation  in  this  country  to  the  test  of  full  experiment. — 
Such  an  extent  of  o-round  will,  no  doubt,  astonish  those  who  are  in  tho 
habit  of  talking  about  200  acres  as  capable  of  affording  sufficient  scope  for 
an  experimental  farm.  Those  people  should  be  made  to  understand  that 
the  plow  must  have  room  to  work,  and  that  thei-e  is  no  other  way  of  ex- 
.perimentizing  satisfactorily  for  Jield  culture,  on  an  experimental  farm,  but 
by  aflbrding  it  a  real  field  to  work  in.  If  less  ground  be  given,  fewer  sub- 
jects must  be  taken;  and  if  any  subject  is  rejected  from  experiment,  then 
the  system  of  experimentizing  will  be  rendered  incomplete.  The  system 
of  experimentizing  should  be  earned  out  to  the  fullest  extent  of  its  capa- 
bility on  experimental  farms,  or  it  should  be  left,  as  it  has  hitherto  been, 
in  the  hands  of  farmers.  The  farmers  of  Scotland  have  worked  out  for 
themselves  an  admirable  system  of  husbandry,  and  if  it  is  to  be  improved 
to  a  still  higher  pitch  of  skill  by  experimental  farms,  the  means  of  improve- 
ment should  be  made  commensurate  with  the  object,  otherwise  there  will 
be  no  satisfaction,  and  certain  failure ;  for  the  promoters  of  experimental 
farms  should  keep  in  mind  that  the  existing  husbandry,  improved  as  it  is, 
is  neither  in  a  stationary  nor  in  a  retrogi-ading,  but  in  a  progressive  state 
toward  farther  improvement.  Unless,  therefore,  the  proposed  experiments, 
by  which  it  is  intended  to  push  its  improvement  still  farther  toward  per- 
fection, embrace  every  individual  of  the  multifarious  objects  which  engage 
the  attention  of  agriculturists,  that  one  may  be  neglected  which,  if  culti- 
vated, would  have  conferred  the  gi-eatest  boon  on  Agriculture.  I  come, 
therefore,  to  this  conclusion  in  the  matter  :  that  minute  experiments  on  the 
progressive  developments  of  plants  and  animals  are  absolutely  requisite  to 
establish  their  excellence  or  worthlessness,  and  these  can  be  performed  on 
a  small  space  of  ground ;  but  to  stop  short  at  this  stage,  and  not  pursue 
their  culture  on  a  scale  commensurate  with  the  operations  of  the  farm,  is  to 
render  the  experimental  farm  of  little  avail  to  practical  husbandry,  and 
none  at  all  to  interest  the  fanner. 

So  large  an  extent  of  farm  would  most  probably  embrace  all  the  varie- 
ties of  soil.  It  should,  moreover,  contain  high  and  low  land,  arable,  bog, 
and  muir  land,  sheltered  and  exposed  situations,  and  the  whole  should  lie 
contiguous,  in  order  to  be  influenced  by  the  climate  of  the  same  locality. 
It  would  scarcely  be  possible  to  procure  such  an  extent  of  land  under  the 
same  landlord,  but  it  might  be  found  in  the  same  locality  on  different  es- 
tates. &uch  a  farm,  rendered  highly  fertile  by  draining,  manuring,  liming; 
and  labor,  and  plenished,  as  an  experimental  farm  should  be,  with  all  the 
varieties  of  ci"op,  stock,  implements,  and  woods,  would  be  a  magnificent 
spectacle  worthy  of  a  nation's  effort  to  put  into  a  perfect  state  for  a  na- 
tional object.  What  a  wide  field  of  observation  would  it  present  to  the 
botanical  physiologist,  containing  a  multiplicity  of  objects  made  subservi- 
ent to  experiment !  What  a  laboratory  of  research  for  the  chemist,  among 
every  possible  vaiiety  of  earths,  manures,  plants,  and  products  of  vegeta- 
tion !  What  a  museum  of  objects  for  the  naturalist,  in  which  to  observe 
the  living  habits  and  instincts  of  animals,  some  useful   to  man,  and  others 

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THE  EDUCATION  BEST  SUITED  TO  YOUNG  FARMERS.    59 

injurious  to  the  fruits  of  his  labor  !  What  an  arena  upon  which  the  hus- 
bandman to  exercise  his  practical  skill,  in  varying  the  modes  of  culture  of 
crops  and  live-stock  !  What  an  object  of  intense  curiosity  and  untatisfying 
wonder  to  the  rustic  laborer  !  But,  above  all,  what  interest  and  solicitude 
should  the  statesman  feel  the  appliance  of  such  a  mighty  engine,  set  in 
motion,  to  work  out  the  problem  of  agricultural  skill,  prosperity,  and 
power.* 


y.     OF    THE    KIND    OF    EDUCATION    BEST    SUITED    TO    YOUNG 

FARMERS. 

"  Between  the  physical  sciences  and  the  arts  of  life  there  subsists  a  constant  mutual 
interchange  of  good  offices,  and  no  considerable  progress  can  be  made  in  the  one  with- 
out, of  necessity,  giving  rise  to  corresponding  steps  in  the  other.  On  the  one  hand, 
every  art  is  in  some  measure,  and  many  entirely,  dependent  on  those  very  powers  and 
qualities  of  the  material  world  which  it  is  the  object  of  physical  inquiry  to  investigate 
and  explain."  Hebschel. 

* 

With  respect  to  the  education  of  young  farmers,  no  course  of  element- 
ary education  is  better  than  what  is  taught  at  the  excellent  parochial 
schools  of  this  country.  The  sons  of  farmers  and  of  peasants  have  in  them 
a  favorable  opportunity  of  acquiring  the  elements  of  a  sound  education, 
and  they  happily  avail  themselves  of  the  opportunity ;  but,  besides  ele- 
mentary education,  a  classical  one  sufficiently  extensive  and  profound  for 
farmers  may  there  also  be  obtained.  But  there  are  subjects  of  a  different 
nature,  sciences  suited  to  the  study  of  maturer  years,  which  young  farmers 
should  make  a  point  of  learning — 1  mean  the  sciences  of  Natural  Philoso- 
phy, Natural  History,  Mathematics,  and  Chemistry.  These  are  taught  at 
colleges  and  academies.  No  doubt  these  sciences  are  included  in  the  cur- 
riculum of  education  provided  for  the  sons  of  landowners  and  wealthy 
farmers  ;  but  every  class  of  farmers  should  be  taught  them,  not  with  a 
view  of  transforming  them  into  philosophers,  but  of  communicating  to 
them  the  important  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  those  phenomena  which 
daily  present  themselves  to  their  observation.  Such  information  would 
make  them  more  intelligent  farmers,  as  well  as  men.  The  advantages 
which  farmers  would  derive  from  studying  those  sciences  will  be  best  un- 
derstood by  pointing  out  their  nature. 

It  is  evident  that  most  farming  operations  are  much  affected  by  external 
influences.  The  state  of  the  weather,  for  instance,  regulates  every  field 
operation,  and  local  influences  modify  the  climate  very  materially.  Now 
it  should  be  desired  by  the  farmer  to  become  acquainted  with  the  causes 
which  give  rise  to  those  influences,  and  these  can  only  be  known  by  com- 
prehending the  laws  of  Nature  which  govern  every  natural  phenomenon. 
The  science  which  investigates  the  laws  of  these  phenomena  is  called  Nat- 
ural Philosophy,  and  it  is  divided  into  as  many  branches  as  there  are  classes 
of  phenomena.  The  various  classes  of  phenomena  occur  in  the  earth,  air, 
water,  and  heavens.  The  laws  which  regulate  them,  being  unerring  in 
their  operation,  admit  of  absolute  demonstration ;  and  the  science  which 
affords  the  demonstration  is  called  Mathematics.  Again,  every  object,  an 
imate  or  inanimate,  that  is  patent  to  the  senses,  possesses  an  individual 
identity,  so  that  no  two  objects  can  be  confounded  together.  The  science 
which  makes  us  acquainted  with  the  marks  for  identifying  individuals  is 

*  Paper  by  me  on  the  subject  in  the  Quart.  Jour,  of  Agri.,  vol.  vii.  p.  538. 
(107) 


60  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 


termed  Natural  History.  Farther,  every  object,  animate  or  inanimate, 
cognizable  by  the  senses,  is  a  compound  body  made  up  of  certain  elements. 
Chemistn/  is* the  science  which  makes  us  acquainted  with  the  nature  and 
combinations  of  those  elements.  We  thus  see  how  generally  applicable 
those  sciences  are  to  the  phenomena  around  us,  and  their  utility  to  the 
farmer  will  be  the  more  apparent,  the  more  minutely  each  of  them  is  in- 
vestio-ated.  Let  us  take  a  cursory  view  of  each  subdivision  as  it  affects 
Agriculture. 

Mathematics  are  either  abstract  or  demonstrative.  Absti-act  mathemat- 
ics "  ti-eat  of  propositions  which  are  immutable,  absolute  truth,"  not  liable 
to  be  affected  by  subsequent  discoveries,  "  but  remains  the  unchangeable 
property  of  the  mind  in  all  its  acquirements."  Demonstrative  mathematics 
are  also' strict,  but  are  "  interwoven  with  physical  considerations" — that  is, 
subjects  that  exist  independently  of  the  mind's  conceptions  of  them  or  of 
the  human  will ;  or,  in  other  words  still,  considerations  in  accordance  with 
nature.  Mathematics  thus  constitute  the  essential  means  of  demonstrating 
the  strictness  of  those  laws  which  govern  natural  phenomena.  Mathemat- 
ics must,  therefore,  be  first  studied  before  those  laws  can  be  understood. — 
Their  study  tends  to  expand  the  mind — to  enlarge  its  capacity  for  general 
principles,  and  U>  improve  its  reasoning  powers. 

Of  the  branches  into  which  Natural  Philosophy  is  divided,  that  \yhich 
is  most  useful  to  farmers  is  Mechanics,  which  is  defined  to  be  "  the  science 
of  the  laws  of  matter  and  motion,  so  far  as  is  necessary  to  the  construction 
of  machines,  which,  acting  under  those  laws,  answer  some  purpose  in  the 
business  of  life."  Without  mechanics,  as  thus  defined,  farmers  may  leam 
to  rcork  any  machine  which  answers  their  purj^ose ;  but  it  is  only  by  that 
science  they  can  possibly  understand  the  jtrimijiles  upon  Avhich  any  ma- 
chine is  constructed,  nor  can  any  machine  be  properly  consti-ucted  in  defi- 
ance of  those  principles.  Both  machinists  and  farmers  ought  to  be  versed 
in  mechanical  science,  or  the  one  cannot  make,  and  the  other  guide,  any 
machine  as  it  ought  to  be  ;  but,  as  I  have  had  occasion  to  express  my  sen- 
timents on  this  subject  already,  I  shall  abstain  fiom  dilating  farther  upon 
it  here.  Mathematical  demonstration  is  strictly  applicable  to  mechanics, 
whether  as  to  the  principles  on  which  every  machine  operates,  (»r  the  form 
of  which  it  is  constructed.  The  princi2iles  of  mechanics  are  treated  of  sep- 
arately under  the  name  of  Dynamics,  which  is  defined  to  be  "  the  science 
of  force  and  motion." 

Pnev7>mtics  is  the  branch  of  natural  philosophy  which  is  next  to  me- 
chanics in  being  the  most  useful  to  the  farmer  to  know.  It  "  treats  of 
air,  and  the  laws  according  to  which  it  is  condensed,  rarefied,  gravitates." 
The  states  of  the  air,  giving  a  variable  aspect  to  the  seasons,  as  they  pur- 
sue their  "  appointed  course,"  endue  all  atmospherical  phenomena  with  ex- 
treme interest  to  the  farmer.  Observation  aVone  can  render  variety  of 
phenomena  familiar;  and  their  apparent  capriciousness,  arising  most 
probably  from  the  reciprocal  action  of  various  combinations  of  numerous 
elements,  renders  their  complicated  results  at  all  times  difficult  of  solution; 
for  all  fluids  are  susceptible  of  considerable  mutations,  even  from  causes 
possessing  little  force ;  but  the  mutations  of  elastic  fluids  are  probably 
effected  by  many  inappreciable  causes.  Nevertheless,  we  may  be  assured 
that  no  change  in  the  phenomena  of  the  atmosphere,  however  trivial, 
takes  place  but  as  the  unerring  result  of  a  definite  law,  be  it  chemical  or 
physical. 

Closely  connected  with  pneumatics,  in  so  far  as  the  air  is  concerned,  are 
the  kindred  natural  sciences  of  electricity  and  magnetism.  These  agencies, 
though  perfectly  perceptible   to  one  or  more  of  the  senses,  and  evidently 

(108) 


THE  EDUCATION  BEST  SUITED  TO  YOUNG  FARMERS.    6i 

constantly  at  work  in  most  of  the  phenomena  of  the  atmosphere, 
are  mysteriously  subtle  in  their  operations.  It  is  extremely  probable 
that  one  or  both  are  the  immediate  causes  of  all  the  changes  which  the 
atmosphere  is  continually  undergoing.  It  is  hardly  possible  that  the  at- 
mosphere, surrounding  the  globe  like  a  thin  envelop,  and  regularly  carried 
round  with  it  in  its  diurnal  and  annual  revolutions,  should  exhibit  so  very 
dissimilar  phenomena  every  year,  but  from  some  disturbing  cause,  such  as 
the  subtile  influences  of  electricity,  which  evidently  bear  so  large  a  share 
in  all  remarkable  atmospherical  phenomena.  Its  agency  is  the  most  proba- 
ble cause  of  the  irregular  currents  of  the  air  called  winds,  the  changes  of 
which  are  well  known  to  all  farmers  to  possess  the  greatest  influence  on 
the  weather. 

Natural  History  comprehends  several  branches  of  study.  Metcorologif 
consists  of  the  obsei^vation  of  the  apparent  phenomena  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  seasons  constitute  a  principal  portion  of  these  phenomena.  The 
clouds  constitute  another,  and  are  classified  according  to  the  forms  they 
assume,  which  are  definite,  and  indicative  of  certain  changes.  The  winds 
constitute  a  third,  and  afford  subject  for  assiduous  observation  and  much 
consideration.  Attention  to  the  directions  of  the  wind  and  forms  of  the 
clouds  will  enable  farmers  to  anticipate  the  kind  of  weather  that  will  af- 
terward ensue  in  a  given  time  in  their  respective  localities.  The  preva- 
lence of  the  aqueous  meteors  of  rain,  snow,  hail,  and  ice,  is  indicated  by 
the  state  of  the  clouds  and  winds. 

Hydrography  is  the  science  of  the  watery  part  of  the  terraqueous  globe. 
It  makes  us  acquainted  with  the  origin  and  nature  of  springs  and  marshes, 
the  effects  of  lakes,  marshes,  and  rivers,  on  the  air  and  on  vegetation  in 
their  vicinity  ;  and  the  effects  of  sea  air  on  the  vegetation  of  maritime 
disti'icts. 

Geology  is  the  knowledge  of  the  substances  which  compose  the  crust  of 
the  earth.  It  explains  the  nature  and  origin  of  soils  and  subsoils  ;  that  is, 
the  manner  in  which  they  have  most  probably  been  formed,  and  the  rocks 
from  which  they  have  originated ;  it  discovers  the  relative  position,  struc- 
ture, and  direction  in  which  the  different  rocks  usually  lie.  It  has  as  yet 
done  little  for  Agiiculture  ;  but  a  perfect  knowledge  of  geology  might 
supply  useful  hints  for  draining  land,  and  planting  trees  on  soils  and  over 
subsoils  best  suited  to  their  natural  habits,  a  branch  of  rural  economy  as 
yet  little  understood,  and  very  injudiciously  practiced. 

Botany  and  botanical  physiology ,  which  treat  of  the  appearance  and 
structure  of  plants,  are  so  obviously  useful  to  the  agricultural  pupil,  that 
it  is  unnecessary  to  dilate  on  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  a  know- 
ledge of  both. 

Zoology,  which  treats  of  the  classification  and  habits  of  all  animals,  from 
the  lowest  to  the  highest  organized  structure,  cannot  fail  to  be  a  source 
of  constant  interest  to  every  farmer  who  rears  stock.  There  are  few  wild 
quadrupeds  in  this  countiy  ;  but  the  insect  creation  itself  would  employ 
a  lifetime  to  investigate. 

Anatomy,  especially  comparative  anatomy,  is  highly  useful  to  the  farmer, 
inasmuch  as  it  explains  the  functions  of  the  internal  structure  of  animals 
upon  which  he  bestows  so  much  care  in  rearing.  Acquainted  with  the 
functions  of  the  several  parts  which  constitute  the  corporeal  body,  he  will 
be  the  better  able  to  apportion  the  food  to  the  peculiar  constitution  of  the 
animal ;  and  also  to  anticipate  any  tendency  toward  disease,  by  a  previ- 
ously acquired  knowledge  of  premonitory  symptoms.  Comparative 
anatomy  is  most  successfully  taught  in  veterinary  schools. 

The  only  other  science  which  bears  directly  on  Agriculture,  and  with 

(109) 


62  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

which  the  pupil  farmer  should  make  himself  acquainted,  is  Chemistry ; 
that  science  which  is  cognizant  of  all  the  changes  in  the  constitution  of 
matter,  whether  effected  by  heat,  by  moisture,  or  other  means.  There  is 
no  substance  existing  in  nature  but  is  susceptible  of  chemical  examina 
tion.  A  science  so  universally  applicable  cannot  fail  to  arrest  popular  at- 
tention. Its  popular  character,  however,  has  raised  expectations  of  its 
power  to  assist  Agriculture  to  a  much  gieater  degree  than  the  results  of 
its  investigations  yet  waiTant.  It  is  veiy  generally  believed,  not  by  prac- 
tical farmers,  but  chiefly  by  amateur  agiiculturists,  who  profess  great 
regard  for  the  welfare  of  Agriculture,  that  the  knowledge  derived  from 
the  analysis  of  soils,  manures,  and  vegetable  products,  would  develop 
general  principles  which  might  lead  to  the  establishment  of  a  system  of 
Agriculture  as  certain  in  its  effects  as  the  unerring  results  of  science. 
Agriculture,  in  that  case,  would  rank  among  the  experimental  sciences,  the 
application  of  the  principles  of  which  would  necessarily  result  in  increased 
produce.  The  positive  effects  of  the  weather  seem  to  be  entirely  over- 
looked by  these  amateurs.  Such  sentiments  and  anticipations  are. very 
prevalent  in  the  present  day,  when  every  sort  of  what  is  teniied  scientific 
knowledge  is  sought  after  vAx\\  an  eagerness  as  if  prompted  by  the  fear 
of  endangered  existence.  This  feverish  anxiety  for  scientific  knowledge 
is  very  unlike  the  dispassionate  state  of  mind  induced  by  the  patient  in- 
vestigation of  true  science,  and  very  unfavorable  to  the  right  application 
of  the  principles  of  science  to  any  practical  art.  Most  of  the  leading 
agricultural  societies  instituted  for  the  promotion  of  practical  Agriculture, 
have  been  of  late  assailed  by  the  entreaties  of  enthusiastic  amateur  agri- 
culturists, to  consti-uct  their  premiums  to  encourage  only  that  system  of 
Agriculture  which  takes  chemistry  for  its  basis. 

These  are  the  physical  sciences  whose  principles  seem  most  applicable 
to  Agriculture  ;  and  being  so,  they  should  be  studied  by  everj'  farmer  who 
wishes  to  be  considered  an  enlightened  member  of  his  profession.  That 
farmers  are  quite  competent  to  attain  to  these  sciences,  may  be  gathered 
from  these  obsei"vations  of  Sir  John  Herschel  :  "  There  is  scarcely  any 
well-informed  person  who,  if  he  has  but  the  will,  has  not  the  power  to  add 
something  essential  to  the  general  stock  of  knowledge,  if  he  will  only  ob- 
serve regularly  and  methodically  some  particular  class  of  facts  which  may 
most  excite  his  attention,  or  which  his  situation  may  best  enable  him  to 
study  with  effect.  To  instance  one  subject  which  can  only  be  effectually 
improved  by  the  united  obsei'vations  of  gi'eat  numbers  widely  dispersed  : 
Meteorology,  one  of  the  most  complicated  but  important  branches  of  sci- 
ence, is  at  the  same  time  one  in  which  any  person  who  will  attend  to  plain 
rules,  and  bestow  the  necessary  degree  of  attention,  may  do  effectual  ser- 
vice." But  in  drawing  our  conclusions,  great  caution  is  requisite  ;  for, 
"  In  forming  inductions,  it  will  most  commonly  happen  that  we  are  led  to 
our  conclusions  by  the  especial  force  of  some  two  or  three  strongly  im- 
pressive facts,  rather  than  by  affording  the  whole  mass  of  cases  a  regular 
consideration ;  and  hence  the  need  of  cautious  verification.  Indeed,  so 
strong  is  this  propensity  of  the  human  mind,  that  there  is  hardly  a  more 
common  thing  than  to  find  persons  ready  to  assign  a  cause  for  every  thing 
they  see,  and  in  so  doing,  to  join  things  the  most  incongruous,  by  analo- 
gies the  most  fanciful.  This  being  the  case,  it  is  evidently  of  great  im- 
portance that  these  first  ready  impulses  of  the  mind  should  be  made  on 
the  contemplation  of  the  cases  most  likely  to  lead  to  good  inductions.  The 
misfortune,  however,  is,  in  natural  philosophy,  that  the  choice  does  not 
rest  with  us.  We  must  take  the  instances  as  Nature  presents  them.  Even 
if  we  are  furnished  with  a  list  of  them  in  tabular  order,  we  must  under- 

(110) 


THE  EDUCATION  BEST  SUITED  TO  YOUNG  FARMERS.    63 

Stand  and  compare  them  with  each  other,  before  we  can  tell  which  are 
the  instances  thus  deservedly  entitled  to  the  highest  consideration.  And, 
after  all,  after  much  labor  in  vain,  and  gi'oping  in  the  dark,  accident  or 
casual  observation  wall  present  a  case  which  strikes  us  at  once  with  a  full 
insight  into  the  subject,  before  we  can  even  have  time  to  determine  to 
what  class  its  prerogative  belongs."* 

Many  farmers,  I  dare  say,  will  assert  it  to  be  far  beyond  the  reach  of 
their  means,  and  others  beyond  their  station,  to  bestow  on  their  sons  so 
learned  an  education  as  that  implied  in  the  acquirement  of  the  sciences 
just  now  enumerated.  Such  apprehensions  are  ill-founded ;  because  no 
faiTner  that  can  afford  to  support  his  sons  at  home,  without  working  for 
their  bare  subsistence,  but  possesses  the  means  of  giving  them  a  good 
education,  as  I  shall  immediately  prove  ;  and  no  farmer,  who  confessedly 
has  wealth,  should  grudge  his  sons  an  education  that  will  fit  them  to 
adorn  the  profession  they  intend  to  follow. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  a  knowledge  of  mathematics  and  natural  phi- 
losophy greatly  elevates  the  mind.  Those  farmers  who  have  acquired 
these  sciences,  must  be  sensible  of  their  tendency  to  do  this  ;  and  they 
will  therefore  naturally  wish  their  sons  to  enjoy  what  they  themselves  do. 
Those  who  of  themselves  do  not  know  these  sciences,  on  being  informed 
of  their  beneficial  tendency,  will  probably  feel  it  to  be  their  duty  to  edu- 
cate their  sons,  and  thereby  put  it  in  their  power  to  raise  themselves  in 
society  and  at  the  same  time  shed  a  lustre  on  the  profession  of  which  they 
are  members.  The  same  species  of  reasoning  applies  to  the  acquirement 
of  the  peculiar  accomplishments  bestowed  on  the  mind  by  a  knowledge 
of  natural  history  and  chemisti-y.  Neither  the  time  nor  expense  of  ac- 
quiring such  an  education  is  of  that  extent  or  magnitude  as  to  deter  any 
farmer's  son  from  attempting  it,  who  occupies  a  station  above  that  of  a 
farm  steward.  Besides  these  considerations,  a  good  education,  as  the  trite 
saying  has  it,  is  the  best  legacy  a  parent  can  leave  his  child ;  and,  on  this 
account,  it  is  better  for  the  young  farmer  himself  to  bestow  on  him  a  su- 
perior education,  in  the  first  instance,  with  a  part  even  of  the  money  des- 
tined by  his  father  to  stock  him  a  farm,  than  to  plenish  for  him  a  larger 
farm,  and  stint  his  education.  The  larger  farm  would,  no  doubt,  enable 
the  half-educated  son  to  earn  a  livelihood  more  easily  ;  but  the  well-edu- 
cated one  would  be  more  than  compensated  in  the  smaller  farm,  by  the 
possession  of  that  cultivated  intelligence  which  would  induce  him  to  ap- 
ply the  resources  of  his  mind  to  drawing  forth  the  capabilities  of  the  soil, 
and  making  himself  an  infinitely  superior  member  of  society.  Were  in- 
dustrious farmers  as  eager  to  improve  their  sons'  minds  by  superior  edu- 
cation, as  they  too  often  are  to  amass  fortunes  for  them — a  boon  unprofit- 
ably  used  by  uncultivated  minds — they  would  display  more  wisdom  in 
their  choice.  No  really  sensible  farmer  should  hesitate  to  decide  which 
course  to  take,  when  the  intellectual  improvement  of  his  family  is  con- 
cerned. He  should  never  permit  considerations  of  mere  pelf  to  overcome 
a  sense  of  right  and  of  duty.  Rather  than  prevent  his  son  having  the  power 
to  raise  himself  in  his  profession,  he  should  scrupulously  economize  his 
own  expenditure. 

I  shall  now  show  that  the  time  occupied  in  the  acquisition  of  those 
sciences  which  are  expedient  for  the  farmer  to  learn,  is  not  lost  when 
compared  with  the  advantages  which  they  may  bestow.  Part  of  three 
years  will  accomplish  all,  but  three  years  are  doubtless  an  immense  time 


*  Discourse  on  the  Jftudy  of  Natural  Philosophy,  pp.  133, 182. 
(Ill) 


64  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 


for  a  young  man  to  lose  !  So  it  would  be  ;  but,  to  place  the  subject  in  its 
proper  light,  I  would  put  this  statement  and  question  for  consideration — 
Whether  the  young  farmer's  time,  who  is  for  years  constantly  following 
bis  father's  footsteps  over  the  farm,  and  only  superintending  a  little  in  his 
absence,  while  the  father  himself  is,  all  the  time,  quite  capable  of  conduct- 
ing the  farm,  is  not  as  much  lost,  as  the  phrase  has  it,  as  it  would  be  when 
he  is  occupied  in  acquiring  a  scientific  education  at  a  little  distance  from 
home  ?  Insomuch  as  the  young  man's  time  is  of  use  to  the  farm,  the  two 
cases  are  nearly  on  a  par ;  but,  in  as  far  as  both  cases  affect  himself,  there 
is  no  question  that  science  would  benefit  him  the  more — no  question  that 
a  superior  education  would  afterward  enable  him  to  learn  the  practical 
part  of  his  profession  with  his  father,  with  much  greater  ease  to  himself 
The  question  is  thus  narrowed  to  the  consideration  of  the  alternative  of 
the  cost  of  keeping  the  son  at  home,  following  his  father  as  idly  as  his 
shadow,  or  of  sending  him  to  college.  Even  in  this  pecuniary  point  of 
view,  the  alternative  consists  merely  of  the  difference  of  maintenance  at 
home,  and  that  in  a  town,  with  the  addition  of  fees.  That  this  difference 
is  not  great,  I  shall  now  show. 

Part  of  three  years,  as  I  have  said,  would  accomplish  all  amply,  and  in 
this  way  :  the  first  year  to  be  devoted  to  mathematics,  the  second  to 
natural  philosophy,  and  the  third  to  natural  history  and  chemistry ;  and 
along  with  these  principal  subjects,  some  time  in  both  years  should  be 
devoted  to  geography,  English  grammar  and  composition,  book-keeping, 
and  a  knowledge  of  cash  transactions.  The  two  months'  vacation  in  each 
year  could  be  spent  at  home.  There  are  seminaries*  at  which  these  sub- 
jects mayt  be  studied,  at  no  gieat  distance  from  every  farmer's  home. 
There  are,  fortunately  for  the  youths  of  Scotland,  universities,  colleges, 
and  academies,  in  many  parts  of  the  country.  Edinburgh,  Glasgow, 
Aberdeen,  and  St.  Andrews,  can  boast  of  well-endowed  universities  and 
colleges ;  while  the  academies  at  Dundee,  Perth,  Ayr,  Dollar,  and  Inver- 
ness, have  been  long  famed  for  good  tuition. 


10.    OF  THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  FARMING. 

"  I'll  teach  you  differences." 

Lear. 

Perhaps  the  young  farmer  will  be  astonished  to  learn  that  there  are 
many  and  various  systems  of  farming ;  yet  so  in  reality  is  the  case,  and 
moreover  that  they  all  possess  very  distinctive  characteristics.  There  are 
six  kinds  of  farming  practiced  in  Scotland  alone  ;  and  though  all  are  pur- 
sued under  some  circumstances  common  to  all,  and  each  kind  is  perhaps 
best  adapted  to  the  particular  soil  and  situation  in  which  it  is  practiced  ; 
yet  it  is  highly  probable  that  one  of  the  kinds  might  be  applicable  to,  and 
profitably  followed,  in  all  places  of  nearly  similar  soil  and  locality.  Lo- 
cality, however,  determines  the  kind  of  fanning  fully  more  than  the  soil ; 
the  soil  only  entirely  detei-mining  it  when  of  a  very  peculiar  consistence. 
The  comparative  influence  of  locality  over  soil  in  determining  this  point 
will  be  better  understood  after  shortly  considering  each  kind  of  farming. 


[»  Or  free  schools.  t  Or  ought  to  be,  Ei.  Farm.  Lib\ 

(112) 


THE   DIFFERENT   KINDS  OF  FARMING.  65 

1.  One  kind  is  wholly  confined  to  pastoral  districts,  which  are  chiefly- 
situated  in  the  Highlands  and  Western  Isles  of  Scotland — in  the  Cheviot 
and  Cumberland  hills  of  England — and  very  generally  in  Wales.  In  all 
these  districts,  farming  is  almost  restricted  to  the  breeding  of  cattle  and 
sheep ;  and,  as  natural  pasture  forms  the  principal  food  of  live-stock  in  a 
pastoral  country,  very  little  arable  culture  is  there  practiced  for  their  be- 
hoof Cattle  and  sheep  are  not  always  both  reared  on  the  same  farm. 
Cattle  are  reared  in  very  large  numbers  in  the  Western  Isles,  and  in  the 
pastoral  valleys  among  the  mountain-ranges  of  England,  Wales,  and  Scot- 
land.* Sheep  are  reared  in  still  greater  numbers  in  the  upper  parts  of  the 
mountain-ranges  of  Wales  and  of  the  Highlands  of  Scotland ;  and  on  the 
green  round-backed  mountains  of  the  south  of  Scotland  and  the  north  of 
England.  The  cattle  reared  in  pastoral  districts  are  small  sized,  chiefly 
black  colored,  and  horned.  Those  in  the  Western  Isles,  called  "  West 
Highlanders,"  or  "  Kyloes,"  are  esteemed  a  beautifully  symmetrical  and 
valuable  breed  of  cattle.  Those  in  the  valleys  of  the  Highland  moun 
tains,  called  "  North  Highlanders,"  are  considerably  inferior  to  them  in 
quality,  and  smaller  in  size.  The  black-faced,  mountain,  or  heath,  horned 
sheep,  are  bred  and  reared  on  the  upper  mountain-ranges,  and  fattened  in 
the  low  country.  The  round-backed  green  hills  of  the  south  are  mostly 
stocked  with  the  white-faced,  hornless,  Cheviot  breed,  ;  though  the  best 
kind  of  the  black -faced  breed  is  also  reared  in  some  localities  of  that  dis- 
trict, but  seldom  both  breeds  are  bred  by  the  same  farmer.  Wool  is  a 
staple  product  of  sheep  pastoral  farming. 

Pastoral  farms  are  chiefly  appropriated  to  the  rearing  of  one  kind  of 
sheep,  or  one  kind  of  cattle  ;  though  both  classes  of  stock  are  bred  where 
valleys  and  mountain-tops  are  found  on  the  same  farm.  The  arable  cul- 
ture practiced  on  them  is  confined  to  the  raising  of  provisions  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  shepherds  and  cattle-herds  ;  and  perhaps  of  a  few  turnips,  for 
the  support  of  the  stock  duiing  the  severity  of  a  snow-storm ;  but  the 
principal  artificial  food  of  the  stock  in  winter  is  hay,  which  in  some  cases 
is  obtained  by  inclosing  and  mowing  a  piece  of  natural  grass  on  a  spot  of 
good  land,  near  the  banks  of  a  rivulet,  the  alluvial  soil  along  the  river 
sides  being  generally  of  fine  quality.  All  pastoral  farms  are  large,  some 
containing  many  thousands  of  acres — nay  miles  in  extent ;  but  from  1,500 


[*  In  the  United  States  the  mountain  ranges  running  from  east  to  west  may  be  considered  our 
"  pastoral  "  or  grazing  districts. 

The  farther  we  go  east  the  more  are  such  lands  devoted  to  sheep  husbandry,  while  in  the  west 
and  southwest  they  are  given  up  to  the  rearing  of  cattle,  to  be  sold,  as  lean  or  stock  cattle,  to  the 
grazier,  who  sometimes  buys  and  carries  them  through  the  winter  on  wheat  straw,  and  fattens 
them  on  grass  against  the  next  autumn.  But  more  generally  they  are  sold  in  spring,  grazed 
through  the  summer,  and  fattened  on  corn  the  following  winter.  Thus  prepared  for  market,  they 
are  either  killed  and  packed  in  the  West,  or  driven  thence  in  spring  and  summer  to  the  eastern 
markets.  For  our  pastoral  or  grazing  districts,  a  comparatively  smaller  and  more  thrifty  race  of 
cattle,  weighing,  when  at  market,  from  500  to  700,  is  most  advantageous  for  all  parties,  as,  with 
but  little  exception  they  have  to  "  shift  for  themselves  "  throughout  the  year,  and  often  get  no 
special  feeding. 

It  is  as  true  now  as  it  was  in  the  time  of  Sir  John  Sinclair,  that  where  the  surface  is  barren  and 
the  climate  rigorous,  it  is  essential  that  the  stock  bred  and  maintained  there  should  be  enabled  to 
sustain  the  severities  and  vicissitudes  of  the  weather  as  well  as  scarcity  of  foood,  or  any  other 
circumstance  in  its  locality  and  treatment  that  might  subject  a  more  delicate  breed  to  injury. 
For  the  purposes  of  the  cattle  breeder  in  the  mountains,  it  is  probable  that  the  hardy  middle  sized 
North  Devon  would  be  found  most  eligible  ;  or  if  it  should  be  deemed  expedient  to  try  a  foreign 
cross  which  we  have  not  tried,  obvious  reasons  suggest  that  the  Polled,  or  Galloway,  and  the 
Scotch  Highland  races  should  be  had  recourse  to.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.^ 

(U3) 5 


66  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

to  3,000  acres  is  perhaps  an  ordinarj'  size*     Locality  determines  this  kind 
of  fanning. 

The  stocking  of  a  pastoral  farm  consists  of  a  breeding  stock  of  sheep  or 
cattle,  and  a  yearly  proportion  of  barren  stock  intended  to  be  fed  and  sold 
at  a  proper  age.  A  large  capital  is  thus  required  to  stock  at  first,  and 
afterward  maintain  such  a  fai-m  ;  for,  although  the  quality  of  the  land  may 
not  be  able  to  support  many  heads  of  stock  per  acre,  yet,  as  the  farms  are 
large,  the  number  of  heads  required  to  stock  a  large  farm  is  very  consid- 
erable. The  rent,  when  consisting  of  a  fixed  sum  of  money,  is  of  no  great 
amount  per  acre,  but  sometimes  it  is  fixed  at  a  sum  per  head  of  the  stock 
that  the  farm  will  maintain. 

A  j)astoral  farmer  should  be  well  acquainted  with  the  rearing  and  man- 
agement of  cattle  or  sheep,  whichever  his  farm  is  best  suited  for.  A  know 
ledge  of  general  field  culture  is  of  little  use  to  him,  though  he  should  know 
how  to  raise  turnips  and  make  hay. 

2.  Another  kind  of  farming  is  practiced  on  carse  land.  A  carse  is  a  dis- 
trict of  country,  consisting  of  deep  horizontal  depositions  of  alluvial  or  dilu- 
vial clay,  on  one  or  both  sides  of  a  considerable  river  ;  and  may  be  of  great 
or  small  extent,  but  generally  comprehends  a  large  tract  of  country.  In 
almost  all  respects,  a  carse  is  quite  the  opposite  to  a  pastoral  district.  Carse 
land  implies  a  flat,  rich,  clay  soil,  capable  of  raising  all  sorts  of  grain  to 
great  perfection,  and  unsuited  to  the  cultivation  of  pasture  grasses,  and,  of 
course,  to  the  rearing  of  live-stock.  A  pastoral  district,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  always  hilly — the  soil  generally  thin,  poor,  and  various,  and  commonly 
of  a  light  texture,  much  more  suited  to  the  growth  of  natural  pasture  glasses 
than  of  grain,  and,  of  course,  to  the  rearing  of  live-stock.  Soil  decides  this 
kind  of  farming. 

Being  all  arable,  a  carse  farm  is  mostly  stocked  ^\-ith  animals  and  imple- 
ments of  labor ;  and  these,  with  seed-com  for  the  large  proportion  of  the 
land  cultivated  under  the  plow,  require  a  considerable  outlay  of  capital. — 
Carse  land  always  maintains  a  high  rent  per  acre,  whether  it  consists  solely 
of  money,  or  of  money  and  com  valued  at  the  fiars  prices.  A  carse  farm, 
requiring  much  capital  and  much  labor,  is  never  of  large  extent — seldom 
exceeding  200  acres. 

A  carse\  farmer  requires  to  be  well  acquainted  with  the  cultivation  of 
grain,  and  almost  nothing  else,  as  he  can  rear  no  live-stock  ;  and  all  he  re- 
quires of  them  are  a  few  milch  cows,  to  supply  milk  to  his  household  and 
farm-scn,'ants,  and  a  few  cattle  in  the  sti-aw-yard  in  winter,  to  trample  do^vn 
the  large  quantity  of  straw  into  manure — both  of  which  classes  of  cattle  are 
purchased  when  wanted. 

3.  A  third  sort  of  farming  is  that  which  is  practiced  in  the  rtcighhorhood 
of  large  towns.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  London,  farms  are  appropri- 
ated to  the  growth  of  garden  vegetables  for  Covent-Garden  market ;  and, 
of  course,  their  method  of  culture  can  have  nothing  in  common  with  either 
pastoral  or  carse  farms.  In  the  neighborhood  of  most  towns,  garden  vege- 
tables, with  the  exception  of  potatoes,  are  not  so  much  cultivated  as  green 
crops,  such  as  tuniips  and  grass,  and  dry  fodder,  such  as  straw  and  hay,  for 
the  use  of  cow-feeders  and  stable-keepers.  The  practice  of  this  kind  of 
farming  is  to  dispose  of  all  the  produce,  and  receive  in  return  manure  for 
the  land.  And  this  constitutes  this  kind  of  fanning  a  retail  trade  like  that 
in  town,  in  which  articles  are  bought  and  sold  in  small  quantities,  mostly 

*  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  neither  the  Old  nor  the  New  StatUticai  Account  of  Scotland  gives  the  lewt  idea 
01  the  nie  of  the  farms  in  any  of  the  parishes  described, 

[t  What  we  call  a  grain-farmer.  £^.  parm  Lib  1 

(114) 


THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF   FARMING.  67 

for  ready  money.*  When  there  is  not  a  sufficient  demand  in  the  town  for 
all  the  disposable  produce,  the  farmer  purchases  cattle  and  sheep  to  eat  the 
turnips,  and  trample  the  straw  into  manui^e,  in  winter.  Locality  decides 
this  kind  of  farming. 

The  chief  qualification  of  an  occupant  of  this  kind  of  farm  is  a  thorough 
acquaintance  with  the  raising  of  green  crops — potatoes,  clover,  and  turnips  ; 
and  his  particular  study  is  the  raising  of  those  kinds  and  varieties  that  are 
most  prolific,  for  the  sake  of  having  large  quantities  to  dispose  of,  and  which, 
at  the  same  time,  are  most  suitable  to  the  wants  of  his  customers. 

The  capital  required  for  a  farm  of  this  kind,  which  is  all  arable,  is  aa 
large  as  that  for  a  carse  farm.  The  rent  is  always  high  per  acre,  and  the 
extent  of  land  not  large — seldom  exceeding  300  acres. 

4.  A  fourth  kind  of  farming  is  the  dairy  husbandry.  It  specially  directs 
its  attention  to  the  manufacture  of  butter  and  cheese,  and  the  sale  of  milk. 
Some  farms  are  laid  out  for  the  express  purpose ;  but  the  sale  of  milk  is 
frequently  conjoined  with  the  raising  of  green  crops,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  large  towns,  whose  inhabitants  are  whence  daily  supplied  with  milk, 
though  seldom  from  pasture,  which  is  mostly  appropriated  as  paddocks  for 
stock  sent  to  the  weekly  market.  But  a  true  dairy-farm  I'equires  old  pas- 
ture. The  chief  business  of  a  dairy  farm  is  the  management  of  cows  and 
of  their  produce  ;  and  whatever  arable  culture  is  practiced  thereon  is  made 
entirely  subservient  to  the  maintenance  and  comfort  of  the  dairy  stock. — 
The  milk,  where  practicable,  is  sold;  where  beyond  the  reach  of  sale,  it  is 
partly  churned  into  butter,  which  is  sold  either  fresh  or  salted,  and  partly 
made  into  cheese,  either  sweet  or  skimmed.  No  stock  are  reared  on  dairy- 
farms,  as  on  pastoral,  except  a  few  quey  (heifer)  calves,  occasionally  to  re- 
plenish the  cow  stock ;  nor  aged  stock  fed  in  winter,  as  on  farms  in  the 
vicinity  of  towns.  The  bull  calves  are  frequently  fed  fbr  veal,  but  the  prin- 
cipal kind  of  stock  reared  are  pigs,  which  are  fattened  on  dairy  refuse. — 
Young  horses,  however,  are  sometimes  successfully  reared  on  dairy-farms. 
Horse  labor  being  comparatively  little  required  thereon,  mares  can  carry 
their  young,  and  work  with  safety  at  the  same  time ;  while  old  pasture, 
spare  milk,  and  whey  afford  great  facilities  for  nourishing  young  horses  in 
a  superior  manner.  Locality  has  decided  this  kind  of  farming  on  the  large 
scale. 

The  purchase  of  cows  is  the  principal  expense  of  stocking  a  dairy  farm  ; 
and  as  the  purchase  of  live-stock  in  any  state,  especially  breeding-stock,  is 
always  expensive,  and  live-stock  themselves,  especially  cows,  constantly  lia- 
ble to  many  casualties,  a  dairy-farm  requires  a  considerable  capital.  It  is, 
however,  seldom  of  large  extent — seldom  exceeding  150  acres.  The  arable 
portion  of  the  farm  supplying  the  green  crop  for  winter  food  and  litter, 
does  not  incur  much  outlay,  as  hay — that  obtained  fi-om  old  pasture  grass 
— forms  the  principal  food  of  all  the  stock  in  winter.  The  rent  of  dairy- 
farms  is  high. 

A  dairy  farmer  should  be  well  acquainted  with  the  properties  and  man- 
agement of  milch  cows,  the  manufacture  of  butter  and  cheese,  the  feeding 
of  veal  and  pork,  and  the  rearing  of  horses ;  and  he  should  also  possess  as 
much  knowledge  of  arable  culture  as  to  enable  him  to  raise  those  kinds  of 

[*  The  facilities  afforded  by  steam  for  the  quick  transportation  of  perishable  articles — such  as 
fruit  and  milk,  and  the  more  delicate  vegetables — has  had  the  effect  of  opening  market  gardens 
at  a  comparatively  great  distance  from  the  large  towns.  A  railroad  or  a  steamboat  will  bring 
these  articles  into  market,  from  a  distance  of  fifty  miles,  Wvh.  as  little  delay,  and  less  injury  by 
transportation,  than  an  ordinary  conveyance  would  bring  them  ten  miles.  Obvious  as  is  this  fact, 
it  is  deemed  proper  to  mention  it,  that  it  may  not  be  lost  sight  of  in  the  purchase  of  farms. 

Ed.  Farm.  Lib\ 
(115) 


68  THE  BOOK  OF   THE   FARM. 


green  crops,  and  that  species  of  hay,  wliich  are  most  congenial  to  cows  for 
the  production  of  milk. 

5.  A  fifth  method  of  farming  is  that  which  is  practiced  in  most  arable 
districts,  consisting  of  any  kind  of  soil  not  strictly  carse  land.  This  rnethod 
consists  of  a  regular  system  of  cultivating  grains  and  sown  grasses,  with  the 
partial  rearing,  and  partial  purchasing,  or  wholly  purchasing,  of  cattle  ;  and 
no  sheep  are  reared  in  this  system,  they  being  purchased  in  autumn,  to  be 
fed  on  turnips  in  winter,  and  sold  off  fat  in  spi-ing.  This  system  may  be 
said  to  combine  the  professions  of  the  farmer,  the  cattle-dealer,  and  the  sheep- 
dealer* 

To  become  a  farmer  of  this  mixed  husbandry,  a  man  must  be  acquainted 
with  evers-  kind  of  fanning  practiced  in  the  country.  He  actually  practices 
them  all.  '  He  prosecutes,  it  is  tnie,  each  kind  in  a  rather  different  manner 
from  that  practiced  in  localities  where  the  particular  kind  is  pursued  as  the 
only  system  of  fanning ;  because  each  branch  of  his  farming  must  be  con- 
ducted so  as  to  conduce  to  the  welfare  of  the  whole,  and,  by  studying  the 
mutual  dependence  of  parts,  he  produces  a  whole  in  a  superior  manner. — 
This  multiplicity  of  objects  requires  from  him  more  than  ordinary  attention, 
and  much  more  than  ordinary  skill  in  management.  No  doubt,  the  farm- 
ers of  some  of  the  other  modes  of  farming  become  very  skillful  in  adapting 
their  practice  to  the  situations  in  which  they  are  actually  placed,  but  hia 
more  varied  experience  increases  versatility  of  talent  and  quickness  of  dis- 
cernment ;  and,  accordingly,  it  will  be  found  that  the  farmers  of  the  mixed 
husbandry  prove  themselves  to  be  the  cleverest  and  most  intelligent  agri- 
culturists of  the  country. 


11.    OF  CHOOSING  THE   KIND  OF  FARMING. 

"Choice,  being  mutual  act  of  all  our  souls,  makes  merit  her  election." 

Tboii,c3  and  Ckessida. 

These  are  the  various  kinds  of  fanning  pursued  in  this  kingdom ;  and, 
if  there  be  any  other,  its  type  may,  no  doubt,  be  found  in  the  mixed  sys- 
tem just  described.  One  of  these  systems  must  be  adopted  by  the  aspirant 
pupil  for  his  profession.  If  he  succeed  to  a  family  inheritance,  the  kind  of 
farming  he  will  follow  will  depend  on  that  pursued  by  his  predecessor, 
which  he  will  learn  accordingly  ;  but  if  he  is  free  to  choose  for  himself,  and 
not  actually  restricted  by  the  circumstances  of  peculiar  locality,  or  soil,  or 
inheritance,  then  I  would  ad\-ise  him  to  adopt  the  mixed  husbandry,  as 
contaujing  within  itself  all  the  varieties  of  fanning  which  it  is  requisite  for 
a  farmer  to  know. 

If  he  is  at  liberty  to  take  advice,  I  can  inform  him  that  the  mixed  hus- 
bandry possesses  advantaores  over  every  other ;  and  practically  thus  :  in 
pastoral  farming,  the  stock  undergoes  minute  examination,  for  certain  pur- 
poses, only  at  distantly  stated  times ;  and  owing  to  the  wide  space  over 
which  they  have  to  roam  for  food  in  pastoral  districts,  comparatively  less 
attention  is  bestowed  on  them  by  shepherds  and  cattle-herds.  The"^  pas- 
toral farmer  has  thus  no  particular  object  to  attract  his  attention  at  home 
between  those  somewhat  long  intervals  of  time ;  and  in  the  mean  while 
time  is  apt  to  bane:  heavy  on  his  hands.  The  carse  farmer,  afler  the  la- 
bors  of  the  field  are  finished  in  spring,  has  nothing  but  a  little  hay-making 

[*  Which,  in  our  countrv,  are  often  combined.  £d  Farm  Lib\ 

(116) 


SELECTING  A  TUTOR-FARMER.  69 

and  much  bare-fallowing  in  summer,  to  occupy  his  mind  until  the  harvest. 
Dairy-farming  affords  little  occupation  for  the  farmer  in  wintei".  The 
farmer  in  the  vicinity  of  large  tow^ns  has  almost  nothing  to  do  in  summer, 
from  turnip-seed  to  harvest.  Mixed-husbandry,  on  the  other  hand,  affords 
abundant  and  regular  employment  at  all  seasons.  Cattle  and  sheep  feed- 
ing, and  marketing  grain,  pleasantly  occupy  the  short  days  of  winter.  Seed- 
sowing  of  all  kinds  affoids  abundant  employment  in  spring.  The  rearing 
of  live-stock,  sale  of  wool,  and  culture  of  green  crops,  fill  up  the  time  in 
summer  until  harvest ;  and  autumn,  in  all  circumstances,  brings  its  own 
busy  avocations  at  the  ingathering  of  the  fi-uits  of  the  earth.  There  is, 
strictly  speaking,  not  one  week  of  real  leisure  to  be  found  in  the  mixed 
system  of  farming — if  the  short  period  be  excepted,  from  assorting  lambs 
in  the  beginning  of  August  to  putting  the  sickle  to  the  corn — and  that  pe- 
riod is  curtailed  or  protracted,  according  as  the  harvest  is  early  or  late. 

If  the  young  farmer  is  desirous  of  attaining  a  knowledge  of  every  kind 
of  farm  work — of  securing  the  chance  of  profit  every  year — and  of  find- 
ing regular  employment  at  all  seasons  in  his  profession,  he  should  deter- 
mine to  follow  the  mixed  husbandry.  It  will  not  in  any  year  entirely 
disappoint  his  hopes.  In  it,  he  will  never  have  to  bewail  the  almost  total 
destruction  of  his  stock  by  the  rot,  or  by  the  severe  storms  of  winter,  as 
the  pastoral  farmer  sometimes  has.  Nor  can  he  suffer  so  serious  a  loss  as 
the  carse  farmer,  by  his  crop  of  grain  being  affected  by  the  inevitable 
casualties  of  blight  or  drouth,  or  the  great  depression  of  prices  for  a  suc- 
cession of  years.  Were  his  stock  greatly  destroyed  or  much  deteriorated 
in  value  by  such  casualties,  he  might  have  the  grain  to  rely  on  ;  and  were 
his  grain  crops  to  fail  to  a  serious  extent,  the  stock  might  insure  him  a 
profitable  return.  It  is  scarcely  within  the  bounds  of  probability  that  a 
loss  would  arise  in  any  year  from  the  total  destruction  of  live-stock,  wool, 
and  grain.  One  of  them  may  fail,  and  the  prices  of  all  may  continue  de- 
pressed for  years  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  reasonable  profits  have  been 
realized  from  them  all  in  the  same  year.  Thus,  there  are  safeguards 
against  a  total  loss,  and  a  greater  certainty  of  a  profitable  return  from 
capital  invested  in  the  mixed,  than  in  any  other  kind  of  husbandry  at  pres- 
ent known. 


12.    OF  SELECTING  A  TUTOR-FARMER  FOR  TEACHING  FARMING. 

"  The«e  are  their  tutors,  bid  them  >ise  them  well." 

Taming  op  the  Shrew. 

After  resolving  to  follow  farming  as  a  profession,  and  determining  to 
learn  the  mixed,  as  the  best  system  of  husbandry,  it  now  only  remains  for 
the  young  farmer  to  select  a  farmer  who  practices  it,  with  whom  he  would 
wish  to  engage  as  a  pupil.  The  best  kind  of  pupilage  is  to  become  a 
boarder  in  a  farmer's  house,  where  he  will  not  only  live  comfoitably  but 
may  learn  this  superior  system  of  husbandry  thoroughly.  The  choice  of 
locality  is  so  far  limited,  as  it  must  be  in  a  district  in  which  this  particular 
system  is  practiced  in  a  superior  manner.  The  qualifications  are  numer- 
ous. The  farmer  should  have  the  general  reputation  of  being  a  good 
farmer  ;  that  is,  a  skillful  cultivator  of  land,  a  judicious  breeder,  and  an 
excellent  judge  of  stock.  He  should  possess  agreeable  manners,  and  have 
the  power  of  communicating  his  thoughts  with  ease.  He  should  occupy 
a  good  farm,  consisting,  if  possible,  of  a  variety  of  soils,  and  situate  in  a 

(117) 


70  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

tolerably  good  climate,  neither  on  the  top  of  a  high  hill,  nor  on  the  co«- 
fines  of  a  large  moor  or  bog,  but  in  the  midst  of  a  well  cultivated  country. 
These  circumstances  of  soil  and  locality  should  be  absolute  requisites  in 
a  farm  intended  to  be  made  the  residence  of  pupils.  The  top  of  a  hill, 
exposed  to  every  blast  that  blows,  or  the  vicinage  of  a  bog,  overspread 
Avith  damp  vapor,  would  sunound  the  farm  with  a  climate  in  which  no 
Kind  of  crop  or  stock  could  arrive  at  a  state  of  perfection  ;  while,  on  the 
Jther  hand,  a  very  sheltered  spot  in  a  warm  situation,  would  give  the  pu- 
oil  no  idea  of  the  vexations  experienced  in  a  precarious  cHmate.  His  in- 
experience in  these  things  will  render  him  unfit  to  select  for  himself  either 
a  qualified  fanner,  or  a  suitable  fann ;  but  friends  are  never  wanting  to 
render  assistance  to  young  aspirants  in  such  emergencies,  and  if  their 
opinion  is  formed  on  a  knowledge  of  farming,  both  of  the  farm  and  the 
personal  qualifications  of  the  farmer  they  are  recommending,  some  confi- 
dence may  be  placed  in  their  recommendations. 

As  a  residence  of  one  year  must  pass  over  ere  the  pupil  can  witness  the 
course  of  the  annual  operations  of  the  farm,  his  engagement  at  first  should 
be  made  for  a  period  of  not  less  than  a  year  ;  and  at  the  expiring  of  that  pe- 
riod he  will,  most  probably,  find  himself  inadequate  to  the  task  of  man- 
aging a  farm.  The  entire  length  of  time  he  would  require  to  spend  on  a 
farm,  must  be  determined  by  the  paramount  consideration  of  his  having 
acquired  a  competent  knowledge  of  his  profession. 


13.    OF  THE   PUPILAGE. 

"A  man  loves  the  meat  in  his  youth  that  he  cannot  endure  in  his  age." 

Much  Ado  about  Nothing. 

Having  settled  these  preliminaries  with  the  tutor-farmer,  the  pupil 
should  enter  the  farm — the  first  field  of  his  anticipations  and  toils  in  farm- 
ing— with  a  resolution  to  acquire  as  much  professional  knowledge,  in  as 
short  a  time  as  the  nature  of  the  business  which  he  is  about  to  learn  will 
admit  of 

The  commencement  of  his  tuition  may  be  made  at  any  time  of  the  year; 
but  since  farming  operations  have  a  regular  beginning  and  ending  every 
year,  it  is  obvious  that  the  most  proper  time  to  begin  to  view  them  is  at  the 
opening  of  the  agricultural  year,  that  is,  in  the  beginning  of  icinter.  It  may 
not  be  quite  congenial  to  the  feelings  of  him  who  has  perhaps  been  accus- 
tomed to  pass  his  winters  in  a  town,  to  participate  for  the  first  time  in  the 
labors  of  a  farm  on  the  eve  of  winter.  He  would  naturally  prefer  the 
sunny  days  of  summer.  But  the  beginning  of  winter  being  the  time  at 
which  every  important  operation  is  begun,  it  is  essential  to  their  being  un- 
derstood throughout,  to  see  them  begun,  and  in  doing  this,  minor  incon- 
veniences should  be  willingly  submitted  to,  to  acquire  an  intimate  know- 
ledge of  a  profession  for  life.  And,  besides,  to  endeavor  to  become 
acquainted  with  complicated  operations,  after  the  principal  arrangements 
for  their  accomplishment  have  been  completed,  is  purposely  to  invite  wrong 
impressions  of  them. 

There  is  really  nothing  disagreeable  to  personal  comfort  in  the  business 
of  the  farm  in  winter.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  full  of  interest,  inasmuch  as 
the  well-being  of  living  animals  then  comes  home  to  the  attention  more 
forcibly  than  the  operations  of  the  soil.  The  totally  different  and  well- 
marked  individual  characters  of  different  animals,  engage  our  sympathies 

(118) 


DEALING  WITH  THE  DETAILS  OF  FARMING.  71 


in  aifferent  degrees  ;  and  the  more  so,  perhaps,  of  all  of  them,  that  they 
app^r  more^ome'sticatedwhen  under  confinement  than  at  liberty  to 
roam  ah^t  in  quest  of  food  and  seclusion.  In  the  evenmg,  an  wmter,  the 
Wtality  of  the  social  board  awaits  the  pupil  at  home,  or  at  a  friend  s 
hZe  after  the  labors  of  the  day  are  over.  Neighbors  interchange  visits 
at  tS  social  season,  when  topics  of  conversation  common  to  all  societies 
are  varied  by  remarks  on  professional  occurrences  and  management  eli- 
rkedbv  the  modified  practices  of  the  different  speakers  from  which  the 
pup?imlypicTupmu?h  usefixl  information.  Or  should  society  present 
no  charms  ?o  him^the  quieter  companionship  of  books,  or  the  severer  task 
n?«tn^v  is  at  his  command.  In  a  short  time,  however,  the  many  objects 
^ecS'to  the  seaZi  which  present  themselves  in  the  country  m  winter. 

^The'Sy'fiiTtSng';^  which  the  pupil .  should  direct  his  attention  on 
enterinrthe  farm,  is  to  become  well  acquainted  with  .is  physrcalgeogra. 
X  that  IS  its  position,  exposure,  extent;  its  fences,  whether  of  wall  or 
£T  Its  she  term  relltion  to  rising  gi'ounds  and  plantations  ;  its  roads, 
tiS^v  rfnblic  or  m-ivate  ;  its  fields,  their  number,  names,  sizes,  relative 
whethei  P^^i^^^,^^P;Tf  water-  the  position  of  the  farm-house  and  stead- 
FnTrf— T  Vamm^^^^^^^^  with  alUhese  particulars  will 

enlbleWrto  understand  more  i4adily  the  orders  given  by  the  farmer  for 
the  workTo  be  performed  in  any  field.  It  is  like  possessing  a  map  of  the 
So^nd  on  which  certain  plans  of  operations  are  about  to  be  u-dertaken 
TZl  of  the  farm  would  much  facilitate  an  introduction  to  this  famihar 
acauaLtance  The  ^«^.r-farmer  should  be  provided  with  such  a  plan  to 
^i^ereach  of  Hs  pupils,  but  if  A.  have  it  not,  the  pupil  himself  can  set 
Tout  constructing  one  which  wiU  answer  his  pux^^ose  well  enough. 


U.    OF  DEALING  WITH  THE  DETAILS  OF  FARMING. 

«  Oh  I  is  there  not  some  patriot    .    .    • 
To  teach  the  lab'ring  hands  the  sweets  of  toU  ? 
Yes,  there  are  such."  Thomson. 


The  principal  object  held  in  view,  while  makmg  the  precedmg  observa- 
tions  was  the^preparation  of  the  mind  of  the  young  person  desirous  ofbe- 
comikra  farmer,  into  such  a  state  as  to  enable  him,  when  he  enters  a  farm 
asTpupil  to  ant  cipate  and  overcome  what  might  appear  to  him  great  dif- 
ficulSf  practice%hich,  with  an  unprepared  mmd,  he  could  not  know 
eSted  at  all,  far  le  s  know  how  to  overcome  ;  but,  on  being  informed  that 
hrmust  encounter  them  at  the  very  outset  of  his  career  he  -f  ^  -e  t^« 
merns  pointed  out  to  him  for  meeting  and  overcommg  them  These  diffi- 
?uWes  have  their  origin  in  the  pupil  seeing  the  operations  of  the  farm,  of 
whoever  nature,  performed  for  the  first  time,  in  the  most  perfect  manner 
Tud  always  with  a  view  to  accomplishment  at  some  >^t.re  period.  The 
ontS  of  overcoming  such  difficulties,  and  thereby  satisfying  his  mind 
X  the  pupil  to  ascertain  by  inquiry  the  purport  of  every  operation  he 
Tees  perfoLhic  ;  and  though  he  may  feel  that  he  does  not  quite  compxe- 
Z:A^:^7rVok  even  when  informed  of  it,  still  t^-;;f  ^Xr  ^a^^^^ 
him  of  its  approaching  consummation,  and  he  ^^^^ "°;'  ^^,;^"Jj;;3^'  kI 
time  thereafter  be  taken  by  surprise  when  the  ^"^^^l^^'l^^^JZ^^t.^rt  of 
show  the  pupil  the  importance  of  makmg  mquury  regardmg  the  purport  oi 


72  THE   BOOK  OF  THE   FARM. 

every  operation  he  sees  performing,  I  see  no  better  mode  of  rendering  all 
farming  operations  intelligible  to  his  mind.  In  order  to  urge  him  to  become 
familiar  with  the  purport  of  everj'thing  he  sees  going  on  around  him,  I  have 
endeavored  to  point  out  the  numerous  evih  attendant  on  farmers,  landown- 
ers, and  emigrants  neglecting  to  become  thoroughly  acquainted  with  prac- 
tical husbandry,  before  attempting  to  exercise  their  functions  in  their  new 
vocations.  And,  in  order  that  the  young  person  desirous  of  becoming  a 
farmer  may  have  no  excuse  for  not  becoming  u-ell  acquainted  with  farming, 
I  have  shown  him  where,  and  the  manner  how,  he  can  best  become  ac- 
quainted with  it ;  and  these  are  best  attained,  under  present  circumstances, 
by  his  becoming  an  inmate  for  a  time  in  a  fann-house  with  an  intelligent 
farmer.  Believing  that  the  foregoing  observations,  if  perused  with  a  will- 
ing mind,  are  competent  to  give  such  a  bias  to  his  mind  as  to  enable  the 
pupil,  when  he  enters  a  farm,  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  his  profes- 
sion, and  thereby  create  an  ardent  desire  for  its  attainment,  I  shall  now  pro- 
ceed to  describe  the  details  of  every  operation  as  it  occurs  in  its  due  course 
on  the  farm. 

The  description  of  these  details,  which  are  multifanous  and  somewhat 
inti'icate,  will  compose  by  far  the  most  voluminous  portion  of  this  work,  and 
will  constitute  the  most  valuable  and  interesting  part  of  it  to  the  pupil.  In 
the  descriptions,  it  is  my  intention  to  go  very  minutely  into  details,  that  no 
circumstance  maybe  omitted  in  regard  to  any  of  the  operations,  which  may 
have  the  appearance  of  presenting  a  single  one  to  the  notice  of  the  pupil  in 
an  imperfect  form.  This  resolution  may  invest  the  descriptions  with  a  de- 
gree of  prolixity  which  may,  perhaps,  prove  tiresome  to  the  general  reader; 
but,  on  that  very  account,  it  should  the  more  readily  give  rise  to  a  firm  de- 
termination in  the  pupil  to  follow  the  particulars  of  every  operation  into 
their  most  minute  ramifications ;  and  this  because  he  cannot  be  too  inti- 
mately acquainted  with  the  nature  of  every  piece  of  work,  or  too  much  in- 
formed of  the  various  modifications  which  every  operation  has  frequently 
to  undergo,  in  consequence  of  change  in  the  weather,  or  the  length  of  time 
in  which  it  is  permitted  by  the  season  to  perform  it.  Descriptions  so  mi- 
nute will  answer  the  purpose  of  detailed  instructions  to  the  pupil ;  and, 
should  he  follow  them  with  a  moderate  degree  of  application  through  one 
series  of  operations,  he  will  obtain  such  an  insight  into  the  nature  of  field 
labor  as  will  ever  after  enable  him  easily  to  recognize  a  similar  series  when 
it  is  begun  to  be  put  into  execution.  Unless,  however,  he  bestow  consider- 
able attention  on  all  the  details  of  the  descriptions,  he  will  be  apt  to  let 
pass  what  may  appear  to  him  an  unimportant  particular,  but  which  may  be 
the  very  keystone  of  the  whole  operation  to  which  they  relate.  With  a  tol- 
erable memory  on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  I  feel  pretty  sure  that  an  attentive 
perusal  of  the  descriptions  will  enable  him  to  identify  any  piece  of  work  he 
afterward  sees  performing  in  the  field.  This  achievement  is  as  much  as  any 
book  can  be  expected  to  accomplish. 

In  describing  the  details  of  fanning,  it  is  necessary  to  adhere  to  a  deter- 
minate method ;  and  the  method  that  appears  to  me  most  instructive  to  the 
pupil  is  to  follow  the  usual  routine  of  operations  pursued  on  a  fann.  It 
will  be  requisite,  in  following  that  routine  implicitly,  to  describe  every  op- 
eration from  the  beginning  ;  for  it  must  be  impressed  on  the  mind  of  the 
pupil  that  farm  operations  are  not  conducted  at  random,  but  on  a  tned  and 
approved  system,  which  commences  with  preparatory  labors,  and  then  car- 
ries them  on  with  a  determinate  object  in  view  throughout  the  seasons,  un- 
til they  terminate  at  the  end  of  the  agricultural  year.  The  preparatory  op- 
erations commence  immediately  after  harvest,  whenever  that  may  happen, 
and  it  will  be  earlier  or  later  in  the  year  according  as  the  season  is  early  or 

(120) 


DEALING  WITH   THE   DETAILS   OF   FARMING.  73 


late ;  and  as  the  harvest  is  the  consummation  of  the  labors  of  the  year,  and 
terminates  the  autumnal  season,  so  the  preparatory  operations  begin  with 
the  winter  season.  Thus  the  winter  season  takes  the  precedence  in  the  ar- 
rangements of  farming,  and  doing  so,  that  should  be  the  best  reason  for  the 
pupil  commencing  his  career  as  an  agi'iculturist  in  winter.  In  that  season 
he  will  have  the  advantage  of  witnessing  every  preparation  as  it  is  made 
for  realizing  the  future  crops — an  advantage  which  he  cannot  enjoy  if  he 
enter  on  his  pupilage  at  any  other  season  ;  but  it  is  a  great  advantage,  inas- 
much as  every  piece  of  work  is  much  better  understood,  when  viewed  from 
its  commencement,  than  when  seen  for  the  first  time  in  a  state  of  progi-es- 
sion. 

Having  offered  these  preliminary  remarks  respecting  the  condition  of  the 
agricultural  pupil  when  about  to  commence  learning  his  profession,  I  shall 
now  proceed  to  conduct  him  through  the  whole  details  of  farming,  as  they 
usually  occur  on  a  fami  devoted  to  the  practice  of  the  tnixed,  or,  in  other 
words,  of  the  most  perfect  system  of  husbandry  known  ;  while,  at  the  same 
time,  he  shall  be  made  acquainted  with  what  constitute  differences  from  it 
in  the  coiresponding  operations  of  the  other  modes  of  farming,  and  which 
are  imposed  by  the  peculiarities  of  the  localities  in  which  they  are  practiced. 
These  details  I  shall  nan-ate  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  performed,  and 
for  that  purpose  will  begin  with  those  of  Winter — the  season  which  com- 
mences the  agricultural  year — for  the  reason  assigned  in  the  paragraph  im- 
mediately preceding  this  one. 


74  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 


WINTER. 


"  All  nature  feels  the  renovating  force 
Of  Winter,  only  to  the  thoughtless  e}'e 
In  ruin  seen.    The  frost-concocted  glebe 
Draws  in  abundant  vegetable  soul, 
And  gathers  vigor  for  the  coining  year." 

Thomson'. 

The  subjects  which  court  attention  in  Winter  are  of  the  most  interesting 
description  to  the  farmer.  Finding  little  inducement  to  spend  much  time 
in  the  fields  at  this  torpid  season  of  the  year,  he  directs  his  attention  to  the 
more  animated  portions  of  farm-work  conducted  in  the  steading,  where 
almost  the  whole  stock  of  animals  are  collected,  and  where  the  preparation 
of  the  grain  for  market  affords  pleasant  employment  for  work-people  within 
doors.  The  progress  of  live-stock  to  maturity  is  always  a  prominent  object 
of  the  farmer's  solicitude,  but  especially  in  winter,  when  the  stock  are  com- 
fortably housed  in  the  farmstead,  plentifully  supplied  with  wholesome  food, 
and  so  an-anged  in  various  classes,  according  to  age  and  sex,  as  to  be  easily 
inspected  at  any  time. 

The  labors  of  the  field  in  winter  are  confined  to  a  few  great  operations. 
These  are,  plomng  the  soil  in  preparation  of  future  crops,  and  supplying 
food  to  the  live-stock.  The  plowing  partly  consists  of  turning  over  the 
ground  which  had  borne  a  part  of  the  grain  crops  ;  and  the  method  of  plow- 
ing this  stubble  land — so  called  because  it  bears  the  straw  that  was  left  un- 
cut of  the  previous  crop — is  deteiTnined  by  the  nature  of  the  soil.  That 
portion  of  the  stubble  land  is  first  plowed  which  is  intended  to  be  first 
brought  into  requisition  for  a  crop  in  spring,  and  the  rest  is  plowed  in  the 
same  succession  that  the  different  crops  succeed  each  other  in  the  ensuing 
seasons.  The  whole  soil  thus  plowed  in  the  early  part  of  Avinter  in  each 
field  (where  the  fann  is  subdiA'ided  with  fences),  or  in  each  division  (where 
there  are  no  fences),  is  then  neatly  and  completely  provided  with  channels, 
cut  with  the  spade  in  suitable  places,  for  the  pui-pose  of  permitting  the 
water  that  may  fall  fi'om  the  heavens  to  run  quickly  off  into  the  ditches, 
and  thereby  to  maintain  the  soil  in  as  dry  a  state  as  is  practicable  until 
spring.  Toward  the  latter  part  of  AA-inter,  the  newest  grass  land — or  lea* 
as  grass  land  is  generally  tenned — intended  to  bear  a  crop  in  spring,  is 
then  plowed  ;  the  oldest  grass  land  being  earlier  plowed,  that  its  toughness 
may  have  time  to  be  meliorated  by  spring  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere. 
. . .  -When  the  soil  is  naturally  damp  underneath,  winter  is  the  season  se- 
lected for  removing  the  damp  by  draining.    It  is  questioned  by  some  farm- 

[*  Every  agricultural  student  and  reader  would  do  well  to  notice  these  peculiar  terms  em- 
ployed by  English  agricultural  writers,  because  it  is  in  that  country,  above  all  others,  that  the 
spirit  of  investigation  is  constantly  at  work.  It  is  there  that  the  progress  of  discovery  is  most 
steady,  and  publication  most  prompt  and  difiiisive,  and  that,  above  all,  in  our  own  mother  tongue. 

Ed.  Farm.  Lib.\ 
(123) 


.  WINTER.  75 

ers  whether  the  winter  is  the  best  season  for  draining,  as  the  usually  rainy 
and  otherwise  unsettled  state  of  the  weather  then  renders  the  carnage  of 
the  materials  for  draining  very  laborious.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  main- 
tained by  other  farmers  that,  as  the  quantity  of  water  to  be  drained  from 
the  soil  determines  both  the  number  and  size  of  the  drains,  these  are  thus 
best  ascertained  in  winter ;  and,  as  the  fields  are  then  most  free  of  crop, 
they  are  in  the  most  convenient  state  to  be  drained.  Truth  may  perhaps 
be  found  to  acquiesce  in  neither  of  these  reasons,  but  rather  in  the  opinion 

that  draining  may  be  successfully  pursued  at  all  seasons Where  fields 

are  uninclosed,  and  intended  to  be  fenced  with  the  thorn-hedge,  wdnter  is 
the  season  for  performing  the  operation  of  planting  it.  Hard  frost,  a  fall 
of  snow,  or  heavy  rain,  may  put  a  stop  to  the  work  for  a  time,  but  in  all 

other  states  of  the  weather  it  may  proceed  in  perfect  safety When 

meadows  for  irrigation  exist  on  any  farm^  winter  is  the  season  for  begin- 
ning the  irrigation  with  water,  that  the  grass  may  be  ready  to  mow  in  the 
early  part  of  the  ensuing  summer.  It  is  a  fact  well  worth  keeping  in  re- 
membrance, in  favor  of  winter  irrigation,  that  irrigation  in  winter  produces 
wholesome,  and  in  summer  unwholesome,  herbage  for  stock.  On  the  other 
hand,  summer,  not  winter,  is  the  proper  season  for  forming  water-mead- 
ows  Almost  the   entire  live-stock  of  an  arable  farm  is  dependent  on 

the  hand  of  man  for  food  in  winter.  It  is  this  circumstance  which,  bring- 
ing the  stock  into  the  immediate  presence  of  their  ovvTier,  creates  a  stronger 
interest  in  their  welfare  then  than  at  any  other  season.  The  fanner  then 
sees  them  classed  together  in  the  farmstead  according  to  their  age  and 
Bex,  and  delights  to  contemplate  the  comparative  progress  of  individuals 
or  classes  among  them  toward  maturity.  He  makes  it  a  point  to  see  them 
provided  at  all  times  with  a  comfortable  bed  or  lair,  and  a  sufficient  sup- 
ply of  clean  food  at  appointed  hours  in  their  respective  apartments.  The 
feeding  of  stock  is  so  important  a  branch  of  faiTn  business  in  winter  that  it 
regulates  the  time  for  prosecuting  several  other  operations.  It  determines 
the  quantity  of  turnips  that  should  be  carried  from  the  field  for  the  cattle 
in  a  given  time,  and  causes  the  farmer  to  consider  whether  it  would  not 
be  prudent  to  take  advantage  of  the  first  few  dry  fresh  days  to  store  up  a 
quantity  of  them,  to  be  in  reserve  for  the  use  of  the  stock  during  the  storm 
that  may  be  at  the  time  portending — for  storms  like  other 

"  Cominn:  events  cast  their  shadows  befor  ■." 

It  also  determines  the  quantity  of  straw  that  should  be  provided  from  the 
stack-yard,  in  a  given  time,  for  the  use  of  the  animals  ;  and  upon  this,  again, 
depends  the  supply  of  grain  that  can  be  sent  to  the  mai'ket  in  any  given 
time.  For  although  it  is  certainly  in  the  farmer's  power  to  thresh  as  many 
stacks  as  he  pleases  at  one  time,  provided  the  machinery  for  the  purj^ose  is 
competent  for  the  task — and  he  is  tempted  to  do  so  when  prices  are  high — 
yet,  as  new  threshed  strav\^  foi-ms  superior  provender  for  live-stock  confined 
in  the  farmstead,  its  supply,  both  as  litter  and  fodder,  is  therefore  mainly 
dependent  on  its  use  by  the  stock ;  and  as  its  consumption  as  litter  is 
greater  in  wet  than  in  dry  weather,  and  wet  weather  prevails  in  winter, 
the  quantity  of  straw  used  in  the  course  of  that  season  must  always  be  very 
considerable,  and  so,  therefore,  must  the  quantity  of  grain  ready  to  be  sent 
to  market.     All  the  stock  in  the  farmstead  in  winter,  that  are  not  put  to 

work,  are  placed  under  the  care  of  the  cattle-man The  feeding  of  that 

portion  of  the  sheep-stock  which  are  barren,  on  turnips  in  the  field,  is  a 
process  practiced  in  winter.  This  forms  fully  a  more  interesting  object 
of  contemplation  to  the  farmer  than  even  the  feeding  of  cattle — the  beha- 
rior  of  sheep  in  any  circumstances  being  always  fascinating.     Sheep  being 


76  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

put  on  turnips  early  in  winter,  a  favorable  opportunity  is  thereby  afforded 
the  farmer,  when  clearing  the  field  partially  of  turnips  for  the  sheep  (in  a 
manner  that  will  afterward  be  fully  described  to  the  pupil),  to  store  a  quan- 
tity of  them  fjr  the  cattle  in  case  of  an  emergency  in  the  weather,  such  as 
rain,  snow,  or  frost.  This  removal  of  the  surplus  turnips  that  are  not  used 
by  the  sheep  confined  on  the  land  renders  sheep-feeding  a  process  which, 
in  part,  also  determines  the  quantity  of  that  root  that  should  be  carried 

from  the  field  in  a  given  time The  flock  of  ewes  roaming  at  large  over 

the  pastures  requires  attention  in  winter,  especially  in  frosty  weather,  or 
when  snow  is  on  the  ground,  when  they  should  be  supplied  with  hay,  or 
turnips  when  the  former  is  not  abundant.  The  shepherd  is  the  person  who 
has  charge  of  the  sheep  flock The  large  quantity  of  straw  used  in  win- 
ter causes,  as  I  have  said,  a  considerable  quantity  of  grain  to  be  sent  at 
that  season  to  market.  The  preparation  of  grain  for  sale  constitutes  an 
important  branch  of  winter  farm-business,  and  should  be  strictly  superin- 
tended. A  considerable  portion  of  the  labor  of  horses  and  men  is  occupied 
in  carrying  the  grain  to  the  market-to\\Ti,  and  delivering  it  to  the  purchas- 
ers— a  species  of  work  which  jades  farm-horses  very  much  in  bad  weather. 
In  hai-d  frost,  when  the  plow  is  laid  to  rest,  or  when  the  gi'ound  is  cov- 
ered with  snow,  and  as  soon  as, 

" by  frequent  hoof  and  wheel,  the  roads 

A  beaten  path  afford," 

the  farm-yard  manure  is  carried  from  the  courts,  and  deposited  in  a  large 
heap,  in  a  convenient  spot  near  the  gate  of  the  field  which  is  to  be  ma- 
nured with  it  in  the  ensuing  spring  or  summer.  This  work  is  carried  on 
as  long  as  there  is  manure  to  carry  away,  or  the  weather  continues  in  either 

of  those  states Of  the  implements  of  husbandry,  only  a  few  are  put  in 

requisition  in  winter :  the  plow  is  in  constant  use  when  the  weather  will 
permit ;  the  threshing-machine  enjoys  no  sinecure ;  and  the  cart  finds  peri- 
odic employment. 

The  weather  in  winter  is  of  the  most  precarious  description,  and,  being 
so,  the  farmer's  skill  to  anticipate  its  changes  in  this  season  is  severely  put 
to  the  test.  Seeing  that  all  operations  of  the  farm  are  so  dependent  on  the 
weather,  a  familiar  acquaintance  with  the  local  prognostics  which  indicate 
a  change  for  the  better  or  worse  is  incumbent  on  the  farmer.  In  actual 
rain,  snow,  or  hard  frost,  none  but  in-door  occupations  can  be  executed ; 
but,  if  the  farmer  have  wisely  "  discerned  the  face  of  the  sky,"  he  can  ar- 
range the  order  of  these  in-door  operations,  so  as  they  may  be  continued 
for  a  length  of  time,  if  the  storm  threaten  a  protracted  endurance, 
or  be  left  without  detriment,  should  the  strife  of  the  elements  quickly 
cease. 

The  winter  is  the  season  for  visiting  the  market  toivn  regularly,  where 
the  sui-plus  produce  of  the  farm  is  disposed  of — articles  purchased  or  be- 
spoke for  the  use  of  the  farm,  when  the  busy  seasons  anive — where  inter- 
mixture with  the  world  affords  the  farmer  an  insight  into  the  actions  of 
mankind — and  where  selfishness  and  cupidity  may  be  seen  to  act  as  a  foil 
to  highten  the  brilliancy  of  honest  dealing. 

Winter  is  to  the  farmer  the  season  o^  domestic  enjoyment.  The  fatigues 
of  the  long  summer-day  leave  little  leisure,  and  much  less  inclination,  to 
tax  the  mind  with  study  ;  but  the  long  winter  evening,  after  a  day  of  brac- 
ing exercise,  affords  him  a  favorable  opportunity,  if  behave  the  inclination 
at  all,  of  partaking  in  social  conversation,  listening  to  instructive  reading, 
or  hearing  the  delights  of  music.     In  short,  I  know  of  no  class  of  people 

a24) 


WINTER.  77 

more  capable  of  enjoying  a  winter's  evening  in  a  rational  manner,  than 
the  family  of  the  country  gentleman  or  the  farmer.* 

Viewing  winter  in  a  higher  and  more  serious  light — in  the  repose  of 
nature,  as  emblematical  of  the  mortality  of  man — in  the  exquisite  pleas- 
ures which  man  in  winter,  as  a  being  of  sensation,  enjoys  over  the  lower 
creation — and  in  the  eminence  in  which  man,  in  the  temperate  reo-ions, 
stands,  with  respect  to  the  development  of  his  mental  faculties,  above  his 
fellow-creatures  in  the  tropics  :  in  these  respects,  winter  must  be  hailed 
by  the  dweller  in  the  country,  as  the  purifier  of  the  mental  as  well  as  of 
the  physical  atmosphere. 

On  this  subject,  I  cannot  refrain  fi-om  copying  these  beautiful  reflections 
by  a  modern  writer,  whose  great  and  versatile  talents,  enabling  him  to 
write  well  on  almost  any  subject,  have  long  been  known  to  me.  "  Win- 
ter," says  he,  "  is  the  season  of  Nature's  annual  repose — the  time  when  the 
working  structures  are  reduced  to  the  minimum  of  their  extent,  and  the 
energies  of  growth  and  life  to  the  minimum  of  their  activity,  and  when  the 
phenomena  of  nature  are  fewer,  and  address  themselves  less  pleasingly  to 
our  senses  than  they  do  in  any  other  of  the  three  seasons.  There  is  hope 
in  the  bud  of  Spring,  pleasure  in  the  bloom  of  Summei-,  and  enjoyment  in 
the  fruit  of  Autumn;  but,  if  we  make  our  senses  our  chief  resource,  there 
is  something  both  blank  and  gloomy  in  the  aspect  of  Winter. 

"  And  if  we  were  of  and  for  this  world  alone,  there  is  no  doubt  that  this 
would  be  the  correct  view  of  the  winter,  as  compared  with  the  other  sea- 
sons ;  and  the  partial  death  of  the  year  would  point  as  a  most  mournful  in- 
dex to  the  death  and  final  close  of  our  existence.  But  we  are  beino-s  oth- 
erwise destined  and  endowed — the  world  is  to  us  only  what  the  lod"-e  is 
to  the  wayfaring  man  ;  and  while  we  enjoy  its  rest,  our  thoughts  can  be 
directed  back  to  the  past  part  of  our  journey,  and  our  hopes  forward  to 
its  end,  when  we  shall  reach  our  proper  home,  and  dwell  there  securely 
and  forever.  This  is  our  sure  consolation — the  anchor  of  hope  to  our 
minds  during  all  stoiTns,  whether  they  be  of  physical  nature,  or  of  social 
adversity 

"  We  are  beings  of  sensation  certainly  ;  many  and  exquisite  are  the  plea- 
sures which  we  are  fitted  for  enjoying  in  this  way,  and  much  ought  we  to 
be  grateful  for  their  capacity  of  giving  pleasure,  and  our  capacity  of  re- 
ceiving it ;  for  this  refined  pleasure  of  the  senses  is  special  and  peculiar  to 
us  out  of  all  the  countless  variety  of  living  creatures  which  tenant  the  earth 
around  us.  They  eat,  they  drink,  they  sleep,  they  secure  the  succession 
of  their  race,  and  they  die ;  but  not  one  of  them  has  a  secondary  pleasure 
of  sense  beyond  the   accomplishment  of  these  very  humble  ends.t     We 


[*  Especially  if  reared  in  a  love  of  books,  and  the  study  of  the  natural  history  of  all  nrnuud 
*em.  ^rf.  Farm.  Lib.] 

[t  It  strikes  us  as  a  gloomy  and  mistaken  view  to  say  that  in  the  whole  range  and  variety  of 
creation,  man  should  be  the  only  being  endowed  with  susceptibility  to  social  pleasures.  Who 
has  not  witnessed  with  admiration  not  merely  the  force  of  conjugal,  parental  and  filial  ties  be- 
tween animals  and  birds,  bat  the  social  aiTections  also— the  sentiments  of  friendship  and  hospi- 
tality, of  jealousy,  revenge,  and  of  triumph!  We  may  mention  an  instance  under  our  own  ob- 
servation, of  friendship  a  il  hospitality  displayed  between  two  dogs.  A  lady  residing  in  Baltimore 
petted  a  magnificent  Newfoundland  dog,  Pelham,  while  her  mother,  residing  at  Annapolis,  be- 
stowed her  frienjlship  on  a  small  terrier,  whose  name  was  Gvess.  A  steamboat  plied  between 
the  two  cities,  and  Pelham  often  accompanied  his  mistress  on  her  vLsits  to  her  mother,  and  theie 
formed  an  intimacy  with  Guess.  When  the  boat  was  leaving  for  Baltimore,  Guess  was  sure  to 
accompany  his  mistress  to  see  her  friends  oiF;  and  on  one  occasion  was  left  on  board  and  carried 
to  Baltimore,  where  he  was  landed  among  strangers,  not  knowing  where  to  put  his  head.     Pel- 


78  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

stand  far  higher  in  the  mere  gratifications  of  sense  ;  and  in  the  mental 
ones  there  is  no  comparison,  as  the  other  creatures  have  not  an  atom  of  the 
element  to  biing  to  the  estimate. 

"  The  winter  is,  therefore,  the  especial  season  of  man — our  own  season, 
by  way  of  eminence ;  and  men  who  have  no  winter  in  the  year  of  the  re- 
gion in  which  they  are  placed,  never  of  themselves  display  those  traits  of 
mental  development  which  are  the  true  characteristics  of  rational  men,  as 
contrasted  with  the  iiTational  part  of  the  living  creation.  It  is  true  there 
must  be  the  contrast  of  a  summer,  in  order  to  give  this  winter  its  proper 
effect,  but  still,  the  winter  is  the  intellectual  season  of  the  year — the  sea- 
son during  which  the  intellectual  and  immortal  spirit  in  man  enables  him 
most  triumphantly  to  display  his  superiority  over  '  the  beasts  that  perish.'  "* 


15.    OF  THE   STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD. 

"When  we  see  the  figure  of  the  house,  then  must  we  rate  the  cost  of  the  erection." 

Henry  IV.  Part  II. 

(1.)  Before  proceeding  to  the  consideration  of  the  state  in  which  the 
pupil  should  find  the  \ys\ovis  fields  at  the  beginning  of  winter,  it  will  tend 
to  perspicuity  in  the  furnishing  of  a  farm  to  let  him  understand,  in  the 
first  instance,  the  principles  on  which  a  steading,  or  onstead,  or  farmstead, 
ox  farm-offices,  or  farmery,  as  it  has  been  variously  styled,  intended  for  a 
farm  conducted  on  the  mixed  husbandry,  should  be  constructed,  and  also 
to  enumerate  its  constituent  parts.  This  explanation  being  given,  and  got 
quit  of  at  once,  the  names  and  uses  of  the  various  parts  of  a  farmstead 
will  at  once  become  familiarized  to  him.  And  before  beginning  with  the 
description  of  anything,  I  may  here  express  it  as  my  opinion  that  my 
descriptions  of  all  the  farm  operations  will  be  much  more  lucid  and 
graphic  if  addressed  personally  to  the  pupil. 

ham  by  chance  met  him  in  the  street,  was  transported  with  joy  at  the  sight  of  him.  learned  how 
by  accident  he  had  arrived,  and  soon  persuaded  him  to  go  home  with  him,  where  he  knew  his 
mistress  would  kindly  entertain  him  for  her  mother's  if  not  for  his  own  sake,  until  the  boat 
should  return.  It  was  an  instance  of  cordial  hospitality  such  as  towns'  gentlemen  are  not  always 
ready  to  reciprocate  with  their  friends  from  the  country. 

No  one,  in  fact,  can  be  at  a  loss  for  examples  to  show  that  Providence  has  kindly  blessed  infe- 
rior beings  with  capacity  for  other  than  mere  brutal  enjoyments.  The  congregation  of  various 
birds  is  a  remarkable  indication  of  the  spirit  of  sociality  among  the  feathered  tribe  of  creation  ; 
so  animals  herd  together  under  the  same  love  of  company.  The  strongest  fences  cannot  confine 
some  horses  in  a  field  alone.  Cattle  will  not  fatten  in  the  finest  pastures  without  society  ;  nor  is 
tills  propensity  confined  to  animals  of  the  same  species.  A  charming  naturalist  says  he  knevi^  a 
doe,  then  still  alive,  that  was  brought  up  from  a  little  fawn  among  dairy  cows.  With  them  it 
went  afii'ld,  and  with  tbcm  it  returned  to  the  cow-yard.  The  dogs  of  the  house  took  no  notice  of 
the  deer,  being  used  to  her;  but  if  strange  dogs  came  bj',  a  chase  ensued,  and  while  the  master 
would  look  on  and  smile  to  see  his  favorite  securely  leading  her  pursuers  over  hedge,  or  gate,  or 
stile,  till  she  returned  to  the  cows,  they,  with  fierce  lowings  and  menacing  horns,  would  drive 
the  assailants  quite  out  of  the  pasture. 

This  complete  degradation  of  all  other  created  things,  placing  such  a  vast  abyss  between  them 
and  man,  seems  to  detract  from  the  benevolence  of  a  common  Father  over  all.  Let  us  felicitate 
ourselves  on  the  superiority  of  our  physical  structure  and  reasoning  faculties,  and  the  improve- 
ments and  the  power  thence  derived  ;  but  let  us  also  remember  in  humility  if  not  in  shame,  that 
of  all  animals,  not  one  is  more  prone  than  man,  to  the  wanton  abuse  of  his  strength. 

Ed.  Farm  Lib.\ 
*  Mudie's  Winter,  Preface,  p.  3 — 5. 
(126) 


u: 


&J 


THE  STEADING  OR   FARMSTEAD.  79 

(2.)  To  present  a  description  of  a  steading  in  the  most  specific  terms,  it 
will,  in  the  first  place,  be  necessary  to  assume  a  size  which  will  afford 
accommodation  for  a  farm  of  given  extent.  To  give  full  scope  to  the 
mixed  husbandry,  I  have  already  stated  that  a  farm  of  500  imperial  acres 
is  required.  I  will  therefore  assume  the  steading,  about  to  be  described, 
to  be  suited  to  a  fai-m  of  that  extent.  At  the  same  time  you  should  bear 
in  mind  that  the  principles  which  determine  the  arrangement  of  this  par- 
ticular size,  are  equally  applicable  to  much  smaller,  as  well  as  much  larger 
Bteadings  ;  and  that  the  mixed  husbandry  is  frequently  practiced  on  farms 
of  much  smaller  extent. 

(3.)  It  is  a  requisite  condition  to  its  proper  use,  that  every  steading  be 
conveniently  placed  on  the  farm.  To  be  most  conveniently  placed,  in  theory, 
it  should  stand  in  the  center  of  the  farm  ;  for  it  can  be  proved  in  geometry 
that  of  any  point  within  the  area  of  a  circle,  the  center  is  the  nearest  to 
every  point  in  its  circumference.  In  practice,  however,  circumstances 
greatly  modify  this  theoretical  principle  upon  which  the  site  of  all  stead- 
ings should  be  fixed.  For  instance,  if  an  abundant  supply  of  water  can 
be  easily  obtained  for  the  moving  power  of  the  threshing-machine,  the 
steading  may  be  placed,  for  the  sake  of  thus  economizing  horse  labor,  in 
a  more  remote  and  hollow  spot  than  it  should  be  in  other  circumstances. 
If  wind  is  prefeiTed,  as  the  moving  power,  then  the  steading  will  be  more 
appropriately  placed  on  rising  ground.  For  the  purpose  of  conveying  the 
manure  down  hill  to  most  of  the  fields,  some  would  prefer  the  highest 
ground  near  the  center  of  the  farm  for  its  site.  Others,  on  the  contrary, 
would  prefer  the  hnllowest  point  near  the  center,  because  the  grain  and 
green  crops  would  then  be  earned  down  hill  to  the  steading,  and  this  they 
consider  a  superior  situation  to  the  other,  inasmuch  as  the  grain  and  green 
crops  are  much  more  bulky  and  heavy  than  the  manure.  In  making  either 
of  these  choices,  it  seems  to  be  forgotten  that  loads  have  to  be  carried 
both  to  9XiA.from  the  steading  ;  but  either  position  will  answer  well  enough, 
provided  there  be  no  steep  ascent  or  descent  to  or  from  the  steading.  The 
latter  situation,  however,  is  more  consonant  to  experience  and  reasoning 
than  the  other ;  though  level  gi-ound  affords  the  easiest  transit  to  wheel- 
carriages.  It  is  also  very  desirable  that  the  fann-house  should  be  so 
situated  as  to  command  a  view  of  every  field  on  the  farm,  in  order  that 
the  farmer  may  have  an  opportunity  of  observing  whether  the  labor  is 
prosecuted  steadily  ;  and  if  other  circumstances  permit,  especially  a  plen- 
tiful supply  of  good  water,  the  vicinity  of  the  farm-house  should  be  chosen 
as  the  site  for  the  steading ;  but  if  a  sacrifice  of  the  position  on  the  part 
of  either  is  necessary,  the  farm-house  must  give  way  to  the  convenience 
of  the  steading. 

(4.)  As  a  farm  of  mixed  husbandry  comprises  every  variety  of  culture, 
BO  its  steading  should  be  constructed  to  afford  accommodation  for  every 
variety  of  produce.  The  grain  and  its  straw,  being  important  and  bulky 
articles, -should  be  accommodated  with  room  as  well  after  as  before  they 
are  separated  by  threshing.  Room  should  also  be  provided  for  every  kind 
of  food  for  animals,  such  as  hay  and  turnips.  Of  the  animals  themselves, 
the  horses  being  constantly  in  hand  at  work,  and  receiving  their  food 
daily  at  regular  intervals  of  time,  should  have  a  stable  which  will  not  only 
afford  them  lodging,  but  facilities  for  consuming  their  food.  Similar  ac- 
commodation is  required  for  cows,  the  breeding  portion  of  cattle.  Young 
cattle,  when  small  of  size  and  of  immature  ago,  are  usually  reared  in  in- 
closed open  spaces,  called  courts,  having  sheds  for  shelter  and  troughs  for 
food  and  water.  Those  fattening  for  sale  are  cither  put  into  smaller 
courts  with  troughs  called  hammels,  or  fastened  to  stakes  in  byres  or  feed- 
(127) 


80  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


ing-houses,  like  the  cows.  Young  horses  are  reared  either  hy  themselves 
in  courts,  with  sheds  and  mangers,  or  get  leave  to  herd  with  the  young 
cattle.  Young  pigs  usually  roam  about  even.'where,  and  generally  lodge 
among  the  litter  of  the  young  cattle,  while  sows  with  sucking  pigs  are 
provided  with  small  inclosures,  fitted  up  with  a  littered  apartment  at  one 
end,  and  troughs  for  food  at  another.  The  smaller  implements  of  hus- 
bandry, when  not  in  use,  arc  put  into  a  suitable  apartment ;  while  the 
carts  are  provided  with  a  shed,  into  which  some  of  the  larger  imjilements 
which  are  only  occasionally  used,  are  stored  by.  Wool  is  put  into  a  cool, 
clean  room.  An  apartment  containing  a  furnace  and  boiler  to  heat  water 
vnd  prepare  food  when  required  for  any  of  the  animals,  should  never  be 
wanting  in  any  steading.  These  are  the  principal  accommodations  re- 
quired in  a  steading  where  live-stock  are  cared  for  ;  and  when  all  the 
apartments  are  even  conveniently  arranged,  the  whole  building  will  be 
found  to  cover  a  considerable  space  of  ground. 

(5.)  The  leading  princij^Ic  on  which  these  arrangements  is  determined 
is  verj'  simple,  and  it  is  this  :  1.  Straw  being  the  bulkiest  article  on  the 
farm,  and  in  daily  use  by  every  kind  of  live-stock,  and  having  to  be  car- 
ried and  distributed  in  small  quantities  by  bodily  labor  though  a  heary 
and  unwieldy  substance,  should  be  centrically  placed,  in  regard  to  all  the 
stock,  and  at  a  short  distance  from  their  respective  apartments.  The  po- 
sition of  its  receptacle,  the  straw-ham,  should  thus  occupy  a  central  point 
of  the  steading;  and  the  several  apartments  containing  the  live-stock 
should  be  placed  equidistant  from  the  straw-bam,  to  save  labor  in  the 
carrj'ing  of  straw  to  the  stock.  2.  Again,  applying  the  principle,  that  so 
bulky  and  heavy  an  article  as  straw  should  in  all  circumstances  be  moved 
to  short  distances,  and  not  at  all,  if  possible,  from  any  other  apartment 
but  the  straw-bam,  the  threshing-machine,  which  deprives  the  straw  of  its 
grain,  should  be  so  placed  as  at  once  to  throw  the  straw  into  the  straw- 
barn.  3.  And,  in  farther  application  of  the  same  principle,  the  stack-yard 
containing  the  unthreshed  straw  with  its  com,  should  be  placed  contigu- 
ous to  the  threshing-machine.  4.  Lastly,  the  passage  of  straw  from  the 
stack-yard  to  the  straw-bam  through  the  threshing-machine  beine:  directly 
progressive,  it  is  not  an  immaterial  consideration  in  the  saving  of  time  to 
place  the  stack-yard,  threshing-mill,  and  straw-barn  in  a  right  line. 

(6.)  Different  classes  of  stock  require  different  quantities  of  straw,  to 
maintain  them  in  the  same  desfiee  of  cleanliness  and  condition.  Those 
classes  which  require  the  most  should  therefore  be  placed  nearest  the  straw- 
barn.  1.  The  yoimjrer  stock  requiring  most  straw,  the  courts  which  they 
occupy  should  be  placed  contiguous  to  the  straw-bam,  and  this  can  be 
most  effectually  done  by  placincj  the  straw-bam  so  as  a  court  may  be  put 
on  each  side  of  it.  2.  The  older  or  fattening  cattle  requirinc:  the  next 
larg^esr  quantity  of  straw,  the  hammels  which  they  occupy  should  be 
placed  next  to  these  courts  in  nearness  to  the  straw-bam.  3.  Horses  in 
the  stables,  and  cows  in  the  Imes,  requiring  the  smallest  quantity  of  straw, 
the  stables  and  byres  may  be  placed  next  farthest  in  distance  to  the  ham- 
mels from  the  straw-barn.  The  relative  positions  of  these  apartments  are 
thus  determined  by  the  comparative  use  of  the  straw.  4.  There  are  two 
apartments  of  the  steadinqr  whose  positions  are  necessarily  detemiincd  by 
that  of  the  threshing-machine  ;  the  one  is  the  upper-barn,  or  threshing- 
bam,  which  contains  the  unthreshed  corn  from  the  stack-yard,  ready  for 
threshing  by  the  mill ;  and  the  other  the  cora-barn,  which  is  below  the 
mill,  and  receives  the  com  immediately  after  its  separation  from  the  straw 
by  the  mill  to  be  cleaned  for  market.  5.  It  is  a  great  convenience  to 
have  the  granaries  in  direct  communication  with  the  corn-bara,  to  save 


THE   STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  8i 

the  labor  of  canying  the  clean  com  to  a  distance  when  laid  up  for  future 
use.  To  confine  the  space  occupied  by  the  steading  on  the  ground  as  much 
as  practicable  for  utility,  and  at  the  same  time  insure  the  good  condition  of 
the  grain,  and  especially  this  latter  advantage,  the  granaries  should  always 
be  elevated  above  the  ground,  and  their  floors  then  form  convenient  roofs 
for  either  cattle  or  cart-sheds.  6.  The  elevation  which  the  granaries  give 
to  the  building  should  be  taken  advantage  of  to  shelter  the  cattle-courts 
from  the  north  wind  in  winter  ;  and  for  the  same  reason  that  shelter  is 
cherished  for  warmth  to  the  cattle,  all  -the  cattle-courts  should  always  be 
open  to  the  sun.  The  courts  being  thus  open  to  the  south,  and  the  grana- 
ries forming  a  screen  from  the  north,  it  follows  that  the  granaries  should 
stretch  east  and  west  on  the  north  side  of  the  courts  ;  and,  as  has  been 
shown,  that  the  cattle-courts  should  be  placed  one  on  each  side  of  the 
straw-bam,  it  also  fellows  that  the  straw-barn,  to  be  out  of  the  way  of 
screening  the  sun  from  the  courts,  should  stand  north  and  south,  or  at 
right  angles  to  the  south  of  the  granaries.  7.  The  fixing  of  the  straw- 
bam  to  the  southward  of  the  gi-anaries,  and  of  course  to  that  of  the  thresh- 
ing-machine, necessarily  fixes  the  position  of  the  stack-yard  to  the  north 
of  both.  Its  northern  position  is  highly  favorable  to  the  preservation  of 
the  com  in  the  stacks.  8.  Tlie  relative  positions  of  these  apartments  are 
very  difterently  arranged  from  this  in  many  existing  steadings  ;  but  I  may 
safely  assert,  that  the  greater  the  deviation  from  the  principle  inculcated 
in  paragraphs  (5)  and  (6)  in  the  construction  of  steadings,  the  less  de- 
sirable they  become  as  habitations  for  live-stock  in  winter. 

(7.)  This  leading  principle  of  the  construction  of  a  steading  which  is  in- 
tended to  afford  shelter  to  live-stock  during  winter,  is  as  comprehensive  as 
it  is  simple,  for  it  is  applicable  to  every  size  of  steading.  Obviously  coiTect 
as  the  principle  is,  it  is  seldom  reduced  to  practice,  possibly  because  arch- 
itects, who  profess  to  supply  plans  of  steadings,  must  be  generally  unac- 
quainted with  their  practical  use.  There  is  one  consideration  upon  which 
architects  bestow  by  far  too  much  attention — the  constructing  of  steadings 
at  the  least  possible  cost ;  and,  to  attain  this  object  by  the  easiest  method, 
they  endeavor  to  cojifine  the  various  apartments  in  the  least  possible  space 
of  ground,  as  if  a  few  square  yards  of  the  ground  of  a  farm  were  of  great 
value.  No  doubt,  the  necessity  of  economy  is  urged  upon  them  by  the 
grudging  spirit  of  the  landlord  when  he  has  to  disburse  the  cost,  and  by 
the  poverty  of  the  tenant  when  that  burden  is  thrown  upon  him.  Now, 
economy  of  construction  should  be  a  secondary  consideration  in  compari- 
son with  the  proper  accommodation  which  should  be  afforded  to  live-stock- 
Suppose  that,  by  inadequate  accommodation,  cattle  thrive  by  10s.  a-head 
less  in  the  course  of  a  winter  than  they  would  have  done  in  well  construct- 
ed courts  and  hammels  (and  the  supposition  is  by  no  means  extravagant), 
*  and  suppose  that  the  farmer  is  prevented  realizing  this  sum  on  three  lots 
of  twenty  cattle  each  of  different  ages,  there  would  be  an  annual  loss  to 
him  of  c£30,  from  want  of  proper  accommodation.  Had  the  capital  sum, 
of  which  the  annual  loss  of  ^£30  is  the  yearly  interest,  been  expended  in 
constructing  the  steading  in  the  best  manner,  the  loss  would  not  only  have 
been  averted,  but  the  cattle  in  much  better  health  and  condition  to  slaugh- 
ter, or  to  fatten  on  grass.  Economy  is  an  excellent  rule  to  follow  in  farm- 
ing, but  it  should  never  be  put  in  practice  to  the  violation  of  approved 
principles,  or  the  creation  of  inconveniences  to  live-stock,  whether  in  the 
steading  or  out  of  it.  I  regret  to  observe  both  errors  too  prevalent  in  the 
construction  of  steadings.  For  example  :  It  is  undeniable  that  as  cattle 
occupy  the  courts  only  in  winter,  when  the  air,  even  in  the  best  situations, 
is  at  a  low  temperature,  and  the  day  short,  they  should  in  such  circum- 

(129) 6 


82  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER,  t- 

stancee  enjoy  as  much  light  and  heat  from  the  sun  as  can  be  obtained.  It 
is  quite  practicable  to  afford  them  both  in  courts  facing  fully  to  the  south, 
where  these  influences  may  be  both  seen  and  felt  even  in  winter.  Instead 
of  that,  cattle-courts  are  very  frequently  placed  within  a  quadrangle  of 
buildings,  the  southern  range  of  which,  in  the  first  instance,  eclipses  the 
winter's  sun  of  even  his  diminished  influence  ;  and  the  whole  of  which,  be- 
sides, converts  the  chilling  air,  which  ruslies  over  the  comers  of  its  roof 
into  the  courts,  into  a  whirlwind  of  stai-vation,  which,  if  accompanied  with 
rain  or  sleet,  is  sure  to  engender  the  most  insidious  diseases  in  the  cattle. 
Beware,  then,  of  suffering  loss  by  similar  fatal  consequences  to  your  cat- 
tle ;  and,  to  prompt  you  to  be  always  on  your  guard,  impress  the  above 
simple  principle  of  the  construction  of  steadings  firmly  upon  your  minds. 
Rest  assured  that  its  \-iolation  may  prove  in  the  end  a  much  greater  loss 
by  preventing  the  cattle  thriving,  than  the  paltry  sum  saved  at  first  in  the 
outlay  of  the  buildings  can  possibly  ever  recompense  you  for  that  loss. 

(8.)  Fig.  1,  Plate  1.  gives  an  isometrical  view  of  an  existing  steading 
suitable  for  the  mixed  husbandry,  somewhat  though  not  on  the  precise 
principles  which  I  have  inculcated  just  now,  but  rather  on  the  usual  plan 
of  huddling  together  the  various  parts  of  a  steading,  with  a  view  of  sa^^ng 
some  of  its  original  cost.*  There  are  many  steadings  of  this  construction 
to  be  found  in  the  country,  but  many  more  in  which  stalls  for  feeding  cat- 
tle are  substituted  for  hammels.  The  north  range  a  a  represents  the  gran- 
aries with  their  windows,  b  the  upper  barn,  c  c  the  arches  into  the  sheds 
for  cattle  imder  the  granaries.  The  projecting  building  d  in  the  middle  is 
the  straw-bam,  which  communicates  by  a  door  in  each  side  with  the  court 
c  or  f  for  the  younger  cattle.  The  projecting  building  g,  standing  paral- 
lel ^vith  the  straw-bam  on  the  right  hand  side  of  the  court  f,  is  the  stable 
for  the  work -horses  ;  and  the  other  projecting  building  h,  also  parallel  with 
the  straw-bam  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  court  e,  is  the  cart-shed.  The 
cow-b\Tes  i,  and  hammels  k  for  feeding  cattle,  are  seen  stretching  to  the 
right  in  a  line  with  the  north  range  a,  but  too  far  off  from  the  straw-bam 
d  :  I  are  hammels  for  a  bull  and  queys  :  in,  sheds  for  shepherds'  stores  : 
n,  stack-yard  ^^•ith  stacks  :  o,  turnip  stores  :  p,  piggeries  :  q,  calves'  court : 
r,  implement-house  :  *,  boiling-house  :  t,  horse-pond  :  %t,  hen-house  :  v. 
liquid  manure  tank  :  w,  hay -loft :  x,  out -houses  :  y,  slaughter-house  :  and 
z,  hammels  for  young  horses.     This  is  a  common  disposition  of  the  prin- 


[*  The  reader  will,  probably,  find  nothing  in  "  The  Book  of  the  Farm"  which,  at  first  view, 
may  Bcem  more  obnoxious  than  this  to  the  appearance  of  being  on  a  scale  of  accommodation  and 
expense  nnsniicd  to  American  farmers  and  American  husbandry.  And  yet,  -when  he  comes  to 
examine  the  observations  of  the  Author  in  all  their  details,  they  will  be  found  to  be  replete  with 
practical  instruction  and  directions,  which  may  be  heeded  with  profit  in  the  construction  and  ar- 
rangement of  all  buildings,  on  whatever  scale,  designed  for  the  shelter  of  domestic  animals,  the  * 
care  and  distribution  of  their  food,  and  the  preservation  of  farm  vehicles  and  implements — such 
buildings  ns  in  England  are  termed  the  "steading  or  farmstead." 

Some  there  may  be,  and  doubtless  are — such  as  wealthy  merchants  on  retiring  from  the  cares 
and  vicissitudes  of  commerce — who  nnite  the  means  with  the  de»ire  to  have  their  farm.stead  as 
lomplete  as  the  best  architectural  design  and  materials  can  make  ;t.  To  all  such  the  plans  here 
presented  may  eerv-e  as  models,  while  they,  and  others  with  less  means  at  command,  may  so 
modify  them  as  to  suit  all  difference  of  circumstances — avoiding  some  portions,  and  yet  seeing 
much  in  parts  of  them  that  is  eligible  and  in  accordance  with  their  own  views  and  means. 

But,  without  desiring  to  prejudice  the  judgment  of  the  reader,  we  may  ask  him  at  least  to  ad- 
mit, in  the  costliness  of  the  illustrations  connected  with  this  part  of  the  Book  of  Uie  Farm,  some 
evidence  that  the  Publishers  desire  not  to  shun  any  outlay  that  may  be  necessary  to  make  the 
Farmers'  Librart  worthy  of  public  patronage,  and  fitted  to  fulfill  their  own  promises. 

Ed.  Farm.  L%b.\ 
(130) 


^.^ 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  83 

cipal  parts  of  a  modern  improved  steading ;  and  a  slight  inspection  of  the 
plate  will  convince  you  that  in  the  arrangement  of  its  different  apartments 
is  exhibited  much  of  the  principle  which  I  have  been  advocating.  Many 
modifications  of  this  particular  arrangement  may  be  observed  in  actual 
practice  : — 1.  such  as  the  removal  of  the  straw-bam  d  into  the  north  range 
a,  and  the  placing  of  hammels,  such  as  k,  into  the  courts  e  and  f,  and  the 
conversion  of  one  of  the  sheds  c  into  cart-sheds.  2.  Another  modification 
encloses  a  large  court  divided  into  two,  within  a  range  of  buildings  form- 
ing three  sides  of  a  quadrangle,  and  retaining  the  north  range  for  the  gran- 
aries, of  a  higher  altitude  than  the  rest.  3.  While  another  comprises  two 
large  courts,  each  surrounded  by  three  sides  of  a  quadrangle,  the  range  in 
the  middle  occupied  by  the  threshing-mill  and  straw-barn  being  retained 
at  a  higher  altitude  than  the  rest.  4.  Another  completes  the  quadrangle 
around  one  court.  5.  While  another  surrounds  a  large  court,  divided  into 
two,  with  a  quadrangle.  6.  And  the  last  modification  surrounds  two  sep- 
arate courts,  each  with  a  quadrangle,  having  a  common  side.  These  mod- 
ifications are  made  to  suit  either  large  or  small  farms ;  but  they  all  profess 
to  follow  the  same  plan  of  arrangement.  In  truth,  however,  so  varied  is 
the  construction  of  steadings,  that,  I  dare  say,  no  two  in  the  country  are 
exactly  alike.  Modifications  in  their  construction  in  obedience  to  influen- 
tial circumstances  may  be  justifiable,  but  still  they  should  all  have  refer- 
ence to  the  principle  insisted  on  above. 

(9.)  Fig.  2,  Plate  II.  contains  an  engraving  of  a  ground-plan  of  the 
steading  represented  by  the  isometrical  view  in  Plate  I.  It  is  unnecessary 
for  me  to  describe  in  detail  all  the  component  parts  of  this  plan,  as  the 
names  and  sizes  of  the  vai'ious  apartments  are  all  set  down.  A  short  in- 
spection will  suffice  to  make  you  well  enough  acquainted  with  the  whole 
arrangement.  This  plan  has  been  found,  by  extensive  use,  to  constitute  a 
commodious,  convenient,  and  comfortable  steading  for  the  stock  and  crop 
of  500  acres,  raised  by  the  mixed  husbandry  ;  and  those  properties  it  pos- 
sesses in  a  superior  degree  to  most  similar  existing  steadings  of  the  same 
extent  in  this  country,  and  in  a  much  greater  degree  than  any  of  the  mod- 
ified plans  to  which  I  have  just  alluded. 

(10.)  The  steading  I  loould  desire  to  see  erected  would  be  exactly  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  principle  I  have  laid  down.  I  do  not  know  one,  nor  is 
there  probably  in  existence  one  exactly  on  that  pi-inciple,  but  I  have  seen 
several,  particularly  in  the  north  of  England,  which  have  impressed  me 
with  the  belief  that  there  is  a  construction,  could  it  be  but  discovered, 
which  would  afford  the  most  excellent  accommodation,  the  gi'eatest  con- 
venience, and  the  utmost  degree  of  comfort  to  live-stock ;  and  live-stock 
being  the  principal  inhabitants  of  steadings,  too  much  care,  in  every  re- 
spect, cannot,  in  my  opinion,  be  bestowed  on  the  construction  of  their  hab- 
itations, so  as  to  insure  them  in  the  inclement  season  the  greatest  degree 
of  comfort.  I  shall  describe  both  an  isometrical  view  and  ground-plan  of 
a  steading  of  imaginary  construction,  in  strict  accordance  with  the  above 
principle — the  principle  itself  having  been  brought  out  by  the  promptings 
of  experience.  I  shall  minutely  describe  these  plans,  in  the  sanguine  hope 
that  the  obvious  advantages  which  they  exhibit  will  recommend  their  con- 
struction for  adoption  to  all  proprietors  and  tenants  who  feel  desirous  of 
obtaining  a  plan  of  a  steading  for  crop  and  stock,  the  arrangements  of 
which  have  been  suggested  by  matured  practical  experience.  The  size 
of  these  particular  plans  is  not  suited  to  any  farm,  whereon  the  mixed  hus- 
bandry is  practiced,  of  less  extent  than  500  acres ;  because,  in  order  to 
illustrate  their  principle,  it  was  necessary  to  fix  on  some  definite  size,  that 
the  relative  sizes  and  positions  of  the  different  apartments  might  be  dcfini- 

(131) 


84  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

lively  set  do«-n  ;  but  the  whole  arrangement  of  the  apartments  is  suited  to 
any  size  of  plan,  as  the  size  and  number  of  the  apartments  may  be  enlarged 
or  diminished  according  to  the  extent  of  the  farm. 

(11.)  Fig.  3,  Plate  III.  represents  an  isomctrical  view  of  such  a  stead- 
ing, and  keeping  the  principle  upon  which  it  is  constructed  in  mind,  you 
will  find  that  this  view  illustrates  it  in  every  respect  that  has  been  stated. 
1.  A  A  is  the  principal  or  north  range  of  building,  of  two  stories  in  bight, 
standing  east  and  west.  It  contains  two  granaries,  A  and  A,  the  upper- 
barn  C,  which  is  also  the  site  of  the  threshing-machine ;  the  corn-bam 
being  immediately  below  it  is  of  course  invisible,  the  sheds  D  D  are  under 
the  granaries ;  E  is  the  engine-house,  and  F  the  steam-engine  furnace- 
stalk,  where  the  power  employed  to  impel  the  threshing-machine  is  steam, 
G  the  implement-house  entering  from  the  west  gable,  and  H  the  hay- 
house,  under  a  granarj'.  These  several  apartments,  while  occuppng  the 
north  range,  are  greatly  sennceable  in  sheltering  the  young  stock  in  the 
large  courts  I  and  K  from  the  north  wind.  2.  Immediately  adjoining  to 
the  south  of  the  corn-bam,  upper-barn,  and  threshing-machine,  is  the 
straw-bam  L,  standing  north  and  south,  contiguously  placed  for  the  emis- 
sion of  straw  from  either  side  into  the  courts  I  and  K.  3.  It  is  also  con- 
venientlv  situated  for  supplying  straw  to  the  feeding  hammels  M,  to  the 
right  or  eastward  of  the  large  court  K,  and  equally  so  for  supplying  it  to 
those  at  X,  to  the  left  or  westward  of  the  large  court  I.  4.  It  is  accessi- 
bly enough  placed  for  supplying  straw  to  the  work-horse  stable  O,  and  the 
saddle-horse  stable  P,  to  the  right  or  eastward  in  a  line  of  the  principal 
range  A.  It  is  equally  accessible  to  the  cow-byre  Q,  and  calves'-cribs  R, 
to  the  left  or  westward,  in  a  hne  of  the  principal  range  A.  S  is  the  stack- 
yard, from  which  the  stacks  are  taken  into  the  upper-bam  C,by  the  gang- 
way T  ;  U  is  the  boiling-house  ;  V  the  cart-shed,  opposite  and  near  the 
work -house  stable  O;  W  is  the  wool-room,  ha^*ing  a  window  in  the  gable, 
and  its  stair  is  from  the  straw-bam  L  ;  XX  comprise  two  small  hammels 
for  bulls ;  Y  is  the  sei-vants'  cow-house,  in  the  hammels  N  ;  Z  is  the  gig- 
house,  adjoining  to  the  liding-horse  stable  P.  a  are  four  sties  for  feeding 
pigs  therein  ;  5  is  a  small  open  court,  with  a  shed  for  containing  young 
pigs  after  they  have  just  been  weaned ;  c  are  two  sties  for  brood-sows 
while  lying-in.  d  are  three  apartments  for  the  hatching  and  rearing  of 
fowls,  e  and  f  are  turnip-stores  for  supplying  the  hammels  M  ;  ^  is  the 
turnip-store  for  supplying  the  large  court  K;  /<,  that  for  small  hammels 
X,  and  the  servants'  cow-hf»use  Y  ;  /,  that  for  the  large  court  I ;  and  p 
and  J  are  those  for  the  hammels  N.  h  is  the  open  court  and  shed,  \vith 
water-ti'ough  for  the  calves  ;  /  the  open  court,  with  water-trough  far  the 
cows,  m  is  the  turnip-shed  for  the  cow-house  Q,  and  calves'-cribs  R.  n 
is  the  hay-stark  built  in  the  stackyard  S,  near  the  hay-hou-^c  H.  o  and  o 
are  straw-racks  for  the  center  of  the  large  courts  I  and  K.  u  is  the  ven- 
tilator on  the  roof  of  the  boilinir-house  U;  r  that  on  the  cow-house  Q; 
*,  that  on  the  calves'-cribs  R  ;  t  and  ?/-,  tho.se  on  the  roof  of  the  work-hoi-se 
stable  O  ;  and  y.  that  on  the  ridinij-horse  stable  P.  x  is  the  liquid  manure- 
well  to  which  drains  converge  from  the  various  parts  of  the  fannstead. 
z  are  feeding-troughs,  dispersed  in  the  different  courts  and  hammels.  v 
is  the  open  court  for  the  sers'ants'  cows.     And  Z'  and  f  are  potato  stores. 

(12.)  A  ven,'  little  consideration  of  the  airangement  just  now  detailed, 
will  suffice  to  show  you  that  it  completely  illustrates  the  principle  I  have 
been  advocating  for  the  construction  of  farmsteads.  Still,  looking  at  the 
isometrical  view,  in  fie.  3,  Plate  III.,  it  will  be  obsei-\ed  that  the  threshing- 
machine  C — the  machinery  for  letting  loose  the  straw — is  situated  in  the 
middle  of  the  groat  range  A,  ready  to  receive  the  unthreshcd  crop  behind 

(132) 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  85 

from  the  stack-yard  S,  and  as  ready  to  deliver  the  straw  threshed  into  the 
straw-barn  L  standing  before  it.  The  store  of  straw  in  L,  being  placed 
exactly  in  the  center  of  the  premises,  is  easily  made  available  to  the  large 
courts  I  and  K  and  the  sheds  D  and  D  by  its  four  doors,  two  on  each  side. 
The  straw  can  be  earned  down  the  road  on  the  right  of  the  straw-barn 
L,  to  the  hammels  M  ;  and  along  the  farther  end  of  the  court  K,  through 
the  gate  at  H  to  both  the  stables  O  and  P.  It  can  with  as  much  facility 
be  carried  across  the  eastern  angle  of  the  large  court  I,  through  the  gate 
at  the  bull's  hammels  X,  to  the  range  of  hammels  at  N,  and  to  the 
servants'  cow-house  Y,  by  its  door  near  the  turnip-store  h.  It  can  also 
be  earned  right  across  the  same  court  I,  through  the  gate  behind  Y  to  the 
cow-house  Q.,  and  the  calves'-cribs  R.  The  hammels  X,  the  pigs  vn  a  h 
and  c,  and  the  fowls  in  d,  can  easily  be  supplied  with  straw.  You  may 
observe  in  the  arrangement  of  these  apartments,  that  the  stables  O  and  P, 
and  the  cow-house  Q,  and  the  calves'-cribs  R,  are  situated  beliind  the 
hammels  M  and  N,  and  they  are  there  for  these  reasons  :  Hammels  for 
feeding  cattle  requiring  much  more  straw  than  stables  and  byres,  accord- 
ing to  the  foregoing  theory,  should  be  placed  near  the  straw-barn  ;  and 
hammels,  moreover,  being  only  occupied  in  winter  by  stock,  should  de- 
rive, during  that  season,  the  fullest  advantage  that  can  be  given  them  of 
the  light  and  heat  of  the  sun.  The  servants'  cow-byre  Y  being  placed 
nearer  the  straw-barn  than  the  hammels  N,  may  seem  to  cont'-avene  the 
principle  laid  down  ;  but  the  cow-byre,  if  desired,  may  be  removed  to  the 
other  end  of  the  hammels,  though  in  the  case  where  young  horses  and 
queys  in  calf  are  intended  to  occupy  the  small  hammels  N,  it  may  con- 
veniently remain  where  it  is,  as  they  do  not  requii-e  so  much  straw  as 
cows.  If  these  hammels  are  to  be  destined  to  the  accommodation  of 
feeding  stock,  then  the  byre  ought  to  be  removed  to  the  extreme  left  of 
the  building.  This  form  of  steading  is  amply  commodious,  for  it  can  ac- 
commodate all  the  working  and  breeding  stock,  together  with  four  gen- 
erations of  young  stock  in  different  stages  of  growth.  A  more  convenient 
arrangement  than  this  for  a  farmstead,  as  I  conceive,  can  scarcely  be 
imagined,  and  all  the  parts  of  it  are  of  such  a  magnitude  as  not  only  to 
afford  ample  room  for  every  thing  accommodated  within  it,  but  with 
proper  fittings  up,  the  arrangement  is  capable  of  conferring  great  comfort 
on  its  inmates.  Its  commodiousness  will  be  the  moi'e  apparent  after  the 
ground-plan  has  been  considered  in  detail. 

(13.)  Fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  is  the  ground-plan  of  the  steading,  of  which  the 
preceding  plate  that  has  just  been  described  is  the  isometrical  view.  The 
straw-ham  L  is  seen  at  once,  running  north  and  south.  It  is  purposely 
made  of  the  hight  of  the  upper  barn  to  contain  a  large  quantity  of  straw, 
as  it  is  oflen  convenient  in  bad  weather  to  thresh  out  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  corn,  when  no  other  work  can  be  proceeded  with,  or  when  high 
market  prices  induce  farmers  to  reap  advantage  fi-om  them.  There  is 
another  good  reason  for  giving  ample  room  to  the  straw-barn.  Every  sort 
of  straw  is  not  suited  to  every  purpose,  one  sort  being  best  suited  for  lit- 
ter, and  another  for  foddei'.  This  being  the  case,  it  is  desirable  to  have 
always  both  kinds  in  the  barn,  that  the  fodder-straw  may  not  be  wasted 
in  litter,  and  the  litter-straw  given  as  fodder  to  the  injury  of  the  bestial. 
Besides,  the  same  sort  of  straw  is  not  alike  acceptable  as  fodder  to  every 
class  of  animals.  Thus  wheat-straw  is  a  favorite  fodder  with  horses,  as 
well  as  oat-straw,  while  the  latter  only  is  acceptable  to  cattle.  Barley- 
straw  is  only  fit  for  litter.  To  give  access  to  litter  and  fodder  straw  at  the 
same  time,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  door  from  each  kind  into  each  court. 
Thus  four  doors,  two  at  each  side  near  the  ends,  are  required  in  a  large 

(133) 


86  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

straw-barn.  Slit-like  openings  should  be  made  in  its  side-walls,  to  admit 
air  and  promote  ventilation  through  the  straw.  A  sky-light  in  the  roof  at 
the  end  nearest  the  threshing-machine,  is  useful  in  giving  light  to  those 
who  take  away  and  store  up  the  straw  from  the  threshing-machine  when 
the  doors  are  shut,  which  they  should  be  whenever  the  wind  happens  to 
blow  t()(j  strongly  througli  them  into  the  machine  against  the  straw.  In- 
stead of  dividing  straw-barn  doors  into  two  vertical  leaves,  as  is  usually 
done,  they  should  be  divided  horizontally  into  an  upper  and  a  lower  leaf, 
so  that  the  lower  may  always  be  kept  shut  against  intruders,  such  as  pigs, 
while  the  upper  admits  both  light  and  air  into  the  barn.  One  of  the  doors 
at  each  end  should  be  fumished  with  a  good  stock-lock  and  key  and  thumb- 
latch,  and  the  other  two  fastened  with  a  wooden  hand-bar  from  the  inside. 
The  floor  of  the  straw-barn  is  seldom  or  never  flagged  or  causewayed, 
though  it  is  desirable  it  should  be.  If  it  were  not  so  expensive,  the  as- 
phaltum  pavement  would  make  an  excellent  floor  for  a  straw-bam.  What- 
ever substance  is  employed  for  the  puq^ose,  the  floor  should  be  made  so 
finu  and  dry  as  to  prevent  the  earth  rising  and  the  straw  moulding. 
Mouldy  straw  at  the  bottom  of  a  heap  superinduces  throughout  the  upper 
mass  a  disagreeable  odor,  and  imparts  a  taste  repugnant  to  evei-y  animal. 
That  portion  of  the  floor  upon  which  the  straw  first  alights  on  sliding 
down  the  straw-screen  of  the  threshing-machine,  should  be  strongly  board- 
ed to  resist  the  action  of  the  forks  Avhen  removing  the  straw.  Blocks  of 
hard-wood,  such  as  the  stools  of  hard-wood  trees,  set  on  end,  causeway- 
wise,  and  sunk  into  the  earth,  form  a  very  durable  flooring  for  this  pui-pose. 
Stone  flagging  in  this  place  destroys  the  prongs  of  the  pitchforks.  The 
straw-barn  should  communicate  with  the  chaff'-house  by  a  shutting  door,  to 
enable  those  who  take  away  the  straw  to  sec  whether  the  chaff"  accumu- 
lates too  high  against  the  end  of  the  winnowing-raachine.  The  communica- 
cation  to  the  wool-room  in  this  plan  is  by  the  straw-barn,  by  means  of  the  stair 
d ,  made  either  of  wood  or  stone.  The  straw-bam  is  represented  72  feet  in 
length,  18  feet  in  breadth,  and  15  feet  in  hight  to  the  top  of  the  side  walls. 
(14.)  C  is  the  corn-ham.  Its  roof  is  formed  of  the  floor  of  the  upper 
bam,  and  its  hight  is  generally  made  too  low.  The  higher  the  roof  is  the 
more  easily  will  the  corn  descend  to  be  cleaned  from  the  threshing-machine 
down  the  hopper  to  the  winno wing-machine.  Nine  feet  is  the  least  hight 
it  should  be  in  any  instance.  The  plan  gives  the  size  of  the  com-barn  as 
31  feet  by  18  feet,  but  taking  off"  5  feet  for  partitioning  off"  the  machinery 
of  the  threshing-mill,  as  at  s,  the  extent  of  the  workable  part  of  the  barn- 
floor  will  be  2G  feet  by  18  feet.  In  that  space  I  have  seen  much  barn- 
work  done,  but  it  could  be  made  more  by  diminishing  the  size  of  the  shed 
D  of  the  court  K.  The  corn-bam  should  have  in  it  at  least  two  glazed 
windows  to  admit  plenty  of  light  in  the  short  days  of  winter,  and  they 
should  be  guanled  outside  with  iron  stanchions.  If  one  window  cannot 
be  got  to  the  south,  the  door  when  open  will  answer  for  the  admission  of 
sunshine  to  keep  the  apartment  comfortably  dry  for  the  work-people  and 
the  grain.  The  door  is  generally  divided  into  upper  and  lower  halves, 
which,  as  usually  placed,  are  always  in  the  way  when  the  winnowing- 
maahine  is  used  at  the  door.  A  more  convenient  method  is  to  have  the 
door  in  a  whole  piece,  and  when  opened,  to  fold  back  into  a  recess  in  the 
outer  wall,  over  the  top  of  which  a  plinth  might  jiroject  to  throw  off"  the 
rain.  In  this  case  the  ribets  and  lintel  must  be  giblet-checked  as  deep  as 
the  thickness  of  the  door,  into  which  it  should  close  flush,  and  be  fastened 
with  a  good  lock  and  key,  and  provided  with  a  thumb-latch.  The  object 
of  making  the  com-bana  door  of  this  form  is  to  avoid  the  inconvenience  of 
its  opening  into  the  barn,  where,  unless  it  folds  wholly  back  on  a  wall,  ia 

(134) 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD. 


87 


frequently  in  the  way  of  work,  particularly  when  winnowing  roughs,  and 
taking  out  sacks  of  com  on  men's  backs.  As  to  size,  it  should  not  be 
less  in  the  opening  than  7^  feet  in  hight  and  3^  feet  in  width.  A  light 
half-door  can  be  hooked  on,  when  work  is  going  on,  to  prevent  the  intru- 
sion of  animals,  and  the  wind  sweeping  along  the  floor.  The  floor  of  the 
corn-barn  is  frequently  made  of  clay,  or  of  a  composition  of  ashes  and 
lime  ;  the  asphaltic  composition  would  be  better  than  either  ;  but  in  every 
instance  it  should  be  made  of  wood — of  sound,  hard  red-wood  Drahm  bat- 
tens, plowed  and  feathered,  and  fastened  down  to  stout  joists  with  Scotch 
flooring  sprigs  driven  through  the  feather-edge.  A  wooden  floor  is  the 
only  one  that  can  be  depended  on  being  constantly  dry  in  a  corn-bana ; 
and  in  a  barn  for  the  use  of  corn,  a  dry  floor  is  indispensable.  It  has  been 
suggested  to  me  that  a  stone  pavement,  square-jointed,  and  laid  on  a  bed 
of  lime  over  9  inches  of  broken  stones  ;  or  an  asphaltum  pavement,  laid 
on  a  body  of  6  inches  of  broken  stones,  covered  with  a  bed  of  grout  on 
the  top  of  the  stones,  would  make  as  dry  and  more  durable  barn-floor  than 
wood,  and  which  will  not  rot.  I  am  aware  that  stone  or  asphaltum  pave- 
ment is  durable,  and  not  liable  to  rot ;  but  there  are  objections  to  both,  in 
a  corn-barn,  of  a  practical  nature,  and  it  is  certain  that  the  best  stone 
pavement  is  not  proof  against  the  undermining  powers  of  the  brown  rat ; 
while  a  wooden  floor  is  durable  enough,  and  certainly  will  not  rot,  if  kept 
dry  in  the  manner  I  shall  recommend  over  the  page.  The  objections  to 
all  stony  pavements  as  a  barn-floor  are,  that  the  scoops  for  shoveling  the 
corn  pass  very  hai'shly  over  them — that  the  iron  nails  in  the  shoes  of  the 
work-people  wear  them  down,  and  raise  a  dust  upon  them — and  that  they 
are  hurtful  to  the  bare  hands  and  lighter  implements,  when  used  in  taking 
up  the  corn  from  the  floor.  For  true  comfort  in  all  these  respects  in  a 
barn-floor,  there  is  nothing  hke  wood.  The  walls  of  this  bam  should  be^ 
made  smooth  with  hair-plaster,  and  the  joists  and  flooring  forming  its  roof 
cleaned  with  the  plane,  as  dust  adheres  much  more  readily  to  a  rough 
than  to  a  smooth  surface.  The  stairs  to  the  granaries  *  and  s  should  en- 
ter from  the  corn-barn,  and  a  stout  plain-deal  door  with  lock  and  key 
placed  at  the  bottom  of  each.  And  at  the  side  of  one  of  the  stairs  may  be 
inclosed  on  the  floor  of  the  barn  a  space,  t,  to  contain  light  corn  to  be 
given  to  the  fowls  and  pigs  in  summer  when  this  sort  of  food  is  scarce 
about  the  steading. 

(15.)  As  the  method  of  hanging  doors  on  a  giblet-check  should  be  adopt- 
ed in  all  cases  in  steadings  ^'S-  5- 
where  doors  on  outside  walls 
are  likely  to  meet  with  obstruc- 
tions on  opening  inward,  or 
themselves  becoming  obstruct- 
ive to  things  passing  outward, 
the  subject  deserves  a  separate 
notice.  In  fig.  5,  a  is  a  strong 
door,  mounted  on  crooks  and 
bands,  fully  open,  and  thrown 
back  into  the  recess  of  the  wall 
b  ;  the  projecting  part  of  the 
lintel  c  protecting  it  effectually 
from  the  rain  ;  d  is  the  giblet- 
check  in  the  lintel,  and  e  that 
iti  the  ribets,  into  which  the 
door  shuts  flush  ;  f  is  the  light 
movable  door  used  when  work  is  going  on  in  the  corn-bam. 

(135) 


THE  CORN-BARN  DOOR. 


oO 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


(16.)  The  wooden  floor  of  the  cora-barn  is  liable  to  decay  unless  precau* 
tions  are  used  to  prevent  it,  but  a  much  too  common  cause  of  its  destruc- 
tion is  veiTnin — such  as  i-ats  and  mice.  It  is  discreditable  to  fanners  to 
perniit  this  floor  to  remain  in  a  state  of  decay  for  any  length  of  time,  when 
an  effectual  preventive  remedy  is  within  their  reach ;  and  the  more  cer- 
tainly preventive  that  remedy  is,  the  more  it  should  be  appreciated.  I  used 
a  most  effectual  method  of  preventing  the  destructive  ravages  of  either  ver- 
min or  damp,  by  supporting  the  floor  in  the  particular  manner  represented 
in  fig.  6.  Tlie  earth,  in  the  first  instance,  is  dug  out  of  the  bam  to  the  depth 
of  the  foundations  of  the  walls,  which  should  be  two  feet  below  the  door 
soles ;  and,  in  the  case  of  a  new  steading,  this  can  be  done  when  the  foun- 
dations of  the  walls  are  taken  out.     The  ground  is  then  spread  over  with 

Fig.  6. 


SECTION  OF  THE  CORN  BARN  FLOOR. 


a  laye/  of  sand,  sufficient  to  preserve  steadiness  in  the  stout  rough  flags  h  A, 
which  are  laid  upon  it  and  jointed  in  strong  mortar.  Twelve-inch  thick 
sleeper  walls  a  a,  of  stone  and  lime,  arc  then  built  on  the  flags,  to  serve  the 
purpose  of  supporting  each  end  of  the  joists  of  the  floor.  The  joists  c, 
formed  of  10  by  21  inch  plank,  are  then  laid  down  16  inches  apart,  and  the 
spaces  between  them  filled  up  to  the  top  with  stone  and  lime.  The  build- 
ing between  the  joists  requires  to  be  done  in  a  peculiar  way.  It  should  be 
done  with  squared  rubble  stones,  and  on  no  account  should  the  mortar 
come  in  contact  with  the  joists,  as  there  is  nothing  destroys  timber,  by  su- 
perinducing the  dry  rot,  more  readily  than  the  action  of  mortar  upon  it. — 
For  this  reason  great  care  should  be  observed  in  building  in  the  joists  into 
the  walls — in  placing  the  safe-lintels  over  the  doors  and  windows,  the 
stones  being  dry-bedded  over  them — and  in  beam-filling  between  the 
couple-legs.  The  floor  d  is  then  properly  laid  on  a  level  with  the  door- 
sole,  and  finished  with  a  neat  skifting  board  /  i  round  the  walls  of  the  barn. 
By  this  contrivance  the  vermin  cannot  possibly  reach  the  floor  but  from 
the  flags,  which  are  nearly  2  feet  under  it.  A  hewn  stone  pillar  f,  or  even 
two,  are  placed  on  the  flags  under  each  joist  to  support  and  strengthen  the 

(136) 


THE   STEADING   OR  FARMSTEAD.  89 

floor.  This  construction  of  floor  admits  of  abundance  of  air  above  and  be- 
low to  preserve  it,  and  affords  plenty  of  room  under  it  for  cats  and  dogs  to 
hunt  after  the  vermin.  This  figure  also  gives  a  section  of  the  building 
above  the  com-barn,  including  the  floor  of  the  ujiper  barn,  the  outside 
walls,  and  the  coupling,  slating,  and  ridging  of  the  roof  of  the  middle  range 
of  building. 

(17.)  The  chaff-house,  r,  stands  between  the  corn  and  straw  barns.  It  is 
separated  from  the  former  by  a  wooden  partition,  and  from  the  latter  by  a 
stone-wall.  Its  hight  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  com-barn,  the  floor  of  the 
upper  barn  forming  a  roof  common  to  both.  It  is  18  feet  in  length  and  14 
feet  in  width.  It  contains  the  winnowing-machine  or  fanners  of  the  thresh- 
ing-machine, from  which  it  receives  the  chaff".  It  has  a  thin  door  with  a 
thumb-latch  into  the  straw-barn,  for  a  convenient  access  to  adjust  any  of 
the  gearing  of  the  fanners ;  as  also  a  boarded  window  hung  on  crooks  and 
bands,  fastened  in  the  inside  with  a  wooden  hand-bar,  and  looking  into  the 
large  court  K  ;  but  its  principal  door,  through  which  the  chaff"  is  emptied, 
opens  outward  into  the  large  court  I.  This  door  should  be  giblet-checked, 
and  fastened  fi-om  the  inside  with  a  wooden  hand-bar.  The  space  between 
the  head  of  the  fanners  and  the  wall  should  be  so  boarded  up  as  not  to  in- 
terfere with  the  action  of  the  fanner-belts,  but  merely  prevent  the  chaff"  be- 
ing scattered  among  the  machinery,  and  any  access  by  persons  being  effect- 
ed by  the  machinery  into  the  upper  bam. 

(18.)  D  D  are  two  sheds  for  sheltering  the  cattle  occupying  the  courts  I 
and  K  from  rain  and  cold,  by  night  or  day,  when  they  may  choose  to  take 
refuge  in  them.  The  shed  of  the  court  I  is  52  feet  in  length  by  18  feet  in 
width,  being  a  little  longer  than  that  of  the  court  K,  which  is  47  feet  in 
length  and  18  feet  in  width,  and  their  hight  is  9  feet  to  the  floor  of  the  gran- 
aries, which  forms  their  roof.  The  access  to  these  sheds  from  the  courts 
is  by  arched  openings  of  9  feet  in  width,  and  7^  feet  in  hight  to  the  top  of 
the  arch.  There  should  be  a  rack  fastened  against  one  of  the  walls  of  each 
shed  to  supply  fodder  to  the  cattle  under  shelter  in  bad  weather,  as  at  h'. 
As  when  a  large  number  of  cattle  are  confined  together,  of  whatever  age, 
some  will  endeavor  to  obtain  the  mastery  over  the  others,  and  to  prevent 
accidents  in  cases  of  actual  collision,  it  has  been  recommended  to  have  two 
openings  to  each  shed,  to  aff"ord  a  ready  means  of  egress  to  the  fugitives ; 
and,  as  a  farther  safety  to  the  bones  and  skins  of  the  unhappy  victims,  the 
angles  of  the  hewn  pillars  which  support  the  arches  should  be  chamfered. 
In  my  opinion,  the  precaution  of  two  openings  for  the  reason  given  is 
unnecessary,  inasmuch  as  cattle,  and  especially  those  which  have  been 
brought  up  together,  soon  become  familiarized  to  each  other  ;  and  two 
openings  cause  draughts  of  air  through  the  shed.  If  holes  were  made  in 
the  faces  of  the  pillars  opposite  to  each  other  in  the  openings,  so  as  bars 
of  wood  could  be  put  across  them,  the  cattle  could  at  any  time  be  kept  con- 
fined within  the  sheds.  This  might  at  times  be  necessary,  especially  when 
the  courts  are  clearing  out  of  the  manure.  The  shed  of  the  court  K  has  a 
door  d'  in  the  back  wall  for  a  passage  to  the  work-people  when  going  from 
the  corn  to  the  upper  barn,  by  the  gangway  T. 

(ID.)  E  is  the  engine-house  for  the  steam-engine,  when  one  is  used.  It 
is  18  feet  in  length  and  8  feet  in  width,  and  the  granary -floor  above  forms 
its  roof.  It  has  a  window  looking  into  the  large  court  I,  and  a  door  into 
the  boiler  and  furnace-house  F,  which  house  is  24  feet  in  length  and  8  feet 
in  width,  and  has  an  arched  opening  at  the  left  or  west  end.  The  chim- 
ney-stalk is  6  feet  square  at  the  base,  and  rises  tapering  to  a  hight  of  45 
feet.  If  wind  or  horses  are  preferred  as  the  moving  power,  the  windmill- 
tower  or  horse-course  would  be  erected  on  the  site  of  F. 

(137) 


90  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

(20.)  G  is  the  implement -house  for  keeping  together  the  smaller  imple- 
ments when  not  in  use,  when  they  are  apt  to  be  thrown  aside  and  lost. — 
The  intiinsic  value  of  each  implement  being  small,  there  is  too  generally 
less  care  bestowed  on  them  than  on  those  of  more  pecuniary  value  ;  but  in 
use  each  of  them  is  really  as  valuable  as  the  most  costly,  and  even  their 
cost  in  the  aggi'cgate  is  consideralile.  The  implement-house  is  18  feet  in 
length  by  14  feet  in  width,  and  its  roof  is  formed  of  the  granary -floor. — 
This  house  should  be  provided  with  a  stout  plain-deal  door  with  a  good 
lock  and  key,  the  care  of  which  should  only  be  entrusted  to  the  faiTn-stew- 
ard.  It  should  also  have  a  partly  glazed  window  like  that  of  the  cow- 
house, as  sometimes  this  apartment  may  be  converted  into  a  convenient 
work-shop  -fur  particular  puqioses.  The  floor  should  be  flagged,  or  laid 
with  asphaltum  pavement.  Besides  the  implements,  this  apartment  may 
contain  the  barrel  of  tar,  a  useful  ingredient  on  farms  where  sheep  are 
reared,  and  where  cait-naves  require  greasing ;  the  grindstone,  a  conveni- 
ent instrument  on  a  farm  on  many  occasions  for  sharjjening  edge-tools, 
such  as  scythes,  axes,  hay-knife,  dung-spade,  &:c.  A  number  of  wooden 
pins  and  iron  spikes,  driven  into  the  walls,  will  be  found  useful  for  sus- 
pending many  of  the  smaller  articles  upon.     The  walls  should  be  plastered. 

(21.)  H  is  the  hay-house  at  the  east  end  of  the  noith  range  A,  and  cor- 
respondincj  in  situation  to  the  implement-house.  It  is  18  feet  in  length,  17 
feet  in  width,  and  its  roof  is  also  formed  of  the  floor  of  the  granary  above. 
Its  floor  should  be  flagged  with  a  considerable  quantity  of  sand  to  keep  it 
dry,  or  with  asphaltum.  It  should  have  a  giblet-checked  door  to  open  out- 
ward, with  a  hand-bar  to  fasten  it  by  in  the  inside  ;  it  should  also  have  a 
partly  glazed  window,  with  shutters,  to  afford  light  when  taking  out  the 
hay  to  the  horses,  and  air  to  keep  it  sweet.  As  the  hay-house  communi- 
cates immediately  with  the  work-horse  stable  O  by  a  door,  it  can  find  room 
for  the  work-horse  corn-chest  y,  which  may  be  there  conveniently  supplied 
with  com  from  the  granary  above  by  means  of  a  spout  let  into  the  fixed 
part  of  the  lid.  For  facilitating  the  taking  out  of  the  corn,  the  end  of  the 
chest  should  be  placed  against  the  wall  at  the  side  of  the  door  which  opens 
into  the  stable,  and  its  back  part  should  be  boarded  up  with  thin  deals  to 
the  gfia  nary -floor,  to  prevent  the  hay  coming  upon  the  chest.  Its  walls 
should  be  plastered.  This  hay-house  is  conveniently  situated  for  the  hay- 
stack n  in  the  stack-yard  S. 

(22.)  The  form  of  the  corn-chest,  y,  is  more  convenient  and  takes  up  less 
room  on  the  floor,  when  high  and  narrow,  than  when  low  and  broad. — 
When  of  a  high  form,  a  part  of  the  front  should  fold  down  with  hinges,  to 
g^ve  easier  access  to  the  corn  as  it  gets  low  in  the  chest.  Part  of  the  lid 
should  be  made  fast,  to  receive  the  corn-spout  from  the  granary,  and  to 
lighten  its  movable  part,  which  should  be  fastened  with  a  hasp  and  pad- 
lock, and  the  key  of  which  should  be  constantly  in  the  custody  of  the  farm- 
steward,  or  of  the  man  who  gives  out  the  com  to  the  jslowmen,  where  no 
faiTn-steward  is  kept.  A  fourth  part  of  a  peck-measure  is  always  kept  in 
the  chest,  for  measuring  out  the  com  to  the  horses.  You  must  not  ima- 
gine that,  because  the  spout  sup])lies  corn  from  the  granary  when  required, 
it  supplies  it  without  measure.  The  com  appropriated  for  the  horses  is 
previously  measured  off  on  the  granary-floor,  in  any  convenient  quantity, 
and  then  shoveled  down  the  spout  at  times  to  fill  the  chest  ;  besides,  lines 
can  be  marked  on  the. inside  of  the  chest  indicative  of  every  quarter  of  com 
which  it  can  contain. 

(23.)  O  is  the  stable  for  the  u'ork-horscs.  Its  length,  of  course,  depends 
on  the  number  of  horses  employed  on  the  farm  ;  but  in  no  instance  should 
tts  width  he  less  than  18  feet,  for  comfort  to  the  horses  themselves,  and  con- 

(138) 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  91 

venience  to  the  men  who  take  charge  of  them.  This  plan,  being  intended 
for  a  definite  size  of  farm,  contains  stalls  for  12  horses,  and  a  loose  box  be- 
sides— the  whole  length  being  84  feet.  Few  stables  for  work-horses  are 
made  wider  than  16  feet,  and  hence  few  are  otherwise  than  hampered  for 
want  of  room.  A  glance  at  the  particulars  which  should  be  accommodated 
in  the  width  of  a  work-horse  stable  will  show  you  at  once  the  inconveniejice 
of  this  narrow  breadth.  The  entire  length  of  a  work-horse  is  seldom  less 
than  8  feet ;  the  extreme  width  of  the  hay -rack  is  about  2  feet ;  the  harness, 
hanging  loosely  against  the  wall,  occupies  about  2  feet ;  and  the  gutter  oc- 
cupies 1  foot :  so  that  in  a  width  of  16  feet  there  are  only  3  feet  left  fi-om 
the  heels  of  the  horses  to  the  harness,  on  which  to  pass  backward  and  for- 
ward to  wheel  a  barrow  and  use  the  shovel  and  broom.  No  wonder,  when 
so  little  space  is  left  to  work  in,  that  cleanliness  is  so  much  neglected  in 
farm-stables,  and  that  much  of  the  dung  and  urine  are  left  to  be  decom- 
posed and  dissipated  by  heat  in  the  shape  of  ammoniacal  gas,  to  the  prob- 
able injury  of  the  breathing  and  eye-sight  of  the  horses,  when  shut  up  at 
night.  And,  what  aggravates  the  evil,  there  seldom  is  a  ventilator  in  the 
roof;  and,  what  is  still  woi'se,  the  contents  of  the  stable  are  much  con- 
tracted by  the  placing  of  a  hay -loft  immediately  above  the  horses'  heads. — 
Whatever  may  be  the  condition  of  a  work-horse  stable  in  reference  to  size 
and  room,  its  walls  should  always  be  plastered  with  good  haired  plaster, 
as  forming  the  most  comfortable  finishing,  and  being  that  most  easily  kept 

clean Some  people  imagine  that  twelve  horses  are  too  great  a  number 

to  be  in  one  stable,  and  that  two  stables  of  six  stalls  each  would  be  better. 
Provided  the  stable  is  properly  ventilated,  there  can  no  injury  accrue  to  a 
larger  than  to  a  smaller  number  of  horses  in  a  stable ;  and,  besides,  there 
are  practical  inconveniences  in  having  two  work-horse  stables  on  a  faiTn. 
The  inconveniences  are  that  neither  the  farmer  nor  farm-steward  can  per- 
sonally superintend  the  grooming  of  horses  in  two  stables  ;  that  the  orders 
given  to  the  plowmen  by  the  steward  must  be  repeated  in  both  stables  ; 
and  that  either  all  the  plowmen  must  be  collected  in  one  of  the  stables  to 
receive  their  orders,  or,  part  of  them  not  hearing  the  orders  given  to  the 
rest,  there  cannot  be  that  common  understanding  as  to  the  work  to  be  done 
which  should  exist  among  all  classes  of  work-people  on  a  farm. 

(24.)  Another  particular  in  which  most  work-horse  stables  are  im- 
properly fitted  up,  is  the  narrowness  of  the  stalls,  5  feet  3  inches  being  the 
largest  space  allowed  for  an  ordinaiy  sized  work-horse.  A  narrow  stall 
is  not  only  injurious  to  the  horse  himself,  by  keeping  him  peremptoiily 
confined  to  one  position,  in  which  he  has  no  liberty  to  bite  or  scratch  him- 
self, should  he  feel  so  inclined,  but  materially  obstructs  the  plowman  in 
the  grooming  process,  and  while  supplying  the  horse  with  food.  No 
work-horse,  in  my  opinion,  should  have  a  naiTower  stall  than  6  feet  from 
center  to  center  of  the  travis,  in  order  that  he  may  stand  at  ease,  or  lie 
down  at  pleasure  with  comfort.  If  "  the  laborer  is  worthy  of  his  hire," 
the  work-horse  is  deserving  of  a  stall  that  will  afford  him  sound  rest. 

(25.)  It  is  a  disputed  point  of  what  form  the  hay-racks  in  a  work-horse 
stable  should  be.  The  prevailing  opinion  may  be  learned  from  the  gene- 
ral practice,  which  is  to  place  them  as  high  as  the  horses'  heads,  because, 
as  it  is  alleged,  the  horse  is  thereby  obRged  to  hold  up  his  head,  and  he 
cannot  then  breathe  wpon  his  food.  Many  more  cogent  reasons,  as  I  con- 
ceive, may  be  adduced  for  placing  the  racks  low  down.  In  the  first  place, 
a  work-horse  does  not  require  to  hold  his  head  up  at  any  time,  and  much 
less  in  the  stable,  where  he  should  enjoy  all  the  rest  he  can  get.  2.  A  low 
rack  permits  the  position  of  his  neck  and  head,  in  the  act  of  eating,  to  be 
more  like  the  way  he  usually  holds  them,  than  when  holding  them  up  to  a 

(139) 


92  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

high  one.  3.  He  is  not  nearly  so  liable  to  pull  out  the  hay  among  his 
feet  from  a  low  as  from  a  high  rack.  4.  His  breath  cannot  contaminate 
his  food  more  in  a  low  than  in  a  hiffh  rack,  because  the  greatest  proportion 
of  the  breath  naturally  a.scends  ;  though  breathing  is  employed  by  the 
horse  to  a  certain  degiee  in  choosing  his  food  by  the  sense  of  smell.  5.  He 
is  less  fatigued  eating  out  of  a  low  than  from  a  high  rack,  eveiy  mouth- 
full  having  to  be  pulled  out  of  the  latter,  from  its  sloping  position,  by  the 
side  of  the  mouth  turned  upward.  6.  3Iown-grass  is  much  more  easily 
eaten  out  of  a  low  than  a  high  rack.  7.  And  lastly,  I  have  heard  of  peas 
falling  out  of  their  straw,  when  eaten  out  of  a  high  rack,  into  the  ears  of 
the  horse,  and  therein  setting  up  a  serious  degree  of  inflammation. 

(26.)  The  front  rail  of  the  loir-rack  should  be  made  of  strong  hard-wood, 
in  case  the  horse  should  at  any  time  playfully  put  his  foot  on  it,  or  bite  it 
when  groomed.  The  front  of  the  rack. should  be  spaircd  for  the  admis- 
sion of  fresh  air  among  the  food,  and  incline  inward  at  the  lower  end,  to 
be  out  of  the  way  of  the  horses'  fore-feet.  The  bottom  should  also  be 
spaiTed,  and  raised  about  6  inches  above  the  floor,  for  the  removal  of  hay 
seeds  that  may  have  passed  through  the  spars.  The  corn-trough  should  be 
placed  at  the  near  end  of  the  rack,  for  the  greater  convenience  of  supply- 
ing^ the  com.  A  spar  of  wood  should  be  fixed  across  the  rack  from  the 
front  rail  to  the  back  wall,  midway  between  the  tra\ns  and  the  corn- 
trouerh,  to  prevent  the  horse  tossing  out  the  fodder  with  the  side  of  his 
mouth,  which  he  will  sometimes  be  inclined  to  do  when  not  hungn.'.  The 
ring  through  which  the  stall  collar-shank  passes,  is  fastened  by  a  staple 
to  the  hard-wood  front  rail.  I  have  lately  seen  the  manger  in  some  work- 
horse stables  in  steadings  recently  erected  made  of  stone,  on  the  alleged 
score  of  being  more  easily  cleaned  than  wood  after  the  horses  have  got 
prepared  food.  From  my  own  obsei-vation  in  the  matter,  I  do  not  think 
wood  more  difllicult  of  being  cleaned  than  stone  at  any  time,  and  espe- 
cially if  cleaned  in  a  proper  time  after  being  used — daily,  for  instance. 
As  plowmen  are  proverbially  careless,  the  stone-manger  has  perhaps  been 
substituted  on  the  supposition  that  it  will  bear  much  harder  usage  than 
wood  ;  or  perhaps  the  landlords,  in  the  several  instances  in  which  stone- 
mangers  have  been  erected,  could  obtain  stone  cheaper  from  their  own 
quarries  than  good  timber  from  abroad :  but  either  of  these  reasons  are 
poor  excuses  for  the  carelessness  of  servants  on  the  one  hand,  or  the  par- 
simony of  landlords  on  the  other,  when  the  well-being  of  the  farmers' 
most  useful  animals  is  in  consideration  ;  for,  besides  the  clumsy  appear- 
ance of  stone  in  such  a  situation,  and  its  comfortless  feel  and  aspect,  it  is 
injui-ious  to  the  horses'  teeth  when  they  seize  it  suddenly  in  grooming,  and 
it  is  impossible  to  prevent  even  some  work-horses  biting  any  object  when 
groomed ;  and  I  should  suppose  that  stone  would  also  prove  hurtful  to 
their  lips  when  gathering  their  food  at  the  bottom  of  the  manger.  I  have 
no  doubt  that  the  use  of  stone-mangers  will  have  a  greater  effect  in  grind- 
ing down  the  teeth  of  farm-horses,  than  the  "  tooth  of  old  Time  "  itself. 

(27.)  The  hirtd  pofits  of  travises  should  be  of  solid  wood  rounded  in 
front,  grooved  in  the  back  as  far  as  the  travis  boards  reach,  sunk  at  the 
lower  ends  into  stone  blocks,  and  fastened  at  the  upper  ends  to  battens 
stretching  across  the  stable  from  the  ends  of  the  couple  legs,  where  there 
is  no  hay-loft,  and  from  the  joists  of  the  flooring  where  there  is.  The 
head-posts  are  divided  into  two  parts,  which  clasp  the  travis  boards  be- 
tween them,  and  are  kept  together  with  screw-bolts  and  nuts.  Their 
lower  ends  are  also  sunk  into  stone  blocks,  and  their  upper  fastened  to 
the  battens  or  joists.  The  travis  boards  are  put  endways  into  the  groove 
in  the  hind-post,  and  pass  between  the  two  divisions  of  the  head-post  to 

(140) 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  93 

the  wall  before  the  horses'  heads  ;  and  are  there  raised  so  high  as  to  pre- 
vent the  contiguous  horses  troubling  each  other, 

(28.)  The  floor  of  all  stables  should  be  made  hard,  to  resist  the  action 
of  the  horses'  feet.  That  of  a  work-horse  stable  is  usually  causewayed 
with  small  round  stones,  embedded  in  sand,  such  as  are  to  be  found  on 
the  land  or  on  the  sea-beach.  This  is  a  cheap  mode  of  paving.  When 
these  cannot  be  found,  squared  blocks  of  whinstone  (trap  rock,  such  as 
basalt,  greenstone,  &rc.)  answer  the  puipose  fully  better.  Flags  make  a 
smoother  pavement  for  the  feet  than  either  of  these  materials,  and  they 
undoubtedly  rriake  the  cleanest  floor,  as  the  small  stones  are  very  apt  to 
retain  the  dung  and  absorb  the  urine  around  them,  which,  on  decomposi 
tion,  cause  filth  and  constant  annoyance  to  horses.  To  avoid  this  incon- 
venience in  a  great  degree,  it  would  be  advisable  to  form  the  gutter  be- 
hind the  horses'  heels  of  hevvn  freestone,  containing  an  entire  channel, 
along  which  the  urine  would  flow  easily,  and  every  filth  be  completely 
swept  away  with  the  broom.  The  channel  should  have  a  fall  of  at  least 
1^  inch  to  the  10  feet  of  length.  The  paving  on  both  sides  should  incline 
toward  this  gutter,  the  rise  in  the  stalls  being  3  inches  in  all.  In  some 
stables,  such  as  those  of  the  cavalry  and  of  carriers,  the  floor  of  the  stalls 
rise  much  higher  than  3  inches,  and  on  the  Continent,  particularly  in  Hol- 
land, I  have  observed  the  rise  to  be  still  more  than  in  any  stables  in  this 
country.  Some  veterinary  Avritei's  say  that  the  position  of  the  feet  of  the 
horse  imposed  by  the  rise,  does  not  throw  any  unnecessary  strain  on  the 
back  tendons  of  the  hind-legs.*  This  may  be,  but  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
in  this  position  the  toes  are  raised  above  the  heels  much  higher  than  on 
level  ground.  I  admit  that  a  rise  of  three  inches  is  necessary  in  stalls  in 
which  geldings  stand,  as  they  throw  their  water  pretty  far  on  the  litter ; 
but  in  the  case  of  mares,  even  this  rise  is  quite  unnecessary.  It  is  indis- 
purable  that  a  horse  always  prefers  to  stand  on  level  ground,  when  he  is 
free  to  choose  the  ground  for  himself  in  a  gi-ass-field,  and  much  more  ought 
he  to  have  level  ground  to  stand  on  in  a  stable,  which  is  his  place  o£rest. 

(29.)  Fig.  7  gives  a  view  of  the  particulars  of  such  a  stall  for  xoork- 
horscs  as  I  have  described,  a  a  are  the  strong  hind-posts  ;  b  h  the  head- 
posts,  both  sunk  into  the  blocks  c  c  c  c,  and  fastened  to  the  battens  d  d, 
stretching  across  the  stable  from  the  wall  e  to  the  opposite  wall ;  fj"  the 
travis-boards  let  into  the  posts  a  a  hy  grooves,  and  passing  between  the 
two  divisions  of  the  posts  hb  ;  the  boards  are  represented  high  enough  to 
prevent  the  horses  annoying  each  other;  gg  curb-stones  set  up  between 
the  hind  and  fore  posts  a  and  b,  to  receive  the  side  of  the  travis-boards  in 
grooves,  and  thereby  secure  them  from  decay  by  keeping  them  beyond 
the  action  of  the  litter ;  h  is  the  spaned  bottom  of  the  hay-rack,  the  up- 
per rail  of  which  holds  the  ring  i  for  the  stall  collar-shank  ;  k  the  com- 
manger  or  trough ;  /  the  bar  across  the  rack,  to  prevent  the  horse  tossing 
out  the  fodder  ;  7n  the  pavement  within  the  stall  ;  n  is  the  freestone  gutter 
for  conveying  away  the  urine  to  one  end  of  the  stable  ;  o  the  pavement  of 
the  passage  behind  the  horses' heels ;  p  are  two  parallel  spars  fastened 
over  and  across  the  battens,  when  there  is  no  hay-loft,  to  support  trusses 
of  straw  or  hay,  to  be  given  as  fodder  to  the  horses  in  the  evenings  of 
winter,  to  save  the  risk  of  fire  in  going  at  night  to  the  straw-barn  or  hay- 
house  with  a  light. 

(30.)  The  harness  should  all  be  hung  against  the  wall  behind  the  horses, 
and  none  on  the  posts  of  the  stalls,  against  which  it  is  too  frequently 
placed  to  its  great  injury,  in  being  constantly  kept  in  a  damp  state  by  the 

•  Stewart's  Stable  Economy,  p.  17. 
(141) 


94 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


horses'  breath  and  perspiration,  and  apt  to  be  knocked  down  among  the 
horses'  feet.  A  good  way  is  to  suspend  harness  on  stout  hard-wood  pins 
driven  into  a  strong  narrow  board,  fastened  to  the  wall  with  iron  hold- 
fasts;  but  perhaps  the  most  substantial  way  is  to  build  the  pins  into  the 
wall.  The  harness  belonging  to  each  pair  of  horses  should  just  cover  a 
space  of  wall  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  two  stalls  which  they  occupy, 
and  when  windows  and  doors  intervene,  and  which,  of  course,  must  be 
left  fiee,  its  arrangement  requires  some  consideration.  This  mode  of  ar- 
rangement I  have  found  convenient.  A  spar  of  hard-wood  nailed  firmly 
across  the  upper  edge  of  the  batten  d,  fig.  7,  that  supports  both  the  posts 

Fiff.  7. 


STALL  FOR  WORK-HORSE  STABLE. 

of  a  Stall,  will  suspend  a  collar  on  each  end,  high  enough  above  a  person's 
head,  immediately  over  the  passage.  One  pin  is  sufficient  for  each  of  the 
cart-saddles ;  one  will  support  both  the  bridles,  while  a  fourth  will  suffice 
for  the  plow,  and  a  fifth  for  the  trace-harness.  Thus  5  pins  or  6  spaces 
vrill  be  required  for  each  pair  of  stalls,  and  in  a  stable  of  12  stalls,  de- 
ducting a  space  of  13  feet  for  2  doors  and  2  windows  in  such  a  stable, 
there  will  still  be  left,  according  to  this  arrangement,  a  space  for  the  har- 
ness of  about  18  inches  Ixjtween  the  pins.  Iron  hooks  driven  into  the 
board  betwixt  the  pins  will  keep  the  cart-ropes  and  plow-reins  by  them- 
selves. The  curry-comb,  hair-brush,  and  foot-picker  may  be  conveniently 
enough  hung  up  on  the  hind-post  betwixt  the  pair  of  horses  to  which  they 
belong,  and  the  mane-comb  is  usually  carried  in  the  plowman's  pocket. 

(31.1'  Each  horse  should  be  bound  to  his  stall  with  a  leather  stall-collar, 
haying  an  iron-chain  collar-shank  to  play  through  the  liiig  i  of  the  hay- 

(142) 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  95 

rack,  fig.  7,  with  a  turned  wooden  sinker  at  its  end,  to  weigh  it  to  the 
ground.  Iron-chains  make  the  strongest  stall-collar-shanks,  though  cer- 
tainly noisy  when  in  use  ;  yet  work-horses  are  not  to  be  trusted  with  the 
best  hempen  cords,  which  often  become  affected  with  dry-rot,  and  are,  at 
all  events,  soon  apt  to  wear  out  in  running  through  the  smoothest  stall- 
rings.  A  simple  stall-collar,  with  a  nose-band,  and  strap  over  the  head,  is 
sufficient  to  secure  most  horses  ;  but  as  some  have  a  trick  of  slipping  the 
strap  over  their  ears,  it  is  necessary  to  have  either  a  throat-lash  in  addi- 
tion or  a  belt  round  the  neck.  Others  are  apt,  when  scratching  their  neck 
^vith  the  hind-foot,  to  pass  the  fetlock  joint  over  the  stall-collar-shank,  and 
finding  themselves  thus  entangled,  to  throw  themselves  down  in  the  stalls, 
bound  neck  and  heel,  there  to  remain  unreleased  until  the  morning,  Avhen 
the  men  come  to  the  stable.  By  this  accident,  I  have  seen  horses  get  in- 
jured in  the  head  and  leg  for  some  time.  A  short  stall-collar-shank  is  the 
only  preventive  against  such  an  accident,  and  the  low  rack  admits  of  its 
being  constantly  used. 

(32.)  The  roof  o?  a.  wor^-stable  should  always  be  open  to  the  slates,  and 
not  only  that,  but  have  openings  in  its  ridge,  protected  from  the  weathei 
by  a  particular  kind  of  wood-work,  called  a  ventilator.  Such  a  thing  as  a 
ventilator  is  absolutely  necessary  on  the  roof  of  a  work-horse  stable.  It  is 
distressing  to  the  feelings  to  inhale  the  air  in  some  farm  stables  at  night, 
particularly  in  old  steadings  economically  fitted  up.  It  is  not  only  warm 
from  confinement,  moist  from  the  evaporation  of  perspiration,  and  stifling 
from  sudorific  odors,  but  cutting  to  the  breath,  and  pungent  to  the  eyes, 
from  the  decomposition  of  dung  and  urine  by  the  heat.  The  windows  are 
seldom  opened,  and  many  can  scarcely  be  opened  by  disuse.  The  roof  in 
fact  is  suspended  like  an  extinguisher  over  the  half  stifled  horses.  But  the 
evil  is  still  farther  aggravated  by  a  hay-loft,  the  floor  of  which  is  extended 
over  and  within  a  foot  or  less  of  the  horses'  heads.  Besides  the  horses 
being  thus  inconvenienced  by  the  hay-loft,  the  hay  in  it,  through  this  nightly 
roasting  and  fiimigation,  soon  becomes  dry  and  brittle,  and  contracts  a 
disagreeable  odor.  The  only  remedy  for  these  inconveniences  in  work- 
horse stables  is  the  establishment  of  a  complete  ventilation  through  them. 

(33.)  Fig.  8.  represents  one  of  these  ventilators,  in  which  the  Venetian 
blinds  a  are  fixed,  and  answer  the  double   purpose  of  permitting  the  es- 

Fig.  8. 


A  VENTILATOR. 


cape  of  heated  air  and  effluvia,  and  of  preventing  the  entrance  of  rain  or 
snow.  The  blinds  are  covered  and  protected  by  the  I'oof  h,  made  of 
slates  and  lead ;  c  is  an  apron  of  lead.  Such  a  ventilator  would  be  more 
ornamental  to  the  steading  than  fig.  8,  and  more  protective  to  the  blinds, 
if  its  roof  projected  12  inches  over.  One  ventilator  of  the  size  of  6  feet  in 
length,  3  feet  in  hight  in  front,  and  2  feet  above  the  ridging  of  the  roof, 

(143) 


96  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

for  every  four  horses  in  a  work-horse  stable,  may  perhaps  suffice  to  main- 
tain a  complete  ventilation.  But  openings  in  the  roof  will  not  of  them- 
selves constitute  ventilation,  unless  there  be  an  adequate  supply  of  fresh 
air  from  below,  to  enforce  a  cuirent ;  and  this  supply  should  be  obtained 
from  openings  in  the  walls,  including  the  chinks  of  doors  and  windows 
when  shut,  whose  gross  areas  should  be  equal  to  those  of  the  ventilators. 
The  openings  should  be  foiTned  in  such  situations,  and  in  such  numbers, 
as  to  cause  no  draught  of  cold  air  to  be  directed  against  the  horses.  They 
might  conveniently  be  placed,  protected  by  gratings  of  iron  on  the  outside 
to  prevent  the  entrance  of  vermin,  in  the  wall  immediately  behind  the 
haraess,  through  which  the  air  would  pass,  and  cross  the  passage  toward 
the  hoi-scs  ;  and  the  air  on  thus  entering  the  stable  should  be  made  to  de- 
flect to  both  sides  of  each  opening,  by  striking  against  a  plate  of  iron 
placed  before  the  opening,  at  a  short  distance  from  the  w^all.  I  observe 
other  fomis  of  ventilators  in  use  in  steadings,  one  consisting  of  large  lead 
pipes  projected  through  the  roof,  with  the  ends  turned  down  ;  and  another 
having  a  portion  of  the  slating  or  tiling  raised  up  a  little,  and  there  held 
open.  Either  of  these  plans  is  much  better  than  no  ventilation  at  all,  and 
I  dare  say  either  mode  may  be  cheaply  constructed  ;  but  neither  is  so 
effectual  for  the  pui-poses  of  ventilation  as  the  one  I  have  figured  and 
described. 

(34.)  Besides  the  ordinary  stalls,  a  loose-hox,  u,  will  be  found  a  usefu'. 
adjunct  to  a  work-horse  stable.  A  space  equal  to  two  stalls  should  be 
railed  off  at  one  end  of  the  stable,  as  represented  at  u  on  the  plan,  fig.  4, 
Plate  IV.  It  is  a  convenient  place  into  which  to  put  a  work-mare  when 
expected  to  foal.  Some  mares  indicate  so  very  faint  symptoms  of  foaling 
that  they  frequently  are  known  to  drop  their  foals  under  night  in  the  sta- 
ble, to  the  great  risk  of  the  foal's  life,  where  requisite  attention  is  not  di- 
rected to  the  state  of  the  mare,  or  where  there  is  no  spare  apaitment  to 
put  her  into.  It  is  also  suitable  for  a  young  stallion,  when  first  taken  up 
and  preparing  for  traveling  the  road  ;  as  also  for  any  young  draught-horse 
taken  up  to  be  broke  for  work,  until  he  become  accustomed  to  a  stable. 
It  might  be,  when  unfortunately  so  required,  converted  into  a  convenient 
hospital  for  a  horse,  which,  when  seized  with  an  unknown  complaint, 
might  be  confined  in  it,  until  it  is  ascertained  whether  the  disease  is  in- 
fectious, and  then  he  should  be  removed  to  an  oiit-house.  Some  people 
object  to  having  a  loose-box  in  the  stable,  and  would  rather  have  it  out  of 
it ;  but  the  social  disposition  of  the  horse  renders  one  useful  there  on  the 
occasions  just  mentioned.  It  is,  besides,  an  excellent  place  in  which  to 
rest  a  fatigued  horse  for  a  few  days. 

(35.)  Adjoining  to  this  I  have  placed  the  stable  for  ridivg-horsen,  as  at  P 
on  the  plan,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV,  not  that  those  stables  should  always  be  to- 
gether, for  the  riding-hoi*se  stable  can  be  placed  at  any  convenient  part  of 
the  farmstead  or  near  the  farm-house.  It  may  be  fitted  up  in  the  form  of 
three  stalls  of  6  feet  each,  or  two  loose-boxes  of  9  feet  each,  according  to 
inclination,  that  is,  a  size  of  18  feet  square  will  afford  ample  room  for  all 
the  riding-hf)rses  a  farmer  will  require.  The  high  rack  is  always  put  v.p 
in  riding-horse  stables,  to  oblige  the  horse  to  keep  iip  his  head,  and  main- 
tain a  lofty  carriage  with  it.  The  long  manger,  stretching  from  one  tvavis 
to  another,  is  frequently  used  where  the  high  rack  is  approved  of  But 
the  neatest  mode  of  fitting  up  the  stall  of  a  riding-horse  stable  is  with  a 
hay-cnb  in  one  of  the  corners,  and  a  corn-box  in  the  other,  both  being 
placed  at  convenient  bights  from  the  ground.  The  stall-posts  in  riding- 
horse  stables  are  fastened  into  the  ground  in  a  body  of  masoniy,  and  not 
to  the  roof,  as  that  should  be  made  as  lofty  as  the  bight  of  tl:e  balks  of  die 

(144) 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  97 

couples  will  admit,  and  it  should  be  lathed,  and  all  the  walls  plastered,  for 
the  sake  of  appearance,  warmth,  and  cleanliness.  The  corn-chest  may  be 
placed  either  in  the  recess  of  the  window,  where  its  lid  might  form  a  sort 
of  table,  or  in  a  corner.  One  door  and  a  window  are  quite  enough  for 
light  and  entrance.  The  door  should  open  outward  on  giblet-checked 
ribets,  and  provided  with  a  good  lock  and  key,  and  spring-latch  with  a 
handle,  so  as  not  to  catch  the  harness.  The  hight  and  width  of  both  riding 
and  work -horse  stable-doors  are  usually  made  too  low  and  too  naiTow  for 
the  easy  passage  of  ordinary  sized  horses  in  harness  ;  7^  feet  by  3i  feet 
are  of  the  least  dimensions  they  should  ever  be  made.  A  ventilator  is  as 
requisite  in  a  riding  as  a  Avork-horse  stable,  and,  to  promote  ventilation, 
the  under  part  of  the  window  should  be  provided  \vith  shutters  to  open. 
The  neatest  floor  is  of  droved  flags  ;  though  I  have  seen  in  stables  for 
riding-horses  very  beautiful  floors  of  Dutch  clinkers. 

(36.)  The  lowest  part  of  a  high  rack  is  usually  placed  about  the  hight 
of  a  horse's  back,  in  contact  ^A-ith  the  wall,  and  the  upper  part  projecting 
about  2  feet  from  it.  This  position  is  objectionable,  inasmuch  as  the  angle 
of  inclination  of  the  fi-ont  with  the  wall  is  so  obtuse  as  to  oblig-e  the  horse 
to  turn  up  the  side  of  his  mouth  before  he  can  draw  a  mouthfull  of  prov- 
ender out  of  it,  though  the  front  be  sparred  at  such  a  width  as  to  permit 
hay  and  grass  to  pass  easily  through.  A  better  plan  is  to  have  the  front 
nearly  parallel  with  the  wall,  and  the  bottom  sparred  to  admit  the  falling 
out  of  dust  and  seeds. 

(37.)  The  long  manger,  which  is  always  used  with  the  high  rack,  is  chiefly 
useful  in  permitting  the  corn  to  be  thinly  spread  out,  and  making  it  more 
difiicult  to  be  gathered  by  the  lips  of  the  horse,  and  on  that  account  con- 
sidered an  advantageous  form  of  manger  for  horses  that  are  in  the  habit 
of  bolting  their  corn.  I  doubt  whether  horses  really  masticate  their  com 
more  effectually  when  it  is  spread  out  thin,  though  no  doubt  they  are 
obliged  to  take  longer  time  in  gathering  and  swallowing  it,  when  in  that 
state. 

(38.)  The  hay  crib  fixed  up  in  one  corner  of  the  stdll,  usually  the  far 
one,  is  not  large  enough  to  contain  fodder  for  a  work -horse,  though  amply 
so  for  a  riding-horse.  A  work-horse  will  eat  a  stone  of  hay  of  22  lbs. 
every  day,  which,  when  even  much  compressed,  occupies  about  a  cubic 
foot  of  space.  To  make  a  quadrifid  hay-crib  contain  this  bulk,  would  re- 
quire the  hay  to  be  hard  pressed  down,  to  the  great  annoyance  of  the 
horse,  and  the  danger  of  much  waste  by  constant  pulling  out.  Plowmen 
require  no  encouragement  by  small  racks  to  press  fodder  hard  into  racks. 
This  they  usually  do,  with  the  intention  of  giving  plenty  of  it  to  their 
horses  ;  but  were  racks  generally  made  capacious  enough,  they  would 
have  less  inducement  to  follow  a  practice  which  never  fails  to  be  attended 
■wath  waste  of  provender.     Such  hay-cribs  are  usually  made  of  iron.* 


[*  Not  so  yet  in  the  United  States,  although  iron  is  being  more  and  more  substituted  for  wood, 
for  various  purposes,  and  would  be  for  many  more,  if  iron-masters  were  farmers,  or,  t-ice  versa,  to 
make  both  more  familiar  with  tlie  numerous  purposes  to  which  it  might  be  economical!}-  applied. 

Among  those  who  will  read  this,  there  are  yet  doubtless  some  who  well  remember  when  rope 
traces  and  wooden  mould-boards  and  hay-forks  were  used  almost  exclusively.  Iron  might  be 
employed  to  advantage  for  a  great  variety  of  new  uses.  It  needs  for  this  and  other  improve- 
ments that  Americans  be  brought,  as  they  will  be  by  degrees,  to  disburden  themselves  of  the 
party  demagogues  by  whom  they  are  ridden,  and  learn,  instead  of  being  absorbed  by  partj-  poli- 
tics, to  turn  their  attention  and  studies  to  their  ov.n  true  and  peculiar  interests. 

Few  things  serve  better  to  distinguish  the  habits  and  even  the  character  of  the  progeny  from 
the  parent  stock — the  Americans  from  their  English  ancestors — than  the  more  perfect  finish  and 
durabilitv  of  all  their  mechanical  works,  machinery  and  buildings. 
(193) 7 


98  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

(39.)  With  regard  to  the  relative  advantages  of  stalls  and  loose-boxes  in 
riding-stables,  'there  is  no  doubt  that,  for  personal  liberty  and  comfort  to 
the  horse,  the  latter  are  much  to  be  preferred,  as  in  them  he  can  stand,  lie 
down,  and  stretch  him  out  in  any  way  he  pleases  ;  but  they  require  more 
litter  and  a  gi'eat  deal  of  attention  from  the  groom  to  keep  the  skin  of  the 
horse  clean,  and  preserve  the  horse-clothes  from  being  torn — considera- 
tions of  some  importance  to  a  farmer  who  has  little  use  for  a  regularly- 
bred  groom  to  attend  constantly  on  his  riding-horse  ;  unless  he  be  a  sports- 
man.* 

(40.)  The  Jloor  of  the  riding-horse  stable  may  be  paved  either  with 
small  stones,  and  a  gutter  of  freestone  to  carry  off  urine,  like  the  work- 
horse stable,  or,  what  is  better,  with  jointed  flags  ;  but  the  neatest  form 
of  floorings  is  of  jointed  droved  flags,  grooved  across  the  passage  from  the 
door  to  the  stalls,  to  prevent  the  slipping  of  the  horses'  feet.  This  plan 
has  also  the  advantage  of  being  the  cleanest  as  well  as  the  neatest,  but  it 
is  obviously  more  suited  to  the  stables  of  the  landlord  than  the  tenant. 

(41.)  If  you  use  a  wheeled  vehicle  of  any  kind,  the  coach-liou.se  should 
adjoin  the  riding-horse  stable.  Of  18  feet  square  in  size  it  will  contain 
two  light- wheeled  caniages,  and  afford  ample  room  besides  for  other  pur- 
poses, such  as  the  cleaning  of  harness,  &c.  As  the  utmost  precautions  of 
ventilation  and  cleanliness  cannot  prevent  deposition  of  dust  in  a  riding- 
horse  stable,  the  harness  should  be  placed  beyond  its  reach  in  the  coach- 
house, where  it  should  be  hung  upon  pins  against  a  boarded  wall.  To 
keep  it  and  the  carriages  dry  in  winter,  there  should  be  a  Xarge  Jire-j)lace 
in  the  coach-house.  The  floor  should  be  flagged,  and  the  roof  and  walls 
lathed  and  hair-plastered.  A  door  should  open  from  the  liding-horse 
stable,  provided  with  lock  and  key,  and  the  large  coach-house  door  should 
op^n  outward  on  a  giblet-check,  and  be  fastened  with  bolts  and  a  bar  in 
the  inside.  Z  in  plan  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  is  the  coach-house,  with  the  large 
fire-place  i  in  it.  Coach-houses  having  to  be  kept  dry  in  winter,  to  pre- 
vent the  moulding  of  the  leather-work,  are  frequently  kept  so  by  stoves, 
which,  when  not  in  use  in  summer,  become  rusted  and  out  of  working  or- 
der ;  and  when  again  lighted  in  that  state,  never  fail  to  smoke  and  soil 
every  thing  with  soot.t 


There  things  arc  made  to  endure ;  here  they  are  made  to  answer  the  purposes  of  the  day. 
There  railroads  often  cost  one  hundred  and  ffty  thousand  dollars  a  mile  !  but  when  they  are 
done,  they  are  done  !  On  the  other  hand,  Americans  beat  the  world  in  ingenuity  and  in  readiness 
to  imitate  and  improve.  Short  apprenticeships,  slighted  and  imperfect  structures,  unseasoned  and 
perishable  materials  hastily  put  together,  and  even  the  restless  and  roaming  temper  of  our  popu- 
lation, may  be  regarded  as  the  natural  growth  of  our  freer  and  looser  form  of  government,  and  we 
must  take  the  bitter  with  the  sweets.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

[*  "  Horse  cloths  "  or  coverings  are  not  generally  used  or  needed  on  American  farms.  Horses 
are  in  no  danger  from  cold.  Stables  should  be  always  drj%  but  well  ventilated,  and  care  should 
always  be  taken,  when  horses  are  heated,  not  to  leave  them  at  rest,  in  a  cold  wind  or  current  of 
air  uncovered.    No  man  of  any  consideration  or  mercy  would  do  it,  or  allow  it  to  be  done. 

Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

[t  This  suggestion  of  a  fire-place  in  a  coachhouse  may  be  regarded  as  another  English  refine- 
ment, and  like  many  things  in  this  book,  which  must  be  published  (from  their  inseparable  con- 
nection with  others  that  are  practicable  and  expedient)  is  not  therefore  to  be  considered  as  recom- 
mended for  imitation. 

A  fire  place  in  a  house  connected  with  the  farmstead,  to  prevent  the  mould  on  harness,  which 
in  England  is  the  result  of  the  dampness  of  the  climate,  implies  more  capital  and  more  careful 
servants  than  we  have  at  command  in  this  country.  Approved  English  or  foreign  servants,  as 
they  are  styled  abroad,  on  coming  to  America  either  go  at  once,  with  their  means,  and  for  a  few 
dollars,  several  hundred  miles  west,  and  there  buy  government  lands  at  81  25  an  acre,  or  they 
(194) 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  99 

(42.)  The  cow-liouse  or  hyre,  Q,,  is  placed  on  the  left  of  the  principal 
range,  in  a  position  corresponding  with  that  of  the  work-horse  stable.  It 
is  53  feet  in  length  and  18  feet  in  width.  The  stalls  of  a  cow-house,  to 
be  easy  for  the  cows  to  lie  down  and  rise  up,  should,  in  my  opinion,  never 
be  less  than  5  feet  in  width.  Four  feet  is  the  more  common  width,  but 
that  is  evidently  too  narrow  for  a  large  cow,  and  even  7  feet  are  consid- 
ered by  some  people  as  a  fair-sized  stall  for  two  cows  ;  though,  in  my 
opinion,  every  cow  should  have  a  stall  for  herself,  for  her  own  comfort 
when  lying  or  standing,  and  that  she  may  eat  her  food  in  peace.*  The 
width  of  the  byre  should  be  18  feet ;  the  manger  is  2  feet  in  width,  the 
length  of  a  large  cow  about  8  feet,  the  gutter  1  foot,  leaving  7  feet  behind 
the  gutter  for  the  different  vessels  used  in  milking  the  cows  and  feeding 
the  calves.  The  ceiling  should  be  quite  open  to  the  slates,  and  a  ventilator, 
moreover,  is  a  useful  apparatus  for  regulating  the  temperature  and  sup 
plying  fresh  air  to  a  byre.  A  door,  divided  into  upper  and  lower  halves, 
should  open  outward  to  the  court  on  a  giblet-check,  for  the  easy  pasage  of 
the  cows  to  and  from  the  court,  and  each  half  fastened  on  the  inside  with 
a  hand-bar.  Two  windows  with  glass  panes,  with  the  lower  parts  fur- 
nished with  shutters  to  open,  will  be  quite  sufficient  for  light,  and,  along 
with  the  half-door,  for  air  also.  The  walls  should  be  plastered  for  comfort 
and  cleanliness. 

(43.)  The  stalls  are  most  comfortably  made  of  wood,  though  some 
recommend  stone,  which  always  feels  hard  and  cold.  Their  hight  should 
be  3  feet,  and  in  length  they  should  reach  no  farther  than  the  flank  of  the 
cow,  or  about  6  feet  from  the  wall.  When  made  of  "wood,  a  strong  hard- 
wood hind-post  is  sunk  into  the  ground,  and  built  in  masonry.  Between 
this  post  and  the  manger  should  be  laid  a  curb-stone,  grooved  on  the  up- 
per edge  to  let  in  the  deals  of  the  travis  endways.  The  deals  are  held  in 
their  places  at  the  upper  ends  by  a  hard-wood  rail,  grooved  on  the  under 

remain  in  the  towns,  under  much  higher  wages  than  the  American  Farmer  can  afford  to  give, 
taxed  as  he  is  to  support  enormously  expensive  miUtary  and  civil  establishments.  Who  would 
believe,  for  example,  that  in  Maryland  the  farmers  and  planters,  asking  so  little,  and  getting 
60  much  less,  from  Government,  pay  100  men  $4  per  day  each,  and  even  the  postage  on  all 
their  political  and  private  as  well  as  public  correspondence,  for  the  space  of  three  months  every 
year,  to  make  new  laws  and  patch  up  old  ones  ! 

Would  any  cultivated  agricultural  community,  educated  as  they  ought  to  be,  with  an  under- 
standing  oi  their  own  true  interests  and  just  power,  submit  for  one  year  to  be  thus  humbugged 
and  fleeced  ?  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

[*  This  would  all  be  very  well  if  the  American  farmer  had  capital  to  build,  for  better  accom- 
modation, on  any  scale,  however  expensive.  But  where  he  is  forced,  according  to  a  common 
saying,  to  "  cut  his  coat  according  to  his  cloth,"  less  roomy  stalls  must  answer.  In  our  best  dairy 
establishments,  as  at  Morrisania  and  others,  the  partition  between  the  stalls  is  usually  very  short, 
just  sufficient  to  prevent  the  heads  of  the  cows  from  coming  in  contact,  leaving  the  space  open 
between  their  bodies,  the  width  of  the  stall  being  often  not  more  than  three  feet  in  the  clear,  and 
these  seem  to  answer  well. 

In  some  of  these  best  milk  establishments,  strong  tubs,  which  are  easily  removed  to  be  cleaned 
or  filled,  are  in  use  for  giving  short  provender,  cut  hay  or  straw,  or  com  fodder,  as  the  case  may 
be,  wet  and  mixed  with  bran  shorts  or  meal  of  some  sort,  leaving  the  long  provender  to  go  into 
the  manger,  which  runs  from  one  end  of  the  stable  to  the  other,  sometimes  resting  on  the  floor. 
These  tubs  are  filled  in  the  feeding  passage,  from  which  also  the  long  provender  is  supplied  to  the 
mangers.  Usually  this  feeding  passage  is  between  two  rows  of  stalls  in  which  the  cows  stand 
■with  their  heads  to  the  passage.  We  shall  hereafter  give  exact  plans,  where  it  may  be  deemed 
necessary,  on  a  scale  suited  to  American  farmers ;  but  it  is  deemed  best  here  not  to  disturb  the 
copy  before  us,  as  every  part  in  the  plan  has  some  connection  with  some  other  part.  From  the 
whole  the  reader  proposing  to  build  may  easily  select  such  portions  as  he  may  like,  and  re-com- 
bine them  to  meet  and  satisfy  his  own  views.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 
(195) 


100 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


side,  into  which  the  ends  of  the  deals  ai'e  let,  and  the  rail  is  fixed  to  the 
back  of  the  hind-post  at  one  end,  and  let  into  the  wall  at  the  other,  and 
there  fastened  with  iron  holdfasts.  Stone  travises  are  no  doubt  more  dura- 
ble, and  in  the  end,  perhaps,  more  economical,  where  flag-stones  are  plen- 
tiful ;  but  I  would  in  all  cases  prefer  wood,  as  feeling  warmer,  being  more 
dry  in  winter,  and  less  liable  to  injure  the  cows  coming  against  them,  and 
within  doors  will  last  a  long  time.  The  plan  of  the  stalls  may  be  seen  at 
Q  and  Y  in  the  plan  fig.  4,  Plate  IV. 

(44.)  The  mangers  of  byres  are  usually  placed  on  a  level  wit^  the  floor, 
with  a  curb-stone  in  front  to  keep  in  the  food,  and  paved  in  the  bottom. — 
This  position  I  conceive  to  be  highly  objectionable,  inasmuch  as,  when 
breaking  the  turnips,  the  head  of  the  animal  is  depressed  so  low  that  an 
undue  vvinght  is  thrown  upon  the  fore-legs,  and  an  injurious  strain  induced 
on  the  muscles  of  the  lower  jaw.  A  better  position  is,  when  the  bottom 
of  the  manger,  made  of  flag-stones  or  wood,  resting  on  a  building  of  stone 
and  mortar,  is  raised  about  20  inches  from  the  ground,  and  a  plank  set  on 
edge  in  front  to  keep  in  the  food.  This  plank  should  be  secured  in  its  po- 
sition with  iron  rods  batted  into  the  wall  at  one  end,  and  the  other  end 
passed  through  the  plank  to  a  shoulder,  which  is  pressed  hard  against  the 
plank  on  the  opposite  side  by  means  of  a  nut  and  screw.  This  form  of 
manger  may  be  seen  in  fig.  18,  p.  110.  In  this  position  of  the  manger,  the 
cow  will  eat  with  ease  any  kind  of  food,  whether  whole  or  cut,  and  all 
feeding-byres  for  oxen  should  also  be  fitted  up  with  mangers  of  this  con- 
stniction.  Mangers  are  generally  made  too  narrow  for  cattle  with  horns, 
and  the  consequence  is  the  rubbing  away  of  the  points  of  the  horns  against 
the  wall. 

(45.)  The  method  o£ supplying  green  food  to  cattle  in  byres  may  be  va- 
rious, either  by  putting  it  into  the  manger  from  the 
inside,  or  from  the  outside  through  holes  in  the  wall 
made  exactly  opposite  their  heads.  Either  way  is 
equally  serviceable  to  the  cattle,  but  the  latter  is  the 
more  convenient  for  the  cattle-man.  Its  construc- 
tion may  be  easily  understood  by  fig.  9,  which  rep- 
resents the  door  shut  in  the  opening  of  the  wall  on 
the  outside.  But,  convenient  as  this*  mode  of  sup- 
plying food  is,  I  prefer  giving  it  by  the  stall,  when 
that  is  as  wide  as  5  feet,  because,  in  cold  weather 
in  winter,  the  draught  of  air  occasioned  by  the  open- 
ing of  the  small  doors  at  the  heads  of  cows  may  en- 
danger their  health.  There  is  another  method  by  having  a  passage  of  3 
feet  in  width  betwixt  the  stalls  and  the  wall,  from  which  both  turnips  and 
fodder  may  be  supplied  to  the  cows.  In  this  case  the  space  behind  the 
cows  is  reduced  to  4  feet  in  width. 

(46.)  The  floor  of  byres  should  be  paved  with  small  round  stones,  ex- 
cepting the  gutter,  which,  being  as  broad  as  an  ordinary  square-mouthed 
shovel,  should  be  flagged  at  the  bottom,  and  formed  into  the  shape  of  a 
trough  by  two  curb-stones.  A  gutter  of  this  form  can  be  quickly  cleaned 
out.  A  similarly  formed  gutter,  though  of  smaller  dimensions,  should  run 
from  the  main  one  through  the  wall  to  the  court,  to  carry  off*  the  urine. — 
The  causewaying  of  the  stalls  of  a  cow-house  should  go  very  little  farther 
up  than  the  hind-posts,  because,  in  lying  down  and  rising  up,  cattle  first 
kneel  on  their  fore-knees,  which  would  be  injured  in  the  act  of  being 
pressed  against  any  hard  substance  like  stones.  Tliis  inner  part  of  the 
stall  should  be  of  earth,  made  softer  by  being  covered  with  litter.  The 
urine  gutters  may  be  seen  in  the  plan  at  Q.  and  Y  in  fig.  4,  Plate  IV 

(196) 


Fig.  9. 


DOOR  THROUGH  WHICH  TO 
SUPPLY  MANGERS  WITH 
TURNIPS. 


\ 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD. 


101 


(47.)  Fig.  10  represents  a  section  of  a  travis  and  manger  of  a  byre,  where 
a  is  the  wall,  b  the  building  which  supports  the  manger  c,  having  a  front 
of  wood,  and  bottomed  with  either  flags  or  wood,  d  the  hard-wood  hind- 
post,  sunk  into  the  ground,  and  there  built  in  \\\Xh  stones  and  mortar,  e  the 
hard-wood  top-rail,  secured  behind  the  post  d,  and  let  into  and  fixed  in 
the  wall  a  with  iron  holdfasts,  f  the  stone  curb-stone,  into  which  the  tra- 


Fis;.  10. 


BYRE  TRAVIS,   MANGER,  AND    STAKE. 

vis-board  is  let ;  g  the  boarding  of  wood,  let  endways  into  the  curb-stone 
below,  and  into  the  top-rail  above,  by  a  groove ;  h  is  a  hard-wood  stake, 
to  which  the  cattle  are  fastened  by  binders,  the  lower  end  of  which  is  let 
into  a  block  of  stone  ?',  and  the  upper  fastened  by  a  strap  of  iron  to  a  block 
of  wood  k  fixed  into  the  wall  a  ;  m  is  the  gutter  for  the  dung,  having  a 
bottom  of  flag-stones,  and  sides  of  curb-stones ;  n  the  paved  floor ;  o  the 
opening  through  the  wall  a  by  which  the  food  is  supplied  into  the  manger 
c  to  the  cattle,  from  the  shed  s  behind.  This  shed  is  8  feet  wide,  p  being 
the  pillars  which  support  its  roof  q,  which  is  just  a  continuation  of  the  sla- 
ting of  the  byre  roof,  the  wall  a  of  which  is  9  feet,  and  the  pillars  p  6  feet, 
in  hight.  But  where  no  small  doors  for  the  food  are  used,  the  shed  s,  pil- 
lars p,  and  roof  q,  are  not  required — a  small  turnip  store  being  sufficient 
for  the  purpose,  and  to  which  access  may  be  obtained  by  the  back  door, 
seen  in  Q,,  at  the  right  hand  of  the  stalls  in  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  Fig.  ii. 
(48.)  Cattle  are  bound  to  the  stake  in  vaiious  ways. 

1.  One  way  is  with  an  iron  chain,  commonly  called 
a  binder  or  seal.  This  is  represented  in  fig.  11, 
where  a  is  the  large  ring  of  the  binder  which  slides 
up  and  down  the  stake  li,  which  is  here  shown  in 
the  same  position  as  it  is  by  7^  in  the  section  of  the 
stall  in  fig.  10.  The  iron  chain  being  put  round  '^^ 
the  neck  of  the  beast,  is  fastened  together  by  a 
broad-tongued  hook  at  c,  which  is  put  into  any  link 
of  the  chain  that  forms  the  gauge  of  the  neck,  and 
cannot  come  out  again  until  turned  on  purpose 
edgeways  in  reference  to  the  link  of  which  it  has 
a  hold.  This  sort  of  binder  is  in  general  use  in 
the  midland  and  northern  counties    of   Scotland. 

2.  Another  method  of  binding  is  %vith  the  baiMe, 
Avhich  is  made  of  a  piece  of  hard  wood  e,  fig.  12, 

(197) 


102 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


Fig.  12. 


Standing  upright  and  flat  to  the  neck  of  the  beast ;  a  rope  g,  fastens  tho 
lower  end  of  it  to  the  stake,  upon  which  it  shdes  up  and  down  by  means 
of  a  loop  which  the  rope  forms  round  the  stake.  This  rope  passes  under 
the  neck  of  the  animal,  and  is  never  loosened.  An- 
other rope  A-,  is  fastened  at  the  upper  end  of  the  piece 
of  wood  e,  and,  passing  over  the  neck  of  the  animal, 
and  round  the  stake,  is  made  fast  to  itself  by  a  knot 
and  eye,  and  serves  the  purpose  of  fastening  and 
loosening  the  animal.  The  neck  being  embraced  be- 
tween the  two  ropes,  moves  up  and  down,  carrying 
the  baikie  along  with  it.  This  method  of  binding  ani- 
mals to  the  stake,  though  quite  easy  to  the  animals 
themselves,  has  this  objectionable  property,  which 
the  seal  has  not,  of  preventing  the  animals  turning 
round  their  heads  to  lick  their  bodies,  which  they  can 
do  with  the  seal  pretty  far  back,  and  yet  are  unable 
to  turn  round  in  the  stall.  The  seal  being  made  of 
iron,  is  more  durable  than  the  baikie.  The  top  of  the 
stake  of  the  seal  is  inclined  toward  the  wall  n,  and 
fixed  as  represented  by  i7i  in  fig.  11  ;  the  baikie  stake 
is  held  pei-pendicular,  and  is  fixed  to  a  log  of  wood  rn,  a.  baikie. 

fig.  12,  stretching  parallel  to  the  wall  o,  across  the 

byre,  of  which  log  the  cross  section  only  is  here  shown.  The  seal-stake 
is  placed  in  an  inclined  position  to  allow  its  top  to  be  fastened  to  the  wall, 
and  in  regard  to  it  the  animal  is  comparatively  loo.se  ;  but  as  the  neck  is 
always  held  close  to  the  baikie-stake,  that  stake  must  be  placed  in  a  per- 
pendicular position  to  allow  the  animal  to  move  its  neck  up  and  down  to 
and  from  the  manger. 

(49.)  This  construction  of  the  byre  with  its  fittings  up,  is  quite  as  well 
suited  to  fatten  oxen  as  to  accommodate  milch  cows.  Feeding  byi'es  are 
usually  constructed  much  too  small  for  the  number  of  oxen  confined  in 
them.  When  stalls  are  actually  put  up,  they  seldom  exceed  4  feet  in 
width ;  more  frequently  two  oxen  are  put  into  a  double  stall  of  7  feet,  and 
not  unfrequently  travises  are  dispensed  with  altogether,  and  simply  a  tri- 
angular piece  of  boarding  is  placed  across  the  manger  against  the  wall,  to 
divide  the  food  betwixt  such  pair  of  oxen.  In  double  stalls,  and  where 
no  stalls  are  used,  even  small-sized  oxen,  as  they  increase  in  size,  cannot 
all  lie  down  together  to  chew  their  cud  and  rest,  whereas,  the  fatter  they 
become,  they  require  more  room  and  more  rest  ;  and  large  oxen  are  ham- 
pered in  them  from  the  first.  In  such  confined  byres,  the  gutter,  more- 
over, is  too  near  the  heels  of  the  oxen,  which  prevents  them  standinjg  back 
when  they  desire.  Short  stalls,  to  be  sure,  save  the  litter  being  dirtied, 
by  the  dung  dropping  from  the  cattle  directly  into  the  gutter,  and  this  cir- 
cumstance no  doubt  saves  trouble  to  the  cattle-man  ;  but  in  such  a  case 
the  litter  is  saved  by  the  sacrifice  of  comfort  to  the  animals.  Such  con- 
siderations of  economy  are  quite  legitimate  in  cowkeepers  in  town,  where 
both  .space  and  litter  are  valuable,  but  that  they  should  induce  the  con- 
struction of  inconvenient  byres  in  farmsteads  indicates  either  parsimony 
on  the  ])art  of  the  landlord  or  ignorance  on  that  of  the  architect ;  and  no 
farmer  who  consults  the  well-being  of  his  animals,  and  through  them  his 
own  interest,  should  ever  originate  such  a  plan,  or  sanction  it  where  he 
finds  it  to  exist.  The  truth  is,  these  confineil  sti-uctures  are  ordered  to  be 
erected  by  landlords  unacquainted  with  Afrriculture,  to  save  a  little  outlay 
at  first.  Expenditure  to  them  is  a  tangible  object ;  but  in  dealing  thus 
with  their  tenants,  they  seem  not  to  be  aware  they  are  actiuf  with  short- 
ies) ^  ° 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  l03 

eightedness  toward  their  own  interests  ;  for  want  of  proper  accommoda- 
tion in  the  farmstead  certainly  has,  and  should  have,  a  considerable  influ- 
ence on  the  mind  of  the  farmer,  when  valuing  the  rent  of  the  farm  he 
wdshes  to  occupy.  Should  you  have  occasion  to  fit  up  a  byre  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  milch  cows  or  feeding  oxen,  bear  in  mind  that  a  small 
sum  saved  at  first,  may  cause  you  to  incur  a  yearly  loss  of  much  greater 
amount  than  the  saving,  by  not  only  preventing  your  feeding  cattle  attain- 
ing the  pei-fection  which  a  comfortable  lodging  would  certainly  pi'omote 
in  them ;  but  in  affecting  the  state  of  your  cows  by  want  of  room,  the 
calves  they  bear  in  such  circumstances  are  sure  to  prove  weak  in  consti- 
tution. 

(50.)  Immediately  adjoining  the  cow-house  should  be  placed  the  calves^ 
house.  This  apartment  is  represented  at  R  of  the  plan  in  fig.  4,  Plate  IV. 
fitted  up  with  cribs.  It  is  35  feet  in  length,  and  18  feet  in  width,  and  the 
roof  ascends  to  the  slates.  Calves  are  either  suckled  by  their  mothers,  or 
brought  up  on  milk  by  the  hand.  When  they  are  suckled,  if  the  byre  be 
roomy  enough,  that  is,  18  feet  in  width,  stalls  are  erected  for  them  against 
the  wall  behind  the  cows,  in  which  they  are  usually  tied  up  immediately 
behind  their  mothers  ;  or,  what  is  a  less  restrictive  plan,  put  in  numbers 
together  in  loose  boxes  at  the  ends  of  the  byre,  and  let  loose  from  both 
places  at  stated  times  to  be  suckled.  "When  brought  up  by  the  hand,  they 
are  put  into  a  separate  apartment  from  their  mothers,  and  each  confined 
in  a  loose-box  or  crib,  where  the  milk  is  given  them.  The  superiority  of 
separate  cribs  over  loose  boxes  for  calves  is,  that  calves  are  prevented 
sucking  one  another,  after  having  got  their  allowance  of  milk,  by  the  ears, 
or  teats,  or  scrotum,  or  navel ;  by  which  malpractice,  when  unchecked, 
certain  diseases  may  be  engendered.  The  crib  is  large  enough  for  one 
calf  at  4  feet  squai-e  and  4  feet  in  hight,  sparred  with  slips  of  tile-lath,  and 
having  a  small  wooden  wicket  to  afford  access  to  the  calf.  The  floor  of 
the  cribs  may  be  of  earth,  but  the  passage  between  them  should  be  flagged 
or  of  asphaltum.  Abundance  of  light  should  be  admitted,  either  by  win- 
dows in  the  walls,  or  sky-lights  in  the  roof;  and  fresh  air  is  essential  to 
the  health  of  calves,  the  supply  of  which  would  be  best  procured  by  a  ven- 
tilator, such  as  is  represented  in  fig.  8,  p.  95,  already  described.  There 
should  be  a  door  of  communication  with  the  cow-house,  and  another  in  two 
divisions,  an  upper  and  a  lower,  into  a  court  fiirnished  with  a  shed,  as  k 
in  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  which  the  calves  may  occupy  until  turned  out  to  pas- 
ture. The  cribs  should  be  fitted  up  with  a  manger  to  contain  cut  turnips, 
and  a  high  rack  for  hay,  the  top  of  which  should  be  as  much  elevated  above 
the  litter  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  the  calves  getting  their  feet  over 
it.  The  general  fault  in  the  construction  of  calves'  houses  is  the  want  of 
both  light  and  air — light  being  cheerful  to  creatures  in  confinement,  and 
air  particularly  essential  to  the  good  health  of  young  animals.  When  de- 
sired, both  can  be  excluded.  The  walls  of  the  calves'  house  should  be 
plastered,  for  the  sake  of  neatness  and  cleanliness.  Some  people  are  of 
opinion  that  the  calves'  house  should  not  only  have  no  door  of  communica- 
tion with  the  cow-house,  but  should  be  placed  at  a  distance  from  it,  in  or- 
der that  the  cows  may  be  beyond  the  reach  of  hearing  the  calves.  Such 
an  objection  could  only  have  originated  from  an  imperfect  acquaintance 
with  the  nature  of  these  animals  in  the  circumstances.  A  young  cow  even 
that  is  at  once  prevented  smelling  and  suckling  her  calf,  does  not  recognize 
its  voice  at  any  distance,  and  will  express  no  uneasiness  about  it  after  the 
first  few  minutes  after  parturition,  and  after  the  first  portion  of  milk  has 
been  drawn  from  her  by  the  hand. 

(51.)   The  front  of  one  of  these  calves^  cribs  is  represented  by  fig.  13,  ip 

(19<»> 


104 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


Fig.  13. 


CALVES     CRIB   DOOR. 


which  a  is  the  wicket-door  which  gives  access  to  it,  h  h  are  the  hinges,  and 
c  is  a  thumh-catch  to  keep  the  door  shut.  You  will  observe  that  this  kind 
of  hinge  is  veiy  simple  and  economical.  It  consists  of  the  rails  of  the  wicket 
being  a  little  elongated  to- 
ward h,  where  they  terminate 
in  a  semi-circular  form,  and 
the  lower  face  of  which  is 
shaped  into  a  pin  which  fills 
and  rotates  in  a  round  hole 
made  in  a  billet  of  wood,  seen 
at  the  lower  hinge  at  h,  ■  se- 
curely screwed  to  the  upright 
door-post  of  the  crib.  Another 
billet  d  is  screv-zcd  immediate- 
ly above  the  lower  rail  h,  to 
prevent  the  O'-or  being  thl;o\\^l 
off  the  hin^/M'  oy  any  accident. 
Oross-tajiett  iron  hinges,  of 
the  lir|hr/>e-ss  suited   to  such 

«foors   would  soon  break  by  rusting  in  the  dampness  usually  occasioned  by 
ihe  br^wth  of  a  number  of  calves  confined  within  the  same  apartment. 

f'^/.A  A  pretty  large  court  should  be  attached  to  the  cow-house,  in  which 
ibe  cows  can  walk  about  for  a  time  in  the  best  part  of  the  day  in  winter, 
r*vKmg  in  the  sun  when  it  shines,  rubbing  against  a  post  that  should  be 
»er  up  for  the  purpose,  drinking  a  little  water  provided  for  them  in  a  trough 
vif  and  licking  themselves  and  one  another.  Such  a  court  is,  besides,  ne- 
cessary for  containing  the  manure  from  the  byre,  and  should  have  a  gate 
oy  which  carts  can  have  access  to  the  manure :  I  is  such  a  comt  on  the 
plan,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  being  58  feet  in  length  by  30  feet  in  width. 

(53.)  ^  in  the  plan,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  is  the  court  attached  to  the  calves' 
house,  30  feet  in  length  by  25  feet  in  width,  in  which  should  be  erected,  for 
shelter  to  the  calves  in  cold  weather,  or  at  night  before  they  are  turned  out 
to  pasture,  or  for  the  night  for  a  few  weeks  after  they  are  turned  out  to 
pasture,  a  shed  k,  30  feet  in  length  by  12  feet  in  width,  fitted  up  with  man- 
gers for  turnips,  and  racks  for  hay.  A  trough  of  water,  w,  is  also  requisite 
in  this  court,  as  well  as  a  gateway  for  carts  by  which  to  remove  the 
dung. 

(54.)  On  the  left  of  the  cow-house  is  the  hoiUng-house  U,  for  cooking 
food  in,  and  doing  eveiything  else  that  requires  the  use  of  wann  water. — 
The  boiler  and  furnace  h'  should  be  placed  so  as  to  afford  access  to  the 
boiler  on  two  sides,  and  fiom  the  furnace  the  vent  lises  to  the  point  of  the 
^able.  A  fire-place  a'  is  useful  for  many  purposes,  such  as  melting  tar, 
boiling  a  kettle  of  water,  drying  wetted  sacks,  nets,  &c.  One  door  opens 
into  the  byre,  and  another,  the  outer  one,  is  in  the  gable,  through  which 
access  to  the  byre  may  be  obtained,  or,  if  thought  better,  through  the  gate 
and  court  of  the  byre.  There  should  be  a  window  with  glass,  and  shutters 
in  the  lower  division,  to  open  and  admit  air,  and  a  ventilator  v,  fig.  3,  Plate 
III.  on  the  roof  may  be  advisable  here  as  a  means  at  times  to  clear  the 
house  of  steam.  The  walls  of  the  boiling-house  should  be  plastered.  As 
proximity  to  water  is  an  essential  convenience  to  a  boiling-house,  water  is 
quite  accessible  in  the  trough  of  the  cows'  court  /,  or,  what  is  still  better, 
in  a  trough  connected  with  it  outside,  as  at  V ,  in  fig.  3,  Plate  III.  or.?t',  in 
fig.  4,  Plate  IV. 

(55.)  Windows  should  be  of  the  form  for  the  pui-pose  they  are  intended 
to  be  used.    On  this  account  windows  for  stables,  and  for  other  apartments, 

(200) 


THE    STEADING   OR   FARMSTEAD. 


105 


mranL 

-nrnx] 


STABLE  WINDUW. 


Fia.  lo. 


should  be  of  different  forms.     1.  Fig.  14  represents  a  window  for  a  stable. 
The  opening  is  4J  feet  in  hight  by  3  feet  in  width.     The  frame-work  io 
composed  of  a  dead  part  a  of  1  foot  in  depth,  2 
shutters  hh  to  open  on  hinges,  and  fasten  inside  Fig.  14. 

with  a  thumb-catch,  and  c  a  glazed  sash  2  feet  in 
hight,  with  3  rows  of  panes.  When  panes  are 
made  under  8  inches  square,  there  is  a  considera- 
ble saving  in  the  price  of  glass.  The  object  of 
this  form  of  a  stable  window  is,  that  generally  a 
great  number  of  small  articles  are  thrown  on  the 
sole  of  a  work-horse  stable  window,  such  as  short- 
ends,  straps,  &c.  which  are  only  used  occasional- 
ly, and  intended  to  be  there  at  hand  when  wanted. 
The  consequence  of  this  confused  mixture  of 
things,  which  it  is  not  easy  for  the  farmer  to  pre- 
vent, is  that,  when  the  shutters  are  desired  to  be 
opened,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  do  it  A\'ithout  first  clearing  the  sole  of  ev- 
erything ;  and,  rather  than  find  another  place  for  them,  the  window  remains 
shut.  A  press  in  a  wall  might  be  suggested  for  containing  these  small  arti- 
cles ;  but  in  the  only  wall,  namely,  the  front  one  of  the  stable  O,  in  which 
it  would  be  convenient  to  make  such  a  press,  all  its  surface  is  occupied  by 
the  harness  hanging  against  it ;  and  besides,  no  orders,  however  peremp- 
tory, will  prevent  such  articles  being,  at  throng  times,  thrown  upon  the 
window-soles  ;  .and  where  is  the  harm  of  their  lying  there  at  hand,  provided 
the  \\ando\vs  are  so  constructed  as  to  admit  of  being  opened  when  desired  ? 
AVhen  a  dead  piece  of  wood,  as  a,  \p  put  into  such 
windows,  small  things  may  remain  on  the  sole, 
while  the  shutters  h  h  are  opened  over  them.  2. 
In  other  apartments,  such  as  byres,  coni-barn, 
calves'  house,  boiling-house,  implement -house,  hay- 
house,  where  there  is  no  chance  of  an  accumula- 
tion of  sundry  articles  in  the  window-sole,  the 
shutters  of  the  windows,  if  desired,  may  descend 
to  the  bottom  of  the  frame,  as  in  fig.  15.  The  size 
of  the  window  may  still  be  the  same,  4^  feet  in 
hight  .and  3  feet  in  width.  The  frame  consists  of 
two  shutters  aa  2  feet  in  hight,  with  a  glazed 
sash  c  2^  feet  in  hight,  having  4  rows  of  panes. — 
Such  a  form  of  window  will  admit  a  gieat  deal  of  light  and  air. 

(56.)  The  vpper  barn  B,  as  seen  in  fig.  16,  occupies  the  whole  space 
above  the  corn-bam  and  chaff-house.  It  is  32  feet  in  length  and  30  feet  in 
breadth,  and  its  roof  ascends  to  the  slates.  It  has  a  good  wooden  floor  like 
the  corn-barn,  supported  on  stout  joists.  It  contains  the  principal  machinery 
of  the  threshing-machine,  and  is  wholly  appropriated  to  the  storing  of  the 
unthreshed  com  previous  to  its  being  threshed  by  the  mill.  For  the  admis- 
sion of  barrows  loaded  with  sheaves  from  the  stack-yard,  or  of  sheaves  di- 
rect from  the  cart,  this  bam  should  have  a  door  toward  the  stack-yard  of 
6  feet  in  width,  in  two  vertical  folds  to  open  outward,  on  a  giblet-check — 
one  of  the  folds  to  be  fastened  in  the  inside  with  an  iron  cat-band,  and  the 
other  provided  with  a  good  lock  and  key.  It  is  in  this  barn  that  the  com 
is  fed  into  the  threshing-mill ;  and,  to  afford  light  to  the  man  who  feeds  in, 
and  ample  light  to  the  barn  when  the  door  is  shut — which  it  should  be 
when  the  wind  blows  strongly  into  it — a  skv-light  should  be  placed  over 
the  head  of  the  man.  The  large  door  should  not  be  placed  immediately 
behind  the  man  who  feeds  in,  as  is  frequently  the  case  in  farmsteads,  to  his 

(201) 


BVRK,  iC.   WINDOW. 


106 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


great  annoyance  when  the  sheaves  are  bringing  in.  There  should  be  slits 
iu  the  walls  for  the  ventilation  of  air  among  the  corn-sheaves,  which  may 
not  at  all  times  be  in  good  order  when  taken  into  the  bam.     A  hatchway 


Fig.  16. 


PLAN  OF  UPPER  BARN,  GRANARIES,  AND  WOOL-ROOM. 

a,  3  feet  sqviare,  in  the  floor,  over  the  com-barn  below,  is  useful  when  any 
corn  or  refuse  has  to  be  again  put  through  the  mill.  Its  hatch  should  be 
furnished  with  strong  cross-tailed  hinges,  and  a  hasp  and  staple,  with  a 
padlock  and  key,  by  which  to  secure  it  from  below  in  the  corn-bani.  An 
opening  h,  of  4  feet  in  hight  and  3  feet  in  width,  should  be  made  through 
the  wall  to  the  straw-barn,  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  any  straw  from  it 
that  may  require  to  be  put  through  the  mill  again.  This  opening  should 
be  provided  with  a  door  of  one  leaf,  or  of  two  leaves,  to  fasten  \vith  a  bar, 
from  the  upper  barn.  The  threshing-machine  is  not  built  on  the  floor,  but 
is  supported  on  two  very  strong  beams  extending  along  the  length  of  the 
barn  :  t  is  the  site  of  the  threshing-machine  in  the  figure. 

(.57.)  Immediately  in  connection  with  the  upper  bam  is  \\ie  gavgway,  T, 
fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  and  fig.  16.  It  is  used  as  an  inclined  plane,  upon  which 
to  wheel  the  corn-barrows,  and  form  a  road  for  the  carriers  of  sheaves 
from  the  stack-yard.  This  road  should  at  all  times  be  kept  hard  and 
smooth  with  small  broken  stones,  and  at  the  same  time  sufiiciently  strong 
to  endure  the  action  of  barrow-wheels.  Either  common  asphaltum  or 
wood  pavement  would  answer  this  pui-pose  well.  To  prevent  the  body 
of  the  gangway  affecting  the  wall  of  the  corn-bam  with  dampness,  it 
should  be  kept  apart  from  that  wall  by  an  arch  of  masonry.  Some  farm- 
ers prefer  taking  in  the  corn  on  carts  instead  of  by  a  gangway,  and  the 
carts  in  that  case  are  placed  alongside  the  large  door,  and  emptied  of  their 
contents  by  means  of  a  fork.  I  prefer  a  gangway  for  this  pui-pose  ;  be- 
cause it  enables  the  farmer  to  dispense  with  horse-labor  in  bringing  in  the 
stacks  if  they  ai-e  near  at  hand,  and  they  should  always  be  built  near  the 
upper-bam  for   co»venience.      Bams  in  which  flails  alone  are  used  for 

(202) 


THE  STEADING  OR   FARMSTEAD. 


107 


threshing  the  cora,  are  made  on  the  ground,  and  the  barn-door  is  made  as 
large  as  to  admit  a  loaded  cart  to  enter  and  empty  its  contents  on  the 
floor. 

(58.)  In  fig.  16,  AA  are  two  granaries  over  the  sheds  DD,  implement- 
house  G,  and  hay-house  H,  in  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  That  on  the  left  is  76  feet 
in  length  and  18  feet  in  width,  and  the  other  65  feet  in  length  and  18  feet 
in  width.  The  side  walls  of  both  are  5  feet  in  hight.  Their  roofs  ascend 
to  the  slates.  Their  wooden  floors  should  be  made  strong,  to  support  a 
considerable  weight  of  grain;  their  walls  well  plastered  with  hair  plaster; 
and  a  neat  skifting-board  should  finish  the  flooring.  Each  granary  has  6 
windows,  three  in  front  and  three  at  the  back,  and  there  is  one  in  the  ga- 
ble, at  the  left  hand  over  the  door  of  the  implement-house.  These  win- 
dows should  be  so  formed  as  to  admit  light  and  air  very  fi-eely,  and  1 
know  of  no  forai  of  window  so  capable  of  affording  both,  as  this  in  fig.  17, 
which  I  have  found  very  serviceable  in  granaries.  The  opening  is  4^  feet 
in  length  and  3  feet  in  hight.  In  the  frame  a  are  a  glazed  sash  1  foot  in 
hight,  composed  of  two  rows  of  panes,  and  b  Venetian  shutters,  which  may 
be  opened  more  or  less  at  pleasure  :  c  shows  in  section  the  manner  in 
which  these  shutters  operate.  They  revolve  by  their  ends,  formed  of  the 
shape  of  a  round  pin,  in  holes  in  the  side-posts  of  the  frame  d,  and  are 
kept  in  a  parallel  position  to  each  other  by  the  bar  c,  which  is  attached  to 

Fig.  17. 


GRANARY  WIiVDOW  AND  SECTION  OF  SHUTTERS. 


them  by  an  eye  of  iron,  moving  stiff  on  an  iron  pin  passing  through  both 
the  eye  and  bar  c.  The  granary  on  the  right  hand  being  the  smallest,  and 
immediately  over  the  work -horse  corn-chest,  should  be  appropriated  to  the 
use  of  horse-com  and  other  small  quantities  of  grain  to  be  first  used.  The 
other  granary  may  contain  seed-corn,  or  grain  that  is  intended  to  be  sold 
when  the  prices  suit.  For  repairing  or  cleaning  out  the  threshing-machine, 
a  large  opening  in  the  wall  of  this  granary,  exactly  opposite  the  machinery 
of  the  mill  in  the  upper  barn,  will  be  found  convenient.  It  should  be 
provided  with  a  large  movable  board,  or  folding  doors,  to  close  on  it, 
and  to  be  fastened  fi^om  the  granary.  This  opening  is  not  shown  in 
fig.  16. 

(59.)  At  the  end  of  the  straw-barn  L  is  the  wool-room  W,  fig.  16,  its  site 
being  indicated  by  W  on  the  roof  of  the  isometrical  view,  fig.  3,  Plate  III. 
It  just  covers  the  small  hammels  X,  and  is  therefore  25  feet  in  length  and 
18  feet  in  breadth.  It  enters  from  the  straw-bam  L  by  means  of  the 
stone  or  wooden  trap-stair  c'.  Its  floor  should  be  made  of  good  wood,  its 
walls  and  roof  lathed  and  hair-plastered.  Its  window  should  be  formed 
like  that  of  the  byres,  with  a  glazed  sash  above,  and  opening  shutters  be- 
low. A  curtain  should  be  hung  across  the  window  to  screen  the  light  and 
air  from  the  wool  when  desired.  The  door  need  not  exceed  6  feet  in 
hight,  but  should  be  3i  feet  in  width,  to  let  a  pack  of  wool  pass  easily 

(203) 


108  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


throucfh.  As  the  wool  is  most  conveniently  packed  in  this  rooin,  there 
should  be  provided  in  the  roof  two  stronjj  iron  hooks,  for  suspending  the 
comers  of  the  pack-sheet  in  the  act  of  packing  it,  and  another  from  which 
to  suspend  the  Iteam  and  scales  for  weigliing  the  fleeces.  Although  the 
wool  will  usually  occupy  this  room  only  when  the  cattle  are  in  the  field, 
yet  in  case  it  should  be'  found  expedient  to  keep  it  over  year,  or  have 
animals  in  the  small  haramels  X  in  summer,  and  in  case  their  breath  should 
ascend  into  the  wool  through  any  openings  of  the  joinings  of  the  deals  of 
the  floor,  it  will  be  a  safe  precaution  for  presei-^ing  the  wool  in  a  proper 
state,  to  have  the  roof  of  the  hammels  below  lathed  and  plastered.  This 
room  could  be  entered  by  a  door  and  stone  hanging-stair  in  the  gable. 

(60.)  M  and  N  in  the  plan,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  are  hamvieh  for  the  feeding 
of  cattle,  rearing  of  young  horses,  and  tending  of  queys  in  calf  until  they 
are  tied  up  in  the  cow-house.  1.  Hammels  consist  of  a  shed,  and  an  open 
court,  communicating  by  a  large  opening.  The  shed  part  need  not  be  so 
wide  as  the  rest  of  the  apartments  in  the  farmstead,  in  so  far  as  the  com- 
fort of  the  animals  is  concerned ;  and  in  making  them  narrower  consider- 
able saving  will  be  effected  in  the  cost  of  roofing.  2.  There  is  no  definite 
rule  for  the  size  of  hammels  ;  but  as  their  great  convenience  consists  in 
confeniiifj  the  power  to  assort  cattle  according  to  their  age,  temper,  size 
and  condition,  while  at  liberty  in  the  fresh  air,  it  is  evident  that  hammels 
should  be  much  smaller  than  courts,  in  which  no  assortment  of  animals 
can  be  attempted.  3.  The  courts  of  hammels,  from  which  the  dung  is 
proposed  to  be  taken  away  by  horse  and  cart,  should  not  be  less  than  30 
feet  in  length  by  18  feet  in  breadth,  and  their  entrance  gates  9  feet  in 
width  ;  and  this  size  of  court  will  accommodate  4  oxen  that  will  each  at- 
tain the  weight  of  70  stones  imperial.  Tliis  is  the  size  of  the  courts  of 
the  hammels  M.  Should  it  not  be  thought  inconvenient  to  take  the  dung 
out  of  the  courts  \vith  banows,  then  they  need  not  be  made  larger  than 
20  feet  in  length  by  17  feet  in  \ridth,  and  this  is  the  size  of  the  courts  of 
the  hammels  N,  which  will  accommodate  3  oxen  of  the  above  size.  4.  The 
sheds  to  both  sizes  of  courts  need  not  exceed  14  feet  in  width,  and  their 
length  w\\\  be  equal  to  the  \\-idth  of  the  courts.  Of  these  dimensions  4 
oxen  in  the  larger  will  have  just  the  same  accommodation  as  3  oxen  of 
the  same  size  in  the  smaller  hammels.  5.  All  haramels  should  have  a 
trough,  c,  for  turnips,  fitted  up  against  one  of  the  walls  of  the  court.  The 
side-wall  is  the  most  convenient  part,  when  a  large  gate  is  placed  in  front, 
through  which  the  carts  are  backed  to  clear  away  the  dung  from  the  courts. 
In  the  case  of  the  smaller  courts,  the  turnips  may  be  supplied  to  the  trough 
over  the  top  of  the  front  wall.  6.  To  give  permanency  to  hammels,  the 
shed  should  be  roofed  as  effectually  as  any  of  the  other  buildings,  though 
to  save  some  expense  at  first,  many  farmers  are  in  the  habit  of  roofing 
them  with  small  trees  placed  close  together  on  the  tops  of  the  walls  of  the 
sheds,  and  of  building  thereon  either  straw,  com,  or  beans.  This  is  cer- 
tainly an  excellent  place  upon  which  to  stack  beans  or  peas  ;  but  the  fin- 
ished building  is  that  which  should  be  adopted  in  all  cases.  Temporary 
erections  are  constantly  needing  repairs,  and  in  the  end  actually  cost  more 
than  work  substantially  executed  at  fii-st.  7.  The  division  betwixt  the  shed 
and  court  fonns  the  front  wall  of  the  shed,  through  which  an  opening 
forms  the  door  betwixt  them.  This  door,  6  feet  in  width,  should  always 
be  placed  at  one  side  and  not  in  the  middle  of  the  hammel,  to  retain  the 
greatest  degree  of  warmth  to  the  interior  of  the  shed.  The  corners  of  its 
scutcheon  should  be  rounded  off*  to  save  the  cattle  being  injured  against 
shaq-)  angles.  The  divisions  betwixt  the  respective  courts  should  be  of 
stone  and  lime  walls,  1  foot  in  thickness,  and  6  feet  in  hitrht.     Those  with- 

(204) 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  109 


in  the  sheds  should  be  carried  up  quite  close  to  the  roof.  Frequently 
they  are  only  carried  up  to  the  first  balk  of  the  couples,  over  which  a 
draught  of  air  is  generated  along  the  inside,  from  shed  to  shed,  much  to 
the  discomfort  of  the  animals  ;  and  this  inconvenience  is  always  overlooked 
in  hammels  which  are  built  with  the  view  of  saving  a  little  cost  in  build- 
ing up  the  inside  division  walls  to  the  roofs.  8.  Racks  for  fodder  should 
be  put  up  within  the  sheds,  either  in  the  three  spare  corners,  or  alono- 
the  inner  end.  9.  In  my  opinion  there  is  no  way  so  suitable  for  feed- 
ing oxen,  bringing  up  young  horses  in  winter,  or  taking  care  of  heifers 
in  calf,  as  hammels  ;  and  of  the  two  sizes  described  above,  I  would  de- 
cidedly prefer  the  smaller,  as  permitting  the  fewer  number  of  animals  to 
be  put  together.  10.  XX  are  two  small  hammels  at  the  end  of  the  straw- 
barn  L  for  accommodating  a  bull,  or  stallion,  or  any  single  animal  that  re- 
quires a  separate  apartment  for  itself.  These  are  each  18  feet  in  leno-th 
and  12  feet  in  width  within  the  sheds,  the  roofs  of  which  are  formed  of 
the  floor  of  the  wool-room  W ;  and  29  feet  in  length  and  12  feet  in  width 
in  the  courts.  The  doors  into  them  should  be  made  to  open  outward,  on 
giblet-checks.  The  courts  are  furnished  with  turnip-troughs,  z,  and  one 
water-trough,  w,  will  serve  both  courts,  as  shown  in  the  plan,  figure  4, 
Plate  IV.  A  rack  should  be  fitted  up  for  fodder  in  the  inside  of  each 
shed. 

(61.)  It  should  be  observed  that  a  part  of  the  hammels  N  is  fitted  up  as 
a  byre  Y.  This  byre  is  intended  to  accommodate  the  servants'  cows. — 
There  are  8  stalls — 6  for  the  plowmen's,  1  for  the  farm-steward's,  and  1  for 
the  shepherd's  cows — and  they  are  nearly  5  feet  in  width.  The  leno-th  of 
the  byre  is  38  feet,  and  its  width  is  only  14  feet,  which  gives  a  rather  small 
space  behind  the  cows ;  but,  as  servants'  cows  are  generally  small,  and  the 
milk  from  them  immediately  carried  away,  if  there  is  just  sufficient  rooni 
for  feeding  and  milking  them,  and  adequate  comfort  to  the  cows  themselves, 
a  large  space  behind  them  is  unnecessary.  This  byre  has  a  ventilator  r' 
The  cows  are  furnished  with  an  open  court  v,  38  feet  in  length  and  20  feet 
in  width,  and  a  water-trough  w. 

(62.)  I  and  K  of  the  plan,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  are  two  large  courts  for  young 
cattle,  both  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  straw-barn  L,  and  both  having 
a  shed  D  under  one  of  the  granaries ;  I  is  84  feet  in  length  and  76  feet  in 
width,  and  K  84  feet  in  length  and  77  feet  in  width.  Troughs  for  turnips 
should  be  fitted  up  against  one  or  more  of  the  walls  surrounding  the  courts 
in  the  most  convenient  places,  such  as  at  z  in  both  courts.  Besides  racks 
for  fodder,  h' ,  against  one  of  the  walls  within  the  sheds  D  D,  there  should 
racks  be  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  cojlrts,  that  the  cattle  may  stand 
around  and  eat  out  of  them  without  trouble.  The  square  figures  o  o  xn  the 
middle  of  the  courts  I  and  K  indicate  the  places  where  the  racks  should 
stand,  and  their  form  may  be  seen  at  o  <?  in  the  isometrical  view,  fig.  3,  Plate 
III.  Around  two  sides  of  K  is  a  paved  road  d ,  13  feet  in  width,  for  carts 
going  to  be  loaded  with  grain  at  the  door  of  the  com-bara  C.  Though  the 
cattle  have  liberty  to  walk  on  this  pavement,  it  should  be  kept  clean  every 
day.  Such  courts  are  quite  common  in  steadings  for  the  rearing  of  young 
cattle  in  winter,  and  even  for  feeding  large  lots  of  cattle  together,  as  is 
practiced  by  most  farmers  who  do  not  rear  calves  ;  but,  for  my  part,  I  pre- 
fer hammels  for  all  classes  and  ages  of  cattle ;  for,  although  cattle  are  re- 
stricted in  them  in  regard  to  space,  still  the  few  in  each  hammel  have  plenty 
of  room  to  move  about.  There  is  no  hardship  to  the  animals  in  this  degree 
of  confinement,  while  they  have  the  advantage  of  quietness  among  them- 
selves in  the  open  air,  produced  by  being  assorted  according  to  temper, 
size,  sex,  and  age.     On  abolishing  large  courts  altogether  out  of  steadings, 

(205) 


110 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


I  would  substitute  in  their  place  hammels  of  different  sizes,  and  convert  the 
cattle-sheds  D  and  D  into  cart-sheds  and  receptacles  for  the  larger  class  of 
implements.  It  is  probable  that  the  use  of  large  courts  will  not  soon  be 
dispensed  with  in  fai-msteads,  and  for  that  reason  I  have  retained  them  in 
the  plan ;  but  I  have  no  doubt  that  a  period  will  arrive  when  fanners,  to 
insure  to  themselves  larger  profits  from  cattle,  will  see  the  advantage  of  tak- 
ing the  utmost  care  of  them,  from  the  period  of  their  birth  until  disposed 
of  in  a  ripe  condition  at  an  early  age ;  and  then  hammels  will  be  better 
liked  than  even  courts  are  at  the  present  day,  and  farmers  will  then  univer- 
sally adopt  them. 

(63.)  Fig.  18  represents  a  trough  for  turnips  suited  both  for  hammels  and 
cmirtSy  where  a  is  the  wall  against  which  the  trough  is  built,  and  h  a  build- 
Fig.  18. 


TCRNIP  TROUGH. 


ing  of  Stone  and  lime  2  feet  thick.  The  lime  need  not  be  ueed  for  more 
than  9  inches  in  the  front  and  sides  of  the  wall,  and  the  remaining  1 5  inches 
may  be  filled  up  with  any  hardtmaterial ;  c  is  the  flagging  placed  on  the 
top  of  the  wall,  and  forming  the  bottom  of  the  trough.  Some  board  the 
bottom  with  wood,  where  wood  is  plentiful,  and  it  answers  well  enough  ; 
but,  of  course,  flags,  where  easily  obtained,  are  more  durable,  though  wood 
is  pleasanter  for  the  cattle  in  wet  and  frosty  weather  in  winter,  t?  is  a 
plank,  3  inches  thick  and  9  inches  in  depth,  to  keep  in  the  tuniips.  Oak 
planking  from  wrecks,  and  old  spruce  trees,  however  knotty,  I  have  found 
to  make  cheap  and  very  durable  planking  for  the  edging  ofmraip  troughs. 
The  planks  arc  spliced  together  at  the  ends,  and  held  on  edge  by  bars  of 
iron  e  batted  with  lead  into  the  wall,  in  the  manner  already  described  in 
(44,)  p.  100  ;  and  the  figure  cleariy  shows  this  mode  of  fastening  the  plank. 
The  masonry  represented  in  the  figure  is  finer  than  need  be  for  the  pur- 
pose ;  and  the  trough,  though  here  shown  short,  may  extend  to  any  length 
along  the  side  or  sides  of  a  court. 

(64.)    The  straw-racks  for  courts  are  made  of  various  forms,      1.  On 
farms  of  light  soils,  where  straw  is  usually  scarce,  a  rack  of  the  form  of 

(206) 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD. 


Ill 


fig.  19,  having  a  movable  cover,  will  be  found  serviceable  in  preserving 
the  straw  from  rain,  where  a  a  is  the  bottom  inclined  upward  to  keep  the 
Bti'aw  always  forward  to  the  front 
of  the  rack  in  reach  of  the  cattle. — 
Through  the  apex  of  the  bottom,  the 
shank'  which  supports  the  movable 
cover  b  passes,  and  this  cover  pro- 
tects the  straw  from  rain.  The  shank 
with  its  cover  is  worked  up  and  down, 
when  a  supply  of  straw  is  given,  by  a 
rack  and  pinion  c,  to  which  pinion  is 
attached  the  lying  shaft,  on  which  is 
shipped  a  handle  d.  A  rack  of  this 
kind  is  made  of  wood,  and  should  be 
5  feet  square,  and  5  feet  in  hight 
to  the  top  of  the  comer  posts ;  and 
sparred  all  round  the  sides,  as  well 
as  the  bottom,  to  keep  in  the  straw. 
2.  A  more  common  kind  of  rack  is 
represented  by  fig.  20,  which  is  of  a  square  fonn,  and  sparred  all  round 
the  sides  to  keep  in  the  straw.     The 


COVERED  STRAW-RACK. 


Straw  through    the 
as  its  top  is  too  high 


Fig.  20. 


WOODEN  STRAW-RACK. 

In  use  it  remains  constantly 

Fig.  21. 


cattle  draw  the 

spars  as  long 

for  them  to  reach  over  it ;  but  after 

the  dung  accumulates,  and  the  rack 

thereby  becomes  low,  the   cattle  get 

at  the  straw  over  the  top.    This  kind 

is  also  made  of  wood,  and  should  be 

5  feet  square  and  4  feet  in  hight. — 

3.  Fig.  21  represents  a  rack  made  of 

malleable   iron,  intended    to  supply 

the  straw  to  the  cattle  always  over 

its  top,  and  is  thei'efore  not  span-ed, 

but  rodded,  in  the  sides,  to  keep  in  the  straw 

on  the  ground,  and  not  drawn  up  as 

the  dung  accumulates,  as  in  the  case 

of  the  other  kinds  of  racks  described. 

This  kind  is  5i  feet  in  length,  4i-  feet 

m  breadth,  and  4^  feet  in  hight ;  the 

upper  rails  and  legs  are  made  of  iron 

1  inch  square,  and  the  other  rails  ^ 

inch.     Iron  is,  of  course,  the    most 

durable  material  of  which  straw -racks 

for  cattle  can  be  made. 

(65.)  There  are  few  things  which 
indicate  greater  care  for  cattle  when 
housed  in  the  farmstead,  than  the 
erection  of  places  for  storing  turnips  for  their  use.  Such  stores  are  not 
only  convenient,  but  the  best  sort  of  receptacles  for  keeping  the  turnips 
clean  and  fresh.  They  are  seen  in  the  isometiical  view,  fig.  3,  Plate  III. 
and  in  the  plan,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  at  e  andyfor  the  use  of  the  hammels  M  ; 
at  g  for  that  of  the  court  K ;  at  A  for  the  hammels  X,  and  servants'  cow- 
house Y ;  at  ^  for  the  use  of  the  court  I ;  at  ?»  for  that  of  the  cow-house 
Q,,  and  calves'  cribs  R  ;  and  at^  and  q  for  the  hammels  N.  The  walls  of 
these  turnip-stoi-es  should  be  made  of  stone  and  lime,  8  feet  by  5  feet  m- 

(207) 


IRON  STRAW-RACK. 


112  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

side,  and  6  feet  in  hight,  with  an  opening  in  front,  2  feet  and  upward  from 
the  giound,  for  putting  in  and  taking  out  the  turnips  thereat ;  or  they  may 
be  made  of  wood,  where  that  is  plentiful,  with  stout  upright  posts  in  the 
four  corners,  and  lined  with  rough  deals.  They  may  be  covered  with  the 
same  material,  or  with  straw,  to  protect  the  turnips  from  frost.  They  should 
be  placed  near  the  apartments  they  are  intended  to  supply  with  turnips,  and 
at  the  same  time  be  of  easy  access  to  carts  from  the  roads.  These  recep- 
tacles may,  of  course,  be  made  of  any  convenient  form. 

(66.)  The  supply  of  water  to  all  the  courts  where  as  many  tuniips  as  they 
can  eat  are  not  given  to  the  cattle,  is  a  matter  of  paramount  consideration 
in  the  fitting  up  of  every  fannstead.  In  the  plan,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  troughs 
for  water  are  represented  at  w,  in  the  large  courts  I  and  K,  in  those  of 
the  cow-houses  I  and  v,  and  calves'  cribs  h,  as  well  as  in  those  of  the  bulls' 
hammels  X.  The  troughs  may  be  supplied  with  water  either  directly  from 
pump- wells,  or  by  pipes  from  a  fountain  at  a  little  distance — the  foiTner  be- 
inof  the  most  common  plan.  As  a  pump  cannot  conveniently  be  placed  at 
each  troucrh,  there  is  a  plan  of  supplying  any  number  of  troughs  from  one 
pump,  which  I  have  found  to  answer  well,  provided  the  surface  of  the 
gT»und  \rill  allow  the  troughs  being  nearly  on  the  same  level,  when  placed 
within  reach  of  the  animals.  The  plan  is  to  connect  the  bottoms  of  any 
two  or  more  troughs,  set  on  the  same  level,  ^^•ith  lead  pipes  placed  under 
ground  ;  and,  on  the  first  trough  being  supplied  direct  from  the  pump,  the 
water  will  flow  to  the  same  level  thioughout  all  the  other  troughs.  There 
is,  however,  this  objection  to  this  particular  arrangement,  that,  when  any 
one  of  the  troughs  is  emptying  by  drinking,  the  water  is  di-awTi  off  from 
the  rest  of  the  ti-oughs,  that  it  may  maintain  its  level  throughout  the  whole  ; 
whereas,  if  the  trough  which  receives  the  water  were  placed  a  few  inches 
hdow  the  top  of  the  one  supplying  it,  and  the  lead  pipe  were  made  to  come 
from  the  bottom  of  the  supply  trough  over  the  top  of  the  edge  of  the  re- 
cei\'ing  one,  the  water  would  entirely  be  emptied  from  the  trough  out  of 
which  the  drink  was  taken,  without  affecting  the  quantitv"  in  any  of  the  oth- 
ers. 1.  To  apply  these  arrangements  of  water-troughs  to  the  plan  fig.  4. 
Plate  IV.  Suppose  that  a  pump  supplies  the  trough  w,  in  the  court  I,  di- 
rect from  a  well  beside  it — a  lead  pipe  passing,  on  the  one  hand,  from  the 
bottom  of  this  ti'ough  under  ground  to  the  bottom  of  the  trough  7c,  in  the 
court  K,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  that  of  the  tiough  w  in  the  calves'  court 
tc,  and  thence  to  that  of  the  trough  w  in  the  court  /  of  the  cow-house  Q ; 
and,  in  another  direction,  to  the  bottom  of  the  trough  2o  in  the  court  r  of 
the  ser\'ants'  cow-house  Y ;  and  suppose  that  the  troughs  in  K  and  k  and 
I  and  V  are  placed  on  the  same  level  as  the  supply  trough  in  the  court  I, 
it  is  obvious  that  they  will  all  be  supplied  \\\x\\  water  as  long  as  there  is  any 
in  the  supply  trough,  and  the  emptiness  of  which  will  indicate  that  the  wa- 
ter from  it  had  been  dra\vn  off  by  the  other  troughs,  and  that  the  time  had 
fully  arrived  when  it  was  necessary  to  replenish  the  trough  in  the  court  T 
direct  from  the  pump.  The  supply  trough,  in  such  an  arrangement,  should 
be  larger  than  either  of  the  other  troughs.  The  trough  of  the  bulls'  ham- 
mels X  might  be  supplied  by  a  spout  direct  from  the  pump  in  the  couit  I. 
In  this  way  a  simple  system  of  watering  might  be  erected  from  one  pump 
to  supply  a  number  of  trouehs  in  different  courts.  It  may  be  pioper  to 
illustrate  this  mode  of  connecting  water-troughs  by  a  figure.  Let  h,  fig. 
22,  be  the  supply  trough  at  the  pump,  and  /  the  receiving  one,  and  let 
both  be  placed  on  the  same  level ;  then  let  g'hc  a  lead  pipe  connectinq-  the 
bottoms  of  both  troughs,  the  ends  of  which  are  protected  bv  hollow  hemi- 
spherical drainers,  such  as  c.  It  is  here  obvious,  from  the  law  which  reo-u- 
lates  the  equDibrium  of  fluids,  that  the  water,  as  supplied  by  the  pump  to 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD, 


113 


J  will  always  stand  at  the  same  hight  in  f.  2.  \  shall  now  illustrate  the 
other  method  of  supplying  troughs  also  by  a  figure.  Let  a,  fio-.  22,  be  the 
supply  trough  immediately  beside  the  pump  ;  let  h  be  the  trough  in  any 
other  court  to  be  supplied  with  water  from  a,  and  for  that  pui-pose  it  should 
be  placed  3  inches  below  the  level  of  a.  Let  a  lead  pipe  d  be  fastened  to 
the  under  side  of  the  bottom  of  a,  the  orifice  of  which,  looking  upward,  to 
be  protected  by  the  hemispherical  drainer  c.  Let  the  lead  pipe  cL  be  passed 
under  ground  as  far  as  the  trough  h  is  situated  from  a,  and  emerge  out  of 
the  ground  by  the  side  of  and  over  the  top  of  h  at  e.     From  this  construc- 

Fig.  23. 


WATER-TROUGHS. 


tion  it  is  clear  that,  when  a  is  filling  with  water  from  the  pump,  the  mo- 
ment the  water  rises  to  the  level  of  the  end  of  the  pipe  at  e,  it  will  com- 
mence to  flow  into  h,  and  will  continue  to  do  so  until  h  is  filled,  if  the 
pumping  be  continued.  The  water  in  a,  below  the  level  of  the  end  of  the 
pipe  at  e,  may  be  used  in  a  without  affecting  that  in  b,  and  the  water  in  b 
may  be  wholly  used  without  affecting  that  in  a.  3.  Water-troughs  may 
be  made  of  various  materials ;  the  form  of  a  is  that  of  one  hewn  out  of  a 
solid  block  of  freestone,  which  makes  the  closest,  most  durable,  and  best 
trough ;  that  of  b  is  of  flag  stones,  the  sides  of  which  are  sunk  into  the 
edges  of  the  bottom  in  grooves  filled  wth  white  lead,  and  there  held  to- 
gether with  iron  clamps  h.  This  is  a  good  enough  kind  of  trough,  but  is 
apt  to  leak  at  the  joints.  Trough  f  is  made  of  wood  dove-tailed  at  the 
corners,  and  held  together  by  clamps  of  iron  i.  These  troughs  may  be 
made  of  any  size  and  proportions.  4.  In  some  steadings,  the  water-troughs 
are  supplied  from  a  large  cistern,  somewhat  elevated  above  their  level,  and 
the  cistern  is  filled  with  water  from  a  well  either  by  a  common  or  a  force- 
pump.  But,  in  this  arrangement,  either  a  cock,  or  ball  and  cock,  are  requi- 
site at  each  trough  :  in  the  case  of  a  cock,  the  supply  of  water  must  depend 
on  the  cock  being  turned  on  the  trough  in  due  time ;  and,  in  that  of  a  ball 
and  cock,  the  supply  depends  on  the  cistern  being  always  supplied  with 
water  fi-om  the  pump.  There  is  great  inconvenience  and  expense  in  hav- 
ing a  ball  and  cock  at  each  trough.  5.  In  steadings  where  there  is  an 
abundant  supply  of  water  from  natural  springs,  accessible  without  the 
means  of  a  pump,  lead  pipes  are  made  to  emit  a  constant  stream  of  water 
into  each  trough,  and  the  sui-plus  is  carried  away  in  drains,  perhaps  to  the 
horse-pond.  6.  There  is  still  another  mode  which  may  be  adopted  where 
the  supply  of  water  is  plentiful,  and  where  it  may  flow  constantly  into  a 
supply-cistern.  Let  the  supply-cistern  be  2  feet  in  length,  .1  foot  wide,  and 
18  inches  in  depth,  and  let  it  be  provided  with  a  ball  and  cock,  and  let  a 
pipe  proceed  from  its  bottom  to  a  trough  of  dimensions  fit  for  the  use  of 
cattle,  into  which  let  the  pipe  enter  its  end  or  side  a  little  way,  say  3  inch- 
es, below  the  mouth  of  the  trough.  Let  a  pipe  proceed  from  this  trough, 
from  the  bend  of  the  pipe,  as  from  the  bend  of  the  right-hand  pipe  e  at  the 
bottom  of  the  trough  b,  fig.  22,  to  another  trough,  into  whose  end  it  enters 
in  like  manner  to  the  first  trough,  and  so  on  into  as  many  succeeding 
troughs,  from  trough  to  trough,  on  the  same  level,  as  you  require  ;  and  the 
water  will  rise  in  each  as  high  as  the  mouth  of  the  pipe,  and,  when  with- 

(209) 8 


114 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


drawn  by  drinking  from  any  one  of  them,  the  ball  and  cock  will  replenish 
it  direct  from  the  supply-cistern ;  but  the  objection  to  a  ball  and  cock  ap- 
pUes  as  strongly  to  this  case  as  to  the  other  methods,  although  there  is 
economy  of  pipe  attending  this  method. 

(67.)  "in  most  farmsteads  a  she  J  fur  carts  is  provided  for,  though  many 
farmers  are  too  regardless  of  the  fate  of  these  indispensable  machines  hy 
permitting  them  to  he  exposed  to  all  vicissitudes  of  weather.  The  cart -shed 
is  shown'at  V  in  the  isometrical  view  fig.  3,  Plate  III.  and  by  V  in  the 
plan  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  immediately  behind  the  hammels  M,  facing  the  work- 
horse stable  O,  and  looking  to  the  north,  away  fiom  the  shrinking  effects 
of  the  sun's  heat.  It  is  80  feet  in  length,  15  feet  in  vdAxh  \\-ithin  the  pil- 
lars, and  8  feet  in  bight  to  the  slates  in  front.  The  roof  slopes  from  the 
back-slating  of  the  hammels,  and  is  supported  at  the  eave  by  a  beam  of 
wood  resting  on  7  stone  and  hnie  pillars,  and  a  wall  at  each  end.  The  pil- 
lars should  be  of  ashler,  2  feet  square,  and  rounded  on  the  comers,  to 
avert  their  being  chipped  off  with  the  iron  rims  of  the  wheels  by  the  care- 
lessness of  the  plowmen,  when  backing  the  carts  into  the  shed.  For  the 
same  puqiose,  a  pawl-stone  should  be  placed  on  each  side  of  everj'  pillar. 
This  shed  is  longer  than  what  is  actually  required  where  double-horse 
carts  are  only  used,  6  ports  being  sufficient  for  that  number,  but  single- 
horse  carts  are  now  so  much  in  use,  that  more  of  these  are  required,  per- 
haps not  fewer  than  8.  Two  single-horse  carts  can  stand  in  each  port,  one 
in  front  of  the  other.  Any  spare  room  in  the  shed  may  be  employed  in 
holding  a  light  cart,  the  roller,  the  grass-seed  machine,  the  tul•nip-so^^•ing 
machine,  the  bodies  of  the  long  carts,  and  other  articles  too  bulky  to  be 
stowed  into  the  implement-house  G. 

(68.)  Though  swine  are  usually  allowed  to  mn  about  the  steading  at 
pleasure,  yet,  to  do  them  justice,  they  should  be  accommodated  at  times 
with  protection  and  shelter,  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the  live-stock.  Pigge- 
ries or  pig-sties  are  therefore  highly  useful  structures  at  the  farmstead. 
They  are  of  three  kinds  :  1.  Those  for  a  brood-sow  with  a  litter  of  young 
pigs.  This  kind  should  have 

two  apartments,  one  for  the  ^'S-  23. 

sow  and  the  litter  to  sleep 
in,  covered  with  a  roof,  and 
entered  by  an  openinir,  the 
other  an  open  court  in  which  '% 
the  feeding-trough  is  placed. 
For  a  breeding-sty  each 
apartment  should  nfit  be  less 
than  6  feet  square.  This 
kind  of  sty  is  represented  by 
c  c  in  the  plan,  fig.  4,  Plate 
IV.  and  at  c  in  the  isomet- 
rical view,  fig.  3,  Plate  III. 
2.  Those  for  feeding-pigs  : 
these  should  also  have  two 
apartments,  one  with  litter 
for  sleeping  in,  covered  by 
a  roof  and  entered  by  an 
opening  ;  the  other  an  open 
court  for  the  troughs  for 
food.  A  sty  of  4  feet  square 
in  each  apartment,  will  accommodate  2  feeding-pigs  of  20  stones  each. 
Of  this  kind  of  sty  4  are  represented  at  a  in  the  isometrical  view.  fi<T.  3. 

210)  '       o       ' 


DOOR  OF  PIG-STT. 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  115 


Plate  III.  and  in  the  plan  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  These  two  sorts  of  sties  may 
each  have  a  roof  of  its  own,  or  a  number  of  them  may  have  a  laro-e  roof 
over  them  in  common.  The  former  is  the  usual  plan,  but  the  latter  is  the 
most  convenient  for  cleaning  out,  and  viewing  the  internal  condition  of 
the  sties.  3.  The  third  kind  is  for  the  accommodation  of  weaned  young 
pigs,  when  it  is  considered  necessary  to  confine  them.  These  should  have 
a  shed  at  one  end  of  the  court,  to  contam  litter  for  their  beds.  The  court 
and  shed  are  represented  at  h  in  the  plan,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  and  isometrical 
view,  fig.  3,  plate  III.  They  extend  25  feet  in  length  and  21  feet  in  width. 
4.  The  floors  of  all  these  kinds  of  sties  should  be  laid  with  stout  flags  to 
prevent  every  attempt  of  the  swine  digging  into  the  gi'ound  with  their 
snouts.  5.  As  smne  are  very  strong  in  the  neck,  and  apt  to  push  up  com- 
mon doors,  the  best  kind  of  door  which  I  have  found  for  confining  them 
by,  is  that  formed  of  stout  boards,  made  to  slip  up  and  down  within  a 
groove  in  hewn  stones  forming  the  entrance  in  the  outside  wall.  This 
form  of  door  may  be  seen  in  fig.  23,  and  seems  to  require  no  detailed  de- 
scription. 

(69.)  Domestic  folds  require  accommodation  in  the  steading  as  well  as 
other  stock.  1.  They  should  be  provided  with  houses  for  hatching  their 
eggs  hi,  as  also  for  roosting  in  undisturbed,  and  both  kinds  should  be  con- 
structed in  accoi'dance  with  the  nature  of  the  birds,  that  is,  those  fowls 
which  roost  on  high  should  be  kept  in  a  different  house  from  those  which 
rest  on  the  ground.  The  roosts  should  be  made  of  horizontal  round  spars 
of  wood,  and  spaces  of  18  inches  cube  should  be  made  of  wood  or  stone 
at  a  hight  of  1  foot  or  18  inches  fi-om  the  ground,  to  contain  the  straw 
nests  for  those  which  are  laying.  The  hatching-houses  should  be  fitted  up 
wdth  separate  compartments  containing  large  nests  elevated  only  3  or  4 
inches  above  the  level  of  the  floor.  2.  The  foundations  should  be  of  large 
stones  and  the  flooring  of  sti'ong  flags,  firmly  secured  with  mortar  above  a 
body  of  small  broken  stones,  and  the  roofs  completely  filled  in  under  the 
slates  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  vermin  lodging  either  above  or  below 
ground.  3.  Good  doors  with  locks  and  keys  should  be  put  on  the  houses, 
windows  provided  for  the  admission  of  light  and  air,  and  an  opening  made 
in  the  outer  wall  of  the  roosting-house,  4  feet  above  the  ground,  to  admit 
the  fowls  which  roost  on  high  by  a  trap-ladder  resting  on  the  gi'ound,  as  at 
d  in  fig.  3,  Plate  III.  The  roof  should  be  water-tight  at  all  times,  and 
lathed  and  plastered  in  the  inside,  for  warmth  and  cleanliness.  The  fowls' 
house  may  be  seen  at  d  in  the  isometrical  view,  fig.  3,  Plate  III,  and  in 
the  plan,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  4.  It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  that  either  the 
hen-houses  or  pig-sties  should  be  placed  where  they  are  represented  in  the 
plan  ;  but  as  they  do  not  there  interrupt  the  free  entrance  of  the  sun  into 
the  court  K,  and  therefore  do  not  interfere  with  the  comfort  of  more  im- 
portant stock,  they  are  there  of  easy  access,  themselves  quite  exposed  to 
the  sun,  which  they  should  always  be,  and  they  square  up  the  front  of  the 
farmstead.  The  hen-house  has  been  recommended  by  some  people  to  be 
built  near  the  cow-byre  to  derive  warmth  from  it ;  but  all  the  heat  that 
can  be  obtained  from  mere  juxtaposition  to  a  byi-e  is  quite  unimportant, 
and  not  to  be  compared  to  the  heat  of  the  sun  in  a  southern  aspect. 

(70.)  S,  in  both  the  plan,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  and  isometrical  view,  fig.  3, 
Plate  III.  is  part  of  the  stacJi-yard.  1.  As  most  of  the  stacks  must  stand 
on  the  ground,  the  stack-yard  should  receive  that  form  which  will  alloAV 
the  rain-water  to  run  off"  and  not  injure  their  bottoms.  This  is  done  by 
ridging  up  the  ground.  The  minimum  breadth  of  these  ridges  may  be 
determined  in  this  way.  The  usual  length  of  the  straw  of  the  grain  crops 
can  be  conveniently  packed  in  stacks  of  15  feet  diameter;  and  as  3  feet  is 

(211) 


116 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. WINTER. 


little  enough  space  to  be  left  on  the  ground  between  the  stacks,  the  ridges 
should  not  be  made  of  less  width  than  18  feet.  2.  The  stack-yard  shou.ld 
be  inclosed  with  a  substantial  stone  and  lime  wall  of  4i  feet  in  hight.  In 
too  many  instances  the  stack-yard  is  entirely  uninclosed  and  left  exposed 
to  the  depredation  of  every  animal.  3.  It  is  desirable  to  place  the  outside 
rows  of  the  stacks  next  the  wall  on  stools  or  stathch,  which  will  not  only 
keep  them  off  the  wet  ground,  should  they  remain  a  long  time  in  the  stack- 
yard, but  in  a  great  measure  prevent  vermin  getting  into  the  stacks. 
These  stathels  are  usually  and  most  economically  made  of  stone  supports 
and  a  wooden  frame.  The  frame  is  of  the  form  of  an  octagon,  under  each 
angle  and  centre  of  which  is  placed  a  support.  The  frame-work  consists 
of  pieces  of  jilank,  a  a,  fig.  24,  one  of  which  is  15  feet,  and  the  others  1\ 
feet  in  length,  9  inches  in  depth,  and  2^  inches  in  thickness ;  and  the  sup- 
ports consist  of  a  stone,  h,  sunk  to  the  level  of  the  ground,  to  foiTn  a  solid 
foundation  for  the  upright  support,  c,  18  inches  in  hight,  and  8  inches 
square,  to  stand  upon,  and  on  the  top  of  this  is  placed  a  flat  rounded  stone 


A  STATHEL  FOR  STACKS. 


or  bonnet,  d,  of  at  least  2  inches  in  thickness.  The  upright  stone  is  bed- 
ded in  lime,  both  with  the  found  and  bonnet.  All  the  tops  of  these  stone 
supports,  8  in  number  around  the  ninth  in  the  center,  must  be  on  the  same 
level.  TJpon  them  nre  placed  on  edge  the  scanthngs  a,  9  inches  in  depth, 
to  each  side  of  which  are  fastened  with  strong  nails  the  bearers  e  e,  also  9 
inches  in  depth  and  2  inches  in  thickness.  In  this  way  each  support  beara 
its  share  of  the  frame-work.  The  spaces  between  the  scantlings  a  are 
filled  up  with  fillets  of  wood,  //  nailed  upon  them.  If  the  wood  of 
the  frame-work  were  previously  presei-ved  by  Kyan's  process,  it  would 
last  perhaps  twenty  yeai-s,  even  if  made  of  any  kind  of  home  tim- 
ber, such  as  larch  or  Scotch  fir.  4.  There  should  be  a  wide  gateway  into 
the  stack-yard,  and  where  the  com  is  taken  on  carts  to  the  upper  barn  to 
be  threshed,  the  same  gateway  may  answer  both  purposes,  but  where 
there  is  a  gangway  to  the  upper  barn,  the  gate  may  be  })laced  in  the  most 
coavenient  side  of  the  stack-yard.    Where  carts  are  solely  used  for  taking 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  117 

in  the  corn  to  the  upper  bam,  the  rows  of  stacks  should  be  built  so  widely 
asunder  as  to  permit  a  loaded  cart  to  pass  at  least  between  every  two 
rows  of  stacks,  so  that  any  particular  stack  may  be  accessible  at  pleasure. 
When  a  gangway  is  used,  this  width  of  the  arrangement  of  the  stacks  is 
not  necessary,  the  usual  breadth  of  3  feet  between  the  stacks  permitting 
the  passage  of  corn-barrows,  or  of  back -loads  of  sheaves.  Thus,  where  a 
gangway  is  used,  the  stack-yard  is  of  smaller  area  to  contain  the  same  bulk 
of  grain.  5.  Stack-stools,  or  statJiels,  or  staddles,  as  they  are  variously 
called,  are  sometimes  made  of  cast-iron ;  but  these,  though  neat  and  effi- 
cient, are  very  expensive  and  liable  to  be  broken  by  accidental  concussion 
from  carts.  Stacks  on  stathels  are  represented  in  fig.  3,  Plate  III.  by 
figures  of  stacks,  and  in  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  by  circles.  Stathels  should  also 
be  placed  along  the  stack-yard  wall  from  m'  to  7i'  and  from  n'  to  o'  in  fig. 
3,  Plate  III. 

(71.)  A  pigeon-house  is  a  necessaiy  structure,  and  may  be  made  to  con- 
tribute a  regular  supply  of  one  of  the  best  luxuries  raised  on  a  farm.  As 
pigeons  are  fond  of  heat  at  all  seasons,  there  seems  no  place  in  the  farm- 
stead, especiallv  ia  winter,  better  suited  for  the  accommodation  of  their 
dwelling  than  t^je  upper  part  of  the  boiling-house.  A  large  pigeon-house 
IS  not  required,  us.  with  ordinary  care,  pigeons  being  very  prolific  breed- 
ers, a  suffic'ept,  number  for  the  table  may  be  obtained  from  a  few  pairs  of 
breeding  r.)r^a.  I  have  known  a  pigeon-house  not  exceeding  6  feet  cube, 
and  not  ^ery  favorably  situated  either  for  heat  or  quietness,  yield  150  pairs 
of  piffcons  in  a  season.  For  a  floor,  a  few  stout  joists  should  be  laid  on 
the  tops  of  the  walls.  The  flooring  should  be  strong  and  close,  and  the 
eides  iront  and  roof,  in  the  inside,  lathed  and  plastered.  A  small  door 
will  r^uffice  for  an  entrance,  to  which  access  may  be  obtained  fi-om  the 
Doi'/'jg--house  by  a  ladder.  The  pigeon-holes  may  be  seen  in  the  gable 
of  tne  boiling-house  U,  in  the  isometrical  view,  fig.  3,  Plate  III.  They 
may  be  formed  of  wood  or  stone,  and  should  always  be  kept  bright  with 
white  paint.  The  cells  in  this  sort  of  pigeon-house  should  be  made  of 
wood,  and  placed  all  round  the  walls.  I  think  that  9  inches  cube  are  large 
enough  for  the  cells.  Another  site  for  a  pigeon-house  may  be  chosen  in 
the  gable  of  the  hay-loft  above  the  riding-horse  stable,  in  fig.  1,  Plate  I. 

(72.)  Although  potatoes  are  best  kept  in  winter  in  pits,  yet  an  apart- 
ment to  contain  those  in  use  for  any  of  the  stock,  will  be  found  very  con- 
venient in  every  steading.  For  convenience  the  potato-store  should  be 
near  the  place  of  their  consumption  or  their  preparation  into  food.  In  the 
latter  case,  proximity  to  the  boiling-house  is  convenient.  1.  Accordingly 
one  potato-store  will  be  found  aty,  just  at  the  door  of  the  boiling-house  U, 
in  the  isometrical  view,  fig.  3,  Plate  III.  and  plan  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  It  is 
30  feet  in  length  and  10  feet  in  width,  and  its  door  being  placed  in  the  cen- 
ter, two  kinds  of  potatoes  may  conveniently  be  stored  in  it  at  the  same 
time,  without  the  chance  of  admixture.  The  door  should  be  provided 
with  a  good  lock  and  key.  2.  Another  store  of  potatoes  may  be  placed  in 
the  apartment  f  next  the  cart-shed  V,  18  feet  by  15  feet,  to  supply  them 
to  the  feeding  beasts  in  the  hammels  M,  or  to  the  young  stock  in  the 
courts  ;  but  should  this  apartment  not  be  required  for  this,  it  can  be  used 
for  any  other  purpose. 

(73.)  Rats  and  mice  are  very  destructive  and  dirty  vermin  in  steadings, 
and  particularly  to  grain  in  granaries.  Many  expedients  have  been  tried 
to  destroy  them  in  granaries,  such  as  putting  up  a  smooth  triangular  board 
across  each  corner,  near  the  top  of  the  wall.  The  vermin  come  down  any 
part  of  the  walls  to  the  corn  at  their  leisure,  but  when  disturbed  run  to  the 
corners,  up  which  they  easily  ascend,  but  are   prevented   gaining  the  top 

(213) 


118  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. WINTER. 


of  the  wall  by  the  triangular  boards,  and  on  falling  down  either  on  the 
com  or  the  floor,  art  there  easily  destroyed.  But  preventive  means  m  this 
case  are  much  better  than  destructive,  inasmuch  as  the  granaries  are 
thereby  always  kept  free  of  them,  and  consequently  always  sweet  and 
clean. '  1.  The  great  means  of  prevention  is,  to  deprive  vermin  of  con- 
venient places  to  breed  in  above  ground,  and  this  may  be  accomplished  in 
all  farmsteads  by  building  up  the  tops  of  all  the  walls,  whether  of  parti- 
tions or  gables,  to  the  sarking,  or  the  slates,  or  tiles,  as  the  case  may  be, 
and  beam-filhng  the  tops  of  the  side  walls,  between  the  legs  of  the  couples, 
with  stone  and  mortar  ;  taking  care  to  keep  the  mortar  from  contact  with  the 
timber.  These  places  form  the  favorite  breeding-giound  of  veiTnin  in 
famisteads,  but  which  delightful  occupation  will  be  put  a  stop  to  there, 
when  occupied  with  substantial  stone  and  mortar.  The  top  of  every  wall, 
whether  of  stables,  cow-houses,  hammels,  and  other  houses,  should  be 
treated  in  this  manner ;  for,  if  one  place  be  left  them  to  breed  in  the 
youno-  fry  will  find  access  to  the  com  in  some  way.  The  tops  of  the  walls 
of  old  as  well  as  of  new  faiTnsteads  can  be  treated  in  this  manner,  either 
from  the  inside,  or,  if  necessary,  by  removing  the  slates  or  tiles  until  the 
alteration  is  effected.  One  precaution  only  is  necessary  to  be  attended  to 
in  makino-  beam-fillings,  especially  in  new  buildings,  which  is,  to  leave  a 
little  space  under  every  couple  face,  to  allow  room  for  subsidence  or  the 
bending  of  the  couples  after  the  slates  are  put  on.  Were  the  couples, 
when  bare,  pinned  firmly  up  with  stone  and  lime,  the  hard  points  woidd 
act  as  fulcra,  over  which  the  long  arm  of  the  couple,  while  subsiding,  with 
the  load  of  slates  new  put  on,  would  act  as  a  lever,  and  cause  their  points 
to  rise,  and  thereby  start  the  nails  from  the  wall  plates,  to  the  imminent 
risk  of  pushing  out  the  tops  of  the  walls,  and  sinking  the  top  of  the  roof. 
2.  But  besides  the  tops  of  the  walls,  rats  and  mice  breed  under  ground, 
and  find  access  into  apartments  through  the  floor.  To  prevent  lodgment 
in  those  places  also,  it  will  be  proper  to  lay  the  strongest  flagging  and 
causewaying  upon  a  bed  of  mortar  spread  over  a  body  of  9  inches  of 
small  broken  stones,  around  the  walls  of  every  apartment  on  the  ground- 
floor  Avhere  any  food  for  them  may  chance  to  fall,  such  as  in  the  stables, 
byres,  boiling-house,  calves'-house,  implement-house,  hay-house,  pig-sties, 
and  hen-house.  The  corn-bam  has  already  been  provided  for  against  the 
attacks  of  vermin  ;  but  it  will  not  be  so  easy  to  prevent  their  lodgment  in 
the  floors  of  the  straw-bam  and  hammels,  where  no  causewaying  is  usually 
employed.  The  principal  means  of  prevention  in  those  places  are,  in  the 
first  place,  to  make  the  foundation  of  the  walls  very  deep,  not  less  than 
two  feet,  and  then  fill  up  the  interior  space  between  the  walls  with  a  sub- 
stantial masonry  of  stone  and  lime  mixed  with  broken  glass  ;  or  perhaps 
a  thick  body  of  small  broken  stones  would  be  sufficient,  as  rats  cannot 
burrow  in  them  as  in  earth. 

(74.)  It  is  very  desirable,  in  all  courts  occupied  by  stock,  to  prevent 
the  farther  discharge  of  rain-water  into  them,  than  what  may  happen  to 
fall  upon  them  directly  from  the  heavens.  1.  For  this  purpose  all  the 
eaves  of  the  roofs  which  suiTound  such  courts  should  be  provided  with 
rain-water  spouts,  to  cany  off*  the  supei-fluous  water,  not  only  from  the 
roofs,  but  to  convey  it  away  in  drains  into  a  ditch  at  a  distance  from,  and 
not  allow  it  to  overflow  the  roads  around,  the  faiTnstead.  2.  With  a  simi- 
lar object  in  view,  and  with  the  farther  object  of  preserving  the  founda- 
tions of  the  walls  from  damp,  drains  should  be  formed  along  the  bottom 
of  every  wall  not  immediately  sun-ounding  any  of  the  courts.  These 
drains  should  be  dug  3  inches  below  the  foundation-stones  of  the  walls,  a 
conduit  formed  in  them  of  tile  and  sole,  or  flat  stones,  and  the  space  above 

4214) 


THE   STEADING   OR   FARMSTEAD.  1X9 

the  conduit  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  filled  up  with  broken  stones. 
These  broken  stones  receive  the  di'op  from  the  roofs,  and  cany  away  the 
water ;  and,  should  they  become  hai'dened  above  the  drains,  or  gi-own  over 
with  grass,  the  grass  may  be  easily  removed,  and  the  stones  loosened  by  the 
action  of  a  hand-pick.  Rain-water  spouts  should  be  placed  under  the  front- 
eaves  of  the  building  A  A,  and  on  both  sides  of  the  straw-barn  L,  and  alono^ 
the  front-eaves  of  the  stables  O  and  P,  of  the  byre  Q,  calves'  cribs  R,  and 
of  the  hammels  M  and  N.  These  lines  of  eaves  may  easily  be  traced  in  the 
isometiical  view,  fig.  3,  Plate  III.  The  spouts  may  be  made  either  of  wood 
or  cast-iron,  the  latter  being  the  more  durable,  and  fastened  to  the  wall  by 
iron  holdfasts.  Lead  spouts  are,  I  fear,  too  expensive  for  a  steading,  though 
they  are  by  far  the  best.  The  positions  of  the  rain-water  drains  around 
the  steading  may  be  traced  along  the  dotted  lines,  and  the  courses  the 
water  takes  in  them  are  marked  by  aiTOWs,  as  in  the  plan,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV. 
(75.)  But  it  is  as  requisite  to  have  the  means  of  conveying  away  super- 
fluous water  from  the  courts,  as  it  is  to  prevent  its  discharge  into  them. 
1.  For  this  pui-pose,  a  drain  should  enter  into  each  of  the  large  courts,  and 
one  across  the  middle  of  each  set  of  hammels.  The  ground  of  every  court 
should  be  so  laid  off  as  to  make  the  lowest  part  of  the  court  at  the  place 
where  the  drain  commences  or  passes ;  and  such  lowest  point  should  be 
furnished  with  a  strong  block  of  hewn  fi-eestone,  into  which  is  sunk  flush 
an  iron  grating,  having  the  bars  only  an  inch  asunder,  to  prevent  the  pas- 
sage of  straws  into  the  drain.  Fig.  25  gives 
an  idea  of  such  a  gi-ating,  made  of  malleable  ^^s-  -^• 

iron,  to  bear  rough  usage,  such  as  the  wheel 
of  a  cart  passing  over  it ;  the  bars  being 
placed  across,  with  a  curve  downicard,  to 
keep  them  clear  of  obstructions  for  the  wa- 
ter to  pass  through  them.  A  %\Titer,  in  speak- 
ing of  such  gratings,  says,  "  they  should  be 
strong,  and  have  the  ribs  well  bent  upicard, 
as  in  that  form  they  are  not  so  Uable  to  be 
choked  up."*  This  remark  is  quite  true  in/ 
regard  to  the  form  gratings  should  have  in' 

the  sewers  of  to\\Tis,  for  with  the  ribs  bent  draix  grating. 

doicnward  in  such  a  place,  the  accumulated 

stuff"  brought  upon  them  by  the  water  would  soon  prevent  the  water  get 
ting  down  into  the  drains  ;  but  the  case  is  quite  different  in  courts  where 
the  straw  covers  the  gi-atings  from  the  first,  and  where  being  loose  over 
the  grating  whose  ribs  are  bent  downward,  it  acts  as  a  drainer,  but  were 
the  gratings  bent  upward,  as  recommended,  the  same  straw,  instead  of 
acting  as  loose  materials  in  a  drain  through  which  the  water  percolates 
easily,  would  press  hard  against  the  ribs,  and  prevent  the  percolation  of 
water  through  them.  Any  one  may  have  perceived  that  the  straw  of 
dunghills  presses  much  harder  against  a  raised  stone  in  the  giound  below 
it,  than  against  a  hollow.  The  positions  of  these  gi-atings  ai-e  indicated 
in  the  plan,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  by  x  in  the  different  courts  ;  and  in  fig.  2, 
Plate  II.  they  are  seen  at  the  origin  of  all  the  liquid  manure  drains,  in  the 
form  of  small  dark  squares.  2.  Drains  froin  the  courts  which  convey 
away  liquid  manure  as  well  as  supei-fluous  water,  should  be  of  a  different 
construction  fi-om  those  described  for  the  pui-pose  of  canying  away  rain- 
water. They  should  be  built  with  stone  and  lime  walls,  9  inches  high 
and  6  inches  asunder,  flagged  smoothly  in  the  bottom,  and  covered  with 


*  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society's  Prize  Essays,  vol.  viji.  p.  375. 
(215) 


120  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. WINTER. 


single   stones.     Fig.  26  shows   the  form  of  this  sort  of  drain,  and  suffi- 
ciently explains    its  structure.       As    li(iuid 
manure  is  sluggish  m  its  motion,  the  drains 
conveying  it  require  a  much  greater  fall  in 
their  course  than  rain-water  drains.       They 
should   also  run  in  direct  lines,  and  have  as 
few  turnings  as  possible  in  their  passage  to 
the  reservoir  or  fank,  which  should  be  situate  ^^^ 
in  the  lowest   part  of  the  gi'ound,  not  far  i^g 
from  the  steading,  and  at  some  convenient         " 
place   in  which   composts  may   be  fonned. 
One  advantage  of  these  drains  being  made 
straight  is,  that,  should   any  of  them   choke  liquid  manure  drain. 

up  at  any  time   by  any  obstruction,  a  large 

quantity  of  water  might  be  poured  down  with  effect  through  them,  to  clear 
the  obstruction  away,  as  none  of  them  are  very  long.  These  drains  may 
be  seen  in  the  plan,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  to  run  from  x  in  their  respect- 
ive courts  in  straight  lines  to  the  tank  k'.  It  would  be  possible  to  have  a 
tank  in  each  set  of  hammels  and  courts,  to  let  the  liquid  manure  run  di- 
rectly into  them  ;  but  the  multiplicity  of  tanks  which  such  an  arrange- 
ment would  occasion,  would  be  attended  with  much  expense  at  first,  and 
much  inconvenience  at  all  times  thereafter  in  being  so  far  removed  from 
the  composts.  Were  the  practice  adopted  of  taking  the  liquid  manure  to 
the  field  at  once,  and  pouring  it  on  the  ground,  as  is  done  by  the  Flemish 
farmers,  then  a  tank  in  every  court  would  be  convenient. 

(76.)  The  liquid  manure  tank  should  be  built  of  stone  or  brick  and  lime. 
Its  form  may  be  either  round,  rectangular,  or  inegular ;  and  it  may  be 
arched,  covered  with  wood,  left  open,  or  placed  under  a  slated  or  thatched 
roof — the  arch  forming  the  most  complete  roof,  in  which  case  the  rectan- 
gular form  should  be  chosen.  I  have  found  a  tank  of  an  area  of  only  100 
square  feet,  and. a  depth  of  6  feet  below  the  bottoms  of  the  drains,  contain 
a  large  proportion  of  the  whole  liquid  manure  collected  during  the  winter, 
from  courts  and  hammels  well  littered  with  straw,  in  a  steading  for  300 
acres,  where  rain-water  spouts  were  used.  The  position  of  the  tank  may 
be  seen  in  the  plan,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  at  k'.  It  is  rectangular,  34  feet  in 
length  and  8  feet  in  w'idth,  and  might  be  roofed  with  an  arch.  The  tank 
a-,  in  the  isometrical  view,  fig.  3,  Plate  III.  is  made  cii'cular,  to  show  the 
various  forms  in  which  tanks  may  be  made.  A  cast-iron  fumjp  should  be 
affixed  to  one  end  of  the  tank,  the  spout  of  which  should  be  as  elevated  as 
to  allow  the  liquid  to  run  into  the  bung-hole  of  a  large  baiTel  placed  on  the 
framing  of  a  cart. 

(77.)  Gates  should  be  placed  on  every  inclosed  area  about  the  steading. 
Those  courts  which  require  the  service  of  carts  should  have  gateways  of 
not  less  width  than  9  feet;  the  others  proportionally  less.  1.  The  more 
common  form  of  gate  is  that  of  the  five-baned,  and  which,  when  made 
strong  enough,  is  a  very  convenient  form.  It  is  usually  hung  by  a  heel- 
crook  and  band.  I  am  not  fond  of  gates  being  made  to  shut  of  themselves, 
particularly  at  a  steading;  for,  whatever  ease  of  mind  that  property  may 
give  to  those  whose  business  it  is  to  look  after  the  inclosure  of  the  courts, 
it  may  too  often  cause  neglect  of  fastening  the  gate  after  it  is  shut ;  and, 
unless  gates  are  constantly  fastened  where  live-stock  are  confined,  they  may 
nearly  as  well  be  left  altogether  open.  The  force  of  the  contrivance  of 
gates  to  shut  of  themselves  has  often  the  effect  of  knocking  them  to  pieces 
against  the  withholding-posts.  2.  Sometimes  large  boarded  doors  are  used 
as  gates  in  courts  and  especially  in  a  wall  common  to  two  courts.     They 

(216) 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  121 

are,  at  best,  clumsy  looking  tilings,  and  are  apt  to  destroy  tliemselves  by 
their  own  intrinsic  weight.  3.  Sometimes  the  gate  is  made  to  move  up 
like  the  sash  of  a  window,  by  the  action  of  cords  and  weights  ninning  over 
.pulleys  on  high  posts — the  gate  being  lifted  so  high  as  to  admit  loaded 
carts  under  it.  This  may  be  an  eligible  mode  of  working  a  gate  betwixt 
two  courts  in  the  peculiar  position  in  which  the  dung  accumulating  on  both 
sides  prevents  its  ordinary  action,  but  in  other  respects  it  is  of  too  compli- 
cated and  expensive  a  constiniction  to  be  fi'equently  adopted.  I  shall  have 
occasion  afterward  to  speak  at  large  on  the  proper  construction  of  gates. 

(78.)  I  wish  to  suggest  some  slight  modifications  of  this  plan  of  a  stead- 
ing, as  they  may  more  opportunely  suit  the  views  of  some  farmers  than 
the  particular  aiTangements  which  have  been  just  described.  1.  I  have 
already  suggested  that,  if  the  large  courts  I  and  Iv  are  to  be  dispensed  with 
and  hammels  adopted  in  their  stead,  the  hammels  M  could  be  produced 
toward  the  left  as  far  as  the  causeway  e' ,  on  the  right  hand  of  the  straw- 
barn  L  ;  and  so  could  the  hammels  N  be  produced  toward  the  right  as  far 
as  the  south  gate  of  the  court  I.  By  this  arrangement  the  cait-shed  V,  and 
store-houses  g  and  f ,  would  be  dispensed  with,  and  the  cattle-sheds  D  D 
convei'ted  into  cart-sheds  and  a  potato-store.  2.  The  piggeries  a,  h,  and  c, 
could  then  be  erected  in  the  middle  of  the  court  at  K,  and  thft  hen-houses 
in  the  middle  of  the  court  I,  respectively,  of  even  larger  dimensions  than 
I  have  given  them  in  the  places  they  occupy.  3.  If  desired,  the  work- 
horse stable  O  might  be  separated  from  the  principal  range  A  by  a  cart- 
passage,  as  is  the  case  with  the  byre-range  Q,  by  which  alteration  the  hay- 
house  and  stable  would  have  doors  opposite,  and  the  present  north  door 
of  the  hay-house  dispensed  with.  It  would  be  no  inconvenience  to  the 
plowmen  to  cany  the  hay  and  com  to  the  horses  across  the  passage.  4.  If 
the  stable  were  disjoined,  the  right-hand  gi-anary  may  have  a  window  in 
the  east  gable,  uniform  with  that  in  the  west  over  the  implement-house  G. 
5.  It  may  be  objected  to  the  boiling-house  U  being  too  far  removed  fi-om 
the  work-horse  stable  O.  As  there  is  as  little  inherent  affinity  betwixt  a 
boiling-house  and  byre  as  betwixt  one  and  a  stable,  the  boiling-house  might 
be  removed  nearer  to  the  stable,  say  to  the  site  of  the  riding-horse  stable 
P,  and  the  coach-house  Z  could  then  be  converted  into  a  potato-store,  with 
a  common  door.  6.  The  gig-house  and  riding-horse  stable  could  be  built 
anywhere  in  a  separate  range,  or  in  conjunction  with  the  smithy  and  car- 
penter's shop,  should  these  latter  apartments  be  desired  at  the  steading. — 
7.  The  servants'  cow-byre  Y  could  be  shifted  to  the  other  end  of  the  ham 
mel  range  N,  to  allow  the  hammels  to  be  nearest  the  straw-barn.  8.  Any 
or  all  of  these  modifications  may  be  adopted,  and  yet  the  principle  on  which 
the  steading  is  constructed  would  not  be  at  all  affected.  Let  any  or  all  of 
them  be  adopted  by  those  who  consider  them  improvements  of  the  plan 
represented  on  Plate  IV. 

(79.)  As  I  have  mentioned  both  a  smithy  and  carpenter's  shop  in  connec- 
tion with  the  steading,  it  is  necessary  to  say  a  few  words,  regarding  them. 
It  is  customary  for  farmers  to  agree  for  the  repairs  of  the  iron  and  wood 
work  of  the  farm  with  a  smith  and  carpenter  respectively  at  a  fixed  sum 
a-year.  When  the  smithy  and  carpenter's  shops  are  near  the  steading,  the 
horses  are  sent  to  the  smithy,  and  every  sort  of  work  is  performed  in  the 
mechanic's  own  premises ;  but  when  they  are  situate  at  such  a  distance  as 
to  impose  considerable  labor  on  horses  and  men  going  to  and  from  them, 
then  the  farmer  erects  a  smithy  at  the  steading  for  his  own  use,  fitting  it  up 
with  a  forge,  bellows,  anvil,  and  work-bench.  Such  a  smithy,  to  contain  a 
pair  of  draught-horses  when  shoeing,  would  require  to  be  24  feet  in  length 
and  15  feet  in  width,  with  a  wide  door  in  the  center,  7^  feet  high,  and  a 

(217) 


122  THE  BOOK  OP  THE  FARM WINTER. 


glazed  window  on  each  side  of  it.  As  the  time  of  a  pair  of  horses  is  more 
valuable  than  that  of  a  man,  a  smithy  is  often  erected  at  the  steading,  while 
the  carpenter's  shop  is  at  a  distance. 

(80.)  All  the  roads  around  the  steading  should  be  properly  made  of  a 
thick  bed,  of  not  less  than  9  inches,  of  small  broken  whinstone  metal,  care- 
fully kept  dry,  with  proper  outlets  for  water  at  the  lowest  points  of  the 
metal  bed,  and  the  metal  occasionally  raked  and  rolled  on  the  surface  until 
it  becomes  solid. 

(81.)  The  best  way  of  building  such  a  steading  as  I  have  just  described 
is,  not  to  contract  for  it  in  a  slump  sum  ;  because,  whatever  alterations  are 
made  during  the  progress  of  the  work,  the  contractor  may  take  advantage 
of  the  circumstance,  and  charge  whatever  he  chooses  for  the  extra  work 
executed,  without  your  having  a  check  upon  his  charges.  Nor,  for  the 
same  reasons,  should  the  mason,  cai-penter,  or  slater  work  be  contracted 
for  separately  in  the  slump.  The  prices  per  rood  or  per  yard,  and  the 
quantities  of  each  kind  of  work,  should  be  settled  beforehand  between  the  em- 
ployer and  contractor.  The  advantage  of  this  anangement  is,  that  the 
work  is  finished  according  to  the  views  and  tastes  of  the  individual  for 
whose  use  the  farmstead  has  been  built — he  having  had  the  power  of  adopt- 
ing such  slight  modifications  of  the  plan,  during  the  progi-ess  of  the  work, 
as  experience  or  reflection  may  have  suggested.  The  contractor  is  paid 
according  to  the  measurement  of  the  work  he  thus  executes.  A  licensed 
survevor,  mutually  chosen  by  both  parties,  then  measures  the  work,  and 
calculates  its  several  parts  according  to  the  piices  stipulated  for  betwixt 
the  contractor  and  his  employer,  and  draws  up  a  report  of  the  value  of  each 
kind  of  work,  the  total  sum  of  which  constitutes  the  cost  of  the  fannstead. 
Installments  of  payment  are,  of  course,  made  to  the  contractor  at  periods 
previously  agreed  upon.  This  plan  may  give  you  no  cheaper  a  steading 
than  the  usual  one  of  contracting  by  a  slump  sum,  but  cheapness  is  not  the 
principal  object  which  you  should  have  in  view  in  building  a  steading. — 
Your  chief  object  should  be  the  convenience  of  your  work-people,  and  the 
comfort  of  your  live-stock.  This  plan  enables  you  to  erect  a  steading  in 
accordance  with  your  own  views  in  every  respect ;  and  you  can  better 
judge,  in  the  progress  of  the  work,  of  the  fitness  of  the  plan  for  the  accom- 
modation recjuircd,  than  by  any  study  of  the  plans  on  paper — which,  upon 
the  whole,  may  appear  well  enough  adapted  to  the  pui-poses  intended,  but 
may,  nevertheless,  overlook  many  essential  particulars  of  accommodation 
and  comfort. 

(82.)  AVhat  I  mean  by  essential  particulars  of  accommodation  and  com- 
fort in  a  steading  are  such  as  these  :  In  gi^^ng  a  foot  or  two  more  length 
to  a  stable  or  byre,  by  which  each  animal  may  have  two  or  three  inches 
more  room  laterally,  more  ease  would  be  given  to  it,  and  which  is  a  great 
comfort  to  working  stock  :  A  window,  instead  of  looking  to  the  cold  north, 
may  be  made  with  as  much  ease  to  look  to  the  warm  south  :  A  sky-light 
in  the  roof,  to  afibrd  a  sufficient  light  to  a  place  that  would  otherwise  be 
dark  :  An  additional  drain  to  remove  moisture  or  effluvia,  which,  if  left  un- 
disturbed, may  give  considerable  annoyance  :  A  door  opening  one  way 
instead  of  the  other,  may  direct  a  draught  of  air  to  a  quarter  where  it  can 
do  no  harm  :  These  little  conveniences  incur  no  more  cost  than  the  incon- 
gruities of  an-angement  which  are  often  found  in  their  stead,  and  though 
they  may  seem  to  many  people  as  trifles  unworthy  of  notice,  confer,  nev- 
ertheless, much  additional  comfort  on  the  animals  inhabiting  the  apart- 
ments in  which  they  should  be  made.  A  door  made  of  a  whole  piece, 
or  divided  into  leaves,  may  make  a  chamber  either  gloomv  or  cheerful ; 
and  the  leaves  of  a  door  formed  either  vertically  or  horizontallv   when 

(218) 


THE   STEADING   OR  FARMSTEAD. 


123 


left  open,  may  either  give  security  to  an  apartment,  or  leave  it  at  liberty 
to  the  intrusion  of  every  passer  by.  There  are  numerous  such  small  con- 
veniences to  be  attended  to  in  the  construction  of  a  steading  before  it  can 
be  rendered  truly  co7nviodious  and  comfortahle. 

(83.)  Before  the  prices  of  work  to  be  executed  can  be  fixed  on  be- 
tween the  employer  and  contractor,  minute  specifications  of  every  species 
of  work  should  be  drawn  up  by  a  person  competent  for  the  task.  A  vague 
specification,  couched  in  general  terms,  will  not  answer;  for  when  work 
comes  to  be  executed  under  it,  too  much  liberty  is  given  to  all  parties  to 
interpret  the  terms  according  to  the  interest  of  each.  Hence  arise  dis- 
putes, which  may  not  be  easily  settled  even  on  reference  to  the  person 
who  drew  up  the  specifications,  as  he  possibly  may  by  that  time  have  ei- 
ther forgotten  his  own  ideas  of  the  matter,  or,  in  adducing  his  original  in- 
tentions under  the  paiticular  circumstances,  may  possibly  give  offence  to 
one  party,  and  injure  the  other ;  and  thus  his  candor  may  rather  widen 
than  repair  the  breach.  Whatever  are  the  ideas  of  him  who  draws  up 
the  specification,  it  is  much  better  to  have  them  all  embodied  in  the  spe- 
cifications, than  to  have  to  explain  them  afterward. 

(84.)  The  principle  of  measuring  the  whole  work  after  it  has  been  exe- 
cuted, is  another  consideration  which  it  is  essential  you  should  bear  in 
mind.  It  is  too  much  the  practice  to  tolerate  a  very  loose  mode  of  meas- 
uring work ;  such  as  measuring  voids,  as  the  openings  of  doors  and  win- 
dows are  termed,  that  is,  on  measuring  a  wall,  to  include  all  the  openings 
in  the  rubble-work,  and  afterward  to  measure  the  lintels  and  ribets  and 
corners.  In  like  manner,  chimney-tops  are  measured  all  round  as  rubble, 
and  then  the  comers  are  measured  also  as  hewn  work.  Now  the  fair  plan 
obviously  is  to  measure  every  sort  of  work  as  it  stands  by  itself;  where 
there  is  rubble  let  it  be  measured  for  rubble,  and  where  there  is  hewn 
woi"k  let  it  be  measured  for  as  such.  You  will  thus  pay  for  what  work  is 
actually  done  for  you,  and  no  more  ;  and  more  you  should  not  pay  for,  let 
the  price  of  the  work  be  what  it  may.  This  understanding  regarding  the 
principle  of  measurement  should  be  embodied  in  the  specifications. 

(85.)  To  see  if  the  principle  I  have  endeavored  to  enforce  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
component  parts  of  a  steadmg  for  the  mixed  husbandry  be  apphcable  to  steadings  for  other 
modes  of  husbandry,  you  have  only  to  apply  it  to  the  construction  of  steadings  ususQly  found 
in  the  country. 

(86.)  In  pastoral  farnis,  the  accommodation  for  stock  in  the  steading  is  generally  quite 
inadequate  to  give  shelter,  in  a  severe  winter  and  spring,  to  the  numbers  of  animals  reared 
on  them.  For  want  of  adequate  accommodation,  many  of  both  the  younger  and  older  stock 
suffer  loss  of  condition — a  contingency  much  to  be  deprecated  by  the  store-farmer,  as  the 
occurrence  never  fails  to  render  the  stock  liable  to  be  attacked  by  some  fatal  disease  at  a  fu- 


Fig.  27 

a 

PASTORAL  FARM-STEADING. 


ture  period.      In  the  steadings  of  such  farms,  the  numerous  cattle,  or  still  more  numerous 
sheep,  as  the  stock  may  happen  to  be,  should  have  shelter.     The  cattle  should  be  housed  in 

(219) 


124 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. WINTER. 


Fig.  28. 


sheds  or  hammels  in  stormy  weather,  siipphed  with  straw  for  litter  and  provender,  or,  what 
is  still  better,  siipixirtetl  on  hay  or  turnips.  For  this  puiiwise  their  sheds  should  be  quito 
COJitiguous  to  the  sti-aw-biini.  Sheep  should  either  be  put  in  large  courts  bedded  with  straw, 
and  supplied  with  hay  or  tuniips,  or  so  sujjplied  in  a  sheltered  spot,  not  far  distant  from  the 
steadin/J.  The  jiarticuliu-  fonii  of  steiuling  suitable  to  this  species  of  farm  seems  to  be  that 
which  enibnices  three  sides  of  a  double  rectangle,  having  the  fourth  side  open  to  the  south, 
each  rectangle  enclosing  a  large  court,  divided  into  two  or  more  parts,  on  each  side  of  the 
straw-bam,  which  should  fonn  a  side  connnon  to  both  rectangles.  Tliis  form  answers  to  the 
modification  jH>infcd  out  at  3,  in  paragraph  (8.)  p.  82,  and  it  is  shown  in  fig.  '27,  where  a  in 
the  stniw-bimi,  with  but  the  courts  ])laced  on  each  side  of  it. 
(87.)  In  the  steadings  of  carse  (iiniLs,  comfortiible  accom- 
inoilation  for  stock  is  made  a  matter  of  secondary  import. 
In  them  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  the  cattle-courts  facing  the 
north.  As  there  is,  however,  great  abundance  of  straw  on 
such  fanns,  the  stock  seem  to  be  warm  enough  lodged  at 
night.  AVhere  so  much  straw  is  re<juired  to  be  made  into 
manure,  the  couil-s  and  sUibles  shoidd  be  placed  quite  con- 
tiguous tr)  the  stnnv-barn.  Tlie  form  of  steading  most  suita- 
ble to  this  kind  of  fann  seems  to  be  that  of  tln-ee  sides  of  a 
rect;ingle,  embracing  a  lar^e  court,  divided  into  two  or  three 
parts,  facing  the  south,  and  having  the  upper  and  corn-bam 

Srqjecting  behind  into  the  straw-Yai'<l,  as  described  in  modi- 
cation  2,  (8.)  p.  82,  and  shown  in  fig.  28,  where  a  is  the 
stniw-barn,  near  the  courts,  and  contiguous  to  which  should 
be  the  byres  and  stables. 

(88.)  In   farms  in  the  neighborhood  of  towns,  the  cow- 
houses, feeding-byres,  or  hammels,  being  the  only  means  of 
converting  the  straw  into  manure,  which  is  resented  for 
home  use  frf)m  the  sale  of  the  gi-eafest  part  to  the  cow- 
feeders  and  stablers  in  towais,  should  be  placed  nearest  the  straw-bam.     The  very  confined 
state  in  which  cows  are  usually  kept  in  the  byres  of 
such  farms,  and  especisUly  in  those  near  the  largest  class 
of  towns,  niJikes  them  very  dirty,  the  effects  of  which 
must  injure  the  quality  of  the  daiiy  produce.     In  con- 
stnicting  a  steading  for  a  farm  of  this  kind,  such  an  in- 
convenience should  be  avoided.     The  most  convenient 
fonn  of  steading  is  that  of  the  three  sides  of  a  rectangle, 
embracing  within  it  a  set  of  feeding-hannnels  facmg  the 
south ;  the  threshing-mill  and  stniw-barn  being  in  the 
north  nuige,  the  work-horse  8tal)le  in  one  of  the  wings, 
and  the  cow-byre  in  the  other,  from  both  of  which  the 
dung  may  be  wheeled  into  their  respective  contiguous 
dunghills,  as  is  described  in  modification  1,  (8.)  p.  82, 
and  shown  graphically  in  fig.  29,  where  a  is  the  straw- 
bam,  on  both  sides  of  which  are  the  byres  and  stable, 
and  c  are  hammels  inclosed  within  the  rectangle. 

{89A  In  dairi/  fanns,  the  cows  being  the  greatest  means  of  making  manure,  their  byres, 
as  well  as  the  hammels  for  die  young  horses  and  young  quevs,  and  the  sties  for  the  swine, 
should  be  those  jnost  contiguous  to  the  straw-barn.  It  should  be  the  particular  study  of  the 
dair>'-fanner  to  make  the  byre  roomy  and  comfortable  to  the  cows,  the  thriWug  state  of  that 
portion  of  hi.s  stock  being  the  source  from  which  his  profits  are  principally  derived.  The 
fonn  of  steading  recommended  for  farms  in  the  neighborhocid  of  towns  seems  well  adapted 
to  this  kind  of  farming,  in  which  the  liummcls  could  be  occupied  by  the  young  horses  and 


^^T 1 

1  I 


CARSE  FARM-STEADING. 


Fig.  29. 


a. 

c 

■ 

_L 

LL 

.LL 

_L 

DAIHY  FARM,  &C.  STEADING. 


,, ipicd  by  the  youn^ 

young  queys,  and  beside  which  the  pig-sties  could  also  be  placed,  such  as  are  shown  in  fi^,. 
29,  where  c  are  the  hammels,  and  e  the  hog-sties,  but  which  may  be  placed  elsewhere  if  de- 
Bire<L 

(90.)  It  may  jprove  of  service  to  inquire  whether  this  principle  of  constmcting  steadings 
for  every  sort  of  farm  is  inculcated  by  the  most  recent  or  authoritative  writers  on  Agricul- 
ture.  1.  In  the  collection  of  designs  of  fann-buildings,  in  the  Prize  Essays*  of  the  Highland 
and  Agncultunil  Society  of  Scotland,  the  absolute  necessitv  for  the  contiguity  of  cattle-sheds, 
hammels,  and  stables  to  the  straw-bani,  is  a  matter  not  sufficiently  attended  to.  ^Vhen  ham- 
mels are  placed  in  front  of  the  principal  buildings,  as  in  No.  1  of  the  designs,  doors  are  re- 
quired m  the  back  of  the  hammels  for  taking  in  the  straw.  These  doors  not  only  mcur  ad- 
ditional cost  in  the  making,  but,  being  placed  in  the  shed,  induce  the  animals  to  escape 
through  them,  and,  when  open,  occasion  an  uncomfortable  draught  of  air.  The  openinca^ 
too,  betwixt  the  sheds  and  courts  of  the  hammels  being  placed  in  file  center,  cold  easily  c'lr- 
culates  through  the  sheds.     And  the  separation  of  the  calves' -house  from  the'cow-byre  as  in 

*  Prize  Eseaya  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  viii.  p.  365. 
(220)  ^ 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  125 


design  No.  2,  must  be  very  inconvenient  in  rearing  calves.  2.  In  "  British  Husbandry  " 
the  principle  of  constructing  a  steading  is  thus  laid  down :  "  The  position  of  a  threshing-mill 
should  decide  that  of  almost  every  other  office  ;  for  it  cuts,  or  ought  to  cut,  the  hay  into  chaff 
together  with  much  of  the  straw ;  and  the  house  that  immediately  receives  this  chaff  ou^ht 
to  be  so  placed  as  to  admit  of  a  convenient  delivery  to  the  stalls  and  stables.  Thus  the  sti-aw- 
barn,  chaff-house,  ox-stalls,  and  horse-stables,  with  the  hay -stacks  and  the  sheep-yard  (if  there 
be  any),  should  be  dependent  on  the  position  of  the  threshing  mill,  as  they  will  be  attended 
with  waste  and  expense  of  labor."*  If  the  chaff-cutting  machine  is  to  be  employed  for  pre- 
paring much  of  the  straw  for  the  use  of  the  stock,  it  should  be  placed  in  the  straw-barn,  oth- 
erwise the  straw  must  be  carried  to  it,  which  would  entail  a  considerable  deal  of  labor.  It 
is  thus  the  position  of  neither  the  chaff-cutting  or  thresliing-machine  that  should  determine 
the  site  of  the  rest  of  the  steading.  The^hreshing-machine  cannot  conveniently  be  placed 
near  the  centre  of  a  steading,  because  it  would  then  be  necessarily  removed  to  a  distance 
from  the  stack-yard,  and  the  carriage  of  the  sheaves  from  which  would  also  entail  considera- 
ble labor.  In  the  examples  of  existing  steadings  given  in  this  recent  work  from  pages  85  to 
109,  being  chiefly  the  plans  of  steadings  on  the  properties  of  the  Duke  of  Sutherland,  the  po- 
sition of  the  straw-bam  seems  in  them  to  be  considered  a  matter  of  secondary  importance. — 
In  the  plans  in  pages  8-5,  86,  100,  103,  107,  108,  and  109,  the  straw-bam  is  surely  placed  at 
an  inconvenient  distance  from  the  apartments  occupied  by  the  live-stock,  and  the  caiTia,^e  of 
straw  from  it  to  them  must  "  be  attended  with  waste  and  expense  of  labor."  3.  Professor 
Low  inculcates  the  principle  more  con-ectly  where  he  says,  "  Bams,  being  the  part  whence 
the  straw  for  fodder  and  litter  is  carried  to  the  stables,  feeding-houses,  and  sheds,  they  shoidd 
be  placed  so  as  to  afford  the  readiest  access  to  these  different  buildings.  It  is  common  to 
place  them  as  near  the  centre  of  the  range  as  the  general  arrangement  of  the  other  buildings 
will  allow. "t  This  is  quite  correct  in  principle;  but,  in  referring  to  the  figure,  it  is  said 
that,  "  In  the  design  of  the  figure,  in  which  are  represented  the  bams,  this  principle  of  ar- 
rangement is  observed ;"  yet,  on  inspecting  the  figure  at  p.  624,  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
feeding-hammels  are  placed  at  a  greater  distance  from  the  sti'aw-barn  than  even  the  pig-sties 
and  poultry -yards.  It  does  not  appear  that  the  yard  behind  the  sties  is  intended  to  be  occu- 
pied by  anytliing  but  manure ;  so,  if  the  hammels  had  occupied  the  more  eligible  site  of  the 
hog-sties,  they  would  not  have  interposed  betwixt  the  sun-light  and  any  stock.  It  may  also 
be  observed  that  the  cow-houses,  which  require  less  sti-aw  than  feeding  stock,  are  placed 
nearer  the  straw-bam  than  the  hammels  on  the  right.  4.  Mr.  Loudon,  in  ti-eating  of  the 
"  fundamental  principles  for  the  construction  of  the  various  parts  which  compose  a  farmery," 
recommends  the  houses  for  the  various  kinds  of  stock  to  be  consti'ucted  according  to  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  animals  to  be  accommodated ;  and,  assuming  the  horse,  the  ox  and  the 
sheep  to  be  of  the  form  of  a  wedge,  he  draws  these  two  conclusions :  "  First,  that  the  most 
economical  mode  of  lodging  the  first  two  of  these  quadrupeds  must  be  in  houses  the  walls  of 
which  form  concentric  circles,  or  segments  of  circles  parallel  to  each  other ;  .  .  .  .  and,  sec- 
ondly, that  in  all  open  yards  where  quadrupeds  are  allowed  to  run  loose,  and  eat  from  racks 
and  mangers,  ....  when  the  rack  or  manger  is  to  be  in  a  straight  line,  the  breadth  of  the 
broad  end  of  the  wedge  must  be  allowed  for  each  animal ;  and,  when  it  is  to  be  curved,  the 
radius  of  the  curve  must  be  determined  by  the  breadth  of  the  smaller  end  of  the  wedge. — 
From  this  theory  it  may  also  be  deduced  that  there  must  be  one  magnitude,  as  well  as  one 
form,  more  economical  than  any  other,  for  lodging  each  of  these  animals ;  and  that  this  mag- 
nitude must  be  that  circumference  of  a  circle  which  the  narrow  ends  of  the  wedges  com- 
pletely fill  up,  and  no  more."t  And  figures  are  given  of  both  curved  and  straight  mangers 
and  racks,  to  illustrate  these  piinciples.  Now,  independent  of  the  acknow^ledged  inconveni 
ence  of  accommodating  any  circular  or  curved  fonn  of  apartment  or  building  in  a  steading, 
as  is  universally  felt  in  regard  to  the  usually  circular  form  of  the  horse-course  of  a  threshing 
mill,  the  very  data  on  which  this  theory  is  founded  are  incorrect ;  for,  although  it  is  ti-ue  that 
many  horses  and  oxen  are  of  the  fonn  of  a  wedge,  yet  the  higher  bred  and  better  stock,  to 
w^liich  all  improving  breeders  are  desirous  of  assimilating  their  own,  are  not  wedge-shaped. 
The  Clydesdale  draught-horse,  the  short-horn  ox,  and  the  Leicester  sheep,  the  ncai'er  they 
attain  perfect  symmetiy  of  form,  the  nearer  they  approach  the  foi-m  of  a  parullelopipedon, 
instead  of  a  wedge,  in  the  carcass.  This  theory  is,  therefore,  not  universally  applicMltle. — 
Indeed,  Mr.  Loudon  aftei-ward  says  (p.  375)  that  "  these  principles  for  the  curvHim-ai-  ar- 
rangement of  stalls,  racks,  and  troughs,  we  do  not  lay  down  as  of  very  great  importance,  but 
rather  with  a  view  to  induce  the  young  architect  to  inquire  into  the  reasons  of  things,  and  to 
endeavor  in  everything  to  take  principles  into  consideration  rather  than  precedents."  The 
object  is  laudable,  but  its  aim  wiU  scarcely  be  attained  by  the  young  architect  having  his  at- 
tention directed  to  questionable  data.  He  is  at  all  times  much  more  disposed  to  follow  his 
own  crude  fancies,  m  the  construction  of  steadings,  than  to  improve  on  precedents  suggested 
by  the  farmer's  experience. 

(91.)  It  may  be  interesting  to  inquire  why  the  quadrangular  form  of  steading  was  so  much 
in  vogue  some  years  ago.     It  was,  doubtless,  adopted  on  account  of  '\XA  compactness  of  form, 


*  British  Husbandry,  vol.  i.  p.  97.  t  Low's  Elements  of  Practical  Agriculture,  2d  edition,  p.  623. 

X  Loudon's  Encyclopsedia  of  Architecture,  p.  373. 
(221) 


126  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


admitting  it  to  be  erected  at  a  considerable  sa%-ing  of  expense,  at  a  time— during  that  of  the 
•vvar — when  building-materials  of  every  kind,  and  wages  of  everj-  desc-ription  of  artisans,  were 
ver>'  liigh.  I  do  not  believe  that  the  value  of  all  the  ground  on  wliich  the  largest  steading 
could  stand  fonned  any  iiuluceinent  for  tlie  adoption  ol  the  compact  form  of  the  quadrangle, 
but  rather  from  the  wish  of  the  landlord  to  afford  no  more  than  bare  accommodation  to  the 
tenant's  stocking.  An  economical  plan,  furnished  by  an  architect,  \yould  thus  weigh  more 
strongly  with  him  than  a  mere  regaid  for  the  comfi)rt  of  his  teiiant's  hve-stock,  whose  special 
care  he'  woidd  consider  more  a  tenant's  tluui  a  landlord's  buj^iness.  It  is  not  so  easy  to  ac- 
count for  tlie  teniuit's  acipiiescence  in  such  a  form  of  steading ;  for,  although  it  must  be 
owned  that,  at  that  perif)d,  very  imperfect  notions  were  entertamed  of  what  were  requisite 
for  the  comfortable  accommotlarion  of  animals,  yet  the  tenant's  own  interest  bemg  so  palpa- 
bly involved  in  tlie  welfare  of  his  stwk,  might  havf»taught  him  to  desire  a  more  comfortable 
form  of  steading.  Thus  an  imperfect  state  of  thijigs  originated  in  the  parsimony  of  landlords, 
and  was  promoted  bv  the  heedlessness  of  tenants.  The  consequences  were  that  cattle  were 
confined  m  courts  inclosed  all  around  with  high  building,  eating  dirty  turnips  off  the  dung- 
hill, and  Wiuhng  or  standuig  mid-leg  deep  ui  dung  and  water ;  and  frequently  so  crowded 
together,  anil  stinted  of  food,  that  the  most  timid  among  them  were  daily  deprived  of  theii- 
due  proportion  of  both  footl  and  shelter.  Is  it  any  matter  of  wonder  that  cattle  at  that  time 
were  unequally  and  imperfectiy  fed  ?  In  the  steadings  of  the  smaller  tenants,  matters  were, 
if  po88il)le,  stili  worse.  The  state  of  the  cattle  in  them  was  pitiable  in  the  exti-eme,  whether 
in  the  courts,  or  while  "  cabined,  cribbed,  and  confined  "  in  the  bjTes.  Though  those  in  the 
latter  were,  no  doubt,  under  the  constant  shelter  of  a  roof,  they  were  not  much  better  off  as 
to  cleanliness  and  food  ;  and  much  worse  oft"  for  want  of  fi-esh  air,  and  in  a  state  of  body  con- 
stantly covered  with  perspiration.  But  these  unmerited  haidships,  which  the  cattie  had  to 
endure  every  winter,  have  been  either  entirely  removed  or  much  ameliorated,  witliin  these 
few  yejirs,  by  the  adoption  of  conveniences  in  the  construction  of  steadings  on  the  part  of 
landlords,  and  superior  management,  acquii'ed  by  experience,  on  the  part  of  tenants. — 
Troughs  are  now  erected  along  the  walls  of  courts,  at  convenient  places,  for  holding  turnips, 
now  given  clean  to  the  cattle.  Rain-water  spouts  are  now  put  along  the  eaves  of  the  houses 
surrounding  the  courts.  Drains  are  now  fonned  to  cany  off  the  superfluous  moisture  from 
the  courts.  The  courts  themselves  ai-e  opened  up  to  the  meridian  sun,  and  really  made 
comfortable  for  calde.  And  hammels  are  now  built  for  cattie  in  steadings  where  they  were 
before  unknowni.  Still,  not^vathstaiiding  the  decided  improvement  which  has  undoubtedly 
tiilten  place  in  the  constiiiction  of  steadings,  there  are  yet  many  old  steadings  which  have  not 
been  amended,  and  too  many  modern  ones  erected  in  wliich  all  the  unprovements  that  might 
have  been  have  not  been  introduced.  Should  it  be  your  fate  to  take  a  fanu  on  wliich  an  old 
steading  of  the  quadrangular  fonn  is  stantling,  or  a  new  one  is  proposed  to  be  built,  in  repair- 
ing the  one,  and  coiisbiicting  the  other,  be  sure  never  to  lose  sight  of  the  leading  principles 
of  construction  inculcated  above,  and  insist  on  their  being  put  into  practice.  A  little  pertina- 
city on  your  part  on  this  point  will,  most  probably,  obtain  for  you  all  your  wishes,  and  their 
attainment  to  the  full  will  vindicate  you  in  offering  a  higher  rent  for  the  fanii,  without  incur- 
ring risk  of  loss. 

(92.^  It  is  now  time  to  enter  minutely  into  the  specifications  upon  w'liicli  everv'  kind  of 
work  m  the  construction  of  a  substantial  steading  should  be  executed,  and  those  below  will 
be  found  applicable  to  every  size  and  plan  of  steaduig.  As  they  accord  v^-ith  my  o\\^l  expe- 
rience and  observation  in  these  matters,  and  both  have  been  considerable,  I  offer  them  with 
the  greater  degree  of  confidence  for  your  guidance.  They  embrace  the  particidars  of  mason- 
work,  caipenter-work,  slater-work,  plumber-work,  smith-work,  and  painter  and  glazier- 
work  ;  but  they  aro  not  dniwTi  up  in  the  foixnal  way  that  specifications  are  usually  done,  the 
various  subjects  as  they  are  specified  being  illasUated  by  examples  and  the  elucidation  of 
principles. 

(93.)  Of  the  specifications  of  mason-tcork.  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  the  digging  of  the 
foundations  of  the  walls.  When  the  site  of  the  steading  is  not  obliged  to  be  chosen  on  a 
rock,  the  depth  of  the  foundations  of  all  the  outside  walls  should  never  be  less  than  2  feet. 
Judging  by  usual  jii-actice,  this  may  be  considered  an  inordinate  depth,  and  as  incumng 
much  expense  in  building  mi  unneces.'saiy  <|Uimtity  of  foundation  walls,  which  are  immedi- 
ately after  tr)  be  buried  out  of  sight ;  but  this  depth  is  necessaiy  on  account  of  the  drains 
which  should  be  maile  around  die  outside  walls,  ti»  keep  all  the  floors  diy  in  whiter,  and  it 
is  scarcely  possible  to  keeji  them  dry  with  drains  of  less  depth  than  27  inches,  which  afford 
the  water  a  channel  of  only  3  inches  below  the  bottom  of  the  foiuidations.  The  ground- 
floor  of  dwelling-houses  may  be  kej)!  in  a  dry  state  by  elevating  it  a  considerable  hight 
above  the  ground  ;  but  such  an  expedient  is  impracticable  in  a  steading  where  most  of  die 
apartments,  being  occupied  by  live-stock,  must  be  kept  as  neiu-  as  possible  on  a  level  wnth 
the  ground  ;  and  it  is  not  wood-floors  alone  that  must  be  kept  dr)-,  but  those  of  sheds,  baras, 
and  byres,  whether  made  of  composition,  or  causeway,  or  earth.  The  injurious  effects  of 
damp  in  the  floors  of  stiibles,  byres,  and  hammels,  on  the  condition  of  the  animals  inhabitin<» 
them  in  winter,  or  of  bams  on  the  st<ite  of  the  straw,  com,  or  hav  in  thcni.  ai-e  too  much 
overlooked.  Its  malign  influences  on  the  health  of  animals,  or  in  retardin"^  their  tiiriviiin- 
not  being  appiuent  to  the  senses  at  first  sight,  are  apt  to  be  ascribed  to  constitutional  defect 


THE   STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  127 

in  the  animals  themselves,  instead  of,  perhaps,  to  the  truer  cause  of  the  unwholesome  state 
of  the  apartments  which  they  occupy.  The  ti-uth  is,  the  floor  of  every  apaitment  of  the 
steading,  whether  accommodating  living  creatures,  or  containing  inanimate  things,  cannot  be 
too  dry ;  and,  to  render  them  as  much  so  as  is  practicable,  there  seems  no  way  of  attaining 
the  end  so  effectually  as  to  dig  the  foundations  of  the  walls  deep,  and  to  surround  them  with 
still  deeper  drains.  This  position  I  shall  here  endeavor  to  prove  to  you  satisfactorily.  There 
are  many  substances  upon  wliich  w^alls  are  usually  founded,  w^hich,  from  their  nature,  would 
make  walls  constantly  damp,  were  expedients  not  used  to  counteract  their  natural  bEilefiil 
properties.  Amoi-phous  rocks,  such  as  granite,  w^hich  are  impervious  to  water ;  whinstone 
rocks,  which,  though  frequently  containing  minute  fissures,  being  delinquescent,  become  very 
damp  in  wet  weather ;  clay,  and  tiUy  clay  even  more  than  the  unctuous,  retains  a  great  deal 
of  water — all  these  substances  form  objectionable  ground  upon  which  to  found  any  building. 
Stratified  rocks,  such  as  sandstone,  not  retaining  the  water  long,  form  drier  substances  for  a 
foundation  than  any  of  the  amorphous  rocks  or  clays.  Pure  sand  is  not  always  dry,  and  it 
is  apt  to  form,  in  some  situations,  an  insecure  foundation.  Pure  gravel  is  the  driest  of  all 
foundations,  but  not  the  most  secure.  From  the  nature  of  these  various  substances,  except- 
ing the  gravel,  it  would  appear  that  no  wall  founded  on  them  can  assuredly  be  kept  diy  at 
all  seasons  ;  and  therefore  drains  ai'e  necessary  to  render  and  keep  them  diy  at  all  seasons. 
Moreover,  a  foundation  made  in  a  bank  of  even  the  diiest  gravel  will  prove  damp,  unless 
the  precaution  of  deep  draining  betwixt  the  foundation  and  the  rise  of  the  bank  is  resorted 
to.  Rather  than  choose  a  site  for  your  steading  which  is  overhung  by  a  bank,  make  a  deep- 
er foundation  on  more  level  ground,  and  dram  it  thoroughly,  or  even  buUd  some  hight  of 
waste  wall,  and  fill  up  a  part  of  the  ground  that  is  low  around  the  steading.  I  have  expe- 
rienced the  bad  effects  of  digging  a  foundation  for  a  steading  in  a  rising  gi'ound  of  tolerably 
dry  materials, and  also  the  good  effects  of  filling  up  low  gi-ound  at  a  part  of  another  steading, 
and  have  found  the  air  in  the  apartments  of  the  latter,  at  all  seasons  much  more  agreeable  to 
the  feelings  than  in  the  fonner.  The  bad  effects  of  the  fonner  I  endeavored  to  counteract 
by  deep  draining,  though  not  so  effectually  as  in  the  latter  case.  I  am  therefore  warranted  ^ 
in  concluding  that  dry  apartments  are  much  more  healthy  for  animals,  and  better  for  other 
things,  than  are  those  which  feel  cold  and  damp.  A  circling,  however,  of  substantial  drains 
around  the  steading,  between  it  and  the  bank,  will  render  the  apartments  to  the  feelings,  in 
a  short  time,  in  a  comparatively  comfortable  state. 

(94.)  The  outside  tcalls  should  be  founded  with  stones  3  feet  in  length,  2  feet  in  breadth, 
and  8  or  9  inches  in  thickness,  so  laid,  in  reference  to  the  line  of  foundation,  as  to  form  a 
scarcement  of  6  inches  on  each  side  of  the  wall  above  them.  The  low  walls  may  stand  on 
one  course  of  such  foundation,  while  the  higher  walls  should  have  two  such  courses. 

(95.)  All  the  walls,  both  extei'nal  and  iutemal,  should  be  built  of  the  best  rubble-work,  the 
stones  bemg  squared,  laid  on  their  natural  beds,  closely  set  in  good  lime  mortar,  and  weU 
headed  and  packed.     Headei-s  should  go  through  the  thickness  of  the  walls  at  not  more  than 

5  feet  apart  in  every  thiixl  course.  The  walls  should  only  be  buUt  one  course  in  hight  on 
side,  before  the  other  side  is  brought  up  to  the  same  level,  the  first  of  the  courses  to  go 
through  two-thirds  of  the  wall,  besides  the  headers  or  band-stones. 

(96.)  The  external  walls  should  be  2  feet  in  thickness,  and  the  internal  division- walls,  as 
also  tlie  walls  composmg  the  fronts  and  subdivisions  of  the  courts  and  hammels,  1  foot.  The 
low  external  walls  should  be  raised  9  feet,  and  the  high  external  walls  of  the  middle  range, 
as  well  as  that  of  the  sti-aw-bani,  15  feet  above  the  gi-ound.  All  the  gables  of  the  external 
walls,  and  aU  the  internal  division  walls,  should  rise  to  the  pitch  of  their  respective  roofs, 
xuid  be  entirely  filled  up  to  the  sarking  or  tiles,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  front  and  side 
walls  of  the  large  courts  and  bulls'  hammels,  and  the  subdivision  walls  of  the  courts  of  the 
hammels,  should  be  raised  6  feet,  and  the  fi-ont  walls  of  the  hammels,  as  also  those  of  the 
cows'  and  calves'  courts  and  pig-sties,  5  feet  above  the  gi-ound.  All  the  walls  which  carry 
roofs  should  be  beam-filled  with  rabble-work,  with  the  precaution  given  in  (73.)  p.  118. 

(97.)  The  external  fronts  of  all  the  outside  walls,  as  weU  as  those  of  the  front  walls  of  the 
courts  and  hammels,  should  be  faced  with  hammer-dressed  rubble  in  cottrses,  not  exceeding 

6  inches  in  tliickness,  with  the  vertical  and  horizontal  joints  raised  or  drawn  in  hollow.  The 
tops  of  the  front  and  subdivision  walls  of  the  courts  and  hammels  should  be  finished  with  a 
coping  of  hammer-dressed  round-headed  stones,  12  inches  in  diameter,  firmly  set  close  to- 
gether in  good  lime  mortar. 

(98.)  To  test  if  rubble  masonry  is  well  built,  step  upon  a  leveled  portion  of  any  course, 
and,  on  setting  the  feet  a  little  asimder,  tiy  by  a  searching  motion  of  the  legs  an  1  feet  whether 
any  of  the  stones  ride  upon  others.  Where  the  stones  ride,  they  have  not  been  properly 
bedded  in  mortar.  To  ascertain  if  there  are  any  hollows,  pour  out  a  bucketfall  of  water  on 
the  wall,  and  those  places  which  have  not  been  sufficiently  packed  or  hearted  with  small 
stones,  will  immediately  absorb  the  water. 

(99.)  The  width  of  all  the  doors  should  be  3  feet  6  inches,  and  their  hight  7  feet,  with  the 
exception  of  those  of  the  work -horse  stable,  corn-barn,  sti-aw-barn,  and  saddle-horse  stable, 
which  should  be  7  feet  6  inches.  The  width  of  the  arches  of  the  cattle-courts  should  be  9 
feet ;  that  of  those  of  the  hammels  6  feet,  and  that  of  the  ports  of  the  cart-sh'ail  8  feet,  and 
aU  7  feet  6  inches  in  hight.  The  width  of  all  the  windows  should  be  3  feet,  and  their  hight 
(223) 


128  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. WINTER. 


4  feet,  with  the  exception  of  those  of  the  granaries,  wliich  shonld  be  4  feet  in  v\-i(]th  and  3 
feet  in  hiijht.  The  vvindows  should  have  a  bay  inside  of  6  inches  on  each  side.  Slits  of  1 
foot  3  inclies  in  hight  and  3  inches  in  width  in  front,  with  a  bay  inside  like  the  windows, 
ebonld  be  left  in  the  widls  of  the  straw  and  ujiper  bams  for  the  admission  of  air  to  the  straw 
and  the'com  in  the  straw.  All  the  voids  should  have  substantial  discharging  arches  over 
the  timljor-lintels  to  be  able  to  support  the  wall  above,  even  although  the  timber-lintels 
should  fail. 

(100.)  All  the  door-soles  should  belaid  3  inches  above  the  ground  or  causeway, and  those 
of  the  stables  and  bjTes  and  calves'-house  should  be  beveled  m  front,  that  the  feet  of  the  an- 
imals going  out  and  in  may  not  strike  agninst  them. 

(101.)  The  corners  of  the  buildings  should  be  of  broached  ashler,  neatly  squared,  2  feet 
in  length.  V2  inches  of  breadth  in  the  bed,  and  12  to  18  inches  in  hight,  having  1  inch  chisel 
draught  im  both  fmnt.s.  The  windows  and  doors  should  have  ashler  ribets — the  outbands  2 
feet  in  length,  and  the  inbands  at  least  twivthirds  of  the  thickness  of  the  walls,  and  both  12 
inches  of  breadth  in  the  beds,  and  14  or  1.5  inches  in  hight.  They  should  have  1  inch  of  the 
front,  5  inches  fif  ingoings,  and  4  inches  of  checks,  clean  droved.  The  tails  of  the  outband 
ribets  should  be  squared  and  broached.  The  doors  of  the  work-horse  and  saddle-horse  sta- 
bles, upper  and  com  bams,  hay-house  and  bulls'  hammels,  should  havt  droved  giblet-checks, 
to  penult  them  opening  outward.  The  u-indoir-sills  should  be  droved,  projecting  1^  inches, 
and  6^  or  7  inches  in  thickness.  The  lintels  of  both  the  doors  and  windows  should  have  1 
inch  of  the  fn>nt,  5  inches  of  ingoings  clean  droved,  and  be  from  14  to  15  inches  in  hight. — 
The  sheics  should  be  broached  when  such  are  used,  having  1  inch  chisel-draught  on  both 
margins  of  the  front,  and  the  inner  edge  with  a  4-inch  check-plinth,  having  an  inch  back-rest 
under  it.  The  holes  in  the  byre-wall,  through  which  the  turnips  are  supj^licd,  should  be  20 
inches  square,  with  ashler  ribets,  flush  sills  and  lintels,  having  broached  fronts  suid  droved 
giblet-checks  to  receive  their  shutters.  The  side  corners  of  the  arched  openings  of  the  cat- 
tle-courts and  hammels,  and  those  of  the  ports  of  the  cart-shed,  should  be  regular  out  and  in- 
band,  2  feet  in  length,  12  inches  of  breadth  in  the  bed,  and  12  inches  in  hight,  and  dressed 
in  a  manner  similar  to  the  other  comers,  but  should  be  chamfered  on  the  angles.  The  arches 
should  be  elliptical,  with  a  rise  of  2  feet,  with  broached  soffits  on  both  fronts,  an  inch-droved 
margin,  and  radiated  jomts.  In  the  plan,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  the  cart-sshed  ports  are  not  arched, 
there  being  no  room  for  such  a  finishing  in  the  peculiar  form  of  the  roof.  The  pillars  of  the 
cart-shed,  the  byre,  turnip-shed,  and  calves'-shed,  should  be  2  feet  square  in  the  waist,  of 
broached  ashler,  with  inch-droved  margins,  and  built  of  stones  12  inches  in  hight.  Those  of 
the  two  foi-mer  should  have  a  droved  base  course,  12  inches  in  depth,  with  1.^  inches  wash- 
ing, chamfered  on  the  angles.  The  tops  of  the  walls  of  the  pig-sties,  calves'-shed,  hen-house, 
and  potato-store,  should  have  a  6-inch  droved  plinth,  12  inches  in  the  bed.  The  fire-places 
in  the  boiling-house  and  coach-house  should  have  a  pair  of  droved  jambs  and  a  lincel,  3  feet 
6  inches  of  hight  in  the  opening,  and  a  droved  hearth-stone  5  feet  in  length  and  3  feet  in 
breadth.  The  boiler  should  have  a  hearth-stone  4  feet  6  inches  in  length,  and  2  feet  6  inches 
in  breadth,  and  it  should  be  built  with  fire-brick,  and  have  a  cope  of  4  inches  in  thickness 
of  droved  a-shler.  The  flues  from  both  the  fire-places  and  the  boiler  should  be  carried  up  12 
inches  clear  in  the  opening,  and  should  have  chimney-stalks  of  broached  ashler,  2  feet  in 
hight  above  the  ridges  of  the  respective  roofs,  2  feet  square,  and  furnished  with  a  droved 
check-plinth  and  block  12  inches  in  depth.  The  gates  of  all  the  cattle  and  hammel  courts 
should  be  hung  on  the  droved  ashler  comers  when  close  to  a  house,  but  on  droved  built  pil- 
lars when  in  connection  with  low  court-walls.  The  riding-horse  stable,  if  laid  at  all  with 
flags,  should  have  them  4  inches  thick,  of  droved  and  ribbed  pavement  behind  the  travis- 
posts,  having  a  curved  water-channel  communicating  with  a  drain  outside.  The  travis-posts 
of  the  work-horse  stable  should  be  provided  with  droved  stone  sockets,  12  inches  in  thick- 
ness, and  18  inches  square,  founded  on  rubble-work,  and  a  droved  curbstone  should  be  put 
betv^-ixt  the  stone  stjckets  of  each  pair  of  head  and  foot  ti-avis-posts,  provided  with  a  groove 
on  the  upper  edge  to  receive  the  mider  edge  of  the  lower  ti-avis-board.  For  the  better  rid- 
dance of  the  mine  from  the  work-horse  stable,  there  .should  be  a  droved  curved  wafer-chan- 
nel, 6  inches  in  breadth,  wrought  in  freestone,  all  the  length  of  the  stable,  with  a  full  at  least 
of  IJ  inclies  to  every  10  fei-t  of  length.  The  water-channel  in  the  cow-byres  and  feeding- 
houses  should  be  of  droved  curb-stones,  6  inches  thick,  12  inches  deep,  aiid  laid  in  the  bot- 
tom with  3-inch  thick  of  dmveti  pavement,  placed  6  inches  below  the  top  of  the  curb-stones. 
If  stone  is  preferred  for  water-trovghs,  which  it  .should  always  be  when  easily  obtained,  the 
troughs  sho\ild  not  be  of  leas  dimensions  than  3^  feet  hi  length,  2  feet  in  breadth,  and  18 
inches  in  depth  over  all ;  or  they  may  be  made  of  the  same  dimensions  of  pavement-flags  put 
together  with  iron-batts.  Wood  may  be  substituted  for  stone  when  that  cannot  be  easilv  ob- 
tamed.  The  liquid-manure  drain  should  be  9  inches  in  hight  and  fi  inches  in  width  in  the 
clear,  with  droved  flat  sills  and  hammer-ilressed  covers.  A  stone  2  feet  in  length,  18  inches 
in  breadth,  and  8  or  !)  inches  in  thickness,  with  an  opening  throuizh  it,  giblet-checked.  wiU 
contain  a  grating  15  inches  in  length  and  !)  inches  in  breadth,  with  the  bars  one  inch  asTm- 
der,  at  the  ends  of  the  liquid-maniuv  drains  in  the  courts.  The  li(iuid-manure  tank,  sunk  into 
the  ground,  will  be  strong  enough  with  a  0-inch  brick  or  rubble  wail  of  stone  and  linie-mor 
tar,  having  the  bottom  laid  with  jointed  flag-pavement.  If  the  ground  is  gravelly,  a  puddlin" 
(224) 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  129 

of  clay  will  be  requisite  behind  the  walls,  and  below  the  jjavement  f)f  the  bottom.  The  bot- 
tom of  the  freUng-tyoiicrh^  ia  th=!  byres,  courts,  and  htunmels,  should  be  of  3-inch  thick  of 
flag-pavement,  jointed  and  scabbled  on  the  face,  or  of  wood.  All  the  window-sills  in  the  in- 
side should  be  finished  with  3-inch  droved  or  scabbled  pavement. 

(102.)  The  walls  in  the  front  of  the  courts  are  intended  to  be  quite  plain;  but,  should 
you  prefer  ornamental  structures,  their  tops  may  be  finished  with  a  6-inch  droved  cope,  15 
inches  in  breadth,  with  a  half-inch  washing  on  both  fronts ;  and  with  a  droved  base-course 
12  inches  in  depth,  having  a  wasliing  of  1^  inches.  The  pillars  of  the  gates  to  the  larger 
courts  may  be  of  droved  ashler,  in  courses  of  an  octagonal  form,  of  15  inches  in  thickness, 
and  2  feet  by  2  feet,  with  12-inch  base,  and  a  12-inch  checked  plinth  and  block,  built  at  least 
18  inches  higher  than  the  wall.  And  if  you  prefer  an  outside  hanging-stair  to  the  upper-bam 
instead  of  the  gangway,  or  to  the  wool-room,  the  steps  sliould  be  droved  3  feet  6  inches  clear 
of  the  wall,  with  6  inches  of  wallhold.  And,  farther,  you  may  substitute  droved  crow-steps 
on  the  gables  for  the  broached  skews,  with  an  inch  back-rest  under  them.  These  crow- 
steps,  in  my  opinion,  are  no  ornaments  in  any  case  in  a  steading.  They  are  only  suited  to  a 
lofty,  castellated  style  of  liuilding. 

(103.)  The  floors  of  the  cow-byres,  work -horse  stable,  stalls  of  the  riding-horse  stable, 
passage  of  the  calves'-house,  coach-house,  boiling-house,  implement-house,  hay-house,  and 
turnip  and  potato  stores,  should  be  laid  in  causeway  with  whinstone,  or  with  small  land 
stones,  upon  a  solid  stratum  of  sand,  with  the  precaution  of  a  bed  of  broken  stones  under 
the  flagging  as  formerly  recommended  in  (73.)  p.  118.  A  causeway,  13  feet  in  breadth, 
should  also  be  made  in  the  large  court  K  to  the  corn-bam  door,  round  to  the  gate  at  H,  for 
the  use  of  loaded  carts  from  the  bam,  with  a  decUvity  from  the  wall  to  the  dung  area  of  2 
inches  in  the  10  feet.  Causeways  are  usually  formed  in  steadings  with  round  liard  stones 
found  on  the  land,  or  in  the  channels  of  rivers,  or  on  the  sea-shore,  imbedded  m  sand.  In 
those  situations  the  stones  are  always  hard,  being  composed  of  water-worn  fragments  of  the 
primitive  and  secondary  as  well  as  of  trap-rocks  ;  but  round  boulders  of  micaceous  sand- 
stone, usually  found  in  gravel  pits,  are  unfit  for  the  purpose  of  causeways,  being  too  sol't  and 
slaty.  A  more  perfect  form  of  causeway  is  made  of  squared  blocks  of  ti-aji,  whether  of 
basalt  or  greenstone,  imbedded  in  sand,  such  as  is  usually  to  be  seen  in  the  streets  of  towTis. 
The  ready  cleavage  of  trap-rocks  into  convenient  square  blocks  renders  them  valuable  depots, 
where  accessible,  of  materials  for  causeways  and  road  metal.  The  floors  of  the  pig-sties  and 
poultry-yards  should  be  laid  with  strong,  thick-jointed  stones  imbedded  in  lime  mortar,  hav- 
ing broken  glass  in  it,  upon  a  bed  of  9  inches  thick  of  small  broken  stones,  to  withstand  not 
only  the  digging  propensities  of  the  piga  on  the  surface,  but  also  to  prevent  vennm  gaining 
access  from  below  through  the  floor  to  the  poultry.  The  areas  of  the  catde-courts,  and  floors 
of  the  sheds,  hammels,  and  cart-shed,  will  be  firm  enough  with  the  earth  beaten  well  down. 

(104.)  There  is  a  plan  of  making  the  floors  of  out-houses,  recommended  by  Mr.  Waddell 
of  Berwickshire,  which  deserves  attention.  It  is  this:  Let  the  whole  area  of  the  apartment 
be  laid  with  small  broken  stones  to  the  depth  of  9  inches.  Above  these  let  a  sohd  body  of 
mason  work,  of  stone  and  lime  properly  packed,  be  buUt  to  the  hight  of  12  or  14  inches,  ac- 
cording to  the  thickness  of  the  substance  which  is  to  fonn  tlie  upper  floor.  The  lime,  wliich 
is  applied  next  the  walls,  should  be  mixed  with  broken  glass.  If  a  composition  is  to  fonn 
the  floor,  it  should  be  laid  on  3  mches  in  thickness  above  the  masonry ;  but  if  asphaltum,  1 
inch  thick  will  suffice,  the  difference  in  the  hight  being  made  up  in  the  masonry.*  This  plan 
of  Mr.  Waddell's  seems  well  adapted  for  making  a  solid  and  secure  foundation  against  ver- 
min, for  the  causewaying  of  the  several  apartments  mentioned  above ;  but  it  is  not  so  well 
adapted  for  wood-floors  either  as  a  preser\'ative  against  damp,  or  preventive  against  vermin, 
as  the  plan  described  at  p.  88,  (16.) 

(105.)  While  tieating  of  the  subject  of  causewaying,  I  may  as  well  mention  here  the  va- 
rious sorts  of  flooring  and  pavement  which  may  be  foiTned  of  other  materials  than  those  al- 
ready mentioned ;  and  the  first  is  concrete,  which  fonns  a  veiy  good  flooring  for  indoor  use. 
It  is  formed  of  a  mixture  of  coal-ashes  obtained  fi-om  furnaces,  and  from  a  fourth  to  a  third 
part  or  more,  according  to  its  strength,  of  slaked  lime,  and  worked  into  the  form  ot  paste 
with  water.  A  coating  of  clay  of  2  or  3  inches  is  first  laid  on  the  ground  leveled  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  upon  the  clay,  while  in  a  moist  state,  the  concrete  is  spread  two  or  three  mches  in 
thickness,  and  beaten  down  with  a  rammer  or  spade  until  the  mider  part  of  the  concrete  is 
incorporated  with  the  upper  part  of  the  clay.  The  surfice  of  the  concrete  is  then  made 
smooth  by  beating  with  the  back  of  a  shovel,  and  when  left  imtouched  for  a  timo,  that  sub- 
stance assumes  a  very  hard  texture.  This  is  a  cheap  mode  of  flooring,  labor  being  the  prin- 
cipal expense  attending  it. 

(106.)  Another  sort  of  pavement  is  that  oi  asphaltum,  suitable  either  for  indoor  use,  or  for 
outdoor  purposes,  where  no  cartage  is  to  be  employed  upon  it.  It  is  a  composition  of  bitu- 
men, obtained  from  coal-tar  after  the  distillation  of  naphtha,  and  small  clean  gravel.  When 
applied,  the  bitumen  and  gravel  in  certain  proportions  are  melted  together  in  a  pot  over  a 
fire,  and  when  sufficiently  liquified  and  mixed,  the  composition  is  poured  over  the  surface 
of  the  ground  to  be  paved,  which  is  previously  prepared  hard  and  smooth  for  the  purpose, 

•  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  viii.  p.  373. 
(225) 9 


130  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

about  nn  inch  or  more  in  thickness,  and  is  spread  even  and  smoothed  on  the  surface  with  a 
heated  iron  roller.  When  completely  dry,  the  asphaltum  becomes  a  perfect  pavement,  aB 
hard  as  stone,  and  entirely  impervious  to  water.  It  would  form  an  excellent  flooring  for  the 
etraw-bam,  8tr\-ants'-hou8e,  boiling-house,  potato-stores,  and  the  passages  in  the  cow-byre  and 
calves'-house.  It  might  also  make  roofing  to  out-houses,  where  there  is  no  chance  of  the 
roof  being  shaken.  As  made  at  the  Chemical  \N'ork8  at  Bomiington  near  Edinburgh,  it 
costs  5d.  per  square  foot  when  laid  down,  wliich  makes  it  an  expensive  mmle  of  paving. 
Whether  this  usphalte  wiU  bear  heat,  or  the  trampluig  of  horses'  feet,  I  do  not  know,  but 
it  seems  there  is  a  sort  of  asphaltum  pavement  in  l-"i-ance  which  will  bear  lOO*-"  of  heat 
of  Fahrenheit,  and  is  employed  in  flooring  the  cavalry  barracks  of  that  countiy.  The  sub 
stance  of  which  this  pavement  is  made,  is  called  "  The  Asphaltic  Mastic  of  Seyssel,"  and 
for  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  which  a  company  has  been  Ibnned  in  Paris  to  supply  pave 
ment  for  various  purposes.  The  substance  is  a  natural  asphalte  found  at  Pyrimout,  at  the 
foot  of  the  eastern  side  of  Mount  Jura,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Rhone,  one  league 
north  of  Seyssel.  In  chemicid  composition  tliis  asphalte  contains  90  per  cent,  of  pure  car 
bonate  of  lime,  and  9  or  10  per  cent,  of  bitumen.  To  form  the  asphalte  into  a  state  fit  for 
use,  it  is  combuied  with  mineral  pitch,  obtained  at  the  same  place,  in  the  proportion  of  93 
j)er  cent,  of  the  asphalte  to  7  per  cent,  of  the  mmeral  pitch.  The  pitch  when  analyzed  con- 
tains of  resinous  petroliferous  matter  from  C9  to  70  per  cent,  and  of  carbon  from  30  to  35  per 
cent.  The  preparation  of  tliis  asphalte  being  tedious,  its  cost  is  greater  than  that  mentioned 
above.     For  foot-pavements  or  floors  it  is  about  6^d.  and  for  rools  8|d.  per  square  foot.* 

(107.)  Another  mode  of  causewaying  is  wdth  blocks  of  wood,  commonly  called  icood- 
pavcment.  Portions  of  the  sti'eets  of  London  have  been  laid  with  this  kind  of  pavement, 
the  blocks  ha\"ing  been  j)reviously  subjected  to  the  process  of  Kyanizing,  and  they  are  found 
to  make  a  smooth,  clean,  quiet,  and  durable  causewaying.  This  would  be  a  desirable 
method  of  paving  the  road  round  the  large  court  K,  Plate  IV.  the  straw-barn,  work-horse 
stable,  hay -house,  cow-byres,  passage  in  the  calves'-house,  riding-horse  stable,  coacli-house, 
and  potato-stores.  It  would  be  expedient,  when  used  in  a  stable  or  byre,  tliat  some  other 
substance  than  sand  be  put  between  the  blocks,  for  that  is  apt  to  absorb  urine  too  readily. 
Grout  formed  of  thin  lime  and  clean  small  gi^avel,  or  asphalte  poured  in  between  the  blocks, 
might  repel  moisture.  This  latter  expedient  has  already  been  tried,  as  may  be  seen  at  page 
14  of  Mr.  Simm's  obser\-ations  on  asphalte.  There  are  various  methods  of  disposing  of  the 
blocks  of  wood  so  as  to  make  a  steady  and  durable  pavement.  1.  The  earliest  plan  adopt- 
ed in  Loudon,  in  1833,  was  that  of  Mr.  Stead,  a  specimen  of  laying  which  I  had  an  oppor 
tunity  of  seeing  in  the  Old  Bailey,  London,  in  1839.  It  consisted  of  hexagonal  blocks  of 
wood  set  on  end  upon  a  sandy  substi-alum.  The  blocks  had  the  Kyan  stamp  on  their  side 
Since  then  the  substratum  upon  which  the  blocks  rest  hiis  been  made  of  Roman  cement  and 
what  is  called  Thames  ballast,  which  I  sujipose  means  Thames  river  sand.  The  cost  of  this 
mode  is  9s.  the  square  yai-d  for  6-inch  blocks,  and  2s.  the  yard  for  the  concrete.  2.  Another 
l)lim  is  that  of  Mr.  Carey,  which  consists  of  setting  cubical  blocks  on  end,  a  mere  modifica- 
tion of  that  of  Mr.  Stead.  The  cost  is  for  8-inch  blocks  12s.  6d. ;  9-inch  blocks  ISs.  6d. ; 
and  10-iuch  blocks  14s.  6d.  the  square  yard.  3.  Mr.  Grinmians's  is  auollier  mode  of  wood- 
paving.  It  consists  of  the  blocks  forming  oblique  parallelopipedons  at  an  angle  of  77'^,  and 
they  are  so  cut  as  to  set  from  right  to  left  and  from  left' to  right,  presenting  a  sort  of  herring- 
bone work.  The  blocks  are  chamfered  at  the  edges  to  prevent  the  slipping  of  horses'  feet. 
With  the  concrete  of  Roman  cement  and  Thames  ballast,  this  paving  is  charged  12s.  the 
square  yard.  4.  Mr.  Rankin's  method  secures  the  safety  of  the  horses'  feet  in  shpping,  but 
is  too  elaborate  a  mode  for  general  adoptioji.  It  consists  of  a  number  of  small  blocks,  cut 
out  of  the  same  piece  of  wood,  lying  above  one  another  in  a  complicated  fashion.  With  con 
crel<j,  its  cost  is  IGs.  the  square  yard.  5.  Of  all  the  modes  of  wood-paving  yet  invented, 
that  of  the  Count  de  Lisle  is  the  best.  It  consists  of  placing  beside  each  other  oblique  cubes 
of  6  inches,  having  an  inclination  of  63°  26'  5  8-10',  a  rumber  derived  by  cidculation  from 
the  stcreotomy  of  the  cube.  "  These  blocks  are  cut  and  drilled  by  mnduner}-,  mathemati- 
cally alike;  and  are  so  placed  in  the  street  that  they  rest  upon  and  support  each  other  from 
curb  to  curb,  each  alternate  course  having  the  angle  of  inclination  in  opposite  directions. 
These  coiu-ses  are  connected  to  each  other,  side  and  side,  by  dowels,  which  occupy  the  ex- 
act centers  of  two  isosceles  [eipiilateral  ?;|  triangles,  into  which  each  block  is  divisii)le.  This 
arrangement  affonls  the  means  of  connecting  everj-  block  with  four  others,  and  prevents  the 
possibility  of  one  being  forced  below  the  level  of  another.  Pressure  and  percussion  are 
therefore  distributed,  in  effect  over  large  surfaces,  and  a  perfect  cohesion  established.  Nor 
is  this  cohesion  advantageous  only  as  a  means  of  resistance  against  superincumbent  force.  It 
is  of  equal  viilue  in  withstanding  any  efiort  to  break  up  the  uniformity  of  surface  by  undue 
expansion.  The  concrete  foundation  having  a  slight  elliptical  curve  given  to  it.  and  the 
wood-paving  being  so  laid  as  to  correspond  with  that  curve,  for  the  puqwses  alike  of  strength 
and  surface  drainage,  there  is  naturally  a  slight  tension  on  the  dowc^ls  in  an  upward  direc- 
tion, which  the  pressure  from  above  tonds  to  relieve  ;  while  the  lower  ends  of  the  blocks 
abut  so  closely  together  in  one  direction,  and  every  block  is  so  kept  in  ite  position  by  two 

*  Simm'B  Practical  Observations  on  the  Asphaltic  Mastic  or  Cement  of  Seyssel,  p  3 
(226J 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  13] 

dowels  on  each  side  in  the  other  direction,  that  the  whole  mass  will  take  any  increased 
curve  consequent  upon  expansion,  without  the  slightest  risk  of  either  partial  or  general  dis- 
placement." There  is  much  facility  in  replacing  these  blocks,  especially  since  "  the  dowel- 
ing of  them  together  at  the  manufactory  in  panels  of  24  each,  6  in  length  by  4  in  width,  the 
blocks  at  the  sides  of  which  being  connected  by  iron  cramps.  Thus  prepared,  the  process 
of  covering  a  street  is  exceedingly  rapid  and  simple.  One  end  of  a  panel  is  cut  off  at  an 
angle  to  agree  with  that  of  the  curb  and  the  cur\'e  of  the  street,  and  is  then  abutted  against  it ; 
each  panel  containing  four  courses  in  alternate  angles,  another  dove-tails  precisely  with  the 
first,  and  thus  panel  after  panel  is  laid  until  the  sti-eet  is  crossed,  and  the  last  cut  off  to  abut 
against  the  other  curb."  To  pi-event  slipping,  grooves  are  cut  across  the  street  at  about  6 
inches  apart,  aad  others  are  fomied  along  the  street,  to  prevent  rutting,  and  the  joinings  of  the 
longitudinal  grooves  are  broken.  The  substi-atum  upon  which  this  mode  of  wood-paving  is 
made  to  rest  is  a  concrete  formed  of  "  blue  lias  lime,  a  metallic  sand,  and  Thames  ballast,"  which 
becomes  permanently  solid  and  impers'ious  to  water  after  t\vo  or  three  days,  by  the  oxidation 
of  the  metalhc  sand.  The  cost  of  this  mode  is  13s.  the  squai-e  yard  for  6-inch  blocks  and 
concrete  complete,  and  6d.  a  3'ard  every  year  for  keeping  it  in  perfect  repair  for  10  or  20 
years  ;   12s.  fi)r  5-inch  blocks  ;  lis.  for  4-inch  blocks,  and  proportionately  for  repairs. 

(103.)  Of  these  various  modes  of  wood-paving,  the  following  are  the  quantities  of  each 
which  have  been  tiied  in  London  up  to  November,  1841,  viz: 

Of  Stead's  hexagons 8,710  sq.  yds.     Of  Grimraan's  oblique  parallelopipeclons.650  eq.  yds. 

De  Lisle's  oblique  cubes 19.838      ..  Rankin's  inverted  pyramids 492 

Carey's  squares . . . , 1,750      . .  TTXto 

The  Metropolitan  Wood-paving  Company  have  adopted  De  Lisle's  system. 

(109.)  As  to  the  durability  of  wood-paving,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  "  a  structure 
of  wood,  instead  of  resisting  the  pressure  or  peiTussion  of  passing  vehicles,  like  such  an  in- 
compressible substance  as  granite,  jaelds  to  it  sufficiendy  to  counteract  friction,  from  its  inhe- 
rent property  of  elasticity.  Hence  in  Whitoliall,  where  the  blocks  have  been  down  about 
two  years,  they  are  not  reduced  in  dejjth  J  of  an  inch  on  an  average ;  and  this  reduction,  be- 
ing more  the  result  of  compression  than  of  abrasion,  is  not  likely  to  continue  even  at  that  ra- 
tio ;  for  the  solidity  of  the  blocks  is  increased  even  if  the  volume  be  thus  sHghtly  reduced. 
Indeed,  paradoxical  as  it  may  at  first  appear,  the  ti-affic,  which  is  destructive  of  wood-paving 
in  one  way,  contributes  to  its  preservation  in  another ;  and  may  thus  be  explained :  The 
woud-paving  is  put  down  in  a  comparatively  dry  state,  and,  if  it  were  always  perfectly  dry, 
would  be  much  more  susceptible  of  destruction  from  accidental  or  mechanical,  as  well  as 
from  natural  causes.  But,  soon  after  it  is  constructed,  it  becomes  perfectly  saturated  from 
rain  and  other  causes,  and  continual  pressure  forces  more  and  more  water  into  the  blocks, 
until  every  pore  is  completely  filled.  In  this  state,  the  water  assists  in  supporting  superin- 
cumbent weight,  while  it  effectually  preserves  the  wood  from  decay.  For,  in  fact,  of  the  6 
sides  of  a  block  of  the  given  form,  only  the  upper  one  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  atmo- 
sphere ;  below  the  surface  the  whole  mass  is  as  thoroughly  saturated  as  if  it  were  immersed 
in  water ;  aad  the  surface  itself  becomes  so  hardened  by  pressure  and  the  induration  of  for- 
eign substances,  such  as  giit  and  sand,  as  to  be  impervious  to  the  action  of  the  sun,  especially 
in  a  northern  climate ;  and  that  water  is  a  preservative  against  decay  may  be  proved  in  a  va- 
riety of  cases Dry  rot,  therefore,  can  never  affect  good  wood-paving,  nor  can  any 

other  secondaiy  process  of  ^  egetatiou,  in  conseepience  of  the  preseir^ative  qualities  of  water 
— the  shutting  ont,  in  short,  if  atmospheric  influence  ;  and  it  is  questionable  if,  under  other 
circumstances,  the  incessant  vibration  to  which  the  blocks  are  subjected,  by  traffic,  would 
not  have  a  strong  preservative  tendency." 

(110.)  On  the  comparative  cost  of  laying  down  and  maintaining  wood-paving  wdth  other 
sorts,  a  statement  wiiich  has  been  made  regarding  wood-pavmg  and  paving  with  granite,  in 
the  parish  of  St.  Mary  le  Strand,  in  London,  for  the  last  7  years,  teUs  in  favor  of  the  wood. 
It  is  this : 

Granite-paving  and  concrete  cost £0  12     6  the  square  yard. 

Repairs  for  7  years  at  3d.  the  yard 0     19 

0  14     3 
Deduct  the  value  of  the  stones  for  streets  of  lesser  traflSc 0     3     0 

Actual  cost  of  7  years 0  11     3 

Wood-paving  cost £0  13     0  the  sq.  yd. 

Repairs  for  <7  years  at  6d.  the  yard 0     3     6     .. 

0  16     6     ..     .. 
Deduct  value  of  the  wood  for  paving  streets  of 

lesser  traffic 0     3     0..     .. 


0  13  .6 

£0     2     3 
Giving  an  apparent  advantage  of  '2s.  3d.  the  square  yard  to  the  granite-pavin"  for  the  first  7 
years ;  but,  were  the  comparison  continued  for  an  indefinite  period  onward,  it  wotdd  be 

(227) 


132  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


found  thiit  the  siime  blocks  of  wooil  would  biBt  longer  than  the  eame  blocks  of  gianite,  and 
henne  the  \voo<l  would  be  clienper  in  the  long  mn.  j      ■     j         ■,      , 

(111.)  On  coniniu-ing  its  cost  witii  niucadaniization,  it  is  found  that  macadamized  roads  of 
much  tnitlic,  such  as  Oxfoitl-street,  Piccadilly,  cost  from  28.  6d.  to  3s.  the  square  yard  every 
year,  bcsid.'.<»  the  e.xpense  of  the  origiuiil  fonnation :  whereas  wood-paving  can  be  laid  down 
and  kept  in  rep;iir  for  a  rent-ch:«ge^)f  2s.  3d.  the  scpiiu-e  yard  every  year— being  a  saving  of 
from  10  to  30  per  cent,  per  auniun.*  i        •       i.  t  j    j 

(112.)  I  have  dwelt  the  longeron  the  subject  of  wood-pavmg,  because  I  am  persuaded 
that  itwonld  msike  a  much  more  durable  road  about  steadings,  and  to  the  fields  of  farms, 
than  lh<-  materials  usually  eninloyed  for  such  purposes ;  and,  as  to  their  comparative  condi- 
tion under  traffic,  there  would  be  a  decided  superiority  on  the  side  of  the  wood-paving,  for 
farm  nuwls  are  usually  in  the  most  vvTetched  state  of  repair — every  hour  of  time  and  every 
ton  of  nietul  expeiide<i  on  them  being  grudged,  as  if  they  were  an  item  with  which  the  farmer 
hail  nntliiii"  whatever  to  do.  I  do  not  say  that  wood-paving  would  be  cheap  where  wood  is 
scarce  iuid'carriage  long,  and  of  couree  dear;  but  in  those  parts  of  the  country  where  larch- 
w(kh1  is  in  abinidance,  and  where  it  realizes  low  prices,  it  might  be,  I  conceive,  profitably 
employed  in  not  only  making  fann  roads,  but  in  paving  every  aparmient  in  the  steading. 

(113.)  Another  method  still  of  cansev^'aying  is  with  Dutch  clinkers — a  kind  of  very  hard 
brick  made  in  Holland,  of  about  the  breadth  and  thickness  of  a  man's  hand.  They  are  used 
in  paving  roads  and  sheets  in  that  country.  They  are  set  lengthways  on  edge  and  imbedded 
in  sand,  and  are  laid  so  a.i  to  fonn  a  slight  arch  across  the  road.  Most  of  the  great  roads  in 
Holland  are  iiaved  with  this  brick,  and  more  beautifid  and  pleasant  roads  to  travel  on  caimot 
be  found  anvwhere,  e.xcept  perhaps  in  the  heat  of  summer,  when  they  become  oppressively 
hot.  I  had  an  opportiniity  of  sceuig  a  part  of  the  road  near  Haarlem  laid  with  these  clink- 
ers, and  observed,  as  a  part  of  the  process,  that,  as  a  certain  jnece  of  the  causewaying  was 
finishetl,  bundles  of  green  reeds  were  laid  lengthways  across  the  road  over  the  new  laid 
bricks,  to  teni])er  the  pressure  of  the  wheels  of  can-iages  upon  the  bricks  on  going  along  the 
roads,  tnitil  the  bricks  .<hould  have  subsided  finidy  into  the  stratom  of  sand.  As  these  clink- 
ers are  small,  they  can  be  laid  in  a  variety  of  forms,  some  as  a  beautiftil  kind  of  Mosaic  work. 
The  import  tlutj-  on  Dutch  cluikers  was  reduced  to  38.  per  1,000  on  1st  January,  1834  ;  iu 
1819  it  was  Ifis.  8d.t     The  pre.sent  price  of  cluikers  (1842)  iu  London  is  3.5s.  the  1,000. 

(114.)  Tine  smooth  durable  pavement  is  made  of  the  beautifully  stratified  beds  of  the  in- 
ferior gniv  sandstone,  a  rock  nearly  allied  to  gi-aywacke.  It  is  a  rock  of  fine  texture,  hard, 
and  perfectly  impervious  to  water.  It  occurs  in  abundance  in  the  south-east  part  of  Forfar- 
shire, and.  l)eing  chietlv  shi]i])ed  at  Arbroath  in  that  county-,  it  has  received  the  appellation 
of  "Arbrnii/h  Pavement."  Hard  flags  from  the  counties  of  Caitlmess  and  Orkney  al.so  fonn 
very  durable,  though  not  always  smooth,  pavement.  Some,  however,  of  this,  as  well  as  of 
the  Arbroath  pavement,  requires  veiy  bttle,  if  any,  dressing  with  tools  on  the  fiice.  The 
Caithness  pavement  is  cut  on  the  edge  with  the  saw,  the  Arbroath  pavement  with  common 
masons' tools.  In  a  pai>er  read  to  the  British  Association  at  their  meeting  at  Glasgow  in 
1840,  rrofessor  Tniill  described  this  flag  as  belonging  to  the  red  sandstone  series,  although 
its  ai>i)eanuKe  as  pavement  would  lead  one  to  suppose  it  to  belong  to  an  older  fonnation. 
Pavement  is  also  ioniied  of  the  sti-atified  portions  of  the  sandstone  of  the  coal-formation. 
Most  of  the  foot-pavement  of  the  streets  of  Edinburgh  is  of  this  kind.  Its  face  requires  to 
be  wrought  with  tools,  and  its  texture  admits  water. "  Arbroath  pavement  costs  fi-om  2d.  to 
4d.  per  sijuare  foot  at  the  (piam-,  according  to  thickness.  Both  it  and  Caithness  pavement 
cost  10(1.  and  conniion  stone  ])avenient  6d.  per  foot  in  Edinburgh.  When  jointed  and 
droved,  till-  cost  is  ilil.  per  square  foot  additional. 

(11;').)  In  connection  with  the  subject  of  ma.sonry,  I  may  advert  to  the  sinking  of  wells 
for  a  supply  of  water.  1.  In  trap  ajid  other  amoiiihous  rocks,  little  water  may  be  expected 
to  \>e  found,  and  the  lalwr  of  sinking  by  blasting  with  gunpowder  renders  a  well  sunk  in 
these  substances  a  very  expensive  undertaking.  When  there  is  probability'  of  finding  water 
in  stnitifii  il  nnks  under  trap,  the  latter  may  be  penetrated  by  boring  with  a  jumper,  with 
the  view  of  fonning  an  artesian  well ;  but  before  such  a  project  is  midertaken,  it  should  be 
ascertained  In  foiehand  that  stratified  rock  or  diluvium  exists  below  the  trap,  and  that  the 
dip  of  either  is  towanl  the  site  of  the  well.  Of  .so  much  importance  is  one  good  well  on  a 
&rm,  that  a  considi-rable  expense  should  be  incuiTed  rather  than  want,  at  any  season,  so  es- 
Bentiid  a  beverage  as  water  to  man  and  beast.  When  insuperable  objects  exist  against  find- 
ing water  on  the  spot,  perhaps  the  better  j)lan  will  be  either  to  go  a  distance  to  a  higher 
elevation,  where  a  common  well  may  succeed  in  finding  water,  and  then  convey  it  to  the 
stciuling  by  a  w(H)d  or  iron  or  lead  pipe ;  or  to  descend  to  a  lower  site  and  throw  the  water 
up  to  the  steading  by  means  of  a  force-pumj).  Either  of  these  plans  may  be  less  expensive, 
or  more  practicable  than  the  boring  through  a  hard  rock  to  a  great  depth.  The  well  in 
Bamborough  Castle,  in  Northumberhuid,  was  sunk  upward  of  100  feet  through  trap  to  the 
sandstone  below ;  and  at  Dundee,  a  Iwre  was  m;ule  throu<;h  trap,  300  feet,  to  the  inferior 
Band.stone  below,  by  means  of  a  steam-engine,  to  ohtiiin  wat«'r  for  a  spinning-mill.  2.  In 
gravel  and  sand,  a  well  may  be  simk  to  a  considerable  depth  before  finding  water.     Being 

♦  Stevens's  Wood-raving  in  London.  t  McCulloch'e  Commercial  Dictionary,  Art.  Tariffl 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  133 


desirous  of  a  supply  of  water  to  three  adjoining  fields  of  dry  turnip  land,  resting  on  a  dee-) 
bed  of  pure  gravel,  and  which  had  no  watering-pool,  I  fixed  on  the  most  likely  spot  tti  con- 
taui  water,  near  the  foot  of  a  rising  gi-ound  of  diluvial  clay,  in  wliich  to  dig  a  well,  and  it 
happened,  to  be  a  spot  common  to  all  the  fields.  After  persevering  to  the  depth  of  22  feet 
without  success,  at  the  imminent  hazard  of  overwhelming  the  men  with  gravel,  as  a  despair- 
ing effort,  at  night-faU  I  caused  a  foot-pick  to  be  thrust  down  into  the  bottom  of  the  pit  as 
far  as  the  handle,  and  on  withdrawing  the  instrument,  water  was  seen  to  follow  it.  Next 
morning  three  feet  more  were  dug,  when  the  water  excavating  the  gi-avel  around  the 
bottom  of  the  pit  rendered  farther  digging  a  dangerous  operation  for  the  men,  so  the  ring  of 
the  well  was  there  begun  to  be  built  with  stones.  The  water  afterward  would  rise  no 
higher  in  the  well  than  the  level  where  it  was  first  found,  but  the  supply,  nevertheless,  was 
sufficient  for  the  use  of  three  fields.  On  findmg  water  in  this  case,  in  the  midst  of  very 
hopeless  symptoms,  I  would  recommend  perseverance  to  diggers  of  wells,  and  success  will 
most  probably  reward  their  efforts.  3.  In  very  unctuous  clay,  such  as  is  found  in  carse 
land,  water  is  difficult  to  be  obtained  by  digging  to  ordinary  depths ;  but  as  such  a  country 
is  usually  situate  iiear  a  large  river,  or  on  the  side  of  a  broad  estuary,  by  digging  to  the 
depth  of  the  bed  of  the  river,  some  sand  will  most  probably  be  found  through  wliich  the 
water  will  find  its  way  to  the  well ;  and  though  brackish  in  the  estuarj',  it  may  come  into 
the  well  sweet  enough  for  all  domestic  purposes.  4.  Wells  dug  in  stratified  rocks,  such  as 
sandstone,  may  be  supphed  with  water  at  a  moderate  depth,  perhaps  6  or  8  feet ;  but  among 
regular  strata  there  is  as  much  risk  of  losing  water  as  there  is  ease  hi  obtaining  it.  To  avoid 
disappointment,  it  will  be  necessaiy  to  puddle  the  seams  of  the  rock  on  that  side  of  the  well 
in  which  it  dips  dowTiward.  .5.  The  substance  which  most  certainly  supplies  water  on  be- 
ing dug  into  is  diluvial  clay,  a  substance  which  foniis  the  subsoil  of  the  greatest  e.xtent  of 
arable  land  in  this  kingdom.  This  clay  is  of  itself  impervious  to  water,  but  it  is  always  in- 
tersected with  small  veins  of  sand  frequently  containing  mica,  and  interspersed  with  numer- 
ous small  sUinss,  on  removing  which,  water  is  found  to  ooze  from  their  sites,  and  collect  in 
any  pit  that  is  formed  in  the  clay  to  receive  it.  The  depth  to  be  dug  to  secure  a  sufficiency 
of  water  may  not  be  great,  perhaps  not  less  than  8  feet  or  more  than  16  feet ;  but  when  the 
clay  is  homogeneous  and  hard,  and  there  is  little  appearance  of  water,  digging  to  upward  of 
40  feet  in  depth  will  be  required  to  find  water.  I  knew  a  remarkable  instance  of  a  well 
that  was  dug  in  such  clay  in  Ireland,  in  which  40  feet  were  penetrated  before  any  water 
was  found ;  but  immediately  beyond  that  depth,  so  large  a  body  of  pure  water  was  found 
in  a  small  vein  of  sand,  that  the  diggers  escaped  with  difficulty  out  of  the  well,  leaving  their 
tools  behind.  A  force-pump  was  obtained  to  clear  the  well  of  water,  in  order  to  allow  the 
ring  to  be  built ;  but  it  was  unable  to  reduce  the  bulk  of  water,  so  that  the  ring  remains  un- 
built to  this  day ;  the  water  always  stands  within  three  feet  of  the  top  of  the  well,  and  the 
clay  is  not  much  affected  by  it.  6.  Suppose,  then,  that  this  wall  is  to  be  dug  in  clay  con- 
taining small  stones  and  veins  of  sand.  Let  a  circle  of  8  feet  in  diameter  be  described  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  fi-om  whose  area  let  the  ground-soil  be  removed  to  be  used  elsewhere. 
After  throwing  out  a  depth  of  8  or  9  feet  with  the  spade,  let  a  v^^nch  and  rope  and  bucket 
be  set  up  to  draw  the  stuff  out  of  the  well.  While  the  digging  is  proceeding,  let  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  flat  stones  be  laid  down  near  the  winch,  by  which  to  let  them  down  to  build  the 
ring.  A  depth  of  16  feet  will  most  probably  suffice,  but  if  no  water  is  found,  let  the  dig- 
ging proceed  to  the  requisite  depth.  A  ring  of  3  feet  in  diameter  will  be  a  large  enough 
bore  for  the  well,  the  rest  of  the  space  to  be  filled  up  with  dry  rubble  masonry,  and  drawn 
in  at  the  top  to  2  feet  in  diameter.  Whenever  the  building  is  finished,  the  water  should  be 
removed  from  the  well  with  buckets,  if  the  Cjuantity  is  small,  and  with  a  pump  if  it  is  large,  to 
allow  the  bottom  to  be  cleared  of  mud  and  stones.  A  thick  flat  stone,  reaching  fi-ora  the 
side  of  the  ring  to  beyond  the  center,  should  be  firmly  placed  on  the  ground  at  the  bottom 
of  the  well,  for  the  wooden  pump  to  stand  upon,  or  for  the  lead  pipe  to  rest  on.  If  a  wooden 
pump  is  used,  a  large  flat  stone,  ha\ing  a  hole  in  it  to  embrace  the  pump,  should  be  laid  on 
a  level  with  the  ground  upon  the  ring  of  the  well ;  but  if  a  lead  pipe  is  preferred,  the  flat 
stone  should  be  entire  and  cover  the  ring,  and  the  clayey  earth  throv^^n  over  it.  The  cost 
of  digging  a  well  in  clay,  8  feet  in  diameter  and  16  feet  deep,  and  building  a  ring  3  feet  in 
diameter  with  dry  rubble  masonry,  is  only  £.5,  exclusive  of  carriage  and  the  cost  of  the 
pumps.  A  wooden-mounted  larch  pump  of  from  15  to  20  feet  in  length  costs  from  £3  to 
£3  10s.  and  a  lead  one  £2  10s.  with  Is.  2d.  per  lineal  foot  for  pipe  of  the  depth  of  the  well. 
The  wooden  pump  will  last  perhaps  twenty  years,  and  the  lead  one  a  lifetime,  with  ordinary 
care,  and  the  lead  at  all  times  is  worth  something. 

(116.)  The  making  of  the  well  naturally  suggests  the  subject  of  water.  The  different 
kinds  of  water  receive  names  from  the  sources  fi-om  which  they  are  derived.  Thus  there 
is  sea-water,  the  water  of  the  ocean  ;  rain-water,  the  water  \vhich  falls  from  the  atmosphere; 
river-water,  the  water  which  flows  in  the  channels  of  rivers ;  spring-water,  the  water  as  it 
naturally  issues  from  the  ground;  well-water,  the  water  collected  in  wells;  pond-water,  the 
water  collected  in  an  artificial  hollow  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  grouuil  ;  and  marsh- 
water,  the  stagnant  water  collected  in  swamps  and  bogs.  All  these  soits  of  water  possess 
different  prorierties,  acquired  from  the  circumstances  from  \vhich  each  is  deri\'ed. 

(117.)  Pure  water  is  not  found  in  nature,  for  all  the  sorts  of  water  accumulated  on  or  near 
(229) 


134 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


the  surface  of  the  cailh,  though  tlitferiiig  in  purity  iii  regard  U)  each  other,  are  none  of  them 
pure  m  the  chemical  sense  of  the  tenii ;  that  is,  free  of  the  aihiiixture  of  other  matter,  suck 
as  gases,  salu<,  eartli.  I'ure  water  is  colork-ss,  aiid  insipid  to  the  taste.  Its  specific  ^avity 
is  1.000  ounces  per  cubic  foot.  It  i.s  made  tlie  standard  of  gravitj',  1  being  its  equivalent 
mark.  It  is  an  inelastic  fluid.  It  consists  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  the  combination  by 
weight  being  8  of  oxygen  and  1  of  hydrogen — by  volume,  1  of  oxygen  to  2  of  hydrogen — 
and  by  ecjuivalent  or  atom,  1  of  hydi-ogen  with  I  of  oxygen  ;  its  chemical  symbol  being 
H-|-0  or  110.  Pure  water  is  obuiined  by  the  distillation  of  rain  or  river  water,  and,  to  re- 
tain it  so,  it  must  be  kept  in  closed  b<}tt]es  filled  to  the  stopper,  as  it  has  a  strong  affinity  for 
common  air,  oxygen,  and  carbonic  acid  giis. 

(118.)  Water  hxim  the  condensed  vapor  of  fresh  water  is  the  purest  that  can  be  obtained 
by  natural  means.  Hence,  niin-water  collected  after  rain  has  fallen  for  a  time,  at  a  hight 
above  the  ground,  in  the  country,  and  at  a  disUnice  from  any  dwelling  of  man,  or  new-fallen 
melted  snow,  is  the  purest  water  tliat  can  be  collected  ui  a  natural  state  ;  but,  nevertheless, 
it  is  not  pure,  iuiismuch  as  it  contains  oxygen,  nitrogen,  carl)ouic  acid,  and  earthy  matter, 
■which  it  has  met  with  in  the  atmosphere,  besides  nearly  as  much  common  air  as.it  can  absorb. 
Procured  from  the  roofs  of  buildings,  min-water  is  always  contaminated  with  many  additional 
impurities,  derived  from  the  channels  through  which  it  has  flowed.  It  is  generally  very 
dark-colored,  and,  when  allowed  to  stand,  deposits  a  quantity  of  earthy  ingiedients.  It  is 
not  ui  a  pn)pcr  state  for  domestic  purposes  until  it  has  got  quit  of  as  much  of  these  impurities 
as  it  can  by  deposition. 

( 1 19. )  Rain-water  for  domestic  purposes  is  collected  in  cisterns.  The  fonn  of  a  rain-water 
cistern,  repiesented  by  fig.  30,  I  have  found  an  useful  one  for  allowing  the  undisturbed  de 
position  of  impurities,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
quick  flowing  off  of  the  puier  water,  without 
aisturbing  the  deposition.  Let  ab  b  che  a.  cis- 
tern of  stone  or  wood,  placed  at  a  convenient 
spot  of  the  steading  or  farm-house,  for  the  re 
ception  of  rain-water.  I  have  found  that  such 
a  cisteni,  of  the  capacity  of  12  cubic  feet,  holds 
a  sufficient  (juantity  of  rain-water  for  the  domes- 
tic purposes  of  an  ordinary  family.  A  cistern 
of  2  feet  square  at  the  base,  and  3  feet  in  hight, 
will  just  contain  that  (juantity ;  but,  as  the  size 
of  an  ordinaiy  wash-tub  is  2  feet  in  diameter, 
the  space  betwaxt  d  and  d  must  be  made  2  feet 
6  inches  at  least,  and  the  hight  of  the  cistern  b 
could  be  2  feet;  but  if  more  water  is  required 
than  12  cubic  feet,  then  the  hight  should  be  3 
feet,  which  gives  a  capacity  to  the  cisteni  of  18 
cubic  feet.  Suppose  the  cistern  represented  in 
the  figure  to  contain  18  cubic  feet,  then  the  area 
of  a  will  be  2^  feet  square,  and  b  3  feet  in  hight, 
supported  on  two  upright  stones  d  d  of  the 
breadth  of  the  ci.stern  and  2  feet  high.  The 
cisteni  may  either  be  niatle  of  a  block  of  I'ree- 
Btone  lie%Nii  out  to  the  dimensions,  or  of  fliigs, 
of  which  the  sides  are  let  into  grooves  in  the 
bottom  and  into  each  other,  and  imbedded  in 
white-lead,  and  fastened  together  with  iron 
clamps,  liavuig  a  stone  movable  cover  c.  Or  it 
may  be  fomied  of  a  box  of  wood,  securely  fast- 
ened at  the  comers  to  be  water-tight,  \\-ith  a 
cover  of  wood,  and  resting  on  the  stone  suji- 
ports  d  d.  Stone  being  more  durable,  is,  of 
course,  i)referable  to  wood  for  a  cisteni  that 
stands  out  in  the  open  air.  A  hollow  copper 
cylinder  g  is  fastened  perpendicularly  into  the 
bottom  a,  having  its  lower  end  jinijecting  1  inch 
below,  and  its  upjier  3  inches  above,  the  respective  surfoces  of  the  bottom.  The  upper  end 
of  the  copper  cylinder  is  formed  to  receive  a  ground  tnincated  cone  of  copper  called  a  plug 
or  stopper,  which  is  m  )vcd  up  and  down  with'  the  lever  k,  by  means  of  the  stout  coi>per  rod 
t.  The  plug  must  be  made  watertight  with  grease,  liie  rod  of  which  passes  through  a  hole 
in  the  cover,  to  be  connected  with  the  lever,  whose  support  or  fulcrum  is  fixed  on  the  cover. 
Those  parts  are  all  male  of  co|>per,  to  withstand  rusting  from  the  water,  with  the  exception 
of  the  lever,  which  may  be  of  iron,  painted.  The  i-.iin-water  is  supplied  to  the  cislem  by  the 
pipe  c,  which  descends  from  the  rain-water  conductor,  and  is  let  through  a  hole  in  the  cover. 
The  water  is  represented  standing  as  high  as  I,  but,  in  case  it  should  rise  to  overflow,  it  can 
pass  olT  by  the  lead  waste-pipe  /,  which  is  secured  and  movable  at  pleasure  in  a  gi-ound- 
(230) 


RAIN-WATER  CISTERN. 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  135 

washer  n,  whose  upper  end  is  made  flush  wath  the  upper  surface  of  the  bottom  a.  After  the 
water  has  entered  the  cisteni,  it  gets  leave  to  settle  its  sediment,  which  it  may  do  to  the  his^ht 
of  the  upper  end  of  g.  The  sediment  is  represented  by  m,  and,  when  it  accumulates  to  k, 
the  cover  c  should  be  taken  otf,  and  the  waste-pipe  /  removed,  and  it  can  then  be  cleaned 
completely  out  by  the  washer  n.  The  waste  water  riuis  away  through  the  air-ti-ap  o,  and 
along  the  drain  p.  It  is  more  convenient  to  have  two  small  than  one  large  cistern,  as,  while 
the  water  is  rising  in  the  one,  that  in  the  other  gets  leave  to  settle.  The  cost  of  such  a  cis- 
tern, with  droved  stones,  aud  to  contain  18  cubic  feet,  \\'ith  the  proper  moimtings,  may  be 
about  £5.  I  think  it  right  to  say,  in  commendation  of  this  fonn  of  water-cistern,  that  in  no 
case  have  I  known  the  water  about  the  plug  to  be  frozen — in  consequence,  perhaps,  of  the 
non-conducting  power  of  the  mud  in  the  bottom  of  the  cistern.  The  rod  i  has  sometimes  be 
come  fast  to  the  ice  on  the  top  of  the  water,  but  a  little  boUing  water  poured  down  by. the 
side  of  the  rod  tln-ough  a  fimnel  soon  freed  it  fi-om  restraint. 

(120.)  Rain-water,  besides  containing  gases  in  solution,  becomes  impregnated  wth  many 
saline  substances  in  its  passage  through  the  ground ;  and  hence  the  water  of  springs  and  riv- 
ers always  contains  many  ingredients.  The  purest  spring-water  is  that  which  has  passed 
through  gravelly  deposits,  such  as  of  granite,  sandstone,  quai-tz ;  because  the  component 
parts  of  those  stony  substances  being  insoluble,  the  water  cannot  take  up  much  of  them.  In 
the  same  way  the  water  of  old  wells  is  purer  than  that  of  new,  because  the  long  continued 
action  of  the  water  has  removed  or  gi-adually  dissolved  the  soluble  matters  in  the  same  pas- 
sages through  the  gi-ound  to  the  well.  "  The  matters  generally  contained  in  spiing,  well, 
and  river  water,"  says  Mr.  Reid,  "  are  carbonate  of  lime,  sulphate  of  lime,  muriate  of  lime, 
sulphates  of  potash  and  soda,  muriate  of  soda,  and  sometimes  a  little  magnesia.  '  In  rain- 
water,' says  Dr.  Murray,  '  the  muriates  I  have  found  generally  to  fonn  the  chief  impregna- 
tion, while  in  spring-water  the  sulphates  and  carbonates  are  predominant,  and  in  the  former 
the  alkalies,'  potash  and  soda,  '  are  in  larger  quantity,  while  the  earths,  particularly  lime,  are 
more  abundant  in  the  latter.'  "*  It  is  in  its  combination  with  one  or  more  of  tliese  salts  that 
water  becomes  hard,  chiefly  with  the  sulphate  of  lime  or  ,g^*psum,  and  the  carbonate  of  lime 
or  hmestone.  Water  is  said  to  be  hard  when  it  will  not  dissolve  but  decompose  soap.  Soft 
water,  on  the  other  hand,  does  not  decompose,  but  combines  easily  with  soap  and  dissolves 
it.  Hard  water  is  not  so  fit  as  soft  for  many  culinary  purposes,  such  as  making  tea  and  boil- 
ing vegetables.  It  is,  therefore,  of  importance  for  you  to  know  when  water  is  in  a  hard  or 
soft  state.  By  placing  a  few  thin  slices  of  white  soap  in  a  clean  tumbler  of  the  water  to  be 
examined,  its  hardness  will  be  indicated  by  white  JiaLcs  or  curdy  particles  around  the  soap, 
the  effect  of  decomposition — the  acids  of  the  salts  in  the  water  combining  with  the  alkali  of 
the  soap  and  leaving  the  fatty  matter.  A  very  small  quantity  of  either  of  the  saljs  enumer- 
ated above  will  render  water  hard.  Water  can  dissolve  1-.500  part  of  its  weight  of  gypstim ; 
bat,  according  to  Dr.  Dalton,  1-1000  part  is  sufficient  to  render  it  hard ;  and  Mr.  Cavendish 
says  that  1"200  grains  of  water  containing  carbonic  acid  ^^'ill  hold  in  solution  1  grain  of  lime- 
stone. Limestone  is  insoluble  in  pure  water ;  but  water  containing  carbonic  acid  in  solution 
can  dissolve  it. 

(121.)  "To  discover  whether  the  hardness  be  owing  to  the  presence  of  limestone  or  gyp- 
sum, the  following  chemical  tests,"  says  Mr.  Reid,  "  may  be  applied.  A  solution  of  the 
nitrate  of  barytes  will  produce  a  white  precipitate  with  water  containing  either  g^'psum  or 
limestone  ;  if  limestone  have  been  present  in  the  water  the  precipitate  \\'ill  be  dissolved, 
and  the  liquid  rendered  clear  on  adtUng  a  few  drops  of  pure  nitric  acid ;  if  the  presence  of 
gypsum  caused  the  precipitate,  this  will  not  be  dissolved  by  the  nitric  acid.  A  solution  of 
the  sugar  of  lead  may  be  used  in  the  same  way,  but  the  niti-ate  of  barytes  is  preferred. "t 

(122.)  As  to  a  practical  remedy  for  hard  water,  boiling  vr\&  remove  the  lime.  The  car- 
bonic acid  in  excess  in  the  water  is  converted  into  the  gaseous  fonn,  and  the  carbonate  of 
lime  then  becoming  insoluble,  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  Hence  the  iucnistation  of 
tea-kettles.  If  the  hardness  is  caused  by  g^.'psum,  a  little  pearlash  or  soda  (carbonate  of 
potash  or  carbonate  of  soda)  ^vill  remove  it,  and  the  lime  of  the  water  will  also  be  precipi- 
tated with  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  pearlash  or  soda. 

(123.)  River- water  is  always  softer  than  spring  or  well  water,  because  it  deposits  its 
earthy  ingi-edients  when  flowing  in  contact  with  common  air,  which  it  absorbs  in  considera- 
ble quantity'.  By  analysis,  the  water  of  the  river  Clyde  ^-ielded  1-35  of  its  bulk  of  gases,  of 
which  19-20  were  common  air.  "  All  that  is  necessary,"  remarks  Mr.  Reid,  "  in  order  to 
render  river-water  fit  for  use  is  to  filter  it.  This  is  rather  a  mechanical  than  a  chemical 
operation,  and  is  done  by  causing  the  water  to  pour  throush  several  layers  of  sand,  which 
intercepts  the  muddy  particles  as  the  liquid  passes  thi'ough.  Filtering  stones,  made  of  some 
porous  material,  such  as  sandstone,  and  hollowed  out  so  as  to  be  capable  of  containing  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  water,  have  sometimes  been  employed  to  purify  water.  Compressed 
sponges  have  also  been  employed  for  this  pm-pose.  Sand  and  charcoal  form  the  chief  ele- 
ments in  the  construction  of  the  filters  now  so  much  employed  for  purifying  water,  the  pow- 
dered charcoal  acting  not  only  mechanically  in  detaining  any  muddy  particles,  but  having  a 
chemical  effect  in  sweetening  the  water  (rendering  it  fresh)  if  it  be  at  all  tainted,  or  even  m 
retarding  putrefaction,  if  it  have  any  tendency  that  wav."+ 

*  Reid'g  Chemistry  of  Nature,  p.  195.  t  Ibid.  p.  199.  %  ^^^-  ^Ol- 

(231) 


136  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

(124.)  Wafer,  as  a  beverage,  would  be  insipitl  or  even  nauseous  \\"ithout  the  g:ase8  and 
valine  matters  usually  found  in  it.  They  give  a  natural  seasoning  and  a  sparkling  appearance 
to  it,  thereby  rendering  it  agreeable  to  the  taste.  Every  one  knows  the  mawkish  taste  of 
boiled  ^^•ater  when  drank  alone. 

(125.)  As  I  am  on  the  subject  of  water,  a  few  words  should  here  be  said  on  the  making 
of  horfc-pnnd.1.  The  position  of  the  horse-pond  will  be  seen  in  figs.  1  and  2,  in  Plates  I. 
and  II.  When  a  small  stream  passes  the  steading,  it  is  easy  to  make  a  pond  serve  the  pur- 
pose of  horses  drinking  and  washing  in  it,  and  the  water  in  such  a  ]>ond  will  always  be  pure 
and  clean.  But  it  may  happen,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  when  there  is  no  stream,  that  a 
pond  should  be  dug  in  clay,  in  which  case  the  water  in  it  will  always  be  dirtj-  and  offensive, 
unless  means  are  used  to  bring  water  by  a  pipe  fixjm  a  distance.  If  the  subsoil  is  gravelly, 
the  water  will  with  difficulty  be  retained  on  it,  on  which  account  the  bottom  shoidd  be  pud- 
dled with  clay.  Puddling  is  a  very  simple  process,  and  may  be  performed  in  this  manner: 
Let  a  quantity  of  tenacious  clay  be  beaten  smooth  \vith  a  wooden  rammer,  mixing  with  it 
about  one-fourth  part  of  its  bulk  of  slaked  lime,  which  has  the  effect  of  deterring  worms 
making  holes  in  it.  After  the  mass  has  lain  for  some  time  souring,  let  large  balls  of  it  be 
formed  and  thrown  forcibly  on  the  bottom  of  the  pond,  made  dry  for  the  purjwse,  and  beaten 
do^^-n  with  the  rammer  or  tramped  with  men's  feet,  until  a  coating  6  or  7  inches  in  thick- 
ness is  fonned,  or  more,  if  there  is  plenty  of  clay.  Then  let  a  quantity  of  clean  gravel  be 
beaten  ^vith  the  rammer  into  the  upper  surface  of  the  clay  before  it  has  had  time  to  harden. 
Should  the  jwnd  be  large,  and  the  weather  at  the  time  of  making  it  so  dr\-  as  to  harden  the 
clay  before  its  entire  bottom  can  be  covered  with  it,  let  the  puddling  and  graveling  proceed 
together  bv  degrees.  Above  the  coating  of  gravel,  let  a  substantial  causeway  of  stones  and 
sand  be  formed  \x\  resist  the  action  of  the  horses'  feet,  and  which,  if  {iroperly  protected  at 
the  ends,  and  finished  on  the  open  side  of  the  ]iond,  will  withstand  that  action  for  a  long 
time.  I  have  seen  a  sort  of  pond  recommended  to  be  made,  into  wliich  the  horses  enter  at 
one  end,  and  pass  through  it  by  the  other.  This  is  a  convenient  shape  of  pond,  in  as  far  as 
it  admits  of  the  uninterrupted  passage  of  the  horses  tkroitph  the  pond,  but  it  is  liable  to  seri- 
ous objections.  Being  contracted  laterally,  the  pair  of  horses  which  first  descend  to  drink 
will  occupy  the  greatest  proportion  of  its  whole  brcaddi.  and,  while  in  that  position,  the 
succeeding  pair  must  dinaik  the  muddy  water  at  their  heels ;  and.  as  the  contracted  form 
precludes  easy  turning  in  the  deepest  pari  of  the  water,  none  of  the  rest  of  the  horses  can 
be  pennitted  to  block  up  the  opposite  or  open  end  of  the  pond.  A  nru  h  better  fonn  of  pond, 
I  conceive,  is  with  an  open  side,  having  the  opposite  side  fenced,  mid  the  watei-  supplied 
clean  at  the  upper  end,  and  made  to  flow  immediately  away  by  the  lower.  At  such  a  pond 
a  number  of  horses  can  stand  in  a  row  to  drink  at  the  same  time,  and  easily  pass  each  other 
in  the  act  of  washing  the  legs  after  drinking.  As  to  the  depth,  no  horse-pond  should  ever 
exceed  the  hight  of  the  horses'  knees.  The  water  should  on  no  accouut  reach  their  bellies ; 
for  although  I  am  quite  aware  of  plo^^^nen  being  desirous  to  wade  their  lior.scs  deep,  and 
of  even  wishing  to  see  their  sides  laved  with  water,  to  save  ihcm.'-elvcs  some  trouble  in 
cleaning,  that  is  no  reason  why  you  should  run  the  risk  of  endangering  the  health  of  your 
horses  by  making  the  pond  deeper  than  the  knee. 

(126.)  With  regard  to  the  kind  of  stone  which  should  bo  emplo'-ed  m  the  building  of  a 
Bteading,  it  must  be  determined  by  the  mineral  product  of  the  loc.ilitv  in  which  it  is  pro- 
posed to  erect  it.  In  all  localities  where  stone  is  accessible,  it  should  be  prefeiTcd  to  every 
other  material ;  but  where  its  carriage  is  distant,  and  of  course  expensive,  oilier  materials, 
such  as  brick  or  clay,  must  be  taken.  In  large  flat  tracts  of  rountr\-.  stone  is  generally  at  too 
great  a  distance  ;  but  in  those  situations,  clay  being  alnin(l:int.  brick  may  be  easily  made, 
and  it  makes  an  excellent  building  material  for  walls,  and  far  superior  to  the  old-fashioned 
clay  >v!ill.«  whii'h  were  in  vogue  before  brick  became  so  universally  u.sed  for  building.  Of 
stone,  anv  kitul  may  be  used  that  is  nearest  at  hand,  though  some  rocks  are  much  better 
adapted  fir  buildiuL'  purposes  than  others.  1.  Of  the  primitive  rocks,  gray  granite  forms  a 
beautiful  and  duniblc  stone,  as  is  exemplified  in  the  buildings  in  Aberdeenshire,  Cornwall, 
and  Newrv-  in  Ireland.  Gneiss,  micaslate,  and  clayslate,  do  not  answer  the  purpose  well. 
They  give  a  rough  e<lgy  fracture,  frequently  rise  t<x)  thin  in  the  bed,  especially  in  the  case 
of  ciayslave  ;  are  not  unfrequentlv  curbed  in  the  bed,  and  at  the  same  time  difficult  to  be 
dressed  with  the  hammer.  2.  Of  the  transition  series,  graywacke  makes  a  beautiful  build- 
ing-stone, as  may  be  se«'n  in  the  houses  at  Melrose.  The  old  red  sandstone,  though  a  good 
building-stone,  lias  a  disagreeably  sombre  aspect,  as  seen  at  Arbroath ;  but  the  inferior  gray 
sandstone  which  prevails  in  the  neiphborhood  of  Dundee,  is  a  beautifid  and  durable  build- 
ing-stone. .3.  All  the  sandstones  of  the  coal  formation  fonn  excellent  materials  for  building, 
as  is  exemplifiecl  in  Edinburgh  and  many  other  places.  4.  The  limestone,  from  marble  to 
the  mountain  carboniferous  limestone,  make  fine  b\iilding-stone,  as  at  Plymouth  ;  but  in  case 
of  fire  they  are  apt  to  be  cn^U-ined  by  heat,  as  exemplified  in  the  cathedral  at  Armagh,  before 
it  was  repaired.  And  5.  Even  the  trap-rocks  are  employed  in  building  houses  where  sand- 
stones are  scarce.  Though  the  two  classes  of  rock  are  frequently  located  together.  Whin- 
stone  is  objectionable,  inasmuch  as  it  throws  out  dampness  in  wet  weather,  and  the  walls 
require  to  be  lathed  and  pliistered  on  the  inside,  to  render  the  house  even  comfortable.  Fre- 
quently where  whinatone  is  near  at  hand,  and  sandstone  can  be  obtained  at  a  litde  distance, 
(232) 


THE    STEADING  OR   FARMSTEAD. 


137 


the  latter  is  employed  as  comers,  ribets  and  lintels,  though  the  contrast  of  color  betwixt 
them  is  too  violent  to  be  pleasant  to  the  eye.  If  sandstone,  therefore,  can  be  procured  at  a 
reasonable  cost  of  carriage,  you  should  give  it  the  preference  to  whinstoue,  for  the  sake  of 
comfort  to  your  hve-stock  in  then-  habitations  in  wet  weather.  You  mav,  indeed,  choose  to 
incur  the  expense  of  lathhig  and  plastering  all  the  insides  of  the  walls  of  the  steadiu'^ ;  but 
a  lathed  wall  in  any  part  of  a  steading  would  be  apt  to  be  broken  by  ever>-  thing  that  came 
against  it,  and  is,  on  that  account,  an  unsuitable  finisliing  for  a  steading.  6.  The  worst  sort 
ot  building-stone  are  landfast  boulders  of  the  primitive  and  trap  rocks,  which,  although  re- 
duceable  by  gunpowder,  and  manageable  by  cleavage  inlo  convenient  shaped  stones,  incur 
great  labor  in  their  preparation  for  building ;  and  even  after  the  stones  are  prepm-ed  in  the 
best  mamier  they  are  capable,  their  beds  are  frequendy  veiy  rough,  and  jointings  coursi% 
and  the  variety  of  texture  and  color  exhibited  by  them,  render  them  at  the  best  unsightly 
objects  in  a  building.  They  are  equally  misuitable  for  dry-stone  dykes  as  for  buildings,  for 
in  the  case  of  dykes,  they  must  be  used  very  nearly  in  their  natural  state,  as  the  usual  charge 
for  such  work  wU  not  bear  labor  being  bestowed  on  the  preparation  of  the  material.  Still, 
after  all,  if  no  better  material  for  building  houses  is  near  at  hand  than  those  boulders,  they 
must  be  taken  as  the  only  natural  product  the  country  affords.  There  is  a  class  of  Ijoulders, 
composed  chiefly  of  micaceous  sandstone,  found  m  banks  of  gravel,  which  answer  for  dry- 
Btone  dykes  admirably,  splitting  with  ease  with  a  hand-pick  into  thin  layers,  and  exhibiting 
a  rough  surface  on  the  bed,  very  favorable  to  their  adherence  together  in  the  wall.  Tliis 
species  of  building  material  is  abundant  in  Forfarshire,  w-here  specimens  of  dry-stone  build- 
ing may  be  seen  of  a  superior  order.  In  these  remarks  of  the  general  choice  of  building- 
stones  by  Mr.  G.  Smith,  architect  in  Edinburgh,  there  is  much  truth  :  "  The  engineer  and 
architect,"  says  he,  "go  differently  to  work  in  choosing  their  stones.  The  Ibnner,  in  makino- 
his  experiments  for  his  piers  and  bridges,  selects  the  strongest  and  hardest  as  most  suited  to 
resist  great  pressure.  The  latter,  for  his  architectural  decorations,  chooses  not,  only  the  most 
beautiful  as  to  texture  and  uniformity  of  color,  but  those  which  may  be  easily  cut  into  the 
most  delicate  mouldings,  and  which,  moreover,  will  stand  the  winter's  fi-ost  and  the  sum- 
mer's heat.  It  may  be  remarked  that  the  hardest  stones  are  not  always  those  which  hold 
out  the  best  against  the  effects  of  the  weather."* 

(127.)  I  may  here  observe,  in  concluding  my  obsers-ations  on  the  specifications  of  masonry, 
that  any  lime  that  is  used  on  a  farm,  for  the  purpose  of  steeps  for  grain  or  for  mortar,  gets 
leave  to  lie  about  in  the  most  careless  manner,  either  under  a  shed,  or  at  some  place  con- 
tiguous to  water,  where  it  had  been  made  up  into  mortar.  In  either  case  there  is  waste  of 
a  useful  article  ;  and  in  many  parts  of  the  countrj',  where  carriage  is  far  distant,  it  is  a  high- 
priced  article.  The  lime  that  is  to  be  used  in  a  dry  state  should  be  kept  under  cover  ;  and 
all  that  is  required  in  a  season  could  be  held  in  a  cask  or  small  hogshead  to  stand  in  a  cor- 
ner of  the  cart-shed  or  potato-store,  but  not  in  the  straw-bani,  where  a  little  damp  may  cause 
it  to  ignite  the  straw.  With  regard  to  mortar,  no  more  should  be  made  at  a  time  than  is 
used,  or  it  should  be  carefully  heaped  together  in  a  convenient  place,  and  covered  with  turf. 

(128.)  In  Sweden,  mortar  is  made  and  kept  in  a  convenient  form  of  cart,  represented  by 
fig.  31,  a  practice  which  might  with  propriety  be  followed  in  this  country.     The  cart  con- 


Fig.  31. 


SWEDISH  MORTAR-CART. 


siflta  of  a  cube  a  b  c  d  of  a  side  of  3  feet  made  of  2-inch  thick  battens.  The  wheels  are 
formed  of  the  two  sides  of  the  cube,  on  v/hich  are  fixed  circular  segments  such  as  e  and  f, 
made  of  strong  battens  3  inches  thick,  secured  by  a  screw  at  each  end  into  the  side  of  the 

*  Prize  Kssays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  x.  p.  85. 
(233) 


138  THE   BOOK   OF   THE   FARM WINTER. 

cube,  and  the  circles  aie  shod  with  iron  as  common  wheels.  The  axle  g,  inside  and  outside, 
is  closely  parsed  ihrnuirh  the  cube,  so  as  not  to  allow  any  of  the  mortar  to  come  out.  The 
a.\lo  moves  in  a  small  iron  nave  attached  to  the  shafts  of  the  cart.  On  it  are  screwed  iron 
bars  i.  wliich  pass  through  one  of  the  sides  of  tlio  cul)e,  and  fastened  to  it  by  screws  k.  The 
use  of  these  bars  is  to  break  the  mortar  when  too  tough ;  and  if  one  set  of  bars  is  found  in- 
sufficient for  that  puqiose,  similar  ones  should  be  put  through  the  opposite  side  of  the  cube. 
A  lid  h  is  well  secured  to  the  cube  by  hinges,  and  kept  fiist  by  means  of  a  hasp.  When 
the  shaft-s  are  drawn,  the  whole  cart  revolves  with  the  wheels. 

(129.)  The  lime  is  put  into  the  cart  by  the  lid,  and  sprinkled  over  with  a  little  water, 
about  half  a  irallou  of  which  to  the  bushel  of  lime  will  be  enough  the  first  time.  The  cart  ia 
then  ilriveu  round  a  while;  and  wheu  the  driver,  who  must  often  look  to  the  mortar,  finds 
tliat  all  the  water  is  imbibed,  a  little  more  must  be  poured  in,  and  the  cart  again  driven 
round.  Water  i.s  poured  in  in  small  quantitres  until  the  lime  forms  coagulated  masses  or 
balls,  and  theu  it  is  worked  until  no  dry  lime  is  seen  in  the  mass.  The  success  of  making 
good  mortar  di-ponds  on  the  skill  of  the  driver,  who  will  soon  learn  to  do  it  well  after  a  cart- 
lul  or  two  of  driving.  Three  bushels  of  lime  and  sand  can  be  prepared  in  this  way  in  a  short 
time,  but  the  sand  should  not  be  put  in  till  after  the  lime  has  been  sufficiently  wi-ought  with 
water.* 

(130.)  Of  the  specification  o{  carpentcr-irork,  the  fir.st  timber  that  is  used  in  building  con 
sists  of  stifc-lintcis,  which  should  be  4  inches  thick,  of  such  a  breadth  as  to  cover  the  space 
they  are  j)laccd  over,  and  they  should  have  a  solid  bearing  at  both  ends  of  12  inches. 

(131.)  The  scnntlings  or  couples  for  the  roofs  vary'  in  size  with  the  breadth  of  the  build- 
ing.    When  the  building  is  18  feet  wide,  the  scantlings  should  be  8  inches  wide  at  bottom, 

7  inches  at  top,  and  2.^  inches  thick.  Those  for  1.5  feet  wide  buildings  should  be  7^  inches 
wide  at  bottom,  and  C^  inches  at  top.  All  scantlings  should  be  placed  18  inches  apart  from 
center  to  center,  upon  wall-plates  8  inches  wide  by  1^  inches  thick,  firmly  secured  to  bond- 
timber  built  into  the  tops  of  the  walls.  These  dimensions  of  scantlings  are  suitable  for  a  roof 
of  blue  slates.  For  a  tile-roof  the  scantlings  are  placed  2  feet  apart  fi-om  center  to  center. — 
For  roofing  with  gray-slates,  which  are  very  heavy,  the  scantlings  should  be  3  inches  thick. 
With  tiles  and  gray-slates  the  roofs  require  a  higher  pitch  than  with  blue  slates,  and  this  is 
given  by  making  the  scantlings  1  foot  longer. 

(132.)  The  balks  of  an  18  feet  wide  building  should  be  7^  inches  broad  by  2^  inches  thick, 
and,  for  the  1.5  feet  one,  7  inches  by  2J  inches.  In  both  cases  the  balks  should  be  of  the 
length  of  one  of  the  scantlings,  which  will  bring  its  position  so  low  dow^n  on  the  scanthngs  as 
to  be  only  a  little  more  than  3  feet  above  the  wall-heads.  It  is  geneially  supposed  that  one 
balk  is  sufficient  for  the  support  of  the  scantlings;  but  it  will  be  seen  in  fig.  6,  p.  88,  that  I 
have  represented  a  vertical  section  of  the  principal  range  of  the  steading  with  two  balks,  be- 
cause I  would  always  prefer  two  balks  to  one,  and  the  only  objection  to  the  two  is  the  ex- 
pense. When  two  balks  are  employed,  the  lower  one  will  be  about  2  feet,  and  the  upper 
one  about  .5  feet,  above  the  wall-heads. 

(133  )  If  a  slated  roof  is  adopted,  there  should  be  a  riJge-tree  10  inches  broad  by  2  inches 
thick,  and  tht^  to[is  of  the  scantlings  should  be  bound  with  collar-pieces,  5  inches  broad  and 
2  inches  thick,  half  checked  into  the  scantlings.  If  a  tile-roof  is  preferred,  it  is  sufficient  that 
the  tops  of  the  scantlings  be  checked  in  with  collar-pieces,  as  just  described. 

(134.)  The  whole  roof  should  be  covered  with  sarking,  f  inch  thick,  and  clean  jointed. 
A  tile-roof  rc(iuires  tile-lath,  \\  inches  square,  and  11  inches  apart,  excepting  at  the  eaves, 
which  should  have  a  boarding  from  12  inches  to  15  inches  broad,  and  |  inch  thick  for  slates. 
Tile-lath  is  ;Jso  em])loyed  with  gi'ay-slates. 

(135.)  The  pcands  and  flankers  should  be  9  inches  broad  at  bottom,  and  7  inches  at  top, 
aiid  3  inches  thick,  properly  backed  to  receive  the  saiking  or  tile-lath  of  the  respective  sorts 
of  roofs. 

(130.)  The  joists  of  the  flooring  in  the  part  of  the  buildings  that  is  18  feet  wide  should  be 
10  inches  deep  by  2^  inches  in  thickness,  placed  18  inches  asunder  fi-om  center  to  center, 
and  having  a  wall-hold  or  rest  of  12  inches  at  each  end.    When  the  bearings  of  joists  exceed 

8  feet,  it  is  a  more  secure  and  economical  plan  to  have  beams,  instead  of  battens,  laid  across 
the  building,  13  inches  deep,  and  6^  inches  in  width,  with  a  wall-hold  of  12  inches  at  each 
end.  Upon  these  .should  rest  joists  7  inches  deep,  and  2.^  inches  in  breadth,  and  not  more 
than  16  niches  apart  from  center  to  center,  dove-tailed  into  the  beams  with  a  hold  of  9  inches 
at  each  einl.  These  joints  are  best  cut  out  of  Memel  log  of  first  or  second  quality,  the  differ- 
ence of  price  between  the  two  qualities  being  2d.  the  cubic  foot. 

(137.)  The  floors  of  the  upper  and  corn-bam  and  granaries  should  be  of  1:1  inches  thick, 
of  red  or  white  wood  battens,  grooved  and  tongued,  and  well  seasoned  when  wrought  and 
laid.  The  under  side  of  the  floor,  and  the  joists  which  support  the  floor  of  the  upper-bam, 
forming  the  roof  of  the  com-bara,  should  be  clean  dressed,  to  prevent  the  adherence  of  dust. 

(138.)  In  some  parts  of  the  country,  and  especially  in  East-Lothian,  the  floor  of  the  corn- 
barn  is  made  of  composition ;  but,  in  order  to  leave  a  part  of  the  floor  clean,  upon  which  to 
winnow  the  grain,  a  space,  12  feet  square,  is  usually  left  in  the  middle  of  the  floor.     This 

•  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  xi.  p.  245. 
(234J 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  139 


space  is  laid  with  sleeper-joisting,  7  inches  deep  by  2^  iuches  thick,  and  18  inches  apart  from 
center  to  center,  supporting  a  flooring  of  deal  2  iuches  thick,  grooved  and  ton<nied.  As  a 
precautiou  against  vemiin,  as  well  as  the  enjoyment  of  cleanliness  while  winnowang  and  oth- 
erwise handling  the  grain,  I  would  always  lecommend  an  entire  wooden  floor  for  the  corn- 
bam,  to  be  laid  down  in  the  manner  described  in  (16.)  and  represented  in  fig.  6,  p.  88 

(139.)  The  windows  of  the  stables  should  be  of  the  form  of  fig.  14,  p.  10-5.  Those  of  the 
other  apartments  of  the  steading,  with  the  exception  of  the  granaries,  should  be  of  the  form 
of  fig.  15,  p.  105  ;  and  those  of  the  granary  should  be  of  the  form  of  fig.  17,  p.  107.  The 
astragals,  if  not  made  of  wood,  may  be  of  cast-iron  or  zinc.  Cast-iron  astragals  cost  Is.  and 
zijic  9ijd.  the  square  foot. 

(140.)  The  exterior  doors,  7^  feet  hi^h,  should  be  of  1^  inch  deal,  grooved,  and  tongued, 
and  beaded,  having  three  back-bars,  7  inches  broad  by  1^  inches  thick  ;  those  of  the  corn- 
bam,  cow-byi-e,  and  boiHng-house,  being  in  two  horizontal  leaves,  that  of  the  upper-bam  in 
two  vertical  leaves,  and  those  of  the  rest  of  the  apaitments  being  entire. 

(141.)  If  desired,  small  whidows  of  one  or  two  rows  of  panes  may  be  placed  above  all  the 
outside  doors ;  in  which  case,  the  voids  of  these  doors  should  be  made  proportionally  high, 
say  8  feet. 

(142.)  The  inside  doors  should  be  7  feet  high,  off  inch  deal,  with  three  back-bars  6  inches 
broad  and  1  inch  thick,  grooved,  and  plowed,  and  beaded.  They  should  have  checks  6  inches 
broad  by  2.^  inches  thick,  and  keps  and  facings  4|  inclies  broad  by  |  inch  thick. 

(143.)  The  fravis  boarding  oi  the  work-horse  stable  should  be  1^  iuches  thick,  9|  feet 
long,  7  feet  6  inches  high  at  the  fore  and  4  feet  6  inches  high  at  the  heel  posts,  doweled  in 
the  joints  vnth  oak  pins,  and  of  an  ogee  form  on  the  top,  let  into  a  2-inch  deep  gi-oove  in  the 
heel-post,  and  coped  with  beading.  The  heel-posts  should  be  6  inches  square,  beaded,  the 
fore-posts,  on  both  sides,  5  inches  by  2^  inches,  and  both  fixed  at  the  top  to  runtrees,  6 
inches  deep  by  2  inches  broad.  The  side  walls  af  the  end-stalls  should  be  finished  in  the 
same  manner,  and  firmly  secured  to  wall-straps  and  bond-timbers. 

(144.)  The  travis-boarding  of  the  riding-horse  stable  should  be  of  the  same  strength  as 
just  described ;  but  the  heel-posts  should  be  turned  5  feet  high  above  the  ground,  with 
moulded  caps  and  balls,  and  let  from  18  inches  to  2  feet  into  the  ground,  through  a  stone 
frame  18  inclies  square  and  12  inches  thick,  fimily  built  with  stone  and  mortal-.  The  fore- 
posts  should  be  3  inches  in  diameter  on  both  sides  to  the  higlit  of  the  travis-boarding.  Heel- 
posts  are  also  made  of  cast-iron,  which  cost  22s.  each. 

(145.)  The  hay-racks  of  the  work-horse  stable  should  have  a  hard-wood  rail,  3  inches 
deep  by  2^  inches  wide,  and  the  spars  of  fir,  2  inches  broad  by  1.^  inches  thick,  placed  2j| 
inches  apart.     These  spars  should  be  put  on  both  fi-ont  and  bottom. 

(146.)  The  hay-racks  of  the  riding-horse  stable  should  be  of  hard-wood,  and  placed  high 
up,  with  rails,  3  inches  deep  by  2^  inches  wide,  and  turned  rollers,  2  inches  of  diameter,  set 
2i  inches  apart.  Cast-iron  racks  ai-e  frequently  used  in  the  comer  of  the  stall,  and  they 
cost  10s.  each. 

(147.)  The  mangers  of  the  riding-horse  stable  should  be  of  rounded  battens  in  front,  of 
fiill  breadth  of  the  stalls,  placed  at  a  convenient  hight  above  the  floor,  and  bottomed  and 
lined  with  l:^-inch  deal. 

(148.)  In  the  work-horse  stable,  corn-boxes  are  placed  in  the  near  angle  of  the  hay-racks. 

(149.J  The  stalls  of  the  cow  or  feeding  byres  should  be  made  of  1^-inch  deal,  beaded, 
grooved,  and  tongued.  They  should  be  6  feet  long,  and  4  feet  high,  with  1-inch  beaded 
coping,  let  into  stakes  or  heel-posts,  5  inches  to  6  inches  diameter,  and  held  to  the  wall  at 
the  head  with  a  2-inch  fillet,  and  iron  hold-fast  on  each  side.  The  heel-posts  should  either 
be  taken  to  the  hight  of  the  byre-wall,  and  secured  to  runtrees,  6  inches  deep  by  2  inches 
broad,  or  fastened  into  the  ground  with  masonry  like  those  of  the  riding-horse  stable. 

(150.)  The  doors  of  the  feeding-holes  of  the  byres  should  be  of  3-mch  deal,  of  two  thick- 
nesses, crossed. 

(151.)  The  stairs  from  the  com-bam  to  the  granaries,  if  of  wood,  should  have  11  inches 
of  tread  and  7  inches  of  hight  of  steps.  A  stair  or  trap  of  similar  dimensions  may  lead  to 
the  wool-room. 

(152.)  The  floors  of  the  granaries,  upper  and  cora-bams,  and  wool-room,  should  have  an 
angular  skirting,  3  inches  by  3  inches,  around  them. 

(153.)  Should  the  upper-bam,  or  granaries,  or  wool-room,  be  ascended  by  outside  stone 
stairs,  they  should  be  fumished  with  plain  |-inch  iron  railing,  carried  around  the  outer  edge 
of  the  steps  and  platform,  with  a  hard-wood  hand-rail,  or  be  inclosed  with  |-inch  deal  linbg, 
the  whole  hight  above  the  steps,  and  properly  framed. 

(154.)  The  interior  of  the  hen-house  should  be  fitted  up  with  rough  |-inch  deal  shelves 
and  divisions,  and  roosting-trees  3  inches  deep  by  2  inches  broad. 

(155.)  The  doors  of  the  hen-house  should  be  of  l:|-inch  deal,  beaded,  grooved  and  tongued. 

(156.)  Wooden  ventilators  should  be  placed  upon  the  roof  above  every  alternate  pair  of 
horses  and  cattle,  of  the  form  and  dimensions  of  fig.  8,  p.  95  ;  or  they  may  consist  of  |-iuch 
deal,  6  inches  square,  in  an  opening  above  every  alternate  stall,  and  fumished  on  the  upper 
part  above  the  roof,  with  bent  tubes  of  lead,  6  lbs.  to  the  square  foot,  or  with  zinc  ones  of 
the  same  dimensions.  The  zinc  ventilators  vary  in  price,  according  to  size,  from  4s.  to  7s.  each. 
(235J 


J40  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


(157.)  The  ceilings  of  the  stables,  boilina-house,  pranaries.  where  tile  are  used  for  roofmg, 
wool-room,  and  ht•u-^loui«.  should  be  lalked  wiUi  Baltic  split-lath  3-16  of  an  inch  m  thick- 
ness. •'  Laths  are  sold  bv  the  bundle,  w  hich  is  generally  called  a  hundred ;  but  7  score,  or 
140,  are  computed  iu  the'lOO  for  3-leet  latlis :  6  score,  or  120,  in  such  as  are  4  feet ;  and  for 
those  which  are  denominated  5  feet,  the  common  100,  or  5  score.'"  Lath  is  also  made  of 
home  wood,  usuallv  Scots  fir.  sawn  up  into  |-ir.ch  plank,  and  split  irregularly  with  the  ax. 
and,  when  naileil  nil,  the  splits  are  kept  open  bv  means  of  a  wedge.  The  dnty  on  foreign 
lath-wood  is  from  £4  5s.  to  £3  128.  and  on  that  from  the  colonies  from  15s.  to  25s.  on  the 
bulk  of  G  feet  w  ide  bv  6  feet  liigli,  according  to  the  length  of  the  timber. 

(158.)  The  riding-horse  stable  should  have  xaddle-brackefg  of  3-mch  deal,  firmly  support- 
ed, and  two  plus  let  into  rails  i,  inches  wide  and  1^  inches  tliick.  for  each  horse.'  The  work- 
horse stable  should  have  two  similar  rails,  with  large  and  small  pins  for  each  horse. 

(159.)  Even.-  court  and  liaimnel  should  be  provided  with  a  gate,  the  forms  and  dimen- 
sions of  which  i  will  afterward  give,  when  I  come  to  speak  of  the  subject  of  gates  m  general, 
iu  spring. 

(160.)  The  entrance  to  the  piggeries  should  be  fiimished  with  doors  of  1-inch  deal,  of  two 
thicknesses.  cro.'«ed.  as  represented  iu  fig.  23,  p.  114. 

(161.)  All  the  varieties  oi  Jir  timber  imported  into  the  coontr)-  are  employed  in  the  build- 
ing of-steadings.  and  those  kmds  are  most  used  iu  localities  which  are  obtained  from  the 
nearest  sea-ports.  For  example,  along  the  cast  coast  of  this  countrj-  ^Iemel  logs  and  Baltic 
battens  are  used  for  all  nmgh  purposes,  while  on  the  west  coast  no  timber  is  to  be  seen  in 
the  construction  of  steadings  but  what  is  brought  fiom  America.  1.  Norway  aud  St.  Pe- 
tersburg battens  being  cut  to  proper  lengths  aud  breadths,  form  cheap  aud  ver}-  durable 
timber  for  all  faiiu  purposes.  The  price  is,  tor  red  from  3d.  to  3^d.,  for  white  from  2|d.  to 
3d.  the  lineal  foot.  The  Norway  battens  are  a  shade  cheaper.  The  red  or  vvhite-wood  bat- 
tens make  excellent  floors,  and  plain  deal  doors  for  inside  use.  Such  flooring  is  beautifully 
dressed  by  planing  machinery  at  Mr.  Burstall's  mills  at  Leith.  2.  Memel  logs  are  admira- 
bly fitted  for  joisting,  windows,  outside  doors,  aud  all  outside  work,  it  being  composed  of 
strong  and  durable  fibre,  surrounded  with  resinous  matter.  It  sells  for  from  2s.  4d.  to  2s.  6d. 
the  cubic  foot-  The  greatest  objection  to  its  use  for  small  purposes  is  its  knottiuess,  on 
which  account  the  Norway  battens  make  handier  small  scantlings  and  cleaner  door-work. 
3.  The  American  red-pine  is  excellent  timber,  being  clean,  reedy,  and  resinous.  It  is  sel- 
dom or  never  of  so  large  dimensions  as  Memel  log.  It  fetches  from  2s.  to  2s.  2d.  the  cubic 
foot.  It  is  fitted  for  beams,  joists,  scandiums,  windows,  and  outside  doors.  4.  American  yel- 
low-pine is  well  suited  to  all  inside  work,  aud  esf>ecially  that  which  requires  the  highest 
finish,  8uch  as  boimd-doors,  window-fittings,  aud  mantel-pieces.  There  is  no  wood  that  re- 
ceives jtaint  so  well.  The  logs  are  generally  of  immense  sizes,  aflfording  great  economy  of 
timber  iu  cutting  them  up.  Its  price  is,  lor  small  sizes  Is.  8d.  and  for  large  28.  3d.  the  cubic 
foot.  5.  Swedish  11-inch  plank  is  good  and  useful  timber,  but  its  scantlings  are  not  very 
suitable  for  fann-buildiugs.  I  have  seen  stout  joists  for  granaries  made  of  it,  with  a  |  draught 
taken  oflf  the  side  for  sarking.  It  forms  excellent  planking  for  wheeling  upon,  and  for  gang- 
ways.    It  sells,  the  white-wood  for  from  5d.  to  6d.  and  the  red  from  6d.  to  7d.  the  lineal  foot. 

(162.)  In  the  interior  of  the  countr}-,  at  a  distance  from  sea-ports,  home  timber  is  much 
tised  in  farm  buildings.  Larch  forms  good  scanUiugs  and  joists,  ai'd  Ls  a  durable  timber  for 
rough  work,  and  so  does  well  grown  Scots  fir  of  good  age,  and  cut  down  in  the  proper  sea- 
eon  ;  but  its  durability  is  not  equal  to  larch,  or  generally  any  good  foreign  timber  for  rough 
purposes,  t 

(163.)  All  tlie  timber  I  have  referred  to  is  derived  from  the  trees  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  of  Conifera,  or  cone-bearing  trees.  1.  The  Scots  fir,  Pinus  sylvestris,  is  a  well  known 
tree  in  the  forests  of  this  countr)-,  and  few  new  plantations  are  made  without  its  aid,  as  a 
nurse  for  hard-wood  trees.  In  favorable  situations  it  grows  to  a  large  size,  as  is  evidenced  in 
the  Memel  log,  which  is  just  the  produce  of  the  Scots  fir  fi-om  the  forests  of  Lithuania.  I 
have  seen  Scots  fir  cut  down  at  Ardovie,  in  Forfarshire,  of  as  good  qualitj-  and  useful  sizes 
as  the  best  Memel.  2.  The  Swedish  plank  is  of  the  spruce,  Abies  excelsa,  or  communis^-^ 
tree  which,  as  it  is  treated  in  this  countn.-,  comes  to  little  value,  being  rough  and  full  of  knots. 
Inspection  of  a  cargo  from  Sweden,  which  arrived  at  Hull  in  1808,  convinced  Mr.  Pontey 
that  the  white  deal,  which  fetched  at  that  time  from  £14  to  £15  lOs.  the  load  of  50  cubic 
feet,  was  of  common  spruce,  the  planks  having  been  recentiy  sawn,  and  a  small  branch  left 
attached  to  one  of  thein.t  3.  Whether  the  Norway  pine  is  the  same  species  as  the  pine 
found  in  some  of  the  forests  of  the  north  of  Scotland,  I  do  not  know.  I  observe  that  some 
writers  speak  of  the  Norway  batten  as  of  the  Norway  spruce,  called  by  them  Pinus  Abie*. 

*  McCuUoch'i  Dictionary  of  Commerce,  wt.  Latk. 

t  Id  toL  ix.  p.  165,  of  the  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  AgricaUural  Society,  you  will  find  a  long  ae. 
count  of  the  Larch  Plantations  of  AthoU,  drawn  up  by  me  from  ine  papers  of  the  late  Duke  of  AihcU ;  and 
in  voL  xii  p.  122,  of  the  same  work,  is  an  account  of  the  native  pine  foresu  of  the  north  of  Scotland,  by  Mr 
John  Grigor,  Forres. 

X  Pontey's  Profitable  Planter,  p.  41,  4th  edition,  1814  ;  and  at  p.  56  he  relates  an  anecdote  of  a  person  who, 
though  lone  accustomed  to  attend  on  sawyers,  was  deceived  by  some  Scou  fir.  which  he  considered  excel 
lent  foreign  plank. 
(236) 


u 


THE   STEADING   OR   FARMSTEAD.  141 

It  may  be  that  the  white-wood  battens  are  derived  from  that  tree ;  but  the  red-wood  kind 
has,  very  probably,  the  same  origin  as  the  red-wood  of  the  north  of  Scotland,  which  is  from 
a  variety  of  the  Firms  sylvestris,  or  horizontalis  of  Don.*  5.  The  red  pine  of  Canada  is  the 
Pinus  resinosa.  6.  And  the  yellow  pine  is  the  Pinus  variabilis  or  Pinus  mitis  of  Michaux, 
which  towers  in  lofty  hight  far  above  its  compeers.  It  grows  to  the  gigantic  hight  of  150 
feet,  and  must  require  great  labor  to  square  it  to  the  sizes  foimd  in  the  British  market,  large 
as  these  sizes  unquestionably  are.  7.  The  larch,  Larix  curofaa,  is  a  native  of  the  ravines 
of  the  Alps  of  the  Tyrol  and  Switzerland,  where  it  shoots  up,  as  straight  as  a  rush,  to  a  great 

(164.)  In  regard  to  the  composition  of  wood,  and  its  chemical  properties,  "  It  is  consideretl 
by  chemists  that-  dry  timber  consists,  on  an  average,  of  90  parts  of  fibrous  and  4  of  soluble 
matter  in  100  ;  but  that  their  proportions  vary  somewhat  with  the  seasons,  the  soils,  and  the 
plant.  All  kuids  of  wood  sink  in  water  when  placed  in  a  basin  of  it  under  the  exhausted 
receiver  of  an  air-pump,  showing  their  specific  gravity  to  be  greater  than  1,000,"  and  vary- 
ing from  1.46  (pine)  to  1.53  (oak).  ..."  Wood  becomes  snow-white  when  exposed 
to  the  action  of  chlorine ;  digested  with  sulphuric  acid,  it  is  transformed  first  into  gum,  and, 

by  ebullition  with  water,  afterward  into  grape  sugar Authenreith  stated,  some 

years  ago,  that  he  found  that  fine  sawdust,  mixed  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  wheat  flour, 
made  a  cohesive  dough  with  water,  which  fonned  an  excellent  food  for  pigs — apparently 
showing  that  the  digestive  organs  of  this  animal  could  operate  the  same  sort  of  change  upon 

wood  as  sulphuric  acid  does The  composition  of  wood  has  been  examined  by 

Messrs.  Gay-Lussac  and  Thenard,  and  Dr.  Prout.  According  to  Dr.  Prout,  the  oxygen  and 
hydrogen  are  in  the  exact  proportions  to  form  pure  water ;  accordmg  to  the  others,  the  hy- 
drogen is  in  excess. "t 

(165.)  "  When  minutely  divided  fragments  of  a  trunk  or  branch  of  a  tree,"  as  M.  Raspail 
observes,  "'  have  been  treated  by  cold  or  boihng  water,  alcohol,  ether,  diluted  acids  and  alka- 
lies, there  remains  a  spongy  substance,  of  a  snow-white  color  when  pure,  which  none  of  these 
reagents  have  acted  on,  while  they  have  removed  the  soluble  substances  that  were  associated 
with  it.  It  is  this  that  has  been  called  woody-matter,  a  substance  which  possesses  aU  the 
physical  and  chemical  properties  of  cotton,  of  the  fibre  of  flax,  or  of  hemp." 

(166.)  "  On  observing  tliis  vegetable  cajnit  mortuum  with  the  microscope,  it  is  perceived 
to  be  altogether  composed  of  the  cells  or  vessels  which  formed  the  basis  or  skeleton  of  the 
living  organs  of  the  vegetable.  They  are  either  cells  which,  by  pressing  against  each  other, 
give  rise  to  a  net-work  with  pentagonal  or  hexagonal  meshes  ;  or  cells  with  square  surfaces  ; 
or  else  tubes  of  greater  or  less  length,  more  or  less  flattened  or  contracted  by  drying — some- 
times free  and  isolated,  at  other  times  agglomerated  and  connected  to  each  other  by  a  tissue 
of  elongated,  flattened,  and  equilateral  "cells ;  or,  lastly,  tubes  of  indefinite  length,  each  con- 
taining within  it  another  tube  formed  of  a  single  filament  spirally  rolled  up  against  its  sides, 
and  capable  of  beuig  unrolled  imder  the  eye  of  the  observer,  simply  by  tearing  the  tube 
which  serves  to  support  it.  We  find  the  first  in  all  young  organs,  in  annual  and  tender 
stems,  in  the  pith  of  those  vegetables  that  have  a  pith,  and  always  in  that  of  the  monocot}'le- 
dons.  It  is  in  similar  cells  that  the  fecTila  is  contained  in  the  potate.  The  second  is  met 
with  in  all  the  tnaiks  and  woody  branches  of  trees.  The  tubes  and  the  spirals  (trachea) 
are  found  in  all  the  phanerogamous  plants.  These  are  the  organs  which  constiUite  the  fibre 
of  hemp,  of  flax,  &c." 

(107.)  "  Experiment  in  accordance  with  the  testimony  of  history,  proves  that,  if  excluded 
from  the  contact  of  moist  air,  woody  matter,  like  most  of  the  other  organized  substances, 
may  be  presers-ed  for  an  indefinite  period."  The  plants  found  in  coal  mines,  the  wood, 
hnen  cloths,  bandages,  and  herbs  and  seeds  found  in  the  coffins  of  Egyptian  mummies,  have 
all  their  characters  undecayed,  and  yet  these  tombs  are  in  many  cases  nearly  3000  yeais  old. 
"  But,  if  the  woody  matter  be  not  protected  against  the  action  of  air  and  moisture,  the  case 
is  very  different.  By  degrees  its  hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  disengaged,  and  the  carbon  pre- 
dominates more  and  more.  Thus  the  particles  of  the  texture  are  disintegrated  gradually, 
their  white  color  fades,  and  passes  through  all  the  shades  till  it  becomes  jet-black  ;  and  if 
this  altered  woody  matter  be  exposed  to  heat,  it  is  carbonized  without  flame,  because  it 
does  not  contain  a  sufficient  quantity  of  hydrogen.  Observe,  also,  that  the  cells  of  woody 
matter  contain  different  sorts  of  substances  tending  to  organize,  and  that  these  are  mixed 
and  modified  in  many  different  ways."  ..."  Woody  matter,  such  as  I  have  defined  it, 
being  formed  of  one  atom  of  carbon  and  one  atom  of  water,  as  soon  as  it  is  submitted  to  the  ac- 
tion of  a  somewhat  elevated  temperature,  laithout  the  contact  of  air,  experiences  an  inter- 
nal reaction,  which  tends  to  separate  the  atom  of  water  fi-om  the  atom  of  carbon.  The  wa- 
ter is  vaporized,  and  the  carbon  remains  in  the  form  of  a  black  and  granular  residue. "t 

(168.)  Now,  if  any  means  could  be  devised  by  which  the  substances  in  the  cells  of  woody 
matter  could  be  deprived  of  their  tendency  to  organize,  when  in  contact  with  common  air, 
wood  might  be  rendered  as  permanently  durable,  and  even  more  so,  than  the  gi-aius  of 
wheat  which  have  been  found  undecayed  in  Egyptian  mummies.     This  discovery  seems  to 

»  See  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  xi.  p.  530.  t  Ure's  Dictionary  of  the  Arte,  art.  fTood. 

X  Raspail's  Organic  Chemistry,  translated  by  Henderson,  pp.  141-164. 
(237) 


142  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


have  been  made  by  Mr.  Kyan.  In  contemplating  the  probability  of  the  use  of  home  tim- 
ber being  much  extended  in  llie  coiislnictioii  of  stcadinirs,  when  the  young  woods  at  present 
growing  shall  have  attained  their  full  growth,  it  nuiy  be  proper  that  the  growers  of  wood, 
and  the  farmers  on  the  estates  on  which  wo<xl  is  grf)wn,  be  made  aware  of  this  mode  of 
preventing  timber  being  affected  by  the  dr)-rot.  \\hat  the  true  cause  of  dr}-rot  is,  has 
never  yet  been  detennined,  but  it  frequently  shows  itself  by  a  species  of  mildew,  which 
covers  the  timber,  and  the  action  of  which  apparently  causes  the  wood  to  decay,  and  crum- 
ble down  into  powder.  The  mildew,  however,  is  neither  the  dry-rot  nor  its  cause,  but  ita 
effect.  It  is  distiuctlv  seen  by  the  microscope  to  be  a  fungus;  and  as  the  fungus  itself  is  so 
minute  as  to  require  the  aid  of  the  microscope  to  be  distinctly  seen,  its  seeds  may  be  sup- 
posed to  be  so  veiy  minute  as  to  be  taken  up  by  the  spongcoles  of  trees.  But  whatever 
may  be  the  cause  of  dr\-rot  in  timber,  there  is  not  a  doubt  now  of  the  fact,  after  years  of  suc- 
cessful experience,  that  the  process  discovered  by  Mr.  Kyan  of  simply  steeping  timber  in  a 
solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  bi-chloride  of  mercur)%  presenes  timber  from  dr\--rot. 

(169.)  The  principle  upon  wiiich  the  chemical  action  of  the  corrosive  sublimate  upon 
vegetable  matter,  preser>cs  tlie  timber  is  easily  explained.  All  plants  are  composed  of 
cellular  tissues,  whetlier  in  the  bark,  alburnum,  or  wood.  The  tissue  consists,  as  you  have 
seen,  of  various  shaped  cells  ;  and  although  they  may  not  pass  unintemiptedly  along  the 
whole  length  of  the  plant,  as  M.  de  Candolle  maintains,  yet  air,  water,  or  a  solution  of  any  . 
thing,  may  be  made  to  pass  through  the  cells  in  their  longitudinal  direction.  Experiments 
witli  the  air-pump  have  proved  tliis  beyond  dispute.  Those  cells,  and  particularly  those  of 
the  albiunuim.  contain  the  sap  of  the  tree,  which,  in  its  circulation,  reaches  the  leaves,  where 
its  water)-  particles  fly  off,  and  the  enlarging  matter  of  the  tree,  called  the  albumen,  remains. 
Albumen  is  the  nearest  approach  in  vegetables  to  animal  matter,  and  is,  therefore,  when  by 
any  namral  means  deprived  of  vitalit)',  \eij  liable  to  decomposition,  particularly  that  wliich 
is  coimected  with  the  albiunum,  or  sap-wood.  Now,  corrosive  sublimate  has  long  been 
known  to  preserve  animal  matter  from  decay,  being  used  to  presene  anatomical  prepara- 
tions ;  and  even  the  delicate  texture  of  the  brain  is  preser\ed  by  it  m  a  firm  state.  The 
an:do2Y  between  animal  and  \egetable  albumen  being  established,  there  seems  no  reason  to 
doubt  the  possibility  of  corrosive  sublimate  preseniug  both  substances  fix)m  decay  ;  and, 
accordingly,  the  experiments  of  Mr.  Kyan.  with  it,  on  albuminous  and  saccharine  solutions, 
have  confirmed  the  correctness  of  this  conjecture.  The  prior  experiments  of  Fourcroy,  and 
especially  those  of  Berzelius,  in  1813,  had  established  the  same  conclusions,  though  neither 
of  these  eminent  chemists  had  thought  of  their  practical  application  to  the  preservation  of 
timber.  Berzelius  found  tliat  the  addition  of  the  bi-chloride  (corrosive  sublimate)  to  an  al- 
buminous solution  produced  a  profo-ckloride  of  mercury  (calomel),  which  readily  combined 
with  albumen,  and  produced  an  insoluble  precipitate.  This  precipitate  fills  up  all  the  cel- 
lular interstices  of  the  wood,  and  becomes  as  hard  as  the  fibres."* 

(170.)  Even  after  timber  has  been  subjected  to  this  process,  it  is  requisite  to  give  the  air 
free  access  to  it  by  means  of  ventilation,  and  for  that  purpose,  where  timber  is  covered  up, 
which  it  is  not  likely  to  be  in  a  steading,  small  openings,  covered  and  protected  by  cas^iron 
gratings  in  frames,  shoidd  be  made  tlu-ough  the  outside  walls. 

(171.)  With  regard  to  the  expense  of  this  process,  which  is  a  material  consideration  to 
those  who  have  large  quantities  of  timber  to  undergo  the  treatment,  it  costs  for  steeping  £1 
the  load  of  50  cubic  feet.  But  persons  having  tanks  for  their  own  use  only,  and  not  for  the 
puq)osc8  of  trade,  pay  5s.  for  each  cubic  foot  of  the  internal  ;on tents  of  the  tank.  A  tank, 
fitted  up  to  steep  large  scantlings  and  logs,  costs  about  £50,  ad  the  process  may  cost  3d.  or 
less  the  cubic  foot  to  those  who  construct  a  tank  for  thcmsel  es. 

(172.)  Other  means  have  been  devised  for  preserving  timber  from  decay,  such  as  pyro- 
ligncous  acid,  derived  from  the  smoke  of  biu-ning  wood  ;  naphtha,  obtained  by  distillation 
of  coal-tar;  and  in  1839  a  patent  was  taken  out  by  Sir  WilUam  Burnett,  of  the  medical  de- 
partment of  the  Navy,  for  steeping  wood  in  a  solution  of  the  chloride  of  zinc  ;t  but  experi- 
ment has  not  yet  had  time  to  decide  whether  any  of  these  methods  possesses  any  superiority 
over  the  valuable  process  practiced  bv  Mr.  Kyan. 

(173.)  Tii"^  pine  tribe,  of  which  I  have  been  speaking  as  of  so  much  use  in  our  farm  build- 
ings, is  aliwj  highly  useful  in  the  arts.  It  is  from  the  Finns  .lylvcstris  and  the  Abies  cxceha 
that  tar  is  obtained  in  the  largest  quantities,  for  the  use  of  all  nations ;  and  it  is  a  substance 
which  is  of  great  utility  in  a  farm,  though  not  requisite  m  large  quantity.  The  tar  of  the 
north  of  Europe  is  of  a  nuich  superior  description  to  that  of  the  United  States.  It  is  ob- 
tained by  a  process  of  distillation,  which  consists  of  burning,  in  a  smothering  manner,  roots 
and  billets  of  fir-timber,  in  pits  formed  in  rising  ground  for  tlie  purpose,  and  covered  with 
turf. 

(174.)  The  quantity  of  tar  imported  into  this  countrj'  in  1837,  was  11,480  lasts,  of  12  bar- 
rels per  last,  each  barrel  containing  31^  gallons.  The  duty  is  15s.  per  last,  128.  upon  tar 
from  the  British  {wssessions,  and  28.  Gd.  per  cwt.  upon  Barbadocs  tar.  "  Tar  produced  or 
manufactured  in  Eiu-ope  is  not  to  be  imported  for  home  consumption,  except  in  British  ships, 


•  See  paper  by  me  on  this  Bubject  in  vol.  viii.  p.  385  of  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture, 
t  Repertory  of  Patent  Invenliond,  New  Series,  vol.  xii.  p.  346. 
(238; 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  143 


or  in  ships  of  the  country  of  which  it  is  the  produce,  or  from  which  it  is  imported,  iinder 
penalty  of  forfeiting  the  same,  and  £100  by  the  master  of  the  ship."* 

(175.)  Besides  tar,  most  of  the  pines  afford  one  or  other  of  the  turpentines.  Common  tur 
peutine  is  extracted  by  incision  from  the  Abies  excelsa  and  the  Pinus  sylvestris. 

(176.)  Of  the  specifications  of  f  lumber-work,  the  kind  of  work  done  after  the  carpentiy 
the  flanks  and  peands  should  be  covered  with  sheet-lead,  weighing  6  lbs.  to  the  square  foot, 
18  inches  broad.  The  ridges  should  be  covered  either  with  droved  angular  freestone  ridge- 
stones,  or  with  6-lb.  lead,  18  inches  broad,  supported  on  2^  inches  in  diameter  of  ridge-rolls 
of  wood.  Platforms  and  gutters  should  have  7-lb.  lead.  In  cisterns,  it  should  be  8-lb.  in 
the  bottom  and  6-lb.  in  the  sides.  Rain-water  spouts  of  4^  inches  in  breadth,  and  conductors 
of  2jJ  or  3  inches  diameter,  should  be  of  6-lb.  lead. 

(177.)  The  lead  of  commerce  is  derived  from  the  ore  galena,  which  is  a  siilphuret,  yield- 
ing about  87  per  cent,  of  lead  and  13  of  sulphur.  Galena  is  found  in  greatest  quantity  in 
tiansition  rocks,  and  of  these  the  blackish  ti'ansition  limestone  contains  the  largest.  The  ore 
is  more  frequent  in  irregular  beds  and  masses  than  in  veins.  The  galena  lead-mines  of  Der- 
byshire, Durham,  Cumberland,  and  Yorkshire,  are  situate  in  limestone,  while  those  of  tlie 
Leadhills,  in  Scotland,  are  in  graywacke.  Great  Britain  produces  the  greatest  quantity  of 
lead  of  any  country  in  the  world,  the  aimual  produce  being  about  32,000  tons,  of  which  the 
English  mines  supply  20,000.  The  rest  of  Europe  does  not  supply  50,000  tons.  The  ex- 
port of  lead  has  fallen  off  considerably,  and  its  price  has  experienced  a  corresponding  de- 
pression for  some  years  past,  on  account  of  the  gi'eatly  increased  production  of  tlie  lead-mines 
of  Adra  in  Granada,  in  Spain.! 

(178.)  As  zinc  has  been  substituted  in  some  cases  for  lead  in  the  covering  of  buildings, 
altiiough  sufficient  experience  has  not  yet  been  obtained  as  to  their  comparative  durability, 
it  may  be  proper  to  give  here  the  sizes  and  prices  of  covering  flanks,  peands  and  ridges  with 
zinc.  The  flanks  are  covered  vnth  zinc,  weighing  16  ounces  to  the  square  foot,  at  a  cost  of 
6.Jd.  the  square  foot.  The  peands  and  ridges  are  covered  vdth  12  inch  sheet  zinc,  weighing 
18  ounces  in  the  square  foot,  at  a  cost  of  7d.  the  square  foot.  The  zinc  covers  for  the  peands 
and  ridges  are  so  prepared  that  they  clasp  by  contraction,  and  thereby  hold  fast  by  the  wood- 
en ridge-rolls,  and  this  is  so  easily  done  that  any  mechanic  may  put  them  on.  Where  solder- 
ing is  required  in  zinc-work,  such  as  the  laying  on  of  platfonns  on  roofs,  the  cost  of  the  sheet 
of  18  ounces  to  the  square  foot  is  enhanced  to  9d.  the  square  foot.  Zinc  in  all  jobs  costs 
about  half  the  price  of  lead. 

(179.)  Zinc  is  not  very  suitable  for  gutters  and  platforms,  on  account  of  its  tliinness — the 
wood  below  warping  in  warm  weather,  and  tearing  up  the  sheets  of  zinc. 

(180.)  Zinc  is  an  ore  which  occurs  in  considerable  quantity  in  England.  It  is  found  in 
two  geological  localities,  in  the  mountain  limestone  and  in  the  magnesian  limestone.  It  oc- 
curs in  veins,  and  almost  always  associated  with  galena  or  lead-glance.  It  is  of  the  greatest 
abundance  in  the  shape  of  a  sulphuret  or  blende,  or  black-jack,  as  the  miners  call  it.  There 
is  also  a  siliceous  oxide  of  zinc,  and  a  carbonate,  both  called  calamine.  In  North  America, 
the  red  oxide  of  zinc  is  found  in  abundance  in  the  iron  mines  of  New-Jersey.  The  zuic  of 
commerce  is  derived,  in  this  country,  from  the  blende  and  calamine.  It  is  naturally  brittle, 
but  a  process  has  been  discovered  by  which  it  is  rendered  malleable,  and  it  retains  its  duc- 
tility ever  after.  It  is  this  assumed  ductility  which  renders  the  metal  usefid  for  domestic 
purposes.  "  It  is  extensively  employed  for  making  water-cisterns,  baths,  spouts,  pipes,  plates 
for  the  zincographer,  for  voltaic-  battei-ies,  filings  for  fire-works,  covering  roofs,  and  a  variety 
of  architectural  purposes,  especially  in  Berlin ;  because  this  metal,  after  it  gets  covered  with 
a  thin  film  of  oxide  or  carbonate,  suffers  no  farther  change  from  long  exposure  to  the  weather. 
One  capital  objection  to  zinc  as  a  i-oofing  material  is  its  combustibility."}: 

(181.)  The  most  malleable  zinc  is  derived  from  Upper  Silesia,  under  the  name  of  spelter, 
which  is  sent  by  inland  traffic  to  Hamburgh  and  Belgium,  where  it  is  shipped  for  this  coun- 
try. The  quantity  imported  in  1831  was  76,413  cwt.  and  in  1836  it  had  fallen  off"  to  47,406 
cwt.  A  considerable  portion  of  these  quantities  was  exported  to  India  and  China,  amoimt- 
ing,  in  1831,  to  62,684  cwt.  The  duty  is  £2  a  ton  on  what  is  formed  into  cakes,  and  lOs. 
per  cwt.  on  what  is  not  in  cakes.  || 

(182.)  The  slater-work  is  then  executed.  Of  its  specifications,  if  blue  slates  are  to  be  em- 
ployed, they  should  be  selected  of  large  sizes,  well  squared,  and  have  an  overlap  off,  grad- 
ually diminishing  to  the  ridge,  and  well  bedded  and  shouldered  with  plaster-lime.  "The 
slates  are  fastened  to  the  sarking  with  malleable  iron  nails,  weighing  15  lbs.  to  the  1000,  after 
being  steeped  when  heated  in  linseed  oil.  These  nails  cost  3s.  4d.  the  1000,  1300  being  re- 
quired for  a  rood  of  36  square  yards.  Cast-iron  nails  were  used  for  slating  until  a  very  few 
years  ago,  and  which  were  also  boiled  in  oil. 

(183.)  Slating  is  performed  by  the  rood,  and  from  1000  to  1200  blue  slates  should  cover  a 
rood.     The  cost  of  the  slates,  in  towns,  including  carriage,  and  putting  them  on  with  nails,   ■ 
is  £4  4s.  the  rood. 


*  McCuUoch'g  Dicrionary  of  Commerce,  art.  Tar. 

t  See  Ure'a  Dictionary  of  the  Arts,  and  McCulloch's  Dictionary  of  Commerce,  arte.  Ijcad. 
X  Ure's  Dictionary  of  the  Arte,  art.  Zinc.  \\  McCulloch's  Dictionai-y  of  Commerce,  art.  Zinc. 

(239) 


144  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

(184.)  Blue  slate  is  derived  from  the  primitive  rock  clay-slate.  It  (Kcurs  in  large  quanti- 
ties thmufjh  the  mountainous  part*  of  the  kingdom.  Gtx)d  slate  should  not  absorb  water,  and 
it  should  be  so  compact  as  to  resist  the  action  of  the  atmosphere.  When  it  imbibes  moisture, 
it  becomes  covered  with  moss,  and  then  rapidly  decays. 

(185.)  The  j)rincipal  blue  slate  ouarries  in  Great  BriUiin  are  in  Wales,  Lancashire,  West- 
moreland, Cumberland,  Argyle,  ana  Terthshires.  The  most  extensive  quarry  is  in  Caernar- 
vonshire, in  Wides,  near  the  town  of  Bangor,  on  the  Penrhyn  estate.  It  employs  1500  men 
and  boys.  The  Welsh  slate  is  very  large" and  smooth,  and  much  of  it  is  fit  for  putting  into 
frames  hr  writing-slates.  When  used  very  large,  l)eing  thin,  it  is  apt  to  warp  on  change  of 
temperature.  Tlie  English  slates  at  Ulverstone,  in  LancashiiT,  and  in  the  counties  of  West- 
moreland and  Cumberland,  are  not  so  large  as  the  Welsh,  but  equally  smooth  and  good.— 
The  Easdale  slates,  in  Argj-leshire,  are  small,  thick,  waved  on  the  surface,  and  contain  many 
cubical  crystals  of  iron-pyrites,  but  its  durability  is  endless.  Being  a  small  and  heavy  slate, 
it  requires  a  stout  roofing  of  timber  to  supjwrt  it.  The  Ballihulish  slates  are  rather  smoother 
and  li'hter  than  the  Ea.sdiile,  though  also  small,  and  containing  numerous  crystals  of  iron- 
pyrites,  and  is  equally  durable.  The  slates  in  Perthshire  are  of  uiferior  qTiality  to  either  of 
these.  "  The  ardesia  of  Easdale,"  says  Professor  Jameson,  "  was  first  quarried  about  100 
years  ago ;  but  was  for  a  long  time  of  little  imjwrtance,  as  sandstone  flags  and  tiles  were  gen- 
erally used  for  roofing  houses.  As  tlie  use  of  slates  became  more  prevalent,  the  quarries 
were  enlarged,  so  that  5,000,000  slates  are  annually  shipped  from  this  island.  The  number 
of  workmen  is  at  present  (in  1800)  about  300,  and  they  are  divided  into  quarriers  and  day- 
laborers.  The  quarriers  are  paid  annually  at  a  certain  rate  for  every  1000  slates,  from  lOd. 
to  15d.  I  believe,  as  their  work  has  been  attended  with  more  or  less  ditficulty.  The  day- 
laborers  are  employed  in  opening  new  quanies,  and  have  from  lOd.  to  Is.  a  day."* 

(186.)  Slates  are  assorted  into  sizes  at  the  quarry.  The  sizes  at  Bangor  vary  from  36 
inches  in  length  to  5^  inches  in  breadth.  Their  weight  vai'ies  from  82  to  12  cwt.  the  1000, 
and  the  prices  from  140s.  to  lOs.  the  1000  for  the  smaller,  and  from  55s.  to  35s.  the  ton  for 
the  larger  sizes. 

(187.)  Cisterns,  with  sidea  and  ends  1  inch  thick,  Is.  lOd.  the  cubic  foot  contents. 

li         "         28.  2d. 
(188.)  The  export  of  slates  from  England  to  foreign  ports  has  increased  from  2,741  tons  in 
1828,  to  6,061  Ions  in  1832.     That  of  framed  slates  has  decreased  in  number,  in  the  same  pe- 
riod, from  37,034  to  15,420. 

(189.)  The  shipping  expenses  of  slates  at  Bangor  are  6d.  the  ton,  and  bills  of  lading 
38.  6d.t 

(190.)  When  the  roof  is  to  be  covered  with  Hie,  it  should  be  laid  with  lath  1|  inches 
square  to  a  gauge  of  10  or  11  inches.  There  should  be  3  or  4  courses  of  slates  along  all  the 
eaves.  The  flanks,  peands  and  ridges  should  be  covered  with  tile.  The  whole  under  joints 
of  the  tiling  should  be  pointed  with  plaster-lime. 

(191.)  Tiling  is  executed  by  the  rood  of  36  square  yards ;  and,  as  pan-tiles  are  obliged  xt 
be  made  of  a  certain  size,  namely,  13^  inches  long,  9^  inches  wide,  and  ^  inch  thick,  by  17  th 
Geo.  III.  c.  42,  under  a  penalty  of  10s.  for  every  1000,  a  rood  will  just  contain  576  tiles. — 
Tiles  should  be  smooth  on  the  surface,  compact,  and  ring  freely  when  struck,  when  they  will 
resist  water.  When  they  imbibe  moisture  by  porosity,  they  soon  decay  in  winter  by  the  ef- 
fects of  rain  and  frost. 

(192.)  There  were,  in  1830,  5,369  brick  and  tile  manufacturers  in  England  and  Wales,  and 
104  in  Scotland,  and  must  have  greatly  increased  since. 

(193.)  The  duty  on  tiles  was  abolished  in  1833,  the  revenue  derived  from  that  source  be- 
ing very  trifling.  The  duty  on  foreign  pan-tiles  is  £  15  the  1000.  The  export  of  tiles  is  in- 
considerable, not  having  exceeded,  in  1830,  803,742.1 

(194.)  Gray-slates  require  the  roof  to  be  latlied  in  the  same  manner  as  tile,  but,  not  being 
of  an  uniform  size  like  tile,  they  are  assorted  to  sizes  in  the  quarry.  The  larger  and  heavier 
slates  are  put  next  the  eaves,  and  gradually  diminish  in  size  to  the  ridge.  The  course  at  the 
eaves  is  laid  double,  slate  above  slate.  Ever)'  slate  is  hung  upon  the  lath  by  a  wooden  pin 
being  passed  through  a  hole  at  the  upper  end,  and,  on  being  laid  on,  the  slates  are  made  to 
overlap  i.t  least  J.  Gray-slates  should  either  be  bedded  and  shouldered  in  plaster-lime,  or 
laid  on  moss,  the  latter  making  the  warmer  roof. 

(195.)  Gray-slates  are  pretty  smooth  on  the  surface,  and,  when  so  compact  in  texture  as 
to  resist  moisture,  fonn  a  durable  though  very  heavy  roof. 

(196.)  The  flanks  are  made  of  slate,  but  the  ridge  is  covered  with  droved  angular  ridge- 
stone  of  freestone.  As  tliis  species  of  roofing  is  not  adapted  to  pavilion  roots,  the  peands 
should  be  covered  with  lead,  but  the  safest  form  of  roof  with  gray-slates  is  with  upright  ga- 
bles. 

(197.)  The  cost  of  gray-slating  depends  on  the  locality  where  it  is  washed  to  be  done.  At 
Edinburgh  it  costs  £6  a  rood;  whereas  in  Forfarshire,  the  matrix  of  the  grap-slate,  it  can  be 
done,  exclusive  of  carriage,  for  £2  103.  the  rood.     In   Forfarshire  the  slates  cost  £4  per 

*  Jameson's  Mineralogy  of  the  ScoUish  Isles,  vol.  i.  p.  195. 

\  McCiilloch's  Dictionary  of  Commerce,  art.  Slater.  t  ^i^-  ^i^-  Bricks  and  TiUt. 

(240) 


THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  145 

per  1 .000 ;  360  are  required  for  a  rood ;  the  putting  them  on,  including  dressing,  holiii", 
pins  for  the  slates,  and  nails  for  the  laths,  costs  only  15s. ;  and  with  moss  for  bedding  Is., 
and  lime  for  teething  3s.,  22s.  the  rood.  The  droved  angular  freestone  ridging-stone,  includ- 
ing can-iage,  costs  6d.  a  lineal  foot,  or  10s.  the  rood. 

(198.)  Gray -slates  are  obtained  in  best  quality  from  gray  slaty  inferior  sandstone  belong- 
ing to  the  old  red  sandstone  series.  They  are  derived  from  the  same  quarries  as  the  far- 
famed  Arbroath  pavement,  being,  in  fact,  fonned  by  the  action  of  frost  on  pavement,  set  on 
edge  for  the  purpose.  A  mild  winter  is  thus  unfavorable  to  the  making  of  slates.  From 
Carmylie  to  Forfar,  in  Forfarshire,  is  the  great  field  for  the  supply  of  gi-ay-slates ;  and  as 
blue-slates  can  only  be  obtained  there  by  sea  and  long  land  carriage,  and  there  is  little  clay 
fit  for  tiles,  they  constitute  the  chief  roofing  of  cottages  and  small  farm-houses  in  that  part  of 
the  country,  their  aspect  bemg  cold  and  unpicturesque,  though  snug  enough. 

(199.)  Of  all  sorts  of  slating,  there  is  none  equal  to  blue-slate  for  appearance,  comfort,  and 
even  economy  in  the  long  run.  When  a  blue-slate  roof  is  well  executed  at  first,  ^vith  good 
materials,  it  will  last  a  very  long  time.  Tile  I'oofs  are  constantly  requiring  repairs,  and  the 
employment  of  gray-slate  is  a  sacrifice  of,  and  a  burden  upon,  timber.  Of  the  blue-slate  the 
Welsh  give  the  cheapest  roofing,  being  larger  and  much  lighter  than  Scotch  or  English  slates. 

(200.)  As  the  plasfer-work  of  a  steading  does  not  require  to  be  of  an  ornamental  nature, 
its  specifications  should  be  simple.  The  ceilings  of  the  riding-horse  stable,  boiling-house, 
wool-room,  hen-house,  and  granaries,  when  tile-roofing  is  employed,  should  be  finished  wnih 
two  coats  of  the  best  haired  plaster,  hard  rubbed  in.  The  walls  of  the  granaries,  coni-bam, 
work -horse  stable,  cow-byre,  boUmg-house,  calves'-house,  wool-room,  gig-house,  and  hen- 
house, should  be  finished  with  one  coat,  hard  rubbed  in.  The  walls  of  the  riding-horse  sta- 
ble should  have  tlu^ee  coats,  hard  rubbed  ui.  Plaster-work  is  measured  by  the  square  yard, 
and  costs  for  one  coat  3d.,  for  two  coats  from  4d.  to  4id.,  and  for  three  coats  from  5d.  to  6d. 
the  square  yard. 

(201.)  It  is  necessary  to  say  something  regarding  the  specifications  of  smith-work,  although 
there  is  not  much  of  this  kind  of  work  required  in  a  steading.  AU  the  outside  doors,  in- 
cluding those  on  the  feeding-holes  at  the  byre,  should  be  hung  with  crooks  and  bands  ;  the 
crooks  should  be  fastened  into  the  ingoings  of  the  ribets  with  melted  lead.  The  larger 
crooks  and  bands  cost  10s.  and  the  smaller  5s.  the  pair.  The  inside  doors  should  be  hung 
with  T  hinges,  18  inches  long,  and  the  opening  parts  of  the  windows  with  9-inch  T  hinges. 
The  foimer  are  Is.  and  the  latter  9d.  a  pair.  The  outside  doors  should  have  good  10-uich 
Btock-aud-plate  locks,  which  cost  2s.  6d.  each,  except  where  there  are  more  than  one  out- 
side door  to  the  same  apartment,  in  which  case  all  the  doors  but  one  can  be  fastened  by 
bars  from  the  inside.  The  inside  doors  should  have  the  same  sort  of  locks  ;  the  common 
stock-lock,  which  cost  Is.  6d.  each,  not  being  worthy  of  commendation.  Thumb-latches  are 
convenient  for  opening  and  keeping  shut  doors  that  do  not  require  to  be  constantly  locked, 
such  as  the  doors  of  the  corn-bani,  granary,  boiling-house,  cow-byre,  and  hen-house.  These 
latches  cost  from  5d.  to  7d.  each.  A  wooden  bar  of  hard  wood,  to  open  and  shut  fi-om  both 
sides,  is  a  convenient  mode  of  fastening  inside  doors.  The  upper  bam-door,  of  two  vertical 
leaves,  requires  an  iron  stay-band  to  fasten  it  with.  The  doors  of  the  riding-horse  and  work- 
horse stables  should  be  pro\-ided  with  sunk  flush  ring-handles  and  thumb-latches,  to  be  out 
of  the  way  of  catching  any  part  of  the  harness.  The  mangers  of  the  riding-horse  stable, 
and  the  upper  rail  of  the  hay-rack  of  the  work -horse  stable,  should  be  provided  with  rings 
and  staples  for  the  stall-collar  shanks  to  pass  through.     These  cost  Id.  each. 

(202.)  Various  descriptions  of  nails  are  used  for  the  different  parts  of  work  in  a  steading. 
The  scantlings  of  the  roofs  are  fastened  together  with  double-doubles,  which  cost  5s.  per 
1,000.  Deals  of  floors  are  fastened  downi  wth  flooi-ing-nails,  16-lb.  weight,  and  4s.  6d  per 
1,000.  The  bars  of  the  plain-deal  doors  are  put  on  with  10-lb.  nails,  which  cost  3s.  6d.  the 
1,000.  For  fiuishmg,  single-flooring  nails  at  2s.  6d.,  and  2-inch  springs  at  23.  to  2s.  3d.  the 
]  ,000  are  used. 

(203.)  As  a  secui-ity  agauist  robbery,  iron  stancheons,  J  inch  in  diameter,  should  be  fixed 
on  the  outside  of  the  low  windows  of  the  cora-bam  and  implement>-house.  Such  stancheons 
cost  3d.  per  pound. 

(204.)  Iron  is  chiefly  found  among  the  members  of  the  coal  formation,  in  bands  composed 
of  nodules,  v^^hich  are  called  compact  clay -ironstone,  a  carbonate  of  iron.  It  is  abundant  in 
the  west  of  Scotland  and  in  South  Wales.  Its  amiual  worked  production  is  probably  not 
less  than  1,000,000  tons.* 

(205.)  The  windows  of  all  the  apartments  should  be  g'Za^ei  with  best  2d  crown-glass, 
fastened  in  with  fine  putty.     Glazing  is  executed  for  2s.  the  square  foot. 

(206.)  A  skylight  in  blue  slating  is  made  of  a  frame  fastened  to  the  sarking.  In  the  roof- 
ing, tiles  are  made  on  purpose  to  hold  a  pane  of  glass.  In  gray-slating,  a  hole  is  made  in 
the  slate  to  suit  the  size  of  the  pane.  A  dead  skylight  of  zuic,  to  answer  any  kind  of  roof- 
ing, costs  4s. 

(207.)  There  is  a  duty  of  73s.  6d.  the  cwt.  on  good  window,  and  30s.  on  broad  or  inferior 
window-glass,  which  is  returned  in  drawback  on  expoitation  to  foreign  couuuies.      When 

*  Ure's  Dictionary  of  the  Arts,  art.  Iron. 
'289) lO 


146  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

pla«s  intended  for  exportiition  is  cut  into  panes,  it  must  be  in  panes  of  less  than  8  incnes  in 
\h      lie  to  enable  it  to  claim  the  drawback. 

t^i.)  J.)  Ghiss  of  small  sizes,  though  of  good  quality,  such  as  is  fit  for  glazing  hot-houses  and 
forcing-frames,  costs  only  from  8d.  to  lOd.  the  square  foot ;  while  in  ordinary  sized  panes  it 
cosU  Is.  3d.,  and  in  still  larger  sizes  it  is  charged  Is.  6d.  the  square  foot.  I  am  not  sure  but 
the  sort  fit  for  hot-houses  would  answer  the  purpose  of  glazing  the  windows  of  a  steading. 

(209.)  "  The  reseiu-ches  of  Berzelius  having  removed  all  doubts  concerning  the  acid 
character  of  sihca,  tlie  general  composition  of  glass  presents  now  no  difficulty  of  conception. 
Tliis  substance  consists  of  one  or  more  salts,  which  are  silicates  with  bases  of  pota.«h,  soda, 
lime,  oxide  of  iron,  alumina,  or  oxide  of  lead ;  in  any  of  which  compounds  we  can  substi- 
tute one  of  these  bases  for  another,  provided  that  one  alkaline  baiie  be  left.  Silica,  in  its 
turn,  may  be  replaced  by  the  boracic  acid,  without  causing  the  glass  to  lose  its  principal 
characters."* 

(210.)  Riiin-water  spouts,  or  runs  as  they  are  technically  termed,  may  be  made  of  wood, 
cast-ii-ou,  lead,  or  zinc.  Wooden  ones  may  be  made  out  of  the  solid  or  in  slips  nailed  to- 
gether. When  made  out  of  the  solid,  with  iron  hold-fasts,  they  cost  Is.  and  when  pieced 
together  6d.  the  lineal  foot.  The  conductoi-s  from  both  kinds  cost  8d.  the  lineal  foot. 
Wooden  spouts  shoidd  be  pitched  inside  and  painted  outside.  Cast-iron  ones  are  heavy,  but 
they  cost  no  more  than  28.  a  yard  if  of  4^  inches  diameter,  and  the  ctjnductors,  of  from  2  to  4 
inches  diameter,  from  8s.  to  18s.,  of  9  feet  in  length  each.  Lead  makes  the  best  spout,  but 
it  is  very  expen-sive,  being  Is.  6d.  a  foot.  Zinc  ones,  on  the  other  hand,  are  very  light. 
Stout  4-inch  zinc  spouts  cost  9.^d.  the  foot,  and  a  2j|  pipe  as  ccAiductor,  T^d.  the  foot.  The 
lowest  part  of  this  pipe  is  made  strong  enough  to  resist  accidents.  Eveiy  sort  of  vvater-epout 
should  be  cleaned  at  least  once  a  year,  and  the  wooden  ones  would  be  the  better  for  an  an- 
nual coat  of  paint 

(211.)  The  outsides  of  all  the  outside  doors  and  windows,  all  the  gates  of  the  courts  and 
liammels,  and  the  water-troughs  in  the  various  coui-ts,  if  made  of  wood,  should  receive  three 
coats  of  good  paint.  Painting  costs  3d.  or  4d.  the  square  yard,  but  three  coats  can  be  done 
for  8d.  the  square  yard.  The  best  standing  colors,  and  they  hapjien  to  be  the  cheapest  too, 
are  gray,  stone,  or  slate-blue  ;  the  last  seems  to  be  most  commonly  preferred.  Green  is  dear 
and  soon  fades,  and  red  seems  veiy  distastefid  in  buildings.  But  the  truth  is,  that  white-lead 
and  oil  are  the  principal  ingredients  in  paint,  and  all  the  coloring  matter  has  no  power  to 
preserve  timber  from  the  effects  of  the  weather.  A  substance  called  litkic  paint  has  re- 
cently been  found  to  answer  well  for  coimtry  purposes.  The  lithic,  which  costs  ^^d.  per  lb. 
is  ground  to  powder,  and  mixed,  in  a  cei-tain  proportion,  with  cold  coal-tar,  and  the  mixture 
is  applied  with  a  brush.  This  paint  deprives  the  coal-tar  of  its  noxious  smell,  and  hardens  it 
into  a  durable  paint  in  a  few  days. 

(212.)  White  lead  of  commerce  is  a  carbonate  of  had,  or  ceruse,  as  it  is  called,  artificially 
formed  from  pure  lead.  It  has  long  been  made  with  great  success  at  Klagenfurth, 
in  Carintliia,  and  large  quantities  are  made  in  England.  The  compound  is  1  equivalent  of 
lead,  1  of  oxygen,  and  1  of  carbonic  acid ;  or  by  analysis,  of  lead  77-6,  oxygen  6.  and  car 
bonic  acid  16-4  in  100  parts.  White  lead,  when  it  enters  the  human  system,  occasions  dread- 
fill  maladies.  Its  emanations  cause  that  dangerous  disease  the  colica  pictonnm,  afterward 
paralysis,  or  premature  decrepitude  and  liugeiing  death.  All  paints  are  ground  into  fine 
powder  in  a  mill,  as  being  a  safer  plan  for  the  operator,  as  well  as  more  expeditious,  than  by 
tlie  hnnd.t 

(213.)  I  have  said  (81.).  (82.),  (83.),  that  when  the  building  of  a  steading  is  to  be  mea- 
sured, the  work  that  has  actually  been  executed  should  alone  be  measured,  and  no  alloio- 
ances,  as  they  are  called,  should  on  any  account  be  permitted  to  increase  the  amount  of  cost. 
The  correctness  of  this  rule  wiU  appear  obvious,  and  its  adoption  reasonable,  after  you  have 
learnt  the  sort  of  claims  for  allowances  made  bv  tradesmen  in  various  sorts  of  work. 

(214.)  In  the  first  place,  in  regard  to  masonry,  double  measure  is  claimed  on  all  circular 
work.  Claims  are  made  for  allowimce  on  all  levelings  for  joists,  bond-timbers,  and  wall- 
heads.  The  open  spaces  or  voids  left  in  the  walls  for  doors  and  windows,  are  claimed  to  be 
measured  along  with  rubble-work.  Girthing  around  the  external  walls  of  rubble-work  is 
claimed  in  measurement,  the  effect  of  which  is,  to  mefisure  the  square  pieces  of  building  in 
each  comer  tvvice  over.  Scontions  of  all  voids  are  claimed  to  be  measured  over  and  above 
ihe  nibble- work.  The  ashlar  for  the  hewn-work  is  first  measured  with  the  rubble,  and  then 
•t  is  claimed  to  be  measured  by  itself.  In  like  manner,  chimney-tops  are  first  measured  as 
rubble,  and  then  chiimed  to  be  measiu-ed  again  as  ashlar.  In  short,  wherever  any  sort  of 
mason-work  differs  from  the  character  of  the  general  work  under  the  contract,  allowances 
are  claimed. 

{2li).)  In  regard  to  carpentry,  the  claims  are  equally  absurd.  For  the  cuttings  connect- 
ed with  the  peands  and  flanks  of  roofs,  18  inches  of  extra  measurement  are  claimed.  The 
same  extent  is  claimed  for  angles  in  the  flooring,  and  in  all  such  unequal  work.  In  v\nndow- 
making  a  claim  is  made  for  3  inches  more  than  the  hight,  and  4  inches  more  than  the  width 
of  windows,  which  is  more  than  the  voids  ;    whereas  the  measurement  should  be  confined 

*  Ure'8  Dictionary  of  the  Arts,  art.  Glat».  t  Ibid.  arta.  White-had,  Paint. 

(290J 


THE   STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  147 

to  the  mere  daylight  afforded  by  the  windows.  In  many  instances  IJ,  and  even  double 
measure,  is  claimed  for  round  work,  according  to  its  thickness.  Where  plain  deal  is  cleaned 
on  both  sides,  such  as  the  under  part  of  the  floor  of  the  upper-barn,  which  forms  the  roof  of 
the  com-bam,  or  shelving,  1^  measure  is  claimed. 

(216.)  In  slating,  claims  are  made  on  the  making  of  peands  and  flanks,  from  18  inches  to 
3  feet  in  v^adth,  and  for  eaves,  from  12  inches  to  18  inches  in  width,  more  than  the  actual 
work  done.  For  all  circular  work,  siich  as  the  slating  of  a  round  horse-course  of  a  thresh- 
ing-machine, double  measure  is  claimed. 

(217.)  In  plaster-work,  double  measure  is  claimed  for  all  circular  work.  There  is  an  al- 
lowance made  in  plastering  which  is,  however,  quite  reasonable,  and  that  is,  in  the  case 
where  new  woi-k  is  joined  to  old,  an  allowance  of  one  foot  is  made  around  the  new  work, 
as  the  old  part  has  to  be  wetted  and  prepared  for  its  junction  vnth  the  new. 

(218.)  A  perusal  of  these  statements  naturally  suggests  the  question,  how  could  such 
claims  have  originated  ?  If  a  workman  execute  the  work  he  agi-eed  to  undertake,  and  gets 
payment  for  what  work  he  executes,  he  is  not  entitled  to  ask  more.  But  what  proves  an 
aggravation  of  such  demands  is,  that  modes  of  measurement  differ  in  different  counties — that 
different  allowances  are  made  on  different  kinds  of  work — and  that  those  allowances  differ 
in  different  counties.  So  it  appears  that  those  allowances  are  based  on  no  principle  of  equity 
But  it  may  be  urged  in  justification  of  these  allowances  that  the  prices  of  work,  as  usually 
estimated,  are  too  low  to  remunerate  the  conti-actor  for  his  labor,  and  that  allowances  are 
therefore  requisite  to  insure  him  against  loss.  To  this  specious  statement  it  may  be  replied 
by  asking,  why  should  any  hottest  conti-actor  estimate  work  at  such  rates  that  he  knows  will 
not  remunerate  him?  A  rogue  ^\^ll  do  so,  because  he  wishes  to  have  possession  of  a  job  at 
all  hazards,  in  order  to  make  up  his  foreseen  loss  by  exorbitant  claims  for  allowances.  If  em- 
ployers will  not  pay  sufficiently  for  good  work,  as  is  alleged  against  them,  and  perhaps  with 
truth,  let  them  understand  that  they  shall  receive  insufficient  work  as  an  equivalent  for 
their  stinted  money.  But  it  is  very  unfair  to  take  advantage  of  an  honorable  employer,  by 
capricious  and  absurd  allowances,  when  he  is  all  the  while  desirous  to  pay  his  workmen 
well  for  their  labor.  So  much  dependence  is  sometimes  placed  on  allowances  by  contract- 
ors, that  I  have  heard  of  a  case  where  a  surveyor  was  obliged  to  reduce  the  claims  matle 
against  a  single  steading,  to  the  extent  of  £800  !  Such  a  fraudulent  system  ought  to  be  en- 
tirely abohshed,  and  it  is  quite  in  the  power  of  those  who  employ  tradespeople  to  abolish  it 

(219.)  It  would  be  completely  abolished  were  contracts  to  contain  sti-iugent  clauses  pro- 
hibiting all  allowances  whatsoever  ;  and  to  consist  of  detailed  measurements,  and  specified 
prices  for  every  species  of  work  to  be  executed.  If  more  work  happens  to  be  executed 
than  was  expected,  its  value  can  easily  be  ascertamed  by  the  settled  measurements  and 
prices,  and  if  less,  the  contractor  is  still  paid  for  what  he  has  actually  executed.  Were  such 
a  form  of  contract  unifonnly  adopted,  proprietors  and  fanners  could  measure  the  work  done 
aa  well  as  any  sun-eyor,  whose  services  might,  in  that  case,  be  dispensed  with ;  but,  what 
would  be  still  better,  the  measiu-ements  of  the  surveyor  could  be  checked  by  the  proprietor 
or  the  tenant  if  either  chose  to  take  the  trouble  of  douig  it.  Where  any  pecuhar  kind  of 
work  is  desired  to  be  executed,  it  could  be  specified  in  a  separate  contract. 

(220.)  Having  thus  amply  considered  all  the  details  which  should  form  a  part  of  all  spe- 
cifications of  the  different  kinds  of  work  required  to  build  a  steading,  I  shall  now  give  the 
particulars  which  should  be  specified  in  all  contracts,  and  that  these  may  not  be  imaginary, 
but  have  a  practic;d  bearmg,  I  sliiill  take  the  steading  as  shown  in  the  plan,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV. 
as  the  example.  In  order  that  the  data  fiuTiished  in  the  proposed  specifications  shall  be 
generally  applicable,  I  shall  first  give  the  measurements  of  the  various  kinds  of  work  pro- 
posed to  be  executed — then  the  quantity  of  materieds  required  for  constnicting  the  same — 
and  lastly,  the  prices  paid  for  the  different  sorts  of  work  in  Edmburgh,  both  including  and 
excluding  the  cost  of  carnages,  that  you  may  have  a  criterion  by  which  to  judge  of  the  cost 
of  doing  the  same  kind  of  work  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  You  may  reasonably  believe 
that  the  prices  of  labor  and  materials  are  higher  in  Edinburgh  than  in  the  country ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  you  must  consider  the  superiority  of  the  workmanship  obtained  in  so  large 
a  town.  These  must  affect  the  total  amount  of  the  estimate  to  a  certain  extent,  but  to  what 
exact  per  centage  I  cannot  say.  I  am  told  that  carpenter-work  is  very  litde  dearer  in  Edin- 
burgh than  in  the  counUy,  but  that  mason-work,  smith-work  and  plaster-work  are  all  con- 
sidei-ably  higher ;  but  of  smith-work,  as  I  have  already  said,  httle  is  required  in  building  a 
steading.* 

[*  Now,  although  the  suggestions  and  reasoning  of  this  chapter  apply  to  a  country  where  the 
kind  and  cost  of  the  materials,  and  yet  more  the  cost  of  labor,  differ  very  materially  from  such  as 
are  in  use  or  paid  in  this  country,  yet  the  reasoning  and  the  rules  laid  down  are  of  universal  ap- 
plication ;  and  how  would  it  be  possible  to  omit  them,  without  impairing  essentially  the  value  of 
the  work  in  hand  1 

All  who  have  had  much  experience  in  building  have  found  it  to  be  difficult  to  guard  agamBt 
imposition ;  and  this  is  especially  the  case  with  men  who  have  not  been  qualified,  either  by  eda- 
cation  or  experience,  to  judge  for  themselves.  By  education  we  mean  instruction  at  school  ot 
(291 


148  THE   BOOK  OF   THE  FARM. WINTER. 

Measurement  of  the  Plan  of  a  Proposed  Steading  in  Fig.  4,  Plate  IV. 

Maton-Kork. 

6225  Cubic  yards  of  Foundations,  and  wheeling  the  earth  not  farther  than  60  yards  '^"'"hr'' 
207  ..  Drains  Willi  gills  and  covers. 

85  Cubic  roods  of  Rubble-walls,  2  feet  thick. 

47  Division  rubble-walls,  Vi  to  15  inches  thick,  including  dykes. 

42  Lineal  feet  of  Chimney-Tents. 
400  ..  Comers  of  buildings. 

80  ..  Comers  for  archways. 

50  ..  Arched  lintels  for  archways. 

1528  ..  Ribets,  sills,  lintel.s,  and  steps. 

75  ..  Arched  lintels  over  doors. 

24  ..  Ringpens  of  archways  to  granary. 

80  ..  Corners,  sills,  and  lintels  of  feeding-holes  of  byres. 

60  . .  Comers  of  gateways  to  courts. 

286  ..  Corners  or  hammer-dressed  scontions  for  gates  in  dykes. 
20             ..  Coping  of  chimney-stalks. 

110  ..  Ashlar  pillars  for  sheds,  from  18  to  20  inches  square. 

294  ..  Skews  on  gables. 

1671  ..  Semi-circular  hammer-dressed  coping  on  dykes, 

100  ..  Gutters  in  byres. 

94  ..  Coping  round  liquid  manure  tank. 

300  . .  Steps  of  stairs  to  granaries. 

45  ..  Brick  stalk  for  steam-engine,  6  feet  square  at  the  base. 

152  Square  roods  of  Rubble-causeway. 

287  Lineal  yards  of  Causewayed  gutters  around  the  buildings  outside. 
2  Pairs  of  jambs  and  lintels. 

Building  in  boiler,  including  boiler  and  furnace  complete. 

17  Droved  stones,  with  gratings  for  liquid  manure  drains. 
8  Water-troughs  in  courts. 

31  Stones  for  heel-posts  of  stalls. 

31  Stones  for  curbs  of  stall-boardings. 

Carpenter-worlc. 

540  Square  feet  of  4-inch  thick  safe  lintels. 
2768  Square  yards  of  Roofing,  with  balks  and  sarking. 

583  . .  Joisting  and  flooring  of  granariea  and  com-bani. 

762  Lineal  feet  of  Ridge-battens. 

192  ..  Dressed  beams  for  pillars  of  roofs  of  sheds. 

1141  ..  Door-checks  or  fixings,  6}  inches  by  2J  inches. 

1366  . .  Doorkeps  or  stops  and  facings. 

2132  Square  feet  of  li-inch  deal  doors. 
1360  ..  IJ-inch  divisions  of  stalls. 

829  Lineal  feet  of  Heel  and  fore-posts. 

18  ..  Manger  in  riding-horse  stable. 
18            . .            Hay-rack  in  ditto. 

96  ..  Hay-racks,  low,  in  work-horse  stable. 

84  ..  Feeding-troughs  in  byres. 

670  ..  ,.         ..  courts. 

36  ..  Racks  in  cattle-sheds. 

432  Square  feet  of  Daylight  of  windows. 
760  ..  Sparred  divisions  of  cribs  for  calves. 

669  Lineal  feet  of  Rian-water  spouts. 
87  . .  Conductors  from  ditto, 

10  Small  doors  of  feeding-holes  of  byre. 
14  Corn-boxes  for  work-horse  stable. 
2  Square  racks  for  center  of  courts. 
1  Corn-chest  for  work-horses. 
1  . .  for  riding-horse  stable. 

7  Luffer-board  ventilators  for  roofs. 

8  Sparred  gates,  from  9  feet  to  10  feet  wide. 
12        ..  ..  5 

Rails,  hamess-pins.  and  saddle-trees. 
Stathel-frames  for  stacks. 
Pump  with  mounting. 

Slater-vjork. 
^^^^^^^    77  Square  roods  of  Blue-slating,  gray-slating,  or  tiling. 


eluewhere  in  the  rules  of  mensuration  and  the  principles  of  mechanics  far  enough  to  know— what 
every  school-boy  might  easily  be  taught— enough  of  architecture  to  know  the  7iames  of  every  part 
and  piece  of  timber  employed  in  building,  and  the  manner  of  measuring  carpenters'  and  brick- 
layers'  and  plasterers'  work— a  sort  of  useful  practical  information  which  any  young  man  might 
acquire  in  a  few  days  of  eanicst.  ardent  study. 

One  important  point  to  be  guarded  against  is  the  liability  to  bo  imposed  upon  by  exorbitant 
charges  for  every,  the  very  slightest  addition  to,  or  departure  from  the  plan  of  building  agreed 
upon.  If  such  chapters  as  these  have  no  other  effect,  we  may  hope  they  will  assist  in  impress- 
ing  upon  the  mind  of  the  farmer  the  obligation  he  is  under  as  a  parent  and  a  friend,  to  see  that 
his  son  is  so  educated  as  to  enable  him  to  form  his  own  correct  opinion,  to  the  end  that  while  he 
should  be  at  all  times  ready  to  do  full  justice,  and  even  to  be  as  liberal  as  he  can  afford  to  be  to 
mechanics,  he  shall  be  prepared  to  detect  and  resist  all  attempts  at  imposition. 


THE   STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD. 


149 


Plumber-work. 

1084  Square  feet  of  Lead  on  ridges,  fianks,  and  peands. 
669  Lineal  feet  of  Lead  rain-runs  or  spouts. 
87  . .  Lead-pipes  or  conductors  from  runs. 

Plaster-toork. 
1507  Square  yards  of  Ist,  2d,  and  3d  coat  plaster. 

Smith-work. 
22  Stockand-plate  locks. 
28  Pairs  of  crooks  and  bands. 
9  Pairs  of  cross-tailed  hinges. 
35     ..  ..  ..      small. 

2  Sets  of  fastenings  for  double  doors. 

3  Locks  for  small  courts. 
10  Pairs  of  crooks  and  bands  for  feeding-holes. 
10  Sneck-fastenings  for  ditto. 
33  Thumb-latches. 
18  Manger-rings. 
17  Seals  for  fastening  cows,  or  feeding  cattle. 

Stanchions  for  windows. 
Cast-iron  runs  and  conductors, 

..       travis-posts,  5- when  used. 

hay-racks  for  ndmg-horse  stable, 

window-sashes, 
Boiler  and  ftimace. 
Mounting  for  gates. 


■i 


Quantities  of  Materials  and  Numbers  of  Carriages  in  Steading. 

i08i  Cubic  roods  of  2-feet  walls,  each  rood  containing  36  cubic  yards  of  building,  requiring  40  cart- 
loads of  rubble-stones,  2  cart-loads  of  lime,  and  4  or  5  cart-loads  of  sand,  besides  water 
710  Ashlar  corners. 
1004  Ribets. 
100  Sills  and  lintels,  from  4  ft.  to  4J  ft.  long. 
20     . .  . .       30  inches  long. 

31  Steps,  from  3.}  feet  to  4  feet  long. 
60     ..         ..     4^      ..     5 
20  Lineal  feet  of  Coping  of  chimney-stalks. 
2  Pairs  of  chimney-jambs,  3i^  ft,  by  2  ft.  long. 
2  Lintels  for  ditto,  from  3^^  ft.  to  4  ft.  long. 
110  Ashlar  stones  for  pillars,  from  18  inches  to  20  inches  square. 
294  Lineal  feet  of  Skews. 
200  ..  Curbstones. 

100  . .  Sills  for  gutters  in  byres. 

94  . .  Coping  round  liquid  manure  tank. 

17  Stones  for  gratings  to  drains. 
31        . .         heel-posts. 

8         . .  water-troughs. 

31        . .  curbstones  below  boarding  in  stables  and  byres. 

100  Square  roods  of  Causeways. 
77  . .  Slating. 

136  Loads  of  Timber. 
326  Square  feet  of  Glass  for  windows. 

On  ascertaining  the  quarry  mail,  or  prime  cost  of  the  stones,  and  the  cost  of  carriage,  in  the 
locality  in  which  yon  intend  to  build  your  steading,  the  cost  of  each  of  the  above  quantities 
of  materials  will  easily  be  ascertained. 

(221.)  The  following  schedule  gives  the  prices  of  those  materials  in  Edinburgh,  and  they 
are  stated  both  inclusive  and  exclusive  of  carriages. 


Masort-work. 


Digging  foundations per  cubic  yard. 

Rubble-foundations,  reduced  to  2  feet  thick .per  rood  of  36  cubic  yards. 

Rubble  building,  2  feet  thick 

18  inches  thick  and  under,  reduced  to  1 

foot  thick 

Rubble  drains,  with  dressed  flags,  sills  and  covers,  12  inches  square  in 

the  opening per  lineal  yard. 

Ditto,  15  inches  by  18  inches  in  the  opening 

Hammer-dressed  coursed  work,  with  raised  or  hollow  joints . . per  square  foot. 

Where  bricks  are  used  for  building  the  walls,  the  prices  are  for — 

2i  thick  brick  on  edge  walls per  square  yard. 

4t     ..         ..  bed      

6      

Chimney-vents,  plastered per  lineal  foot. 

Droved  ashlar,  from  7  to  8  inches  thick per  square  foot. 

Broached   . .  . .  . .  

comers,  averaging  3  feet  girth per  lineal  foot. 

supports  for  stacks,  from  1;  feet  to  2J  feet  in  girth 

Droved  ribets,  front  and  ingoing  with  broached  tails,  2  feet  long  and  1 

foot  in  the  head 

(293) 


Including 

Exclud'g 

Carriage. 

Carriage. 

L.    S. 

D. 

L. 

S.     D. 

0     0 

6 

0 

0    4 

10    0 

0 

8 

0    0 

8    8 

0 

7 

0    0 

5    0 

0 

4 

6    0 

0    3 

0 

0 

2    4 

0    5 

0 

0 

4    0 

0    0 

3 

0    1 

9 

0 

1    6 

0    3 

0 

0 

2    6 

0    5 

0 

0 

4    8 

0    0 

6 

0    1 

2 

0 

1    0 

0    1 

0 

0 

0  10 

0    2 

6 

0    2 

0 

0    2 

6 

350 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


Mason-irork  (continued). 


Droved  projecting  sills,  7  inches  thick per  lineal  foot. 

Sills  and  lintelg  dressed  similar  to  the  ribcts 

Droved  cornices  for  chimney-stalks,  6  to  7  inches  thick 

Droved  block-course  for  chimney-stalks,  6  inches  deep 

Droved  skews,  "Ji  to  3  inches  thick per  square  foot. 

Broached  

Comers  for  coach-house  doors,  with  droved  giblet-checks per  lineal  foot. 

Elliptical  arched  lintels  for  ditto 

Segmental         ..  

Broached  pillars  for  cart-sheds,  &c per  square  foot. 

Droved  jambs  and  lintels 

Arbroath  pavement  and  hearths 

freestone  pavement 

Broached       . .  . .         

Dressed  and  jointed  flagging 

hanging  steps,  ordinary  sizes per  lineal  foot. 

common  steps,  ..  

plats  of  hanging  stairs,  single  measure per  square  yard. 

stone-skirtings,  4V  inches  deep per  lineal  foot. 

ridge-stones,  common  fonn 

socket -stones  for  travis-posts each 

feeding-troughs per  square  foot 

stone  water-troughs 

Curb-stones  for  gutters  in  byres per  lineal  foot. 

Droved  curb-stones  for  stalls 

Semi-circular  coping  for  dykes,  hammer-dressed,  from  12  inches  to  14 

inches  diameter 

Square  dressed  whinstone-causeway per  rood  of  36  square  yards. 

Rubble  causewaj-ing 

When  ornamental  masonry  is  introduced  into  steadings,  these  are  the  prices : 
Droved  base-course  and  belts,  12  inches  deep per  lineal  foot 

wall-head  plinths,  6  inches  thick 

cornices,  9  to  10  inches  thick 

block-course,  12  inches  deep 

checked  plinth  and  block  for  chimney-stalks,  1  foot  deep 

Polished  hanging  steps,  ordinary  sizes 

Polished  plats  of  hanging  stairs,  single  measure per  square  foot 

Broached  copings,  with  droved  edges,  for  dykes 

Droved  pillars  for  small  gates  to  bammels,  &.c 

Building  in  boiler  and  furnace  complete 

Bricks per  1000. 

Rubble  stones per  load . 

Carpenter-work. 

Safe-lintels  and  rough  beams per  cubic  foot 

Dressed  beams 

Scantlinc  for  roofs,  7  inches  by  2}  inches,  and  18  inches  from  center 

to  center per  square  yard 

Scantling  for  roofs,  7}  inches  by  2t  inches,  and  18  inches  from  center 

to  center 

Balks,  6  inches  by  2  inches,  and  18  inches  from  center  to  center 

-.5        ..        2        ..  ..  ..  

Wall-plates  for  roofing,  7  inches  by  li  inches per  lineal  foot 

Ridge  trees,  10  inches  by  2  inches 

Ridge  and  jx-and  battens,  21  inches  diameter 

1-inch  thick  Baltic  sarking per  square  yard 

Tile-lath,  U  inches  square,  and  11  inches  apart 

Bond-timber,  3i  inches  by  U  inches,  and  20  inches  apart 

Baltic  split  lath.  3-16  inch  thick 

Plain  joisting   7  in.  by  2i  in.  and  18  inches  from  center  to  center 

8in.by2iin 

9  in.  by  2i  in 

..       10in.by2iin   ."'.'.!!".!.'!!.'.'.".'.!!!!'.'.'.'. 

12  in.  by  2|  in !!!..'..".'  '.'. 

H  Batten  flooring,  grooved  and  tongued 

Door-checks,  6  inches  by  2}  inches per  lineal  foot- 
Checked  window  grounds,  2  inches  by  1 J  inches 

Finishing  grounds,  2  inches  by  }  inch [\ 

Windows  for  nams  and  byres,  of  the  form  in  ig.  X5... ............ .  .per  squai-e  foot 

stables,  of  the  form  in  fie  14 .".".'. 

granaries,  of  the  form  in  fig.  17 '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  .'. 

,,_,.,         ,.        -        .,.      ,  ,  htcludiiijf  Carriagt 

1 J  Travis-boardmg  for  nding-horse  and  workhorse  stables,  doweled per  square  fool  0    0    8 

H  travis-boards,  grooved  and  tongued  and  beaded,  for  byres ..  0    0    6 

li-inch  deal  lining,  grooved  and  tongued,  for  end  stalls  of  riding"horse  stab'e  with 

fixtures ' ,  0    0    5 

^-incb  deal  linings,  beaded  in  walls,  over  and  under  the  mangers  in  the  ridinu-horse 

stable ° __  0    0    3 

Turned  travis-posu,  for  riding-horse  stable nticti  0    8    0 

Beaded  travis-posts,  fore-posts,  and  runtrecs,  for  work-horse  stable,  reduced" to  3* 

iiiches  square ...     ...   •■.-••-••. -•--•- per Uneal  foot  005 

Stakes  and  runtrees  of  byres,  4  inches  to  5  mchcs  m  diameter 006 

(294)  


Inrlnd 

'"« 

KxcluiPg 

Carru 

g'- 

Carriage. 

L,     S. 

D. 

L.    S.    D. 

0    2 

0 

0    1 

6 

0    1 

6 

0    0 

9 

0    0 

9 

0    0 

8 

0    1 

8 

0    1 

9 

0    1 

9 

0    0 

10 

0    0 

9 

0    0 

9 

0     0     8 

0    0 

9 

0    0    8 

0    0 

8 

0    0    7i 

0    0 

7 

0    0    6^ 

0    2 

4 

0     13 

0    1 

6 

0     I    3 

0    I 

5V 

0    1    4J 

0    0 

4 

0    0    3i 

0    0 

Ih 

0    0    7 

0    5 

6 

0    5    0 

0    1 

1 

0    10 

0    1 

0 

0    0  11 

0    0 

6 

0    0    5i 

0     0 

6 

0    0    5 

0    0 

6+ 

0    0    6 

7    7 

0 

7    0    0 

2  14 

0 

2    7    0 

0    1 

1 

0    0  10 

0    2 

6 

0    1 

1 

0    1 

2 

0    2 

6 

0    2    5 

0    1 

6 

0    14 

0    0 

9 

0    0    8 

0    0  10 

0    0    9 

0  18 

0 

1  17 

0 

1  10    0 

0    3 

0 

0    0    6 

0    3 

6 

0    3    4 

0    4 

0 

0    3  10 

0    2 

4 

0    2    2 

0    1 

6 

0    1     2 

0    1 

9 

0    17 

0    1 

6 

0    1     4 

0    0 

4 

0    0    31 

0    0 

9 

0    0    8 

0    0 

3 

0    0    2J 

0    1 

10 

0    19 

0    0 

6 

0    0    5i 

0    0 

6 

0    0    5} 

0    0 

6 

0    0    5i 

0    2 

4 

X)    2    2 

0    3 

6 

0    3    4 

0    4 

0 

0    3  10 

0    4 

6 

0    4    4 

0    5 

0 

0    4  JO 

0    3 

4 

0    3    2 

0    0 

6 

0    0    5 

0    0 

21 

0    0 

\\ 

0    1 

8 

0    1    fi 

0    1 

3 

0    1     li 

0    1 

6 

0    1    4 

THE  STEADING  OR  FARMSTEAD.  151 

Carpenter-work  (continued).  Including  Carriage. 

Hard-wcod  hiirh  liay-viickp,  with  turned  rollers  2  inches  diameter  and  2}  inches  i..   s.    d. 

apart,  for  riding-horse  stnble --  0    3    0 

Fir  sparred  low  hay-racks  for  work-horse  stable ..  0     10 

Mangers  for  riding-horse  stable -•  0    16 

Corn-boxes  for  work-horse  stable each  0    3    0 

li-inch  deal  beaded  outf-ide  doors,  with  3  backbars per  square  foot  0    0    7 

}-inch  deal  beaded  inside  doors,  with  three  1-inch  backbars ..  0    0    6 

Sparred  calves'-cribs - ,.  ",,        9    9    ^ 

Facings,  keps,  skirting,  and  coping,  reduced  to  4  inches  broad per  lineal  foot  0    0    3 

Ogee  copiniis  for  travises ••  "    0    2 

1  inch  beaded  coping  for  lining -•  0    0^ 

Eain-spouts  of  wood,  out  of  the  solid •-  ^    ^    ^ 

when  pieced •-  0    0    o 

Conductors  from  rain-spouts ■-         x.  n    ^    ^ 

Small  doors  for  feeding-holes  ofbjTCs each  0    10 

Racks  for  center  of  courts 0  12    0 

Corn-cliest  for  work-horses - 0  15    0 

Stout  5-barred  gates,  9  feet  wide,  for  courts each  1  10    0 

4     . .         . .      5    . .       . .         hammels 0  14    0 

Rails,  harness-pins,  and  saddletrees 2  10    0 

Luffer-board  ventilators.  6  feet  long  by  4  feet  wide,  and  2^  feet  high  in  front per  square  foot  0    16 

Octagonal  stathel-frames  for  stacks,  15  feet  diameter each  1  13    0 

Pump  with  mounting,  20  feet  long 3  10    0 

Slater-xoork. 

Blue-slatin"  per  rood  of  36  square  yards  4    4    0 

Grav  ° •-  2  11    0 

Tiling::::;.".".'.' --  ,^2100 

Blue  slates per  1,000  3  10    0 

Grayslates 4  10    0 

Tiles 2  17    0 

Plumher-work. 

6-lb.  per  square  foot  lead  on  peands,  flanks  and  ridges  (253.  per  cwt.) per  square  foot  0    1    3i 

5-lb.  lead  for  aprons  to  ventilators,  &c --  Oil 

Mastic  for  raglets per  lineal  foot  0    0    li 

Rain-water  pipes  of  6-lb.  lead :  --  0    16 

6-inch  open  runs  of  6-lb.  lead,  supported  with  iron  straps  or  holdfasts.  2  feet  apart. .  . .  0    16 

Lead-pump,  with  mounting --  2  10    0 

Lead-pipe  for  ditto - --  0    1    2 

Smith-work. 

Cast-iron  travis  heel-posts each  12  0 

corner  hay -racks  for  riding-horse  stable 0  10  0 

pump  for  liquid-manure  tank,  with  6feet  pipe 3    0  0 

Stock  and  plate-locks  for  outside  doors,  10  inches  long 0    2  6 

18-inch  cross-tailed  hinges per  pair  0    13 

9-inch        ..                0    0  9 

rO    0  5 

Thumb-latches each  J       to 

to    0  7 

Manger  rings 0    0  1 

Seals  for  binding  cattle 0    2  6 

Cast-iron  rain-spouts,  4i  inches  diameter per  lineal  yard  0    2  0 

Pipes  from  ditto,  2  inches  diameter,  >  y  j.       j        e^ch\l  ,%  ^ 

4  inches  diameter,  J                  °                                                                                  i  0  18  0 

rO  12  0 

Gate-mountings \       to 

CO  15  0 

36-inch  boiler,  with  furnace  complete,  t 2  JO  0 

30-inch     ..              ..                    ..          ^  or  14s.  per  cwt 2    7  0 

24-inch     -.              ..                    -.         3 2    4  0 

Crooks  and  bands  for  outside  doors per  pair  0  10  0 

feeding-hole  doors  in  byres 0    5  0 

Stanchions,  |  inch  diameter per  pound  0    0  3 

Cast-iron  window  saslies per  square  foot  0    10 

Plaster-work. 

rO  0  5 

Best  3-coat  plaster per  square  yard^  to 

to  0  6 

.2    -.            0  0  4} 

1               ..             0  0  3 


Glazier-work. 

Best  second  crown-glass  in  small  panes per  square  foot  0    0  10 

....  ..  large  panes --  0    1- 

Pai7iter-work. 
White  lead,  colored  gray,  stone,  or  slate-blue,  3  coats per  square  yard  0    0" 


152  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

(222.)  There  is  a  sim;>le  nile  for  d  jtenniniii?  the  pi'ch  which  a  roof  should  have  for  the 
various  sorts  of  slutinu.  In  bbie-sliitin<r  the  nile  is,  tliat  the  roof  should  be  in  hight  \  of  the 
breadth  of  the  biildiii;^.  Sii;)i»  )8e  that  a  buildiu:^  is  18  feet  inside  in  \%-idth  like  the  middle 
range  of  the  steading,  the  walls  are  each  two  feet  thick,  which  gives  a  breadth  of  22  feet 
over  walls.  Deduct  6  inches  on  each  wiJl  for  an  escarpment  on  its  top,  upon  which  the 
scantlings  or  couple-legs  rest  ujKin  the  wall-plates,  and  J  of  21  feet  gives  7  feet  for  the  hight 
of  the  roof  above  the  walls.  Old  fashioned  houses  have  a  pitch  of  the  s<]uare,  that  is,  the 
hight  is  equal  to  half  the  breadth,  which,  in  the  supposed  ca.se,  would  be  10.§  feet.  In  gray 
slating  the  pitch  is  fixed  at  1  foot  below  the  square,  or  the  hight  would  be  9^  feet.  In  tiling, 
the  pitch  niav  be  lower  than  even  in  blue  slating,  and  it  is  determined  according  to  circum- 
stances ;  ami  even  blue  slate  roofs  are  made  as  low  in  the  pitch  as  |  of  the  breatlth,  that  is 
with  large  Welsh  slates.  Taking  the  rise  at  7  feet,  the  scantlings  should  be  13  feet  long 
each,  and  the  balk,  of  course,  as  long.  Taking  the  rise  at  9j|  feet,  the  scantlings  should  be 
14  feet  long.     (131.)  and  (132.),  p.  138. 

(223.)  A  liquid  manure  tank  can  be  constructed  at  little  cost.  An  excavation  being  made 
in  clay,  a  lining  shoidd  be  built  all  round.  The  lining  may  be  either  of  lubble  masonry,  of 
stone  and  mortar,  or  of  brick  and  mortar.  If  the  subsoil  is  not  of  a  retentive  nature,  a  plas- 
tering of  Roman  cement  n\t11  suffice  to  render  the  building  retentive.  A  9-inch  wall,  or  a 
brick  in  length,  will  make  a  lining  of  sufficient  strength  to  contain  the  hquid.  The  tank 
should  be  covered  over  in  any  of  the  various  ways  I  have  mentioned  in  (76.^,  and  paved  in 
the  bottom  with  flags  or  bricks  secured  by  cement.  A  cast-iron  pump  should  be  inserted 
at  one  end  of  the  tank  when  it  will  be  ready  for  use. 

(224.)  The  cost  of  constructing  such  a  tank,  with  brick  in  length  and  cement,  will  be 
somewhat  as  under,  exclusive  of  drains : 

Feet.  Inches. 

Inside  length  of  tank 13  6 

. .     wicfth     6  6 

depth     . .         6  0=19i  cubic  yarda. 

Cutting  the  bed  of  the  tank,  at  3d.  per  cubic  yard &0    7    6 

Building  wall,  including  bricks  and  mortar 6    8    0 

Plastering  and  cement 0  16    0 

Covering  with  flags 2  15    0 

Total £10    6    6 

Such  a  size  of  tank  is  said  to  be  sufficient  for  a  farm  of  from  1.50  to  200  acres.  A  recepta- 
cle of  a  more  simple  and  unexpeusive  nature  might  be  constructed,  which  would  answ^er 
some  of  the  ends  of  a  more  complete  tank.  It  might  be  made  under  a  shed,  and  composed 
of  walls  of  clay,  and  covered  with  slabs  of  boardling.  The  expense  of  such  a  receptacle 
woidd  be  somewhere  as  under,  the  dimensioas  being  as  in  the  preceding  case  : 

Cutting  the  clay,  «  3d  the  cvbic  yard S.0    7  6  ~~^ 

Clay  and  carting 0  14  0  "-"-^ 

Boards,  and  expense  of  covering 0    5  0  ~^-% 

Total .£1     6  6  r— l 

Sticn  a  tank,  however,  would  suffer  in  frost  or  drouth.  A  cask  sunk  into  the  ground,  with 
open  cbaimels  to  it,  forms  a  sufficient  tank  for  a  cottager.* 

[*  There  are  few  instances  in  which  gross  neglect  of  valuable  resources  within  their  reach  is 
so  glaring  on  the  part  of  American  agriculturists  as  in  the  general  failure  to  collect  an  abundant 
supply  of  water  for  all  purposes  from  the  roofs  of  their  houses,  and  especially  where  these  are  of 
any  considerable  size,  and  yet  more  when  they  are  so  contiguous  that  the  rain  which  falls  on  sev- 
eral of  them  might  be  collected  into  one  common  reservoir. 

Having  ascertained,  as  any  one  may  do  by  reference  to  meteorological  tables  kept  an\-where  in 
his  County  or  Sute,  what  is  the  annual  quantity  of  rainwater  which  falls  in  that  region,  it  is  ea.ey 
to  calculate  what  measure  of  water  may  be  gathered  into  a  cistern  from  roofing  of  a  given  sur- 
face. Waistell  urges  the  importance  of  placing  spouu  round  all  the  buildings  of  the  farm,  ob- 
serving that,  besides  the  value  of  the  supply  of  water  thus  obtained,  the  buildings  will  be  bene- 
fited by  the  walls  and  foundations  being  kept  drier  than  when  the  water  from  the  roof  is  suffered 
to  fall  upon  them.  He  states  that  the  quantity  of  water  that  falls  annually  in  his  county  upon 
every  100  superficial  feet,  or  10  feet  square,  of  building,  is  about  1,400  imperial  gallons. 

In  Mississippi,  from  dire  necessity,  such  cisterns  are  in  common  use  ;  but  how  many  farmers 
over  the  country  might,  in  this  way,  save  the  immense  labor  bestowed  and  the  time  lost  in  bring- 
ing water  by  hand  from  a  distance,  and  in  st'nding  their  domestic  animals  to  it,  while  the  remedy 
is  so  close  at  hand  !  By  a  simple  process  of  filtration,  and  the  use  of  ice,  water  so  collected  makes 
the  purest  and  best  drinking-water. 

The  tank  or  cistern  may  be  puddled  round  with  clay,  to  avoid  the  expense  of  Roman  cement. 

Btit  the  yet  more  valuable  use  of  tanks  is  the  one  referred  to  by  our  author  for  collectin"  the 
(296) 


THE   FARM-HOUSE.    •  153 


16.    THE  FARM-HOUSE, 


"  Do  you  but  mark  how  this  becomes  the  house." 

Leak. 


(225.)  In  alluding  to  the  farm-house  at  all,  it  is  not  my  intention  to  give 
a  full  plan  of  one,  as  I  have  given  of  the  steading;  because  its  internal  ar- 
rangements are  generally  left  to  the  fancy  of  architects  or  of  its  occupiers, 
and  with  little  regard  to  their  adaptation  to  a  farm.  Any  specific  plan 
which  I  would  recommend  of  a  farm-house  would  therefore,  I  fear,  receive 
little  attention  from  either  landlord  or  tenant.  But  the  part  of  it  which  is 
exclusively  devoted  to  labor  has  so  intimate  a  connection  with  the  manage- 
ment of  the  farm  that  I  must  give  my  opinion  upon  it.  The  part  I  mean 
includes  the  kitchen  and  dairy,  and  their  accompanying  apartments.  Now, 
it  may  frequently  be  seen  in  the  plans  furnished  by  architects,  that,  to  give 
the  fai'm-house  a  fashionable  and  airy  appearance,  the  working  portion  of 
it  is  too  often  contracted  and  inconveniently  arranged.  The  principle  of 
its  construction  should  be  to  make  this  part  of  the  house  thoroughly  com- 
modious in  itself,  and  at  the  same  time  prevent  its  giving  the  least  annoy- 
ance to  the  rest  from  noise  or  disagreeable  effluvia,  which  cannot  at  all 
times  be  avoided  in  the  labors  of  the  kitchen.  Both  objects  would  be  ac- 
complished by  placing  it  independent  of  the  main  body  of  the  house,  and 
this  is  best  effected  by  a  jamb.  Whatever  may  be  the  external  form  given 
to  the  house,  the  relative  positions  of  its  two  parts  may  easily  be  preserved, 
whether  in  the  old-fashioned  form  of  a  front  tenement  and  back  jamb,  or 
the  more  modern  and  beauteous  form  of  the  Elizabethan  style. 

(226.)  The  ground-plan  which  I  recommend  of  the  kitchen  and  the  other 
parts  of  the  farm-house  in  which  work  is  performed,  may  be  seen  in  fig. 
32,  where  a  is  the  kitchen,  18  feet  in  length,  16  feet  in  breadth,  and  10  feet 
in  hight,  provided  with  a  door  to  the  interior  of  the  house,  in  the  wall 
nearest  to  you,  another  to  the  kitchen  pantry  Tc  and  dairy  m,  and  a  thii'd 
to  the  scullery  d  and  porch  p.  It  contains  two  windows,  one  on  each  side 
of  g  on  the  left,  a  lai'ge  kitchen  range,  oven,  and  furnace-pot  at  b,  a  com- 
modious lock-up  closet  c,  a  wall-press  h,  and  a  dresser  and  table  g.  There 
is  a  stair  at  c  to  the  servants'  and  other  apartments  above,  and  which  also 
leads  to  the  principal  bed-rooms  in  the  upper  story  of  the  house.  Beyond 
the  kitchen  is  the  scullery  d,  which  contains  a  large  furnace-pot  e,  a  sink  in 
the  window  yj  a  wall-press  h,  and  a  dresser  g.     This  apartment  is  18  feet 

liquid  manure;  and  we  are  assured  that  in  France  and  Germany,  and  more  especially  in  Bel- 
gium, where  manure  is  saved  as  we  save  dollars,  a  manure-tank  is  considered  as  indispcBsable  as 
any  other  part  of  the  steading  or  farm-buildings. 

Their  size  will  depend,  of  course,  on  the  number  of  animals  which  the  system  he  pursues  may 
invite  the  farmer  to  keep.  Instead  of  making  them  round  or  oval,  it  is  contended  that  the  best 
way  is  to  make  them  into  cubes  or  squares.  A  tank,  says  De  Rham,  for  a  farm  of  200  acres  of 
arable  land,  should  be  15  feet  wide,  15  deep,  and  45  long — giving  3  cubes  of  15  feet  of  liquid. — • 
The  rule  in  Germany  is  to  have  tanks  large  enough  to  contain  ten  times  as  many  hogsheads  as 
there  are  heads  of  cattle  on  the  place.  But  as  we  shall,  in  the  Journal  of  Agriculture,  treat 
more  fully  of  this  subject,  we  need  not  prolong  this  note.  Of  the  expense  of  construction,  every 
one  must  judge  for  himself,  according  to  the  price  of  labor  and  materials  ;  but  of  this  we  are  sure, 
that  these  must  be  exorbitant,  where  the  profit  does  not  very  soon  afford  ample  remuneration. 

Ed.  Farm.  Lib. 
(897) 


154 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


in  length,  10  feet  in  breadth,  and  10  feet  in  hight.  A  door  from  it,  and 
another  from  the  kitchen,  open  on  a  lobby  common  to  both,  and  which 
lobljy  ijivcs  access  by  another  door  to  the  principal  kitchen  entrance-door 

Fig.  32. 


GROUND    PLAN  OF  A  KITCHEN,   tC.  OF  A   FAUM-HOUSE. 

through  the  porch  p.  The  porch  p,  6  feet  square,  is  erected  for  the  pur- 
pose of  screening  both  the  kitchen  and  scullery  from  wind  and  cold,  and  it 
contains  the  back  entrance-door,  and  is  lighted  by  a  window.  On  the  out- 
side, and  in  front  of  the  porch-door,  is  r,  the  rain-water  cistern,  fig.  30,  p. 
134.  On  going  to  the  right  from  the  kitchen  to  the  hitchen-pantry  Ic,  is  a 
wall-press  in  the  passage.  The  pantry  k  is  provided  with  a  door  ;  a  win- 
dow, which  should  look  to  the  east  or  north ;  a  larder  /,  and  abundance  of 
shelving  at  o  ;  it  is  12  feet  square,  having  a  roof  of  10  feet  in  hight.  With- 
in this  pantry  is  the  milk-house  or  dairy  m,  having  two  windows  also  facing 
to  the  north  or  east ;  a  lock-up  closet  n,  and  shelving  o  around  the  walls ; 
it  is  18^  feet  in  length,  12  feet  in  breadth,  and  10  feet  in  hight. 

(227.)  These  are  the  different  apartments,  and  their  relative  positions, 
required  for  conducting  the  business  of  a  farm  within  the  house,  and  in 
the  fitting  up  of  which  are  many  particulars  which  require  attention.  The 
floor  of  the  kitchen  should  be  of  flagged  pavement  polished,  that  it  may 
be  cleaned  with  certainty  and  ease.  The  outside  wall  and  ceiling  should 
be  lathed,  and  all  the  walls  and  ceiling  plastered  with  the  best  hair-plaster. 
Iron  hooks,  both  single  and  double,  should  be  screwed  into  the  joists  of  the 
roof,  from  which  may  be  suspended  hams  or  other  articles.  The  dressers 
g  are  best  made  of  plain-tree  tops  and  black  American  birch  frames,  the 
chairs  of  the  latter  wood,  and  the  stools  of  common  fir.  In  case  of  acci- 
dents, or  negligence  in  leaving  them  unfastened  at  night,  it  would  be  well 
to  have  the  lower  sashes  of  the  windows  of  the  kitchen  and  sculleiy  fast, 
and  the  upper  ones  only  to  let  down  for  the  occasional  admission  of  fresh 
and  the  escape  of  heated  air. 

(228.)  In  the  scullery,  the  sink /should  be  of  polished  free-stone,  made 
to  fit  the  window-void,  with  a  proper  drain  from  it,  provided  with  a  cess- 
pool. The  floor  should  be  of  the  same  material  as  that  of  the  kitchen,  for 
the  sake  of  cleanliness.  The  outside  wall  and  ceiling  should  be  lathed, 
and  all   the  walls   and  roof  plastered.     There  should  be  a  force-pump  in 

(298) 


THE   FARM-HOUSE.  155 


the  sculleiy  to  fill  a  cistern  with  water  at  the  upper  part  of  the  house,  to 
contain  a  constant  supply  for  the  sink.  A  boiler  behind  the  kitchen  fire 
provided  with  a  small  cistern  and  ball-cock  and  ball  in  connection  \%-ith  the 
upper  cistern,  for  the  supply  of  cold  water  into  the  boiler ;  and  a  cock 
ijom  it  in  the  kitchen,  and  another  from  it  in  the  sculleiy,  for  drawino-  off 
warm  water  when  required,  could  be  fitted  up  at  no  great  cost,  and  would 
be  found  a  most  serviceable  apparatus  in  a  fami-house. 

(229.)  The  large  furnace-pot  e  should  be  built  in  with  fire-brick  sur- 
rounded with  common  brick,  plastered,  and  protected  with  cloth  on  the 
outside,  iTibbed  hard  into  the  plaster,  and  the  mouth  of  the  pot  protected 
with  a  -i-inch  pavement  polished.  To  carry  off  the  supei-fluous  steam,  a 
lead-pipe  should  be  fastened  into  a  narrow,  immovable  portion  of  the  pot- 
lid,  and  passed  through  the  wall  into  the  flue.  An  iron  bar  should  project 
fi'om  the  stone-wall  about  3  feet  or  so  above  the  furnace-pot,  having  a  hori- 
zontal eye  at  its  end  directly  over  the  center  of  the  pot,  to  be  used  when 
making  the  ponidge  for  the  reapers'  morning  meal  in  harvest,  as  shall  be 
described  afterward.  The  dresser  g  should  be  of  the  same  material  as  that 
of  the  kitchen.  There  should  be  iron  hooks  fastened  into  the  roof  for 
hanging  any  article  thereon.     Shelving  is  also  useful  in  a  scullery. 

(230.)  The  outside  walls  and  ceiling  of  the  kitckcn-pantnj  should  be 
lathed,  and  all  the  walls  and  ceiling  plastered.  The  flooring  should  be  of 
the  same  material  as  that  of  the  kitchen,  or  of  hard  brick.  The  shelving  o 
should  be  of  wood  of  several  tiei-s,  the  lowest  row  being  3^  feet  above  the 
floor.  The  movable  portion  of  the  window  should  be  protected  with  fly 
zinc-gauze,  and  so  also  the  side  and  door  of  the  larder  /.  A  few  iron 
hooks  in  the  roof  will  be  found  useful  for  hanging  up  game  or  fowls.  A 
set  of  steps  for  reaching  above  an  ordinaiy  hight  is  convenient  in  a  pantry. 
(231.)  The  outside  walls  and  ceiling  of  the  milk-house  should  be  lathed, 
and  the  walls  and  roof  plastered.  The  flooring  should  be  of  polished  pave- 
ment, for  the  sake  of  coolness.  The  windows  should  be  protected  in  the 
movable  part  with  fly  zinc-gauze,  which  is  much  better  than  wire-gauze ; 
and  the  side  and  door  of  the  lock-up  closet  n  should  also  be  lined  with 
zinc-gauze.  The  best  shelving  for  a  milk-house  is  marble  ;  and,  though 
this  substance  may  appear  exti-avagant  in  a  farm-house,  the  price  of  mar- 
ble is  now  so  much  reduced  that  it  is  worth  the  extra  expense,  the  import 
of  foreign  mai'ble  being  now  free.  Marble  is  always  cool,  and  easily 
cleaned  and  freed  of  stains.  Scottish  marble  is  hard  and  unequal  of  text- 
ure. The  gi-ay-veined  marble  from  Leghorn  is  therefore  preferable,  though 
the  black  marble  of  the  county  of  Galway  in  Ireland  is  equally  good;  but 
the  gi'ay  color  has  a  coolness  and  freshness  about  it  in  a  dairy,  which  the 
black  does  not  possess.  Polished  pavement  is  the  next  best  material  for 
coolness,  but  it  is  very  apt  to  stain  with  milk  or  butter,  and  the  stains  are 
difiicult  of  removal.  I  speak  fi-om  experience,  and  know  the  labor  required 
to  keeping  stone-shelving  in  a  milk-house  always  sweet  and  clean ;  and, 
let  me  say  farther,  unless  it  is  so  kept,  any  other  material  is  preferable  to 
it.  If  marble  be  rejected  on  account  of  expense,  I  would  recommend  stout 
shelving  of  beech  or  plane-tree,  as  being  smooth,  and  hard,  and  easily  kept 
clean.  This  shelving  should  be  2  feet  broad,  li  inches  thick,  and,  to  be 
convenient,  should  not  exceed  the  hight  of  3  feet  from  the  floor. 

(232.)  It  is  necessary  to  make  the  wall  which  separates  the  kitchen  and 
scullery  from  the  milk-house  and  pantry  of  brick  or  stone,  to  keep  the  lat- 
ter apartments  more  cool,  and  less  likely  to  be  affected  by  the  heat  and 
vapor,  which  must,  of  necessity,  sometimes  escape  fiom  the  former.  It 
would,  no  doubt,  be  convenient  for  the  removal  of  dishes  to  have  a  door 
communicating  between  the  scullery  and  milk-house  ;  but  it  is  much  bet- 

(299) 


156 


THE   BOOK   OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


ter  to  avoid  every  risk  of  contamination  from  a  place  which  must  at  times 
be  filled  with  vapors  injurious  to  milk — a  substance  which  is  at  all  times 
delicately  susceptible  of  injury. 

(233.)  The  windows  of  all  the  apartments  should  be  provided  with  shut' 
ters  on  the  inside ;  and  it  may  be  a  safe  precaution  against  nocturnnl  intru- 
ders to  protect  those  of  the  milk-house  and  pantry  with  iron  stancheons 
on  the  outside,  as  they  should,  occasionally  at  least,  be  left  open  even  all 
night. 

(234.)  On  this  side  of  the  kitchen  will  be  observed  a  stair.  It  is  4  feet 
in  width,  and  intended  to  lead  to  the  story  above  the  kitchen  floor,  as  also 
to  the  upper  story  of  the  principal  part  of  the  house.  The  stoiy  above  the 
kitchen  may  be  subdivided  in  this  way.  Let  a  continuation  of  the  brick 
or  stone  wall  which  separates  the  kitchen  and  scullery  from  the  milk-house 
and  kitchen-pantry  be  carried  up,  in  the  form  of  a  partition  of  lath  and 
plaster,  to  the  roof  of  the  second  story,  which  may  be  9  feet  in  bight,  as 
seen  on  the  right  of  g,  fig.  33.     The  wall  of  the  kitchen  flue  b  should,  of 

Fig.  33. 


CHEESE-llOOM  iC.  OF  FARM-HOUSE. 


course,  be  carried  up  to  a  chimney-stalk  above  the  ridging,  containing  at 
least  4  flues  from  below — one  of  the  kitchen  fire,  one  of  the  small  funiace- 
pot  of  the  kitchen,  one  of  the  oven,  and  one  of  the  large  furnace-pot  in  the 
sculleiy ;  but  there  should  also  be  one  from  the  room  above  the  scullery, 
and  one  from  one  of  the  rooms  above  the  kitchen  ;  and,  to  render  both 
kitchen  and  scullery  as  wholesome  by  ventilation  as  possible,  there  should 
be  a  small  flue  from  the  ceiling  of  each  to  carry  off"  heated  air  and  vapor. 
The  kitchen-stalk  would  thus  contain  6  flues  from  below  and  2  from  above. 
(235.)  The  upper  story  should  be  partitioned  off"  in  the  way  as  seen  in 
fig.  33.  Let  the  apartment  a  above  the  scullery  be  fitted  up  with  a  fire- 
place y  as  a  bed-room  for  the  female  servants,  having  a  closet  c  in  the  outer 
wall.  After  taking  off  a  passage  ^  of  31  feet  in  width  along  the  whole 
length  of  this  part  of  the  house,  this  room  will  be  14  feet  long  and  10  feet 
wide.  The  space  above  the  kitchen  may  be  divided  into  2  bcd-roofus — one 
i,  14  feet  in  length,  by  9  feet  in  width,  and  9  feet  in  hight,  with  a  fire-place 
y  and  window,  and  closet  c.  This  might  be  occupied  as  a  sitting-room 
and  bed-room  by  the  housekeeper,  if  the  services  of  such  a  person  are  re- 


THE   FARM-HOUSE.  157 


quired ;  if  not,  it  might  serve  as  a  large  store-room,  with  a  fire-place  which 
would  be  useful  for  various  purposes.  The  other  room  d,  14  feet  in  leno-th 
by  8  feet  3  inches  in  width,  and  9  feet  in  hight,  having  a  window  in  it,  but 
no  fire-place,  might  be  fitted  up  as  a  bed-room  for  occasional  stranger  serv- 
ants. This  latter  apartment  has  a  closet  e  in  it,  3  feet  in  width  by  2  feet 
in  depth,  directly  above  the  lock-up  closet  c  off  the  kitchen. 

(236.)  At  the  end  of  the  passage  is  a  water-closet  i,  lighted  by  a  Avindow 
in  the  gable  of  the  jamb.  The  size  of  the  water-closet  is  5  feet  3  inches 
by  3^  feet.  Its  cistern  is  supplied  with  water  from  the  cistei-n  that  sup- 
plies the  sink  in  the  scullery,  and  its  soil-pipe  could  descend  in  an  appro- 
priate recess  in  the  wall.  The  window  of  the  water-closet  could  give  light 
to  the  passage  ^  by  a  glass- window  above  the  water-closet  door,  or  the 
passage  could  be  lighted  by  a  cupola  in  the  roof,  or  it  could  be  lighted 
from  the  cheese-room  h  by  two  windows  in  the  lath  and  plaster  wall,  each 
of  which  could  have  a  pane  to  open  into  the  cheese-room  for  the  purpose 
of  ventilation. 

(237.)  The  entire  space  above  the  kitchen-pantry  and  milk-house  may 
be  appropriated  to  a  cheese-room  h,  29  feet  3  inches  in  length  on  the  floor, 
12  feet  in  width,  and  9  feet  in  hight,  having  3  windows  in  it.  Besides  the 
floor,  proper  shelving  m  should  be  put  up  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
cheese,  in  its  various  stages  toward  maturity  ;  and  the  lower  halves  of  the 
windows  should  be  provided  with  Venetian  shutters,  outside  of  the  glass, 
to  regulate  the  air  into  the  room  when  the  windows  are  opened. 

(238.)  If  there  is  suflScient  room  in  the  roof  above  these  various  apart- 
ments for  a  garret,  access  can  be  obtained  to  it  by  a  stair  at  I,  which  would 
have  to  return  upon  itself  in  ascending  the  9  feet,  the  hight  of  the  story ; 
and  both  this  stair  and  the  one  k  down  to  the  kitchen  could  be  lighted  by 
the  window  n.  If  there  is  no  gan-et,  then  the  cheese-room  will  be  32  feet 
3  inches  in  length,  by  dispensing  with  the  stair  /.  The  window  n  could 
then  be  also  dispensed  with. 

(239.)  These  dimensions  of  kitchen  and  other  apartments  would  be  suit- 
ed to  the  farm-house  of  a  farm  of  from  500  to  1000  acres,  under  the  mixed 
husbandly.  The  milk-house  may,  perhaps,  be  large  enough  for  even  a 
dairy-farm  of  ordinary  extent ;  but  should  it  be  too  small  for  that  purpose, 
it  might  easily  be  enlarged  by  increasing  either  or  both  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  building. 

(240.)  In  regard  to  the  relative  positions  which  the  farm-house  and  steading  should  occupy, 
it  has  been  remarked  by  a  recent  writer,  that  "It  is  generally  advised  that  the  fann-house 
should  be  placed  directly  in  front :  to  which,  however,  it  may  be  objected  that  it  casts  a 
shade  over  the  southern  entrance  of  the  yard  if  veiy  near,  and  if  too  far  off',  its  distance  will 
be  found  to  be  inconvenient.  Perhaps  the  best  situation  is  on  one  side  of  the  farm-yard, 
with  the  common  parlor  and  kitchen  opening  nearly  into  it :  farmers  may  talk  as  they  like 
about  unhealthy  odors  arising  from  the  stables  and  yards,  but  there  never  was  any  one  in- 
jured by  them,  and  they  cannot  keep  too  close  an  eye  upon  their  sei-vants  and  stock."*  If 
farmers  "  cannot  keep  too  close  an  eye  upon  their  servants  and  stock,"  and  if  the  position  of 
their  houses  will  enable  them  to  do  so,  they  should  do  something  more  than  place  them  "  on 
one  side  of  the  faiTn-yard:"  they  must  remain  constantly  in  them,  and  cause  "  their  servants 
and  stock  "  to  be  continually  in  sight  in  the  farm-yard,  otherwise  their  watching  will  be  of 
no  avail ;  for  v^rhen  the  servants  come  to  know  that  the  house  has  been  placed  there  merely 
to  watch  their  proceedings,  they  at  least,  if  not  the  stock,  can  and  vdll  easily  avoid  the  par- 
ticular place  constantly  overlooked  by  the  house.  The  truth  is,  and  every  farmer  knows  it 
that  it  is  not  the  spot  occupied  by  his  house,  whether  here  or  there,  that  maintains  his  ai 
thority  over  his  servants  ;  he  knows  that  he  himself  must  be  "  up  and  doing  "  in  the  fields 
in  the  farm  yard,  every  where — "  be  stining  with  the  lark," 

"  From  mom  to  noon,  from  noon  to  dewy  eve"- 

ere  he  can  ascertain  whether  his  servants  are  doing  their  work  well,  and  his  stock  tluiving 


•  British  Husbandry,  vol.  i.  p. 
(301) 


158  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

•well.  Inconvenience  to  himself  in  poing  a  great  distance  betwixt  his  house  and  the  stead- 
ing,  will  induce  the  fanner  to  place  liis  house  near  ratlier  than  at  a  distance  from  the  stead- 
ing. He  wishes  to  be  within  call — to  be  able  to  be  on  the  spot  in  a  few  seconds,  when  his 
presence  is  required  in  the  fiirm-yard,  the  stable,  the  byre,  or  the  bam ;  but  more  than  this 
he  does  not  ■want,  and  need  not  care  for.  Place  your  house,  therefore,  if  you  have  the 
choice,  ou  some  pleasant  spot,  neither  "  direct  in  front '"  nor  much  in  the  rear  of  the  stead- 
ing. If  there  be  no  such  spot  at  hand,  make  one  for  your  house,  place  it  there,  and  dwell 
in  it,  with  the  comfortable  assurance  that  your  servants  will  not  regard  yon  the  less,  or  your 
btock  thrive  the  worse,  because  you  happen  to  hve  beyond  the  influence  of  the  "  unhealthy 
odors  arising  from  your  stables  and  yaras  " — odors,  by  the  way,  of  the  impleasantuess  of 
which  I  never  heard  a  farmer  complain.  No  one  of  that  class  but  a  sloven  would  place  bis 
hoose  beside  a  dunzhill. 


17.    THE   PERSONS  WHO  LABOR  THE  FARM. 

'John.  Labor  in  thy  rocarion. 

Gto.    Thoa  hast  bit  it;  for  there  'a  no  better  eien  of  a  brave  mind  than  a  hard  hand." 

He.nev  \I.  Pan  n. 

(241.)  Those  who  labor  a  farm  form  the  most  important  part  of  its  ma- 
leiial ;  they  are  the  spirit  that  conducts  its  operations.  You  should,  there- 
fore, become  early  acquainted  with  those  functionaries.  They  are  the 
farmer  himself,  the  steward  or  giieve,  the  plowman,  the  hedger  or  laborer,* 
the  shepherd,  the  cattle-man,  the  field-worker,  and  the  dairy-maid.  These 
have  each  duties  to  perform,  which,  in  their  respective  spheres,  should 
liarmonize  and  never  interfere  with  each  other.  Should  any  occurrence 
happen  to  disturb  the  harmony  of  labor,  it  must  arise  fiom  some  misap- 
prehension or  icriiorance  in  the  interfering  party,  whose  abeiTations  must 
be  rectified  by  the  presiding  power.  I  shall  consider  the  duties  in  the  or- 
der I  have  mentioned  the  respective  agents. 

(242.)  And  first,  those  oix}c\Q  farmer.  It  is  his  province  to  originate  the 
entire  system  of  management — to  determine  the  period  for  commencing 
and  pursuing  every  operation — to  issue  general  orders  of  manaerement  to 
the  steward,  when  there  is  one,  and  if  there  be  none,  to  give  minute  in- 
structions to  the  plowmen  for  the  performance  of  eveiy  separate  field 
operation — to  e.xercise  a  general  superintendence  over  the  field-workers — 
to  observe  the  general  behavior  of  all — to  see  if  the  cattle  are  cared  for — 
to  ascertain  the  condition  of  all  the  crops — to  guide  the  shepherd — to  di- 
rect the  hedger  or  laborer — to  effect  the  sales  of  the  surplus  produce — to 
conduct  the  purchases  conducive  to  the  progressive  improvement  of  the 
farm — to  disburse  the  expenses  of  management — to  pay  the  rent  to  tlie 
landlord — and  to  fulfill  the  obligations  incumbent  on  him  as  a  residenter  of 
the  parish.  All  these  duties  are  common  to  the  farmer  and  the  steward 
engaged  to  manage  a  farm.  An  independent  steward  and  a  farmer  are 
thus  so  far  on  the  same  footing ;  but  the  farmer  occupies  a  loftier  station. 
He  is  his  own  mister — makes  bargains  to  suit  his  own  interests — stands 
on  an  equal  footing  with  the  landlord  in  the  lea.se — has  entire  control  over 
the  seiA-ants,  hiring  and  discharging  them  at  any  term  he  pleases — and 
possesses  power  to  grant  favors  to  scr\ants  and  fiiends.  The  farmer  has 
not  all  those  duties  to  perform  in  any  one  day,  but  in  the  course  of  their 
proper  fiilfiUment,  daily  calls  are  made  on  his  attention,  and  so  large  a  por- 
tion of  his  time  is  occupied  by  them,  that  he  finds  httle  leisure  to  go  far 
from  home,  except  in  the  season  when  few  operations  are  performed  on  a 

[*  Altosether  inapplicable  to  our  coontry.  £i.  Farm.  Lib.] 

(302) 


THE   PERSONS  WHO  LABOR  THE   FARM.  159 


fb,rm,  viz.  the  end  of  summer.  These  are  the  professional  duties  of  the 
farmer  ;  but  he  has  those  of  domestic  and  social  life  to  fulfill,  like  every 
other  member  of  society.  If  a  farmer  fulfills  all  his  duties  as  he  ought  to 
do,  he  cannot  be  said  "  to  eat  the  bread  of  idleness." 

(243.)  The  duty  of  steward,  or  grieve*  as  he  is  called  in  some  parts  of 
Scotland,  and  bailiff  in  England,  consists  in  receiving  general  instructions 
from  his  master  the  farmer,  which  he  sees  executed  by  the  people  under 
his  charge.  He  exercises  a  direct  control  over  the  plowmen  and  field- 
workers  ;  and  unreasonable  disobedience  on  their  part  of  his  commands 
is  reprehended  as  strongly  by  the  farmer  as  if  the  aflfront  had  been  offered 
to  himself:  I  say  unreasonable  disobedience,  because  the  farmer  is  the 
judge  of  whether  the  steward  has  been  reasonable  in  his  demands.  It  is 
the  duty  of  the  steward  to  enforce  the  commands  of  his  master,  and  to 
check  every  deviation  from  rectitude  he  may  observe  in  the  servants  against 
his  interests.  Although  he  should  thus  protect  the  interests  of  his  master 
from  the  attacks  of  any  servant,  yet  it  is  not  generally  understood  that  he 
has  conti'ol  over  the  shepherd,  the  hedger,  or  the  cattle-man,  who  ai'e 
stewards  in  one  sense,  over  their  respective  departments  of  labor.  The 
farmer  reveals  to  the  steward  alone  the  plans  of  his  management ;  intrusts 
him  with  the  keys  of  the  corn-bam,  granaries  and  provision-stores ;  dele- 
gates to  him  the  power  to  act  as  his  representative  on  the  farm  in  his  ab- 
sence ;  and  takes  every  opportunity  of  showing  confidence  in  his  integ- 
rity, truth  and  good  behavior.  When  a  stewai'd  conducts  himself  vnth. 
discretion  in  his  master's  absence,  and  exhibits  at  all  times  a  considerate 
mind,  an  active  person,  and  an  honest  heart,  he  is  justly  regarded  as  a 
valuable  servant. 

(244.)  Personally,  the  farm-steward  does  not  always  labor  y\nth.  his  own 
hands ;  verifying,  by  his  judicious  superintendence,  on  a  large  farm  at 
least,  the  truth  of  the  adage,  that  "  one  head  is  better  than  two  pair  of 
hands."  He  should,  however,  always  deliver  the  daily  allowance  of  com 
to  the  horses.  He  should,  moreover,  be  the  first  person  out  of  bed  in  the 
morning,  and  the  last  in  it  at  night.  On  most  farms  he  does  work  :  he 
sows  the  seed-corn  in  spring,  superintends  the  field-workers  in  summer, 
tends  the  harvest-field  and  builds  the  stacks  in  autumn,  and  threshes  the 
corn  with  the  mill,  and  cleans  it  with  the  winnowing-machine,  in  winter. 
On  some  farms  he  even  works  a  pair  of  horses,  like  a  common  plowman ; 
in  which  case  he  cannot  personally  sow  the  corn,  superintend  the  workers, 
build  the  stacks,  or  ftiresh  the  corn,  unless  another  person  takes  charge  of 
his  horses  for  the  time.  This  is  an  objectionable  mode  of  employing  a 
steward  ;  because  the  nicer  operations — such  as  sowing  com,  &c.  or  the 
guidance  of  his  horses — must  be  intrusted  to  another,  and  most  likely  in- 
ferior, person.  But  in  by  far  the  greatest  number  of  cases,  the  steward 
does  not  work  horses  ;  on  the  contrary,  when  a  plowman  qualifies  himself 
to  become  a  steward,  it  is  chiefly  with  the  view  of  enioying  immunity 
from  that  species  of  drudgery.  In  any  event,  he  should  be  able  to  keep 
an  account  of  the  work-people's  time,  and  of  the  quantity  of  gi-ain  threshed, 
consumed  on  the  farm,  and  delivered  to  purchasers. 

(245.)  Stewards  are  not  required  on  all  sorts  of  farms.  On  pastoial 
farms  his  species  of  sei-vice  would  be  of  no  use,  as  it  is  on  arable  land  that 
these  are  really  required.  Anywhere,  his  services  are  the  most  valuable 
where  the  greatest  multiplicity  of  subjects  demand  attention.  Thus,  he  is 
a  more  useful  servant  on  a  farm  of  mixed  husbandry,  than  on  one  in  the 
neighborhood  of  a  town,  or  on  a  carse  farm.     But  even  on  some  farms  of 

[*  Overseer  or  Manager.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

(303) 


160  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

mixed  culture,  the  services  of  a  steward  are  dispensed  with  altogether  ;  in 
which  case  the  farmer  himself  gives  his  orders  directly  to  the  plowmen, 
or  indiiectly  through  the  hedger  or  cattle-men,  as  he  may  choose  to  ap- 
point to  receive  his  instructions.  In  such  a  case  the  same  pei-son  is  also 
mtrusted  to  corn  the  horses  ;  for  the  plowmen  themselves  are  never  in- 
trusted with  that  business,  as  they  are  apt  to  abuse  such  a  trust  by  giving 
too  much  com  to  the  horses,  to  their  probable  injury.  The  same  person 
performs  other  parts  of  a  steward's  duty ;  such  as  sowing  com,  superin- 
tending field-workers,  and  threshing  com ;  or  those  duties  may  be  divided 
betwixt  the  cattle-man  and  hedger.  On  the  large  fann  in  Berwickshire 
on  which  I  learned  farming,  there  was  no  steward,  the  cattle-man  deliver- 
ing the  master's  orders  and  coming  the  horses,  and  the  hedger  sowing  the 
com,  building  the  stacks,  and  threshing  the  com.  The  object  of  this  ar- 
rangement was  to  save  the  wages  of  a  steward,  when  the  farmer  himself 
was  able  to  undertake  the  general  superintendence.  I  conducted  my  own 
farm  for  several  years  without  a  steward. 

(246.)  The  duties  of  a  ploicman  are  clearly  defined.  The  principal  duty 
is  to  take  charge  of  a  pair  of  horses,  and  work  them  at  every  kind  of  labor 
for  which  horses  are  employed  on  a  faiTn.  Horse-labor  on  a  farm  is  vari- 
ous. It  is  connected  with  the  plow,  the  cart,  sowing-machines,  the  roller, 
and  the  threshing-mill,  when  horse-power  is  employed  in  the  threshing  of 
com ;  so  that  the  knowledge  of  a  plowman  should  comprehend  a  rariety 
of  subjects.  In  the  fiilfillment  of  his  duties,  the  plowman  has  a  long  day's 
work  to  perform  ;  for,  besides  expending  the  appointed  hours  in  the  fields 
with  the  horses,  he  must  gioom  them  before  he  goes  to  the  field  in  the 
morning  and  after  he  returns  from  it  in  the  evening,  as  well  as  at  mid-day 
between  the  two  periods  of  labor.  Notwithstanding  this  constant  toil,  he 
must  do  his  work  with  alacrity  and  good  will ;  and  when,  from  any  cause, 
his  horses  are  laid  idle,  he  must  not  only  attend  upon  them  as  usual,  but 
must  himself  work  at  any  farm-work  he  is  desired.  There  is  seldom  any 
exaction  of  labor  from  the  plowman  beyond  the  usual  daily  hours  of  work, 
these  occupying  at  least  12  hours  a  day  for  7  months  of  the  year,  that  be- 
ing a  sufficient  day's  work  for  any  man's  strength  to  endure.  But  occa- 
sions do  arise  which  justify  the  demand  of  a  greater  sacrifice  of  his  time, 
such  as  seed-time,  hay-time,  and  har\-est.  For  such  encroachments  upon 
his  time,  many  opportunities  occur  of  repaying  him  with  indulgence,  such 
as  a  cessation  from  labor,  especially  in  bad  weather.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
plowman  to  work  his  horses  with  discretion  and  good  temper,  not  only  foi 
the  sake  of  the  horses,  but  that  he  may  execute  his  work  in  a  proper  man- 
ner. It  is  also  his  duty  to  keep  his  horses  comfortably  clean.  Plowmen 
are  never  placed  in  situations  of  trust ;  and  thus,  having  no  responsibility 
beyond  the  care  of  their  horses,  there  is  no  class  of  servants  more  inde- 
pendent. There  should  no  partiality  be  shown  by  the  master  or  steward 
to  one  plowman  more  than  to  another,  as  it  is  the  best  policy  to  treat  all 
alike  who  work  alike.  An  invidious  and  reprehensible  practice  exists, 
however,  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  of  setting  them  to  work  in  an  order 
of  precedency,  which  is  maintained  so  strictly  as  to  be  practiced  even  on 
going  to  and  returning  from  work — one  being  appointed  foreman,  whose 
movements  must  guide  those  of  the  rest.  Should  the  foreman  prove  a 
slow  man,  the  rest  must  not  go  a  single  bout  more  than  he  does;  and,  if 
he  is  active,  they  may  follow  as  best  they  can.  Thus,  while  his  activity 
confers  no  benefit  to  the  farmer  beyond  its  own  work,  his  dullness  discour- 
ages the  activity  of  the  others.  This  consideration  alone  should  be  suffi- 
cient ground  for  farmers  to  abolish  the  practice  at  once,  and  put  the  whole 
of  their  plowmen  on  the  same  footing.     I  soon  saw  the  evils  attending  the 

(304, 


THE   PERSONS  WHO  LABOR  THE  FARM.  161 

system,  and  put  an  end  to  it  on  my  own  farm.  When  one  plowman  dis- 
plays more  skill  than  the  rest,  it  is  sufficient  honor  for  him  to  be  intrusted 
to  execute  the  most  difficult  pieces  of  work ;  and  this  sort  of  preference 
will  give  no  umbrage  to  the  others,  as  they  are  as  conscious  of  his  superi- 
ority in  work  as  the  farmer  himself  can  possibly  be.  The  services  of  plow- 
men are  required  on  all  sorts  of  farms,  from  the  carse-farm  to  the  pastoral, 
on  which  the  greatest  and  the  least  poition  of  arable  culture  are  practiced. 
(247.)  The  services  of  a  shepherd,  properly  so  called,  are  only  i-equired 
where  a  flock  of  sheep  are  constantly  kept.  On  carse-farms,  and  those  in 
the  neighborhood  of  large  towns,  he  is  of  no  use  ;  nor  is  he  required  on 
those  farms  on  which  sheep  are  bought  in  to  be  fed  off  in  winter.  On  pas- 
toral fanns,  on  the  other  hand,  as  also  those  of  the  mixed  husbandry,  his 
services  are  so  indispensable  that  they  could  not  be  conducted  without 
him.  His  duty  is  to  undertake  the  entire  management  of  the  sheep  ;  and, 
when  he  bestows  the  pains  he  should  on  his  flock,  he  has  little  leisure  for 
any  other  work.  His  time  is  occupied  from  early  dawn,  when  he  should 
be  among  his  flock  before  they  rise  from  their  lair,  and  during  the  whole 
day,  to  the  evening,  when  they  again  lie  down  for  the  night.  To  inspect 
a  large  flock  at  least  three  times  a  day,  over  extensive  bounds,  implies  a 
walking  to  fatigue.  Besides  this  daily  exercise,  he  has  to  attend  to  the 
feeding  of  the  young  sheep  on  turnips  in  winter,  the  lambing  of  the  ewes 
in  spring,  the  washing  and  shearing  of  the  fleece  in  summer,  and  the  bath- 
ing of  the  flock  in  autumn.  And,  over  and  above  these  major  operations, 
there  are  the  minor  ones  of  weaning,  milking,  drafting,  and  marking,  at 
appointed  times  ;  not  to  omit  the  unwearied  attention  to  be  bestowed,  for 
a  time,  on  the  whole  flock,  to  evade  the  attacks  of  insects.  It  will  readily 
be  seen,  from  this  summary  of  duties,  that  the  shepherd  has  little  time  to 
bestow  beyond  the  care  of  his  flock.  As  no  one  but  a  shepherd,  thoroughly 
bred,  can  attend  to  sheep,  there  must  be  one  where  a  standing  sheep-flock 
is  kept,  whatever  may  be  the  extent  of  farm.  On  a  small  farm,  his  whole 
time  may  not  be  occupied  in  his  profession,  when  he  can  make  as  well  as 
mend  nets,  prepai'e  stakes  for  them,  and  assist  the  hedger  (if  there  be  one) 
to  keep  the  fences  in  repair ;  or  he  may  act  as  groom,  and  take  charge  of 
the  horse  and  gig,  and  go  en-ands  to  the  post-town  ;  or  he  may  undertake 
the  duties  of  steward.  On  large  pastoral  or  mixed  husbandry  farms,  more 
than  one  shepherd  is  required.  The  establishment  then  consists  of  a  heaci 
shepherd,  and  one  or  more  young  men  training  to  be  shepherds,  who  are 
placed  entirely  under  his  control.  The  office  of  head  shepherd  is  one  of 
great  trust.  Sheep  being  individually  valuable,  and  in  most  instances  con- 
sisting of  large  flocks,  a  misfortune  happening  to  them,  from  whatever 
cause,  must  incur  great  loss.  On  the  other  hand,  the  care  and  skill  of  the 
shepherd  may  secure  a  good  return  for  the  capital  invested  in  sheep.  The 
shepherd  acts  the  part  of  butcher  in  slaughtering  the  animals  used  on  the 
farm.  The  only  assistance  which  he  depends  upon  in  personally  managing 
his  flock  is  that  of  his  faithful  dog,  whose  sagacity  in  that  respect  is  little 
inferior  to  his  own, 

(248.)  The  services  of  the  cattle-man  are  most  wanted  at  the  steading  in 
winter,  when  the  cattle  are  all  housed.  He  has  the  sole  charge  of  them. 
It  is  his  duty  to  clean  out  the  cattle-houses,  and  supply  the  cattle  with 
food,  fodder,  and  litter,  at  appointed  houi's  every  day,  and  to  make  the 
food  ready  for  them,  should  prepared  food  be  given  them.  The  business 
of  tending  cattle  being  matter  of  routine,  the  qualifications  of  a  cattle-man 
are  not  of  a  high  order.  In  summer  and  autumn,  when  the  cows  are  at 
grass,  it  is  his  duty  to  bring  them  into  the  byre  or  to  the  gate  of  the  field, 
as  the  case  may  be,  to  be  milked  at  their  appointed  times  ;  and  it  is  also 

(305) 11 


162  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

his  duty  to  ascertain  that  the  cattle  in  the  fields  are  plentifully  supplied 
with  food  and  water.  He  should  see  the  cows  served  by  the  bull  in  due 
time,  and  keep  an  account  of  the  cows'  reckoninp^s  of  the  time  of  calving. 
He  should  assist  at  the  important  process  of  calving.  As  his  time  is  thus 
only  occasionally  employed  in  summer,  he  frequently  undertakes  the  su- 
perintendence of  tho  field-workers.  In  harvest,  he  is  usefully  employed  in 
assisting  to  make  and  carry  food  to  the  reapers,  and  may  lend  a  hand  at 
the  taking  in  of  the  com.  As  cattle  occupy  the  steading  in  winter  on  all 
kinds  of  farms,  the  services  of  the  cattle-man  appear  indispensable ;  but 
all  his  functions  may  be  performed  by  the  shepherd,  where  only  a  small 
flock  of  sheep  are  kept.  The  office  of  the  cattle-man  is  not  one  of  trust 
nor  of  much  labor.  An  elderly  person  answers  the  purpose  quite  well, 
the  labor  being  neither  constant  nor  heavy,  but  well-timed  and  methodi- 
cal. The  cattle-man  ought  to  exercise  much  patience  and  good  temper 
toward  the  objects  of  his  charge,  and  a  person  in  the  decline  of  life  is  most 
likely  to  possess  those  qualities. 

(249.)  Field-workers  are  indispensable  servants  on  everj'  farm  devoted 
to  arable  culture.  They  mostly  consist  of  young  women  in  Scotland,  but 
more  frequently  of  men  and  boys  in  England ;  and  yet  there  are  many 
manual  operations  much  better  done  by  women  than  men.  In  hand-pick- 
in"-  stones  and  weeds,  in  filling  drains,  and  in  barn-work,  they  are  far  more 
expert,  and  do  them  more  neatly,  than  men.  The  duties  of  field-workers, 
as  their  very  name  implies,  are  to  perform  all  the  manual  operations  of  the 
fields,  as  well  as  those  with  the  smaller  implements,  which  are  not  worked 
by  horses.  The  manual  operations  consist  chiefly  of  cutting  and  planting 
the  sets  of  potatoes,  gathering  weeds,  picking  stones,  collecting  the  potato 
crop,  and  filling  drains  with  stones.  The  operations  with  the  smaller  im- 
plements are  pulling  turnips  and  preparing  them  for  feeding  stock  and 
storing  in  winter,  performing  bam-work,  carrying  seed-corn,  spreading 
manure  upon  the  land,  hoeing  potatoes  and  turnips,  and  weeding  and 
reaping  coni-crops.  A  considerable  number  of  field-workers  are  required 
on  a  farm,  and  they  are  generally  set  to  work  in  a  band.  They  work  most 
steadily  under  superintendence.  The  steward,  the  hedger,  or  cattle-man, 
should  superintend  them  when  the  band  is  large ;  but,  when  small,  one  of 
themselves,  a  staid  person,  who  is  capable  of  taking  the  lead  in  work,  may 
superintend  them  well  enough,  provided  she  has  a  watch  to  mark  the  time 
of  work  and  rest.  But  field-workers  do  not  always  work  by  themselves  ; 
being  at  times  associated  with  the  work  of  the  horses,  when  they  require 
no  particular  superintendence.  On  some  faiTns,  it  is  considered  economi- 
cal to  lay  the  horses  idle,  and  employ  the  plowmen  at  their  labors  rather 
than  engage  field-workers.  This  may  be  one  mode  of  avoiding  a  little 
outlay  of  money ;  but  there  is  no  tnie  economy  in  allowing  horses  "  to  eat 
off  their  own  heads,"  as  the  phrase  has  it  ;  and,  besides,  plowmen  cannot 
possibly  do  light  work  so  well  as  field-workers.  In  manufacturing  districts 
field- workers  are  scarce  ;  but  were  farmers  generally  to  adopt  the  plan  of 
employing  a  few  constantly,  and  hire  them  for  the  purpose  by  the  half 
year,  instead  of  employing  a  large  number  at  times,  young  women  would 
be  induced  to  adopt  field-labor  as  a  profession,  and  become  very  expert  in 
it.  It  is  steadiness  of  service  that  makes  the  field-workers  of  the  south  of 
Scotland  so  superior  to  the  same  class  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 

(250.)  The  duties  of  the  (lairi/-mald  are  well  defined.  She  is  a  domes- 
tic servant,  domiciliated  in  the  farm-house.  Her  principal  duty  is,  as  her 
name  implies,  to  milk  tho  cows,  to  manage  the  milk  in  all  its  stages,  bring 
up  the  calves,  and  make  itito  butter  and  cheese  the  milk  that  is  obtained 
from  the  cows  after  the  weaning  of  the  calves.     The  other  domestics  gen- 

(306) 


THE   WEATHER  IN  WINTER.  -  163 


erally  assist  her  in  milking  the  cows  and  feeding  the  calves,  when  there  is 
a  large  number  of  both.  Should  any  lambs  lose  their  mothers,  the  dairy- 
maid should  bring  them  up  with  cow's  milk  until  the  time  of  weaning, 
when  they  are  retunied  to  the  flock.  At  the  lambing  season,  should  any 
of  the  ewes  be  scant  of  milk,  the  shepherd  applies  to  the  dairy-maid  to 
have  his  bottles  replenished  with  warm  new  milk  for  the  hungered  lambs. 
The  dairy-maid  also  milks  the  ewes  after  the  weaning  of  the  lambs,  and 
makes  cheese  of  the  ewe-milk.  She  should  attend  to  the  poultry,  feed 
them,  set  the  brooders,  gather  the  eggs  daily,  take  charge  of  the  broods 
until  able  to  provide  for  themselves,  and  see  them  safely  lodged  in  their 
respective  apartments  every  evening,  and  let  them  abroad  every  morning. 
It  is  genei-ally  the  dairy-maid,  when  there  is  no  housekeeper,  who  gives 
out  the  food  for  the  reapers,  and  takes  charge  of  their  articles  of  bedding. 
The  dairy-ma,id  should  be  an  active,  attentive,  and  intelligent  person. 

(251.)  These  are  the  duties  of  the  respective  classes  of  servants  found 
on  farms.  You  may  not  require  all  these  classes  on  your  farm,  as  you  have 
seen  that  some  sorts  of  farms  do  not  require  the  services  of  all.  You  have 
seen  that  a  pastoral-farm  has  no  need  of  a  steward,  but  of  a  shepherd ;  a 
carse-farm  no  need  of  a  shepherd,  but  of  a  steward ;  a  farm  in  the  neifh- 
borhood  of  a  town  no  need  of  a  hedger,  but  of  a  cattle-man  ;  and,  on  a 
dairy-farm,  no  need  of  a  shepherd,  but  of  a  dairy-maid ;  but,  in  the  case 
of  a  farm  of  mixed  husbandry,  there  is  need  of  all  these  classes. 

(252.)  And  now  that  you  have  seen  how  multifanous  are  the  duties  of 
them  all,  you  will  begin  to  perceive  how  intricate  an  affair  mixed  hus- 
bandry is,  and  how  well  informed  a  fanner  should  be  of  every  one  of  these 
varieties  of  labor,  before  he  attempts  to  manage  for  himself  To  give  you 
a  stronger  view  of  this,  conceive  the  quantity  and  variety  of  labor  that 
must  pass  through  the  hands  of  these  various  classes  of  work-people  in  the 
course  of  a  year,  and  then  imagine  the  clear-headedness  of  arrangement 
which  a  farmer  should  possess,  to  make  all  their  various  labox's  coincide 
in  every  season,  and  under  every  circumstance,  so  as  to  produce  the  most 
desirable  results.  It  is  in  its  variety  that  the  success  of  labor  is  attained : 
in  other  words,  it  is  in  its  subdivision  that  the  facility  of  labor  is  acquired, 
and  it  is  by  the  intelligence  of  the  laborers  that  perfection  in  it  is  attained. 
And  vain  would  be  the  endeavors  of  any  farmer  to  produce  the  results  he 
does,  were  he  not  ably  seconded  by  the  general  intelligence  and  admirable 
eflSciency  of  his  laborers. 


18.    THE  WEATHER  IN  WINTER. 

"  See,  Winter  comes  to  rule  the  variedyear, 
Sullen  and  sad,  with  all  his  rising  train ; 
Vapors,  and  clouds,  and  storms.    Be  these  my  theme." 

Thomson. 

(253.)  As  the  weather,  at  all  seasons,  has  undeniably  a  sensible  power 
to  expedite  or  retard  the  field  operations  of  the  farm,  it  becomes  an  in- 
cumbent duty  on  you,  as  pupils  of  Agriculture,  to  ascertain  the  principles 
which  regulate  its  phenomena,  in  order  to  anticipate  their  changes  and 
avoid  their  injurious  effects.  It  is,  no  doubt,  difficult  to  acquire  an  accu- 
rate knowledge  of  the  laws  which  govern  the  subtile  elements  of  Nature  ; 

(307) 


164  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM ^WINTER. 

but  experience  has  proved  that  accurate  ohseri^ation  of  atmospherical  'phe- 
nomena is  the  chief  means  which  we  possess  of  becoming  acquainted  with 
those  laws. 

(254.)  In  savins^  tliat  the  weather  has  power  to  alter  the  operations  of 
the  farm,  I  do  not  mean  to  assort  that  it  can  entirely  change  any  gieat  plan 
of  operaticms  that  may  have  been  determined  on,  for  that  may  be  prose- 
cuted even  in  spite  of  the  weather ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  weather 
can  oblige  the  farmer  to  pursue  a  different  and  much  less  efficient  treat- 
ment toward  the  land  than  he  desires,  and  that  the  amount  and  quality  of 
its  produce  may  be  very  seriously  affected  by  the  change  of  treatment. — 
For  example,  tlie  heavy  and  continued  rain  in  autumn  1839  made  the  land 
'so  very  wet  that  not  only  the  summer-fallow,  but  the  potato-land,  could 
not  be  seed-fuiTowed  ;  and  the  inevitable  consequence  was  that  sowing  of 
the  wheat  was  postponed  until  the  spring  of  1840,  and  in  many  cases  the 
farmers  were  obliged  to  sow  barley  instead  of  wheat.  The  itnmediate  ef- 
fect of  this  remarkable  interference  of  the  weather  was  restriction  of  the 
breadth  of  land  appropriated  to  autumnal  wheat,  and  the  consequent  ex- 
tension of  that  intended  for  barley  and  spring  wheat — a  change  that  caused 
so  much  work  in  spring  that  it  had  the  eflfect  of  prolonging  the  harvest  of 
1840  beyond  the  wished-fof  period,  and  of  otherwise  deranging  the  calcu- 
lations of  fanners. 

(255.)  Now,  when  such  a  change  is,  and  may  in  any  season  be,  imposed 
upon  the  farmer,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  prudence  as  well  as  of  desire  to 
become  so  acquainted  with  usual  atmospherical  phenomena  as  to  antici- 
pate the  nature  of  the  weather  that  is  to  come.  If  he  could  anticipate 
particular  changes  of  weather  by  obsei-v-ing  peculiar  phenomena,  he  could 
arrange  his  operations  accordingly.  But  is  such  anticipation  in  regard  to 
the  weather  attainable  %  No  doubt  of  it;  for,  although  it  is  not  as  yet  to 
be  expected  that  minute  changes  of  the  atmosphere  can  be  anticipated, 
yet  the  hhd  of  weather  which  is  to  follow — whether  rainy  or  frosty,  snowy 
or  fresh — may  be  predicted.  We  all  know  the  prescience  actually  attained 
by  people  whose  occupations  oblige  them  to  be  much  in  the  open  air  and 
to  observe  the  weather.  In  this  way  shepherds  and  sailors,  in  their  respect- 
ive circumstances,  have  acquired  such  a  knowledge  of  atmospherical  phe- 
nomena as  to  be  able  to  predict  the  advent  of  important  changes  of  the  at- 
mosphere ;  and  to  show  that  the  sort  of  knowledge  acquired  is  in  accord- 
ance with  the  circumstances  obsei-ved,  it  is  obvious  that,  even  among  these 
two  classes  of  observers,  great  difference  of  acquirements  exists  on  account 
of  diversity  of  talent  for  observation.  For  example  :  A  fi'iend  of  mine,  a 
commander  of  one  of  the  ships  of  the  East  India  Company,  became  so 
noted,  by  observation  alone,  for  anticipating  the  probable  results  of  atmo- 
spherical phenomena  in  the  Indian  seas,  that  his  vessel  has  frequently  been 
Been  to  ride  out  the  storm,  under  bare  poles,  while  most  of  the  ships  in  the 
same  convoy  were  more  or  less  damaged.  As  an  instance  of  similar  saga- 
city in  a  shepherd,  I  remember  in  the  wet  season  of  1817,  when  rain  was 
predicted  as  inevitable  by  every  one  engaged  in  the  afternoon  of  a  very 
busy  day  of  leading  in  the  corn,  the  shepherd  inteipreted  the  symptoms  as 
indicative  of  wind  and  not  of  rain,  and  the  event  comjiletely  justified  his 
prediction. 

(256.)  I  conceive  that  gi-eater  accuracy  of  knowledge  in  regard  to  the 
changes  of  the  weather  may  be  attained  on  land  than  at  sea,  because  the 
effect  of  weather  on  the  sea  itself  enters  as  an  uncertain  element  into  the 
question.  It  is  generally  believed,  however,  that  seamen  are  more  pro- 
ficient than  landsmen  in  foretelliTig  the  weather;  and,  no  doubt,  when  the 
imminent  danger,  in  which  the  lives  of  seamen  are  jeopardized,  is  consid- 

(308) 


THE  WEATHER  IN  WINTER.  165 


ered,  the  circumstance  may  reasonably  be  supposed  to  render  them  pe- 
culiarly alive  to  certain  atmospheiical  changes.  To  men,  however,  under 
constant  command,  as  seamen  are,  it  is  questionable  whether  the  ordinary 
changes  of  the  atmosphere  are  matters  of  much  interest.  In  everything 
that  affects  the  safety  of  the  ship,  and  the  weather  among  the  rest,  every 
confidence  is  placed  by  the  crew  in  the  commanding  officer,  and  it  is  he 
alone  that  has  to  exercise  his  weather  wisdom.  On  the  other  hand,  every 
shepherd  has  to  exercise  his  own  skill  in  regard  to  the  weather,  to  save 
himself,  perhaps,  much  unnecessary  personal  trouble,  especially  on  a  hill- 
farm.  Even  the  young  apprentice-shepherd  soon  learns  to  look  out  for 
himself.  The  great  difference  in  regard  to  a  knowledge  of  the  weather 
betwixt  the  sea-captain  and  the  farmer,  though  both  are  the  sport  of  the  ' 
same  elements,  consists  in  this,  that  the  captain  has  to  look  out  for  him- 
self, whereas  the  farmer  has  his  shepherd  to  look  out  for  him :  the  sea- 
faring commander  himself  knowing  the  weather,  directs  his  men  accord- 
ingly ;  while  the  farmer  does  not  know  it  nearly  so  well  as  his  shepherd, 
and  probably  even  not  so  well  as  his  plowmen.  See  the  effects  of  this 
difference  of  acquirement  in  the  circumstances  of  both.  The  captain 
causes  the  approaching  change  to  be  met  by  prompt  and  proper  appliances; 
whereas  the  farmer  is  too  frequently  overtaken  in  his  operations  fiom  a 
want  of  the  knowledge  probably  possessed  by  his  shepherd  or  plowmen. 
You  thus  see  the  necessity  of  farmers  acquiring  a  hnowhSgc  of  the  iceather 

(257.)  It  being  admitted  that  prescience  of  the  state  of  the  weather  is 
essential  to  the  farmer,  the  question  is,  how  the  pupil  of  Agi-iculture  is  to 
acquire  it  ]  No  doubt  it  can  best  be  attained  by  observation  in  the  field ; 
but  as  that  method  implies  the  institution  of  a  scries  of  observations  ex- 
tending over  a  long  period  of  years,  a  great  part  of  the  lifetime  of  the 
pupil  might  pass  away  ere  he  could  acquire  a  sufficient  stock  of  knowledge 
by  his  own  experience.  This  being  the  case,  it  is  but  right  and  fair  that 
he  should  know  what  the  experience  of  others  is.  This  I  shall  endeavor 
to  communicate,  premising  that  he  must  obseiTO  for  himself,  after  being 
made  acquainted  with  the  manner  of  conducting  his  own  observations. 

(258.)  The  simplest  way  for  me  to  communicate  what  has  been  estab- 
lished in  regard  to  the  observation  of  atmospherical  phenomena,  is,  in  the 
first  place,  to  describe  to  you  the  various  instruments  which  have,  from 
time  to  time,  been  contrived  to  indicate  those  phenomena ;  and  to  put  these 
instruments  into  a  right  use,  you  should  become  well  acquainted  with  their 
respective  modes  of  action,  which  are  all  dependent  on  strictly  scientific 
principles.  All  the  instruments  required  are  the  barometer,  thermometer, 
weathercock,  hygrometer,  and  rain-gauge.  The  principles  upon  which 
these  instruments  operate  shall  be  separately  explained ;  the  phenomena 
of  the  clouds  and  winds,  upon  which  the  diversity  of  the  states  of  the  at- 
mosphere appear  so  much  to  depend,  shall  be  described ;  and  the  efficacy 
of  the  electric  agency,  which  seems  to  affect  so  many  of  the  phenomena 
obsei-ved,  shall  be  noticed.  The  general  principles  of  atmospherical  phe- 
nomena being  thus  considered  in  this  place,  I  shall  have  no  more  occasion 
to  recur  to  them,  but  will  only  have  to  notice  the  characteristic  phenomena 
of  each  season  as  they  occur. 

(259.)  Atmospherical  phenomena  being  the  great  signs  by  which  to 
judge  of  the  iceather,  instruments  are  used  to  detect  their  changes  which 
cannot  be  detected  by  the  senses.  These  instruments  possess  great  inge- 
nuity of  construction,  and  they  all  indicate  pretty  accurately  the  effects 
they  are  intended  to  recognize.  But  though  they  tell  us  nothing  but  the 
truth,  such  is  the  minute  diversity  of  atmospherical  phenomena  that  they 
do  not  tell  us  all  the  truth.      Other  means  for  discovering  that  must  bo 

(309) 


166  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


used ;  and  the  most  available  within  our  reach  is  the  converting  of  the  phe- 
nomena themselves  into  indicators  of  atmospherical  changes.  In  this  way 
we  may  use  the  transient  states  of  the  atmosphere,  in  regard  to  clearness 
and  obscurity,  danipnt^ss  or  dryness,  as  they  aflect  our  senses  of  sight  and 
feeling,  the  shapes  and  evolutions  of  the  clouds,  and  the  peculiar  state  of 
the  wind,  into  means  by  which  to  predicate  the  changes  of  the  weather. 
But  this  kind  of  knowledge  can  only  be  acquired  by  long  obseiTation  of 
natural  phenomena. 

(260.)  The  most  important  instrument,  perhaps — the  most  popular,  cer- 
tainly— for  indicating  the  changes  of  the  atmosphere,  is  the  harometer.  an 
instrument  so  universally  known  and  used  by  farmers,  that  a  particular  de- 
scription of  it  is  here  unnecessary.  This  instrument  is  formed  to  be  placed 
either  in  a  fixed  position  or  to  be  portable.  As  it  is  only  used  in  the 
poitable  shape  to  measure  the  altitude  of  mountains,  the  method  of  using 
it  need  not  be  here  described.  For  a  fixed  position,  the  barometer  is  made 
either  of  the  figure  of  an  upright  column  or  of  a  wheel.  Whether  it  is 
because  that  the  divisions  on  the  large  circular  disk,  pointed  out  by  the 
long  index  of  the  wheel-barometer,  are  more  easily  observed  than  the  va- 
rieties of  the  column  of  mercury  in  the  peipcndicular  one,  is  the  reason 
which  renders  the  wheel-barometer  more  popular  among  farmers,  I  know 
not ;  but  were  they  to  consider  that  its  indications  cannot  be  so  delicate 
as  those  of  the  upright  form,  because  of  the  machinery  which  the  oscilla- 
tions of  the  mercury  have  to  put  in  motion  before  the  long  index  can  in- 
dicate any  change,  the  upright  form  would  always  be  prefeiTed.  It  is 
true  that  the  tube  of  the  upright  barometer  is  genei-ally  made  too  small, 
and  is  perhaps  so  made  to  save  mercury  and  make  the  insti-ument  cheaper; 
but  a  small  tube  has  the  disadvantage  of  increasing  the  friction  of  the 
mercury  in  its  passage  up  and  down  the  tube.  On  this  account  the  mer- 
cury is  apt  to  be  kept  above  its  proper  level  when  falling,  and  to  be  de- 
pressed below  its  proper  bight  when  rising.  To  obviate  this  inconvenience, 
a  tap  of  the  hand  against  the  case  of  the  instrument  is  required  to  bring 
the  mercury  to  its  proper  position.  The  tendency  of  the  mercury  to  rise 
may  be  obsci^ed  by  the  convex  or  raised  form  of  the  top  of  the  column  ; 
and  the  hollow  or  concave  form  indicates  its  tendency  to  fall. 

(261.)  In  obsei'ving  the  state  of  the  barometer,  too  much  regard  should 
not  be  had  to  the  numerals  and  words  usually  written  on  the  giaduated 
scale,  ])laccd  along  the  range  of  the  top  of  the  column  of  mercury  ;  be- 
cause it  is  the  rising  or  falling  of  the  mercury  alf)ne  that  is  to  be  taken  as 
indicative  of  a  change  of  weather,  whatever  may  be  its  actual  bight  in  the 
tube.  The  greatest  hight  attained  by  the  column  is  entirely  determined 
by  the  hight  of  elevation  of  the  place  of  obsei-vation  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  The  higher  the  place  is  above  the  sea,  the  mean  hight  of  the 
column  will  be  the  lower.  For  example,  on  comparing  two  barometers 
at  the  .same  time,  at  two  place?  of  different  bights  in  the  same  part  of  the 
country,  and  subject  to  the  same  climate,  one  may  stand  as  high  as  30 
inches,  and  the  other  only  at  291  inches.  According  to  the  usual  mark- 
ings of  barometers,  the  mercury  at  the  first  place  would  stand  at  "  Fair," 
whereas,  at  the  other  place,  it  would  be  at  "  Changeable."  This  differ- 
ence of  the  mercury  is  in  itself  important,  but  it  does  not  arise  from  any 
difference  in  the  state  of  the  air,  as  indicative  of  a  change  of  weather,  but 
merely  from  the  difference  of  elevation  of  the  two  places  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  The  mercury  is  as  near  its  greatest  bight  at  29^  inches  at  the 
higher  place,  as  it  is  at  .30  inches  at  the  lower  place,  in  reference  to  their 
respective  positions  above  the  sea ;  and  this  being  the  case,  and  other  cir- 
cumstances equal,  it  will  be  the  same  weather  at  both  places.     This  differ- 

(310) 


THE   WEATHER  IN  WINTER. 


167 


ence  of  the  hight  of  the  mercury  is  explained  in  this  way.  The  barome- 
ter being  the  instniment  which  indicates  the  weight  or  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere,  as  its  name  imphes,  it  is  found  on  trial  that  the  mercury 
stands  highest  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  that  it  descends  as  elevation 
above  the  sea  increases.  The  depression  has  been  found  by  experiment 
to  be  jg  of  an  inch  for  about  every  88  feet  of  elevation,  or  more  correctly 
as  given  in  this  table.* 

Table  showing  the  Nujiber  of  Feet  of  Altitude  corresponding  to  Depressions 
OF  the  Barometer. 


Depression. 

Altitude  in 
feet. 

Depression. 

Altiiude  in 
feet. 

•1 
-2 
-3 
•4 
■5 

87 
175 
262 
350 
439 

-6 
■7 
■8 
■9 
1  inch. 

527 
616 

705 
795 
885 

(262.)  It  becomes,  then,  a  matter  of  some  importance  for  you,  in  order 
to  place  explicit  reliance  on  the  changes  indicated  by  your  barometer,  to 
ascertain  the  hight  of  your  farm  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  If  you  know 
that  by  other  means,  namely,  by  trigonometry,  then  the  allowance  in  the 
table  will  give  you  its  true  elevation  ;  but  should  you  not  be  acquainted 
with  its  elevation,  which  is  usually  the  case  with  farmers,  the  mean  hight 
of  the  barometer  can  be  ascertained  by  a  series  of  simple  observations, 
made  at  a  given  time,  over  a  year  or  more.  For  example,  "  the  sum  of 
one  year's  observations,  made  at  10  A.  M.  and  10  P.  M.  in  1827,  was 
21615-410  inches,  and  this  number  divided  by  the  number  of  observations, 
730,  or  twice  the  number  of  days  in  that  year,  gave  29-610  inches  as  the 
mean  hight  or  changeable  point  of  the  barometer."!  Now,  taking  the 
mean  hight  of  the  barometer  at  29-948  inches  at  the  mean  level  of  the  sea, 
where  the  atmosphere  always  indicates  the  greatest  density,  deduces  from 
nine  years'  observations  at  the  mean  temperature  of  the  air,  with  a  i-ange 
from  28  inches  to  31  inches,  it  is  seen  that  the  instance  adduced  above  of 
29-610  inches  gives  -338  of  an  inch  less  than  the  mean,  which,  by  the  ta- 
ble, indicates  an  elevation  of  the  place  of  observation  of  about  265  feet 
above  the  mean  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  from  the  mercury  being  above  or 
below  this  point  of  29-610  inches  in  the  supposed  place  of  your  farm,  that 
you  are  to  conclude  what  weather  may  be  expected  at  that  place,  from 
the  changes  of  the  barometer.  From  the  want  of  this  knowledge,  farm- 
ers are  generally  led  into  the  mistake  of  supposing  that  the  words  "  Fair," 
"  Change,"  "  Rain,"  engraved  on  the  scale  of  the  barometer,  indicate  such 
weather  in  all  places,  when  the  mercury  stands  at  them.  The  best  way  to 
coiTect  this  mistake  is  to  have  the  words  engraved  at  the  bights  truly  ap- 
plicable to  the  particular  place  of  observation.  Notwithstanding  this 
source  of  common  error,  the  barometer  is  a  generally  useful  instrument, 
inasmuch  as  its  indications  foretell  the  same  results  at  all  seasons,  with  per- 
haps only  this  exception,  those  of  the  effects  of  heat  in  summer,  which 
cannot  of  course  be  noticed  in  winter. 

(263.)  The  general  indications  of  the  barometer  are  few,  and  may  easily 
be  remembered.  A  high  and  stationary  mercury  indicates  steady,  good 
weather.  A  slow  and  regular  fall  indicates  rain;  and,  if  during  an  E. 
wind,  the  rain  will  be  abundant.  A  sudden  fall  indicates  a  gale  of  wind, 
and  most  probably  from  the  W.  Good,  steady  weather  must  not  be  ex- 
pected in  sudden  depressions  and  elevations  of  the  mercury.     A  fine  day 


*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  iii.  p.  5. 
(311) 


t  Ibid,  p.  3. 


168  THE  BOOK  OF  T1!E  FARM WINTER. 

may  intervene,  but  the  jjeneral  state  of  the  weather  may  be  expected  tc 
be  unsteady.  An  E.  or  N.  E.  wind  keeps  up  the  mercury  against  all  other 
indications  of  a  change.  A  W.  or  iS.  W.  wind  causes  a  fall  when  the  wind 
changes  from  E.  or  N.  E.  ;  but,  should  no  fall  take  place,  the  maintenance 
of  the  hight,  in  the  circumstances,  is  equivalent  to  a  rise,  and  the  reverse 
of  this  is  equivalent  to  a  fall.  The  quantity  affected  by  these  paiticulai- 
causes  may  be  estimated  at  ^  of  an  inch.*  The  barometer,  at  .'^ea,  is  a 
good  indicator  of  wind,  but  not  of  rain.  When  the  barometer  is  used 
within  dooi-s,  the  best  situation  for  it  is  in  any  room  where  the  tempera- 
ture is  equal,  and  not  exposed  to  sunshine.  The  cost  of  a  perpendicular 
barometer  of  good  workmanship  is  from  c£*l  lis.  6d.  to  £2  12s.  6d.  accord- 
ing to  taste  and  finish  ;  that  of  a  wheel-barometer  from  ,£2  2s.  to  c£5  Ss. 
The  barometer  was  invented  by  Toiricelli,  a  pupil  of  Galileo,  in  1643. 

(264.)  Among  the  variable  causes  which  affect  the  barometer  is  the  di- 
rection of  the  wind.  The  maximum  of  pressure  is  when  the  wind  is  X.  E. 
decreasins:  in  both  directions  of  the  azimuth  till  it  reaches  the  minimum 
between  S.  and  S.  W.  This  difference  amounts  to  above  yq  of  an  inch  at 
London.  The  variation  occasioned  by  the  wind  may  be  owing  to  the  cold 
which  always  accompanies  the  E.  winds  in  spring,  connected  as  they  prob- 
ably are  with  the  melting  of  the  snow  in  Norway ;  but  it  is  not  unlikely  to 
be  owins:,  as  Mr.  Meikle  suggests,  to  its  opposition  to  the  direction  of  the 
rotation  of  the  earth,  causing  atmospherical  accumulation  and  pressure,  by 
diminishing  the  centrifugal  force  of  the  aerial  paiticles.t 

(265.)  The  accidental  variations  of  barometric  pressure  are  greatly  in- 
fluenced by  latitude.  At  the  equator  it  may  be  said  to  be  nothing,  hurri- 
canes alone  causing  any  exception.  The  variability  increases  toward  the 
poles,  owinor  probably  to  the  irregularity  of  the  winds  beyond  the  tiopics. 
The  mean  variation  at  the  equator  is  2  lines,t  in  France  10  lines,  and  in 
Scotland  15  lines,  throughout  the  year — the  quantity  having  its  monthly 
oscillations.  These  do  not  appear  to  follow  the  parallels  of  latitude,  but, 
like  the  isothermal  lines,  undergo  inflections,  which  are  said  to  have  a 
striking  similarity  to  the  isoclinal  magnetic  lines  of  Hanstcen.  If  so,  it  is 
probably  by  the  medium  of  temperature  that  these  two  are  connected. — 
More  lately,  M.  Kamtz  has  pointed  out  the  connection  of  the  winds  with 
such  changes,  and  he  has  illusti-ated  the  influence  of  the  prevalent  aerial 
currents  which  traverse  Europe,  though  not  with  apparent  regularity,  yet, 
at  least,  in  subjection  to  some  general  laws.|| 

(266.)  The  st/mpicsomefer  was  invented  by  Mr.  Adie,  optician  in  Edin- 
burgh, as  a  substitute  for  the  common  barometer.  Its  indications  are  the 
same,  with  the  advantage  of  having  a  longer  scale.  For  the  measurement 
of  hights  this  instrument  is  very  convenient,  from  its  small  size  admitting 
of  its  being  cjirried  in  the  coat-pocket,  and  not  being  subject  to  the  same 
chances  of  accident  as  the  portable  barometer.  The  hight  is  given  in  fath- 
oms on  the  instrument,  requiring  only  one  correction,  which  is  performed 
by  a  small  table  engraved  on  its  case.  It  is  stated  to  be  delicately  sensi- 
ble of  changes  at  sea,  particularly  of  gales.  Not  being  an  instmment 
which  has  been  brought  into  general  use,  though  Professor  Forbes  is  con- 
vinced it  might  be,  I  need  not  allude  to  it  farther  here.§ 

(267.)  The  next  instrument  which  claims  our  attention  is  the  thermome- 
ter. As  its  name  implies,  it  is  a  measurer  of  heat.  It  is  undoubtedly  the 
most  perfect  of  our  meteorological  instruments,  and  has  been  the  means 


•  Qudrteriy  Journal  of  Acriculture.  voL  iii.  p.  2.    t  Edinbureh  New  Philosophical  Jonrnal,  vol.  iv.  p.  106. 
t  A  line  =  twelfth  part  of  an  inch.  ||  Korbes'g  Report  on  Meteoroloey,  voL  L 

5  See  Edinburgh  Journal  of  Science,  vol.  x.  p.  334,  for  a  descnption  of  this  ingenious  instrument ;  and 
New  Series,  voU  it.  pp  91  and  329. 
(312) 


THE  WEATHER  IN  WINTER.  169 

of  establishing  the  most  important  facts  to  science ;  but,  being  a  mere 
measurer  of  temperature,  it  is  incapable  of  indicating  changes  of  the  atmo- 
sphere so  clearly  as  the  barometer,  and  is  therefore  a  less  useful  instru- 
ment to  the  farmer.  Regarding  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, the  feelings  can  judge  sufficiently  well ;  and,  as  the  condition  of 
most  of  the  productions  of  the  farm  indicates  pretty  well  whether  the  cli- 
mate of  a  particular  locality  can  bring  any  species  of  crop  to  perfection, 
the  farmer  seems  independent  of  the  use  of  the  thermometer.  Still,  it  is 
of  importance  for  him  to  know  the  lowest  degi'ee  of  temperature  in  winter, 
as  certain  kinds  of  farm  produce  are  injured  by  the  effects  of  extreme  cold, 
of  which  the  feelings  are  incapable,  from  want  of  habit,  of  estimating  their 
power  of  mischief  For  this  purpose,  a  thermometer  self-registering  the 
lowest  degree  of  cold  will  be  found  a  useful  instrument  on  a  farm.  As 
gieat  heat  does  no  harm,  a  self-registering  thermometer  of  the  greatest  lieat 
seems  not  so  useful  an  instrument  as  the  other  two. 

(268.)  "  The  thermometer,  by  which  the  temperature  of  our  atmosphere 
was  determined,"  says  Mr.  John  Adie,  of  Edinburgh,  "  was  invented  by 
Sanctario,  in  1590.  The  instrument,  in  its  first  construction,  was  very  im- 
perfect, having  no  fixed  scale,  and  air  being  the  medium  of  expansion.  It 
was  soon  shown,  from  the  discovery  of  the  barometer,  that  this  instrument 
was  acted  upon  by  pressure  as  well  as  temperature.  To  separate  these 
effects,  alcohol  was  employed  as  the  best  fluid,  from  its  gi-eat  expansion  by 
heat,  but  was  afterward  found  to  expand  unequally.  Reaumur  first  pro- 
posed the  use  of  mercury  as  the  expansive  medium  for  the  thermometer. 
This  liquid  metal  has  great  advantages  over  every  other  medium  ;  it  has 
the  power  of  indicating  a  great  range  of  temperature,  and  expands  very 
equally.  After  its  introduction,  the  melting  point  of  ice  was  taken  as  a 
fixed  point,  and  the  divisions  of  the  scale  were  made  to  correspond  to 
l.o_.th  parts  of  the  capacity  of  the  bulb.  It  was  left  for  the  ingenious 
Fahrenheit  to  fix  another  standard  point,  that  of  boiling  water  under  the 
mean  pi-essure  of  the  atmosphere,  which  is  given  on  his  scale  at  212^  ;  the 
melting  point  of  ice  at  32^.  This  scale  of  division  has  almost  universally 
been  adopted  in  Britain,  but  not  at  all  generally  on  the  Continent.  The 
zero  of  this  scale,  though  an  arbitrary  point  adopted  by  Fahrenheit,  from 
the  erroneous  idea  that  the  greatest  possible  cold  was  produced  by  a  mix- 
ture of  common  salt  and  snow,  has  particular  advantages  for  a  climate  like 
ours  ;  besides  being  generally  known,  the  zero  is  so  placed  that  any  cold 
which  occurs  very  rarely  causes  the  mercury  to  fall  below  that  point,  so 
that  no  mistake  can  take  place  with  regard  to  noting  minus  quantities. — 
The  only  other  divisions  of  the  thermometer  between  the  two  fixed  points 
in  general  use  are  those  of  Reaumur  and  the  centesimal :  the  former  di- 
vides the  space  into  80  equal  parts  ;  the  division  of  the  latter,  as  indicated 
by  its  name,  is  into  100  parts.  In  both  these  scales  the  zero  is  placed  at 
the  melting  point  of  ice,  or  32°  Fahrenheit."*  The  self-registering  ther- 
mometers were  the  invention  of  the  late  Dr.  John  Rutherfurd,  and  his  are 
yet  the  best.  The  tube  of  the  one  for  ascertaining  the  greatest  degree  of 
heat  is  inclined  neai'ly  in  a  horizontal  position  and  filled  \Wth  mercury,  up- 
on the  top  of  the  column  of  which  stands  an  index,  which,  on  being  pushed 
upward,  does  not  return  until  made  to  descend  to  the  top  of  the  mercury 
by  elevating  the  upper  end  of  the  thermometer.  This  index  was  first  made 
of  metal,  which  became  oxydized  in  the  tube,  and  uncertain  in  its  motions. 
Mr.  Adie,  optician  in  Edinburgh,  improved  the  instrument,  by  introducing 
a  fluid  above  the  mercury,  in  which  is  floated  a  glass  index,  which  is  free 

*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  iii.  o.  5 
(313) 


170  THE   BOOK   OF  THE   FARM WINTER. 

from  any  action,  and  is  retained  in  its  place  by  the  fluid.  "  The  other 
thermometer,  for  retpsteriiiij  the  hjwest  degree,"  says  Mr.  John  Adie,  "is 
filled  with  alcohol,  having  an  index  of  black  glass  immei-sed  in  the  liquid. 
This  index  is  always  carried  down  to  the  lowest  point  to  which  the  tem- 
perature falls ;  the  spirit  passes  freely  upward  without  changing  the  place 
of  the  index,  so  that  it  remains  at  the  lowest  point.  This  instioiment,  like 
the  other,  turns  upon  a  center,  to  depress  the  upper  end,  and  allow  the  in- 
dex, by  its  own  weight,  to  come  into  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  spiiit, 
after  the  greatest  cold  has  been  obsei-\-ed,  which  is  indicated  by  the  upper 
end  of  the  index,  or  that  farthest  from  the  bulb.  In  both  cases  the  instru- 
ments are  to  be  left  nearly  horizontal,  the  bulb  end  being  lowest.  This 
angle  is  most  easily  fixed  by  placing  the  bulb  about  f  of  an  inch  under  the 
horizontal  line."* 

(2G9.)  Thermometers  of  all  kinds,  when  fixed  up  for  observation,  should 
be  placed  out  of  the  reach  of  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  or  oi  any  reflected 
heat.  If  at  a  window  or  against  a  wall,  the  the.-  nometer  should  have  a 
northern  aspect,  and  be  kept  at  a  little  distance  from  either ;  for  it  is  sur- 
prising through  what  a  space  a  sensible  portion  of  heat  is  conveyed  from 
soil  and  walls,  or  even  from  gi-ass  illuminated  by  the  sun.  The  maxima 
of  temperature,  as  indicated  by  thermometers,  are  thus  generally  too  gi'eat ; 
and  from  the  near  contact  in  which  thermometers  are  generally  placed 
with  larjje  ill-conducting  masses,  such  as  walls,  the  temperature  of  the  night 
is  kept  up,  and  the  minima  of  temperature  are  thus  also  too  high.  The 
price  of  a  common  thermometer  is  from  5s.  6d.  to  14s.  and  of  Rutherfurd's 
minimum  self-registering  thermometer  10s.  6d. 

(270.)  Many  highly  interesting  results  have  been  obtained  by  the  use  of 
the  thermometer,  and  among  the  most  interesting  ai'e  those  regarding  the 
mean  temperature  of  diflerent  localities.  In  prosecuting  this  subject,  it 
was  found  that  a  diurnal  oscillation  took  place  in  the  temperature  as  well 
as  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  and  that  this  again  vaiies  with  the  sea- 
sons. Nothing  but  frequent  observations  during  the  day  could  ascertain 
the  mean  temperature  of  different  places ;  and,  in  so  prosecuting  the  sub' 
ject,  it  was  discovered  that  there  were  hours  of  the  day,  the  mean  temper- 
ature of  which,  for  the  whole  year,  was  equal  to  the-mean  of  the  whole  24 
hours,  which,  when  established,  would  render  all  future  observations  less 
difficult.     The  results  exhibit  an  extraordinary  coincidence. 

Thus  the  mean  of  1804  gave  13'  past  9  A.  M.  and  26  past  8  P.  M. 
1825     ..     13'     ..    9      ..        ..    28      ..     8     .. 


Giving  the  aiean  of  the  2  years  13'    ..9     ..        ..    27'    ..    8     .. 

These  results  were  obtained  from  a  series  of  observations  made  at  Leith 
Fort  in  the  years  1S24  and  1825  by  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.! 
Some  of  the  other  consequences  deducible  from  these  observations  are, 
"that  the  mean  hour  of  the  day  of  minimum  temperature  for  the  year  is  5 
A.  M.,  and  that  of  maximum  temperature  40'  past  2  P.  M. ;  that  the  devia- 
tion of  any  pair  of  hours  of  the  same  name  from  the  mean  of  the  day  is 
less  than  half  a  degree  of  Fahrenheit,  and  of  all  pairs  of  hours,  4  A.  M. 
and  P.  M.  are  the  most  accurate ;  that  the  mean  annual  temperature  of 
any  hour  never  differs  more  than  3^.2  from  the  mean  of  the  day  for  the 
whole  year ;  that  the  mean  daily  range  is  a  minimum  at  the  winter  sol- 
stice, and  a  maximum  in  April ;  and  that  the  mean  daily  range  in  this 
climate  is  6*^.065. "J  The  mean  temperature  at  Leith  Fort  for  the  mean 
of  the  two  years,  at  an  elevation  of  25  feet  above  the  mean  level  of  the 


•  QuRrterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  JiL  p.  7.  t  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Transactions,  voL  x. 

t  Forbef's  Report  on  Meteorology,  voLi. 
(314) 


THE  WEATHER  IN  WINTER.  171 


sea  was  found  to  be  48°. 36.  The  mean,  taken  near  Edinburgh,  at  an  alti- 
tude of  390  feet  above  the  mean  level  of  the  sea,  at  10  A.  M.  and  P.  M. 
with  a  common  thermometer,  and  with  the  maximum  and  minimum  re- 
sults of  self-registering  thermometers,  gave  these  results  when  reduced  to 
the  mean  level  of  the  sea  :  With  the  self-i-egistering  thermometers  48°. 413 
and  with  two  observations  a  day  with  the  common  thermometer  48°.352, 
which  correspond  remarkably  with  the  observations  at  Leith  Fort.  These 
observations  were  taken  at  10  A.  M.  and  10  P.  M.,  which  were  found  to 
be  the  particular  hours  which  gave  a  near  approximation  to  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  day ;  but  had  they  been  made  at  the  more  coiTect  pe- 
riods of  13'  past  9  A.  M.  and  21'  past  8  P.  M.,  it  is  probable  that  the  re- 
sults with  those  at  Leith  Fort  would  have  corresponded  exactly.*  The 
mean  temperature  of  any  place  may  be  ascertained  pretty  nearly  by  ob- 
serving the  mean  temperature  of  deep-seated  springs,  or  that  of  deep 
wells.  Thus  the  Crawley  Springs,  in  the  Pentland  Hills,  which  supply 
Edinburgh  with  abundance  of  water,  situated  at  an  elevation  of  564  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  give  a  mean  temperature  of  46°.3,  accordino- 
to  observations  made  in  1811  by  Mr.  Jardine,  civil  engineer,  Edinburgh; 
and  the  Black  Spring,  which  is  882  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  gave 
a  mean  temperature  of  44^.9,  by  observations  made  in  the  course  of 
1810-11—15-18-19.  A  well  in  the  Cowgate  of  Edinburgh  gave  a  mean 
temperature  of  49°.3,  by  observations  made  every  month  in  the  year  1794, 
of  which  th^  temperature  of  the  month  of  June  approached  nearest  to 
the  mean  temperature  of  the  yeai",  being  49°.5.t 

(271.)  The  measurement  of  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphei'e  is  a  jub- 
ject  of  gi-eater  importance  in  a  scientific  than  in  a  practical  poliit ;  for 
however  excellent  the  instrument  may  be  for  determining  the  degree  of 
humidity,  the  atmosphere  has  assumed  the  humid  state  betore  any  indica- 
tion of  the  change  is  noticed  on  the  instrument,  and  in  this  lespect  it  is 
involved  in  the  same  predicament  as  the  thermometer,  which  only  tells 
the  existing  heat,  and  both  are  less  useful  on  a  farm  than  the  barometer, 
which  indicates  an  approaching  change.  No  instrument  has  yet  been  con- 
trived by  which  the  quantity  of  moisture  in  the  air  can  be  ascertained 
from  inspection  of  a  fixed  scale,  without  the  use  of  tables  to  rectify 
the  observation.  The  insti'ument  used  for  ascertaining  the  moisture  of 
the  air  is  appropriately  termed  a  hygrometer.  Professor  Leslie  was  the 
first  to  construct  a  useful  instrument  of  this  kind.  His  is  of  the  form  of  a 
diffei'ential  thermometer,  having  a  little  sulphuric  acid  in  it ;  and  the  cold 
is  produced  by  evaporation  of  water  from  one  of  the  bulbs  covered  with 
black  silk,  which  is  kept  wetted,  and  the  degree  of  evaporation  of  the 
moisture  from  the  bulb  indicates  the  dryness  of  the  air. 

(272.)  Another  method  of  ascertaining  the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere, 
is  by  the  dew-point  hygrometer  of  Professor  Daniells  ;  but  this  instru- 
ment is  considered  rather  difficult  of  management,  except  in  expert  hands. 

(273.)  The  best  hygrometer  is  that  of  Dr.  Mason,  which  consists  of  two 
thermometers,  fastened  upright  to  a  stand  having  a  fountain  of  water  in  a 
glass  tube  placed  betwixt  them,  and  out  of  which  the  v/ater  is  taken  up 
to  one  of  the  bulbs  by  means  of  black  floss  silk.  When  the  air  is  very 
dry,  the  difference  between  the  two  thermometers  wall  be  great ;  if  moist, 
less  in  proportion  ;  and  when  fully  saturated,  both  will  be  alike.  The  silk 
that  covers  the  wet  bulb,  and  thread  which  conveys  the  water  to  it,  re- 
quire renewal  about  every  month,  and  the  fountain  is  filled  when  requi- 
site with  distilled  water,  or  water  that  has  been  boiled  and  allowed  to  cool, 


*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  toI.  iii.  p.  9.  t  Ibid.  p.  10-11. 

{315J 


172  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


by  immersing  it  in  a  basin  of  the  water  till  the  aperture  only  is  just  upon  the 
surface,  and  the  water  will  flow  into  it.  For  ordinary  purposes  of  ob- 
servation, it  is  only  necessary  to  j)lace  the  instrument  in  a  retired  part  of 
the  room  away  from  the  fire,  and  not  exposed  to  weather,  open  dehors,  or 
passages  ;  but  for  nice  experiments  the  observations  should  always  be 
made  in  the  open  air  and  in  the  shade,  taking  especial  care  that  the  in- 
strument be  not  influenced  by  the  radiation  of  any  heated  bodies,  or  any 
currents  of  air.  When  the  hygrometer  is  placed  out  of  doors  in  frosty 
weather,  the  fountain  had  better  be  removed,  as  the  freezing  of  the  watei 
within  may  cause  it  to  break ;  in  this  case  a  thin  coating  of  ice  may  soon 
l>e  formed  on  the  wet  bulb,  which  will  last  a  considerable  time  wet,  and 
be  rewctted  when  required. 

(274.)  Very  simple  hygi'ometers  may  be  made  of  various  substances,  to 
8how  whether  the  air  is  more  or  less  humid  at  any  given  time.  One  sub- 
stance is  the  awn  of  the  Tartarian  and  wild  oats,  which,  when  fixed  in  a 
perpendicular  position  to  a  card,  indicates,  by  its  spiked  beard,  the  degree 
of  humidity.  A  light  hog's  bristle  split  in  the  middle,  and  riding  by  the 
split  upon  the  stem  of  the  a^vn,  forms  a  better  index  than  the  spike  of  the 
awn  itself  To  adjust  this  instrument,  you  have  only  to  wet  the  awn  and 
observe  how  far  it  canies  round  the  index,  and  mark  that  as  the  lowest 
point  of  humidity,  and  then  subject  the  awn  to  the  heat  of  the  fire  for  the 
highest  point  of  dryness,  which,  when  marked,  will  give  betwixt  the  two 
points  an  arc  of  a  circle,  which  may  be  divided  into  its  degrees.  I  have 
used  such  an  instrument  for  some  time.  When  two  or  more  are  com 
pare  '  together,  the  mean  of  humidity  may  be  obtained.  The  awns  can 
be  rene,\ed  at  pleasure.  With  regard  to  confiding  in  the  truth  of  this 
simple  hygrometer,  the  precaution  of  Dr.  Wells  is  worth  attention.  "  Hy- 
grometers formed  of  animal  and  vegetable  substances,"  he  says,  "  when 
exposed  to  a  clear  sky  at  night,  will  become  colder  than  the  atmosphere, 
and  hence  by  attracting  dew,  or,  according  to  an  observation  of  Saussure, 
by  merely  cooling  the  air  contiguous  to  them,  mark  a  degi-ee  of  moisture 
beyond  what  the  atmosphere  actually  contains.  This  serves  to  explain 
an  observation  made  by  M.  de  Luc,  that  in  serene  and  calm  weather,  the 
humidity  of  the  air,  as  determined  by  a  hygrometer,  increases  about  and 
after  sunset  with  a  greater  rapidity  than  can  be  attributed  to  a  diminution 
of  the  general  heat  of  the  atmosphere."*  The  principle  of  this  sort  of 
hygrometer  may  serve  to  explain  a  remarkable  natural  phenomenon. 
"  Hygrometers  were  made  of  quills  by  Chimincllo,  which  renders  it  prob- 
able that  birds  are  enabled  to  judge  of  approaching  rain  or  fair  weather. 
For  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that  an  animal  having  a  thousand  hygrometers 
intimately  connected  with  its  body,  must  be  liable  to  be  powerfully  affect- 
ed, with  regard  to  the  tone  of  its  organs,  by  very  slight  changes  in  the 
dryness  or  humidity  of  the  air,  particularly  when  it  is  considered  that  many 
of  the  feathers  contain  a  large  quantity  of  blood,  which  must  be  alter- 
nately propelled  into  the  system,  or  withdrawn  from  it,  according  to  their 
contraction  or  dilatation  by  dryness  or  moisture."!  Does  Virgil  allude  to 
a  hygrometric  feeling  in  birds  when  he  says — 

"Wet  \veatlicr  Bcldom  hurts  the  most  unwise, 
So  plain  t!ie  signs,  such  prophets  are  the  skies : 
The  wary  crane  foresees  it  first,  and  sails 
Above  the  storm,  and  leaves  the  lowly  vale8."t 

(275.)  The  Weat?ier-cock  is  a  very  useful  instrument  to  the  farmer.      It 
should  be  erected  on  a  conspicuous  part  of  the  steading,  which  may  readily 

*  Wells  on  Dew,  p.  64.    t  Edinburgh  EncyclopiBdia,  art.  Hygrometry.     %  Dryden's  Virgil,  i.  Georgics,  514 
(316) 


THE   WEATHER  IN  WINTER.  173 

be  observed  from  one  of  the  windows  of  the  farm-house.  Its  position  on 
the  steading  may  be  seen  in  fig.  1,  Plate  I.,  and  fig.  3,  Plate  III.  Its  car 
dinal  points  should  be  marked  with  the  letters  N.  E.  S.  W.,  to  show  at  a 
glance  the  true  points  of  the  compass.  The  vane  should  be  fitted  up  with 
a  ball  or  box  containing  oil,  which  may  be  renewed  when  required.  There 
is  not  a  neater  or  more  appropriate  foraa  for  a  vane  than  an  arrow,  whose 
dart  is  always  ready  to  pierce  the  wind,  and  Avhose  butt  serves  as  a  gov- 
ernor to  direct  it  to  the  wind's  eye.  The  whole  should  be  gilt,  to  prevent 
the  iiisting  of  the  iron.  Mr.  Forster  had  such  a  vane  erected  at  his  place 
of  residence,  which  had  a  small  bell  suspended  from  its  point  which  struck 
upon  the  anns  pointing  to  the  direction  of  the  compass,  and  announced 
every  change  of  wind.*  Such  a  contrivance  may  be  considered  a  con- 
ceit, but  it  has  the  advantage  of  letting  you  know  Avhen  the  wind  shifts 
much  about,  as  when  it  does  there  is  as  little  chance  of  settled  weather  as 
in  the  frequent  changes  of  the  barometer.  A  better  contiivance  of  the 
bell  would  be  to  have  a  hammer  suspended  from  the  dart  by  a  supple 
spring,  and  a  bell  of  different  tone  attached  to  each  of  the  arms  which  in- 
dicate the  point  of  the  compass,  and  the  different  toned  bells,  when  stmck, 
would  announce  the  direction  in  which  the  wind  most  prevailed.  Besides 
bells,  there  is  a  contrivance  for  indicating  the  directions  of  the  wind  by  an 
index  on  a  vertical  disk,  like  the  dial-plate  of  a  clock,  an  instance  of  which 
may  be  seen  in  the  western  tower  of  the  Register-House  in  Edinburgh. 
This  would  be  a  very  convenient  way  of  fitting  up  a  weather-cock. 

(276.)  With  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  name  of  iveather-cock,  Beckmann 
says  that  vanes  were  originally  cut  out  in  the  form  of  a  cock,  and  placed 
on  the  tops  of  church  spires,  during  the  holy  ages,  as  an  emblem  of  clerical 
vigilance.!  The  Germans  use  the  same  term  as  we  do,  wctterhahn  ;  and 
the  French  have  a  somewhat  analogous  term  in  coq  de  cloclier.  As  the 
vane  turns  round  with  every  wind,  so,  in  a  moral  sense,  every  man  who  is 
"  unstable  in  his  ways,"  is  tei'med  a  weather-cock. 

(277.)  In  reference  to  the  wind  is  another  instrument  called  the  ane- 
mometer, or  measurer  of  the  wind's  intensity.  Such  an  instrument  is  of 
little  value  to  the  farmer,  who  is  more  interested  in  the  direction  than  the 
intensity  of  the  wind,  as  it  is  that  property  of  it  which  has  most  effect  in 
promoting  changes  of  the  weather.  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that 
the  intensity  of  the  wind  has  a  material  eflect  in  modifying  the  climate  of 
any  locality,  such  as  that  of  a  farm  elevated  in  the  gorge  of  a  mountain 
pass.  Still,  even  there  its  direction  has  more  to  do  in  fixing  the  character 
of  the  climate  than  the  intensity ;  besides,  the  anemometer  indicates  no 
approach  of  wind,  but  only  measures  its  force  when  it  blows,  and  this  can 
be  sufficiently  well  appreciated  by  the  senses.  The  mean  force  of  the  wind 
for  the  whole  year  at  9  A.  M.  is  0.855,  at  3  P.  M.  1.107,  and  at  9  P.  M. 
0.605. 

(278.)  The  best  instrument  of  this  class  is  Lind's  anemometer,  which, 
although  considered  an  imperfect  one,  is  not  so  imperfect,  according  to  the 
opinion  of  Mr.  Snow  Harris,  of  Plymouth,  who  has  paid  more  attention  to 
the  movements  of  the  wind  than  any  one  else  in  this  country,  as  is  gener- 
ally supposed.  Lind's  anemometer  "  consists  of  two  glass  tubes  about  9 
inches  long,  having  a  bore  of  -^-^  of  an  inch.  These  are  connected,  at  their 
lower  extremities,  by  another  small  tube  of  glass,  with  a  bore  of  jL  of  an 
inch.  To  the  upper  exti-emity  of  one  of  the  tubes  is  fitted  a  thin  metallic 
one,  bent  at  right  angles,  so  that  its  mouth  may  receive  horizontally  the 
current  of  air.     A  quantity  of  water  is  poured   in  at  the  mouth,  till    the 

*  Forster's  researches  into  Atmospherical  Phenomena.  f  Beckmann's  History  of  Inventions,  vol.  i. 

(317) 


174  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

tubes  are  nearly  half  full,  and  a  scale  of  inches  and  parts  of  an  inch  is 
placed  betwixt  the  tubes.  When  the  wind  blows  in  at  the  mouth,  the  col- 
umn of  water  is  depressed  in  one  of  the  tubes,  and  elevated  in  the  same 
degree  in  the  other  tube;  so  that  the  distance  between  the  surface  of  the 
fluid  in  each  tube  is  the  length  of  a  column  of  water,  whose  weight  is 
equivalent  to  the  force  of  the  wind  upon  a  surface  equal  to  the  base  of  the 
column  of  fluid.  The  little  tube  which  connects  the  other  two  is  made 
with  a  small  aperture,  to  prevent  the  oscillation  of  the  fluid  by  iriegular 
blasts  of  wind.  The  undulations  ])roduced  by  sudden  gusts  of  wind  would 
be  still  more  completely  prevented  by  making  the  small  tube,  which  con- 
nects the  other  two  large  ones,  of  such  a  length  as  to  be  double  between 
the  other  two,  and  be  equal  to  the  length  of  either.  The  same  effect  might 
also  be  produced  by  making  a  thin  piece  of  wood  float  upon  the  surface  of 
the  fluid  in  each  tube."* 

(279.)  Another  meteorological  instrument  is  the  rain-gavge.  This  in- 
strument is  of  no  use  to  the  farmer  as  an  indicator  of  rain,  and,  like  some 
of  the  rest  which  have  been  desciibed,  only  professes  to  tell  the  quantity 
of  rain  that  actually  has  fallen  in  a  given  space,  yet  even  for  this  purpose 
it  is  an  imperfect  instrument.!  "  The  simplest  fonn  of  this  instrument," 
says  Mr.  John  Adie,  "  is  a  funnel,  with  a  cylindrical  mouth,  3  or  4  inches 
high,  and  having  an  area  of  100  square  inches,  made  of  tinned  iron  or  thin 
copper.  It  may  be  placed  in  the  mouth  of  a  large  bottle  for  receiving  the 
water,  and,  after  each  fall,  the  quantity  is  measured  by  a  glass  jar,  divided 
into  inches  and  parts.  A  more  elegant  an-angement  of  the  insti-ument  is 
formed  by  placing  the  funnel  at  the  top  of  a  brass  cylindrical  tube,  having 
at  one  side  a  glass  tube,  communicating  with  it  at  the  under  part,  with  a 
divided  scale  placed  alongside  of  it.  The  area  of  the  mouth  is  to  that  of 
the  under  tubes  as  10  :  1 ;  consequently  1  inch  deep  of  rain  falling  into  the 
mouth  will  measure  10  inches  in  the  tubes,  and  1  inch  upon  the  scale  will 
be  equal  to  a  fall  of  y^  of  an  inch,  which  quantities  are  marked  upon  the 
scale,  and  the  water  is  let  oft'  by  a  stop-cock  below.  The  instrument  should 
be  placed  in  an  exposed  situation,  at  a  distance  from  all  buildings  and 
trees,  and  as  near  the  surface  of  the  giound  as  possible.  ,  ,  .  In  cases 
of  snow-storms,  the  rain-gauge  may  not  give  a  coiTect  quantity,  as  a  pait 
may  be  blown  out,  or  a  greater  quantity  have  fallen  than  the  mouth  will 
contain.  In  such  cases,  the  method  of  knowing  the  quantity  of  water  is  to 
take  any  cylindrical  vessel,  such  as  a  case  for  containing  maps,  which  will 
answer  the  ])urpose  very  well  ;  by  pressing  it  perpendicularly  into  the 
snow,  it  will  bring  out  with  it  a  cylinder  equal  to  the  depth.  This,  when 
melted,  will  give  the  quantity  of  water  by  measurement.  The  proportion 
of  snow  to  water  is  about  17  :  1,  and  hail  to  water  8  :  1.  These  quantities, 
however,  are  not  constant,  butdepend  upon  the  circumstances  under  which 
the  snow  or  hail  has  fallen,  and  the  time  they  have  been  upon  the  ground. "if 
The  cost  of  a  rain-gauge,  according  as  it  is  fitted  up,  is  ^£1  5s.  £2  12s.  6d. 
and  <:£4  4s. 

(280.)  These  are  the  principal  instruments  employed  by  meteorologists 
to  ascertain  atmospherical  changes,  and  seeing  their  powers  and  uses,  as 
now  described,  you  can  select  those  which  appear  to  you  most  desirable  to 

Eossess.     Of  them  all,  only  two  are  indicators  of  approaching  changes,  the 
arometer  and  the  weather-cock  ;  and  these,  of  good  construction,  you  will 
of  course  have,  whichever  of  the  othei-s  you  may  choose  to  possess. 

(281.)  Besides  these  two  instruments,  there  are  objects  in  nature  which 
indicate  changes  of  the  weather.     Of  these  the  Clouds  are  eminent  premon- 

*  Edinburgh  Encyclopieilin,  nrt.  Ancmomiter.  t  See  Thomson's  History  of  the  Royal  Society, 

j  Qunrteiiy  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  iii.  p.  13. 
(318) 


THE  WEATHER  IN  WINTER.  175 

itoi's.  Tt  may  at  first  sight  be  supposed  that  clouds,  exhibiting  so  great  a 
variety  of  forms,  cannot  be  subject  to  any  positive  law ;  but  such  a  suppo- 
sition is  erroneous,  because  no  phenomenon  in  nature  can  possibly  occur, 
but  as  the  effect  of  some  physical  law,  although  the  mode  of  action  of  the 
law  may  have  hitherto  eluded  the  acutest  search  of  philosophical  observa- 
tion. It  would  be  unphilosophical  to  believe  otherwise.  We  may  there- 
fore depend  upon  it,  that  eveiy  variety  of  cloud  is  an  effect  of  a  definite 
cause.  If  we  cannot  predict  what  form  of  cloud  will  next  ensue,  it  is  be- 
cause we  are  unacquainted  vsdth  the  precise  process  by  which  they  are 
formed.  But  observation  has  enabled  meteorologists  to  classify  every  va- 
riety of  form  under  only  three  primary  figures,  and  all  other  forms  are  only 
combinations  of 'two  or  more  of  these  three.* 

(282.)  1.  The  first  simple  form  is  the  Cirrus,  a  word  which  literally 
means  a  curl,  or  lock  of  hair  curled.  2.  The  second  is  the  Cumulus,  or 
heap.  3.  And  the  third  is  the  Stratus,  or  bed  or  layer.  Combinations  of 
these  three  give  the  four  following  forms,  the  names  of  which  at  once  indi- 
cate the  simple  forms  of  which  they  are  composed.  1.  One  is  Cirro-Cumu- 
lus,  or  combination  of  the  curl  and  heap.  2.  Another  is  the  Cirro-Strattfs, 
or  combination  of  the  curl  and  stratus.  3.  A  third  is  the  Ctimulo- Stratus, 
or  combination  of  the  heap  and  the  stratus.  4.  And,  lastly,  there  is  the 
combination  of  the  Cumulo-Cirro-Stratus ,  or  that  combination  of  all  the 
three  simple  foi'ms,  which  has  received  the  name  of  Nimbus  or  rain-cloud. 
The  English  names  usually  given  by  writers  to  some  of  these  forms  of 
clouds  are  very  singular,  and  seemingly  not  very  appropriate.  The  cui'l 
is  an  appropriate  enough  name  for  the  cirras,  and  so  is  the  rain-cloud  for 
the  nimbus  ;  but  why  the  heap  should  be  called  the  stacken-doud,  the  stra- 
tus the  Jail-cloud,  the  curled  heap  the  sonder-cloud,  the  curled  stratus  the 
2oane-cloud,  and  the  heaped  stratus  the  twain-cloud,  is  by  no  means  obvi- 
ous, unless  this  last  form,  being  composed  of  two  clouds,  may  truly  be  de- 
nominated a  twain-c\ovidi ;  but,  on  the  same  pi'inciple,  the  ciiTo-cumulus, 
and  the  cirro-stratus,  and  the  cumulo-stratus,  may  be  termed  ticain-cXoMdis. 
We  must,  however,  take  the  nomenclature  which  the  original  and  ingen 
ious  contriver  of  the  classification  of  clouds,  Mr.  Luke  Howard,  of  Lon 
don,  has  given. 

(283.)  The  first  form  of  clouds  which  demands  your  attention  is  the  Cir- 
rus or  curl-cloud.  This  is  the  least  dense  of  all  clouds.  It  is  composed 
of  streaks  of  vapor  of  a  whitish  color,  arranged  with  a  fibrous  structure, 
and  occun-ing  at  a  great  hight  in  the  atmosphere.  These  fibrous  streaks 
assume  modified  shapes.  Sometimes  they  are  like  long  nanow  rods,  lying 
quiescent,  or  floating  gently  along  the  upper  region  of  the  atmosphere. — 
At  other  times  one  end  of  the  rod  is  curled  up,  and  spread  out  like  a  feath- 
er ;  and,  in  this  shape,  the  cloud  moves  more  quickly  along  than  the  other, 
being  evidently  affected  by  the  wind.  Another  form  is  that  familiarly 
known  by  the  "  gray  inare's  tail,"  or  "  goat's  beard."  This  is  more  affect- 
ed by  the  wind  than  even  the  former.  Another  form  is  in  thin  fibrous 
sheets,  expanded  at  times  to  a  considerable  breadth,  like  the  gleams  of  the 
aurora  borealis.  There  are  many  other  forms,  such  as  that  of  net-work, 
bunches  of  feathers,  hair,  or  thread,  which  may  respectively  be  designated 
reticulated,  plumose,  comoid,  and  filiform  cirri. 

(284.)  In  regard  to  the  relative  bights  at  which  these  different  forms  of 
cim  appear,  I  would  say  that  the  fibrous  rod  assumes  the  highest  position 

["  For  farther  observations  on  the  "  Means  of  Prognosticating  the  Weather,"  see  last  number 
of  Jour,  of  Ag.,  page  ]  37.  For  a  vahiable  work  on  this  subject,  as  applicable  to  our  own  countrj-, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Forry  on  the  Climate  of  the  United  States.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

(319) 


176  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

in  the  air ;  the  rod  with  the  tumed-up  end  the  next  hio^hest ;  tlie  hunch  of 
feathers  is  approaching  the  earth  ;  the  mare's  tail  is  descending  still  far- 
ther ;  and  the  slieet-like  form  is  not  much  above  the  denser  clouds.  Some- 
times the  fibrous  rod  may  be  seen  stretching  between  two  denser  clouds, 
and  it  is  then  supposed  to  be  acting  as  a  conductor  of  electricity  between 
them. 

(285.)  As  to  their  relative  periods  of  duration,  the  fibrous  rod  may  be 
seen  high  in  the  air  for  a  whole  day  in  fine  weather  ;  or  it  vanishes  in  a 
short  time,  or  descends  into  a  denser  form.  When  its  end  is  turned  up,  its 
existence  is  hastening  to  a  close.  The  plumose  form  soon  melts  away  ; 
the  gi-ay-mare's  tail  bears  only  a  few  hours  of  pretty  strong  wind  ;  but  the 
bioad  slieet  may  be  blown  about  for  some  time. 

(286.)  The  sky  is  generally  of  a  gray-blue  when  the  fibrous  rod  and 
hooked  rod  are  seen ;  and  it  is  of  the  deepest  blue  when  the  plumose 
watery  cirrus  appears.  It  is  an  observation  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  that  the 
deepest  blue  happens  just  at  the  changes  from  a  dry  to  a  moist  atmosphere. 

(287.)  The  ciiTus  cloud  fiequently  changes  into  the  complete  ciiTO-cumu- 
lus,  but  it  sometimes  forms  a  fringed  or  softened  edge  to  the  cirro-stratus  ; 
and  it  also  stretches  across  the  heavens  into  the  density  of  a  ciiTo-stratus. 
Of  all  the  seasons,  the  cirrus  appears  least  frequently  in  winter. 

(288.)  The  Cumulus  may  be  likened  in  shape  to  a  heap  of  natural 
meadow  hay.  It  never  alters  much  from  that  shape,  nor  is  it  ever  otherwise 
than  massive  in  its  structure  ;  but  it  vai'ies  in  size  and  color  according  to 
the  temperature  and  light  of  the  day,  becoming  larger  and  whiter  as  the 
heat  and  light  increase  ;  hence  it  generally  appears  at  sunrise,  assumes  a 
larger  form  by  noon,  often  screening  the  sun  from  the  earth,  and  then 
melts  away  toward  night.  On  this  account  it  has  received  the  designation 
of  the  "  cloud  of  day."  Its  density  will  not  allow  it  to  mount  very  high 
in  the  air ;  but  it  is,  nevertheless,  easily  buoyed  up  for  a  whole  day  by 
the  vapor  plane  above  the  reach  of  the  earth.  When  it  so  rests  it  is  ter- 
minated below  by  a  straight  line.  It  is  a  prevailing  cloud  in  the  daytime 
at  all  seasons,  and  is  exceedingly  beautiful  when  it  presents  its  silvery  tops 
tinted  with  sober  colors  against  the  bright  blue  sky.  Cumuli  sometimes 
join  together  and  as  suddenly  separate  again,  though  in  every  case  they 
retain  their  peculiar  form.  They  may  often  be  seen  floating  in  the  air  in 
calm  weather,  not  far  above  the  horizon;  and  they  may  also  be  seen 
driving  along  with  the  gale  at  a  gi'eater  hight,  casting  their  fleeting 
shadows  on  the  ground.  When  in  motion,  their  bases  are  not  so  straight 
as  when  at  rest.  Cumuli,  at  times,  disperse,  mount  into  the  air,  and  form 
cirri,  or  they  descend  into  strati  along  the  horizon  ;  at  others  a  single  cu- 
mulus may  be  seen  at  a  distance  in  the  horizon,  and  then  increasing  rap- 
idly into  the  storm-cloud,  or  else  overspreading  a  large  portion  of  the  sky 
with  a  dense  veil.  Does  the  poet  allude  to  the  cumulus,  as  seen  in  a  sum- 
mer afternoon,  in  these  breathing  words  ? 

■'  And  now  Uio  mists  from  earth  are  clonds  in  heaven, 
Clouds  slowly  castellating  in  a  calm 
Sublimor  than  a  storm;  which  brighter  breatbea 
O'er  tlio  whole  firmament  the  breadth  of  blue, 
Because  of  that  excessive  purity 
Of  all  those  haugine:  snow-white  palaces, 
A  gentle  contrast,  but  with  power  divine."* 

(289.)  The  Stratus  is  that  bed  of  vapor  which  is  frequently  seen  in  the 
valleys  in  a  summer  evening,  permitting  the  trees  and  church  spires  to 
stand  out  in  bold  relief;  or  it  is  that  horizontal  bank  of  dark  cloud  seen  to 


■  Wilson. 
(3i.>0) 


THE  WEATHER  IN  WINTER.  I77 


rest  for  a  whole  niglit  along  the  horizon.  It  also  forms  the  thin  dry  white 
fogs  whicli  come  over  the  land  from  the  sea  with  an  east  wind  in  spring 
and  summer,  wetting  nothing  that  it  touches.  When  this  dry  fog  hangs 
over  towns  in  winter,  which  it  often  does  for  days,  it  appears  of  a  yellow 
hue,  in  consequence,  probably,  of  a  mixture  with  smoke.  It  constitutes 
the  November  fog  in  London.  The  stratus  is  frequently  elevated  by 
means  of  the  vapor  plane,  and  then  it  passes  into  the  cumulus.  On  its  ap- 
pearing frequently  in  the  evening,  and  its  usual  disappearance  during  the 
day,  it  has  been  tei-med  the  "  cloud  of  night."  Having  a  livid  gray  color 
when  the  moon  shines  upon  it,  the  stratus  is  probably  the  origin  of  those 
supposed  spectral  appearances  seen  at  night  by  superstitious  people  in 
days  of  yore.  The  light  or  dry  stratus  is  most  prevalent  in  spring  and 
summer,  and  the  dense  or  wet  kind  in  autumn  and  winter. 

(290.)  "  Cirrus,"  remarks  Mr.  Mudie,  "  is  the  characteristic  cloud  of  the 
upper  sky ;  and  no  cloud  of  denser  texture  forms,  or  is  capable  of  beino- 
sustained  there.  Cumulus  is,  in  like  manner,  the  characteristic  cloud  of 
the  middle  altitude  ;  and  although  it  is  sometimes  higher  and  sometimes 
lower,  it  never  forais  at  what  may  be  called  the  very  top  of  the  sky,  or 
down  at  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Stratus  is  the  appropriate  cloud  of 
the  lower  sky,  and  it  is  never  the  first  formed  one  at  any  considerable  ele- 
vation ;  and,  indeed,  if  it  appears  unconnected  with  the  surface,  it  is  not 
simple  stratus,  but  a  mixed  cloud  of  some  kind  or  other."* 

(291.)  The  forms  of  the  clouds  which  follow  are  of  mixed  character, 
the  first  of  which  that  demands  our  attention  is  a  compound  of  the  cin-us 
and  cumulus,  or  cirro-cumulus,  as  it  is  called.  The  curus,  in  losing  the 
fibrous,  assumes  the  more  even-grained  texture  of  the  cumulus,  which, 
vyhen  subdivided  into  small  spherical  fragments,  constitute  small  cumuli  of 
little  density,  and  of  white  color,  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  cirrus  or  in 
clusters.  They  are  high  in  the  air,  and  beautiful  objects  in  the  sky.  In 
Germany  this  form  of  cloud  is  called  "  the  little  sheep  ;  "  which  idea  has 
been  embodied  by  a  rustic  bard  of  England  in  these  beautiful  lines  : 

"  Far  yet  above  these  wafted  clouds  are  seen 
(In  a  remoter  sky,  still  more  serene,) 
Others,  detached  in  ranges  through  the  air, 
Spotless  as  snow,  and  countless  as  they  're  fair; 
Scattered  immensely  wide  from  east  to  west. 
The  beauteous  'semblance  of  a  flock  at  rest."t 

Cirro-cumuli  are  most  frequently  to  be  seen  in  summei*. 

(292.)  Another  form  of  cloud,  compounded  of  the  cirrus  and  stratus,  is 
called  cirro-stratus.      While  cirri  descend  and  assume  the  form  of  cirro- 
cumuli,  they  may  still  farther  descend  and  take  the  shape  of  cirro-stratus, 
whose  fibres  become  dense  and  decidedly  horizontal.      Its  characteristic 
form  is  shallowness,  longitude,  and  density.     It  consists  at  times  of  dense 
longitudinal  streaks,  and  the  density  is  increased  when  a  great  breadth  of 
cloud  is  viewed  horizontally  along  its  edge.      At  other  times  it  is  like 
shoals  of  small  fish,  when  it  is  called  a  "  hening  sky;"  at  others,  mottled 
like  a  mackerel's  back,  when  it  is  called  the  "  mackerel-back  sky."    Some- 
times it  is  like  veins  of  wood,  and  at  other  times  like  the  ripples  of  sand 
left  by  a  retiring  tide  on  a  sandy  beach.     The  more  mottled  it  is,  the  cir- 
ro-stratus is  higher  in  the  air,  and  the  more  dense  and  stratified,  the  nearer 
it  is  the  earth.     In  the  last  position,  it  may  be  seen  cutting  off  a  mountain 
top,  or  stretching  behind  it,  or   cutting  across  the   tops  of  large  cumuh. 
Sometimes  its  striated  lines,  not  very  dense,  run  parallel  over  the  zenith, 
whose  opposite  ends  apparently  converge  at  opposite  points  of  the  hori- 

*  Mudie's  World.  f  Bloomfield- 

(321)... ....la 


178  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. WINTER. 

zon,  and  then  they  form  that  peculiar  phenomenon  named  the  '•  boat,"  or 
"Noah's  ark."  At  times  ciiTO-strati  cut  across  the  field  of  the  setting  sun, 
where  they  appear  in  well-defined  dense  striae,  whose  upper  or  lower 
edges,  in  reference  to  their  position  with  the  sun,  are  burnished  with  the 
most  brilliant  hues  of  gold,  crimson,  or  vermilion.  Sometimes  the  cirro- 
stratus  extends  across  the  heavens  in  a  broad  sheet,  obscuring  more  or  less 
the  light  of  the  sun  or  moon,  for  days  together,  and  in  this  case  a  halo  or 
corona  is  frequently  seen  to  surround  these  orbs.  In  a  more  dense  foiTn, 
it  assumes  the  shapes  of  some  small  long-bodied  animals,  and  even  like 
architectural  ornaments  ;  and  in  all  its  mutations  it  is  more  varied  than 
any  other  form  of  cloud.  The  streaked  cirro-strati  are  of  frequent  occur- 
rence in  winter  and  autumn,  whereas  the  more  delicate  kinds  are  most 
seen  in  summer. 

(293.)  A  third  compound  cloud  is  formed  of  the  cumulus  and  stratus, 
called  cumulo-stratvs.  This  is  always  a  dense  cloud.  It  spreads  out  its 
base  to  the  sti-atus  foiTn,  and,  in  its  upper  part,  frequently  inosculates  with 
cini,  cino-curauli,  or  ciiTO-strati.  In  this  form  it  is  to  be  seen  in  the  plate 
of  the  three  cows.  With  all  or  either  of  these  it  forms  a  large  massive 
series  of  cumulative  clouds  which  hang  on  the  horizon,  displaying  great 
mountain  shapes,  raising  their  brilliantly  illuminated  silver}-  crests  toward 
the  sun,  and  presenting  numerous  dusky  valleys  between  them.  Or  it  ap- 
pears in  formidable  white  masses  of  variously  defined  shapes,  towering 
upward  from  the  hoi-izon,  ready  to  meet  any  other  foiTn  of  cloud,  and  to 
conjoin  ^^Tth  them  in  making  the  dense  dark-colored  storm-cloud.  In  ei- 
ther case,  nothing  can  exceed  the  picturesque  grandeur  of  their  towering, 
dazzling  fonns,  or  the  sublimity  of  their  masses  when  surcharged  with 
lightnings,  ^^•ind,  and  rain,  and  hastening  with  scowling  front  to  meet  the 
gentle  breeze,  and  hunying  it  along  in  its  determined  course,  as  if  impa- 
tient of  restraint,  and  all  the  while  casting  a  portentous  gloom  over  the 
earth,  until  bursting  with  terrific  thunder,  scorching  with  lightning  some 
devoted  object  more  prominent  than  the  rest,  deluges  the  plain  vdxXx 
sweeping  floods,  and  devastates  the  fields  in  the  course  of  its  ungoverna- 
ble fur}-.  A  tempest  soon  exhausts  its  force  in  the  temperate  regions  ; 
but  in  the  tropics  it  rages  at  times  for  weeks,  and  then  woe  to  the  poor 
mariner  who  is  overtaken  by  it  at  sea  unprepared.  Of  the  cumulo-stratus 
the  variety  called  "  Bishops'  ^^^gs,"  as  represented  near  the  horizon  in  the 
plate  of  the  draught-mare,  may  be  seen  at  all  seasons  along  the  horizon, 
but  the  other  and  more  imposing  form  of  mountain  scenery  is  only  to  be 
seen  in  perfection  in  summer,  when  storms  are  rife.  It  also  assumes  the 
shapes  of  larger  animals,  and  of  the  more  gigantic  foiTns  of  nature  and 
art.  Is  the  cumulo-stratus  the  sort  of  cloud  described  by  Shakspeare  as 
presenting  these  various  forms  ? 

"Sometime,  we  see  a  cloud  that 's  dragonieh  ; 
A  vapor,  sometime,  like  a  bear  or  lion, 
A  towerd  citadel,  a  pendant  rock, 
A  forked  mountain  or  blue  promontory 
With  trees  upon't.  that  nod  unto  the  world, 

And  mock  our  eyes  with  air : 

That,  which  is  now  a  horse,  even  with  a  ihongbt. 
The  rack  dislimns,  and  makes  it  indistinct. 
As  water  is  in  water."* 

(294.)  The  last  compound  form  of  cloud  which  I  have  to  mention  is  the 
cirro-cumulo-stratus,  called  the  nimbus  or  rain-cloud.  A  showery  fonu  of 
the  cloud  may  be  seen  in  the  plate  of  the  draught-horse.  For  my  part  I 
cannot  see  that  the  mere  resolution  of  a  cloud  into  rain  is  of  sufficient  im- 

*  Anthony  and  Cleopatra. 
(322) 


THE  WEATHER  IN  WIiXTER.  179 


portance  to  constitute  the  fonii  into  a  separate  and  distinct  cloud  ;  for  rain 
is  not  so  much  a  fomi  as  a  condition  of  a  cloud,  in  the  final  state  in  which 
it  reaches  the  earth.  Any  of  the  three  compound  forms  of  clouds  just  de- 
scribed may  form  a  rain-cloud,  Avithout  the  intervention  of  any  other. 
CiiTo-strati  are  often  seen  to  drop  down  in  rain,  without  giving  any  symp- 
toms of  foi'ming  the  more  dense  structure  of  the  nimbus ;  and  even  light 
showers  fall  without  any  visible  appearance  of  a  cloud  at  all.  The  nim- 
bus is  most  frequently  seen  in  summer  and  autumn. 

(295.)  There  is  a  kind  of  cloud,  not  unlike  cumuli,  called  the  scud,  which 
is  described  usually  by  itself  as  broken  nimbus.  It  is  of  dark  or  light  color, 
according  as  the  sun  shines  upon  it,  of  vaiied  foi-m,  floating  or  scudding 
before  the  wind,  and  generally  in  front  of  a  sombre  cumulo-sti-atus  stretch- 
ing as  a  backgi'ound  across  that  portion  of  the  sky,  often  accompanied  with 
a  bright  streak  of  sky  along  the  horizon.  The  ominous  scud  is  the  usual 
harbinger  of  the  rain-cloud,  and  is  therefore  commonly  called  "  messen- 
gers," "  earners,"  or  "  water-wagons." 

(296.)  On  looking  at  the  sky,  forms  of  clouds  may  be  observed  which 
cannot  be  referred  to  any  of  those,  simple  or  compound,  which  have  just 
been  described.  On  analyzing  them,  however,  it  will  be  found  that  every 
cloud  is  referable  to  one  or  more  of  the  forms  described.  This  defective- 
ness proves  two  things  in  regard  to  clouds.  1.  That  clouds,  always  pre- 
senting forms  which  are  recognizable,  must  be  the  result  of  fixed  laws. — 
2.  That  the  sagacity  of  man  has  been  able  to  classify  those  forms  of  clouds 
in  a  simple  manner.  Without  such  a  key  to  their  forms,  clouds  doubtless 
appear,  to  common  observers,  masses  of  inexplicable  confusion.  Clouds 
thus  being  only  effects,  the  causes  of  their  formation  and  mutations  must 
be  looked  for  in  the  atmosphere  itself;  accordingly,  it  has  been  found  that, 
when  certain  kinds  appear,  certain  changes  are  taking  place  in  the  state 
of  the  atmosphere ;  and  beyond  this  it  is  not  necessary  for  a  common  ob- 
server to  know  the  origin  of  clouds.  It  is  sufiicient  for  him  to  be  aware 
of  what  the  approaching  change  of  the  atmosphere  will  be,  as  indicated  by 
the  particular  kind  of  cloud  or  clouds  which  he  observes ;  and  in  this  way 
clouds  become  guides  for  knowing  the  weather.  In  endeavoring  thus  to 
become  a  judge  of  the  weather,  you  must  become  an  attentive  observer  of 
the  clouds.  To  become  so  w4th  success  in  a  reasonable  time,  you  must 
first  make  yourself  well  acquainted  with  the  three  simple  forms,  which, 
although  not  singly  visible  at  all  times,  may  be  recognized  in  some  part  of 
those  compound  clouds  which  exhibit  themselves  almost  every  day. 

(297.)  That  clouds  float  at  different  altitudes,  and  are  more  or  less  dense, 
not  merely  on  account  of  the  quantity  of  vapor  which  they  contain,  but 
partly  on  account  of  their  distance  from  vision,  may  be  proved  in  various 
ways.  1.  On  ascending  the  sides  of  mountains,  travelers  frequently  pass 
zones  of  clouds.  Mountains  thus  form  a  sort  of  scale  by  which  to  estimate 
the  altitude  of  clouds.  Mr.  Crossthwaite  made  these  observations  of  the 
altitude  and  number  of  clouds  in  the  course  of  five  years : 

Altitude  of  Clouds  Number  of  Clouds. 

From  0  to  tOO  yards 10 

100  to  200     42 


200  to  300  62 

300  to  400  179 

400  to  500  374 

500  to  600  486 

600  to  700  416 


Altitude  of  Clouds.  Number  of  Clouds. 

From  700  to    800  yards 367 

800  to    900     410 

900tol000  518 

1000  to  1050  419 


3283 
Above  1050  ^...2098 

Hence  the  number  of  clouds  above  1050  yards  were,  to  the  number  below, 
as  2098  :  3283,  or  10  :  16  nearly.  The  nomenclature  of  Howard  riot  hav- 
ing been  known  at  the  time,  the  forms  of  the  various  clouds  met  with  at 
the  different  altitudes  could  not  be  designated.     2.  Another  proof  of  a  dif- 

(323) 


180  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

ference  of  Jiltitudes  in  clouds  consists  in  different  clouds  being  seen  to 
move  in  different  directions  at  the  same  time.  One  set  may  be  seen  mov- 
ing in  one  direction  near  the  earth,  while  another  may  be  seen  through 
their  openings  unmoved.  Clouds  may  be  seen  moving  in  different  direc- 
tions, at  apparently  great  bights  in  the  air,  while  those  near  the  ground 
may  be  quite  still.  Or  the  whole  clouds  seen  may  be  moving  in  the  same 
direction  with  different  velocities.  It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the  hghter 
clouds — those  containing  vapor  in  the  most  elastic  state — should  occupy  a 
higher  position  in  the  air  than  the  less  elastic.  On  this  account,  it  is  only 
fleecy  clouds  that  are  seen  over  the  tops  of  the  highest  Andes.  Clouds,  in 
heavy  weather,  are  seldom  above  ^  mile  high,  but  in  clear  weather  from 
2  to  5  miles,  and  cirri  from  5  to  7  miles. 

(298.)  Clouds  are  often  of  enormous  size,  10  miles  each  way  and  2  miles 
thick,  containing  200  cubic  miles  of  vapor ;  but  sometimes  are  even  ten 
times  that  size.  The  size  of  small  clouds  may  be  easily  estimated  by  ob- 
serving their  shadows  on  the  ground  in  clear  breezy  weather  in  summer. 
These  are  usually  cumuli  scudding  before  a  westerly  wind.  The  shadows 
of  larger  clouds  may  be  seen  resting  on  the  sides  of  mountain  ranges,  or 
spread  out  on  the  ocean. 

(299.)  You  must  become  acquainted  with  the  agency  of  Electricity  be- 
fore you  can  understand  the  variations  of  the  weather.  The  subject  of  at- 
mospherical electricity  excited  great  attention  in  the  middle  of  the  last 
centurj'  by  the  experiments  and  discoveries  of  Franklin.  He  proved  that 
the  electric  fluid,*  drawn  from  the  atmosphere,  exhibits  the  same  proper- 
ties as  that  obtained  from  the  electrical  machine,  and  thus  established  their 
identity.  Since  that  period,  little  notice  has  been  taken  of  its  powerful 
agency  in  connection  with  meteorology ;  but  brilliant  are  the  discoveries 
which  have  since  been  made  in  regard  to  its  powers  in  the  laboratories  of 
Davy,  Faraday,  and  others.  They  have  clearly  identified  electricity  with 
magnetism  and  galvanism,  and,  in  establishing  this  identity,  they  have  ex- 
tended to  an  extraordinaiy  degi-ee  the  field  of  observation  for  the  meteor- 
ologist, though  the  discovery  has  rendered  meteorology  much  more  diflS- 
cult  to  be  acquired  with  exactness.  But  tin;  science  should,  on  that  ac- 
count, be  prosecuted  with  the  greater  energy  and  perseverance. 

(300.)  It  must  be  obvious  to  the  most  indifferent  observer  of  atmospher- 
ical phenomena,  that  the  electric  agency  is  exceedingly  active  in  the  atmo- 
sphere, how  inert  soever  may  be  its  state  in  other  parts  of  the  earth.  Ex- 
isting there  in  the  freest  state,  it  exhibits  its  power  in  the  most  sensible 
manner ;  and  its  fieedom  and  frequency  suggest  the  interesting  inquiry 
whence  is  derived  the  supply  of  the  vast  amount  of  electricity  which  seems 
to  exist  in  the  atmosphere  \ 

(301.)  Of  all  investigators  of  this  interesting  but  difficult  inquiry,  M. 
Pouillet  has  directed  his  attention  to  it  with  the  gi'eatest  success.  He  has 
shown  that  there  are  two  sources  fiom  which  this  abundant  supply  is  ob- 
tained. The  first  of  these  is  vegetation.  He  has  proved,  by  direct  exper- 
iment, that  the  combination  of  oxygen  with  the  materials  of  living  plants 
is  a  constant  source  of  electricity ;  and  the  amount  thus  disengaged  may 
be  learned  from  the  fact  that  a  surface  of  100  square  metres  (or  rather 
more  than  100  square  yards),  in  full  vegetation,  disengages,  in  the  course 
of  one  day,  as  much  vitrous  electricity  as  would  charge  a  powerful  bat- 
tery. 

(302.)  That  some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  sort  of  action  which  takes 


*  "  Electricity,  though  frequently  called  a  fluid,  has  but  little  clawn  to  thnt  designation  ;  in  using  it,  there- 
fore, let  it  be  always  understood  in  a  conventional  sense,  not  as  expressing  any  theoretical  view  of  the 
physical  state  of  electric  matter."  Dr.  Golding  Biju) 

(324; 


THE   WEATHER  IN  WINTER.  181 

place  between  the  oxygen  of  the  air  and  the  materials  of  living  plants,  it 
is  necessary  to  attend,  in  the  first  place,  to  the  change  produced  on  the 
air  by  the  respiration  of  plants.  Many  conflicting  opinions  still  prevail  on 
this  subject ;  but  "  there  is  no  doubt,  however,  from  the  experiments  of 
vaiious  philosophers,"  as  Mr.  Hugo  Reid  obsei-ves,  "  that  at  times  the 
leaves  of  plants  produce  the  same  eftect  on  the  atmosphere  as  the  lungs  of 
animals,  namely,  cause  an  increase  in  the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid,  by 
giving  out  carbon  in  union  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  which  is  thus  con- 
verted into  this  gas  ;  and  it  has  been  also  established  that  at  certain  times 
the  leaves  of  plants  produce  very  opposite  effects,  namely,  that  they  de- 
compose the  carbonic  acid  of  the  air,  retain  the  carbon  and  give  out  the 
oxygen,  thus  adding  to  the  quantity  of  the  oxygen  in  the  air.  It  has  not 
yet  been  precisely  ascertained  which  of  these  goes  on  to  the  greater  ex- 
tent ;  but  the  general  opinion  at  present  is,  that  the  gi'oss  result  o  the 
action  of  plants  on  the  atmosphere  is  the  depriving  of  it  of  carbonic  acid,  re- 
taining the  carbon  and  giving  out  the  oxygen,  thus  increasing  the  quantity 
of  free  oxygen  in  the  air."* 

(303.)  It  being  thus  admitted  that  both  carbonic  gas  and  oxygen  are  ex- 
haled by  plants  during  certain  times  of  the  day,  it  is  important  to  ascer- 
tain, in  the  next  place,  whether  electricity  of  the  one  kind  or  the  other  ac- 
companies the  disengagement  of  either  gas.  Toward  this  inquiry  M. 
Pouillet  instituted  experiments  with  the  gold-leaf  electroscope,  while  the 
seeds  of  various  plants  wei"e  germinating  in  the  soil,  and  he  found  it 
sensibly  affected  by  the  negative  state  of  the  ground.  This  result  might 
have  been  anticipated  during  the  evolution  of  carbonic  gas,  for  it  is  known 
by  experiment  that  carbonic  gas,  obtained  from  the  combustion  of  char- 
coal, is,  in  its  nascent  state,  electrified  j^ositively,  and,  of  course,  when  car- 
bonic gas  is  evolved  from  the  plant,  the  gi'ound  should  be  in  a  state  of 
negative  electricity.  M.  Pouillet  presumed,  therefore,  that  when  plants 
evolve  oxygen,  the  ground  should  be  in  a  positive  state  of  electricity.  He 
was  thus  led  to  the  important  conclusion,  that  vegetation  is  an  abundant 
source  of  electricity.! 

(304.)  The  second  source  of  electricity  is  evaporation.  The  fact  of  a 
chemical  change  in  water  by  heat  inducing  the  disengagement  of  electri- 
city, may  be  proved  by  simple  experiment.  It  is  well  known  that  meclian- 
ical  action  will  produce  electricity  sensibly  from  almost  any  substance.  If 
any  one  of  the  most  extensive  series  of  resinous  and  siliceous  substances, 
and  of  dry  vegetable,  animal  and  mineral  produce,  is  rubbed,  electricity 
will  be  excited,  and  the  extent  of  excitation  will  be  shown  by  the  effect 
on  the  gold-leaf  electroscope.  Chemical  action,  in  like  manner,  produces 
similar  effects.  If  sulphur  is  flised  and  poured  into  a  conical  wine-glass, 
it  will  become  electrical  on  cooling,  and  affect  the  electroscope  in  a  man 
ner  similar  to  the  other  bodies  mechanically  excited.  Chocolate  on  con- 
gealing after  cooling,  glacial  phosphoric  acid  on  congealing,  and  calomel 
when  it  fixes  by  sublimation  to  the  upper  part  of  a  glass  vessel,  all  give 
out  electricity  ;  so,  in  like  manner,  the  condensation  as  well  as  the  evap- 
oration of  water,  though  opposite  processes,  gives  out  electricity.  Some 
writers  attribute  these  electrical  effects  to  what  they  term  a  change  of 
fonn  or  state  ;  but  it  is  obvious  that  they  may,  with  propriety,  be  included 
under  chemical  action.  This  view  is  supported  by  the  fact  of  the  pres- 
ence of  oxygen  being  necessary  to  the  development  of  electricity.  De  la 
Rive,  in  bringing  zinc  and  copper  in  contact  through  moisture,  found  that 
the  zinc  became  oxidized,  and   electricity  was  evolved.      When  he  pre- 


*  Reid's  Chemistry  of  Nature.  t  Leithead  on  Electricity. 

(325; 


182  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

vented  the  oxidation,  by  operating  in  an  atmosphere  of  nitrogen,  no  elec- 
tric excitement  followed.  When,  again,  he  increased  the  chemical  action 
by  exposing  xinc  to  acid,  or  by  substituting  a  more  oxidable  metal,  such 
as  potassium,  the  electric  effects  were  gioatly  increased.  In  fact,  elec- 
trical excitation  and  chemical  action  were  observed  to  be  strictly  propor- 
tional to  each  other.  And  this  result  is  quite  consistent  with,  and  is 
conoborated  l)y,  the  necessary  agency  of  oxygen  in  evolving  elcctiicity 
from  vegetation.*  But  more  than  all  this,  "  electricity,"  as  Dr.  G.  Bird 
intimates,  "  is  not  only  evolved  during  chemical  decomposition,  but  during 
chemical  comhinaUon  ;  a  fact  first  announced  by  Becquerel.  The  tnith  of 
this  statement  has  been,  by  many,  either  altogether  denied  or  limited  to 
the  case  of  the  combination  of  nitiic  acid  with  alkalies.  But  after  repeat- 
ing the  experiments  of  Becquerel,  as  well  as  those  of  Pfatf,  Mohr,  Dalk, 
and  Jacobi,  I  am  convinced  that  an  electric  current,  certainly  of  low  ten- 
sion, is  really  evolved  during  the  combination  of  sulphuric,  hydrochloric, 
nitric,  phosphoric,  and  acetic  acids,  with  the  fixed  alkalies,  and  even  with 
ammonia."t 

(305.)  As  evaporation  is  a  process  continually  going  on  from  the  surface  of 
the  ocean,  land,  lakes,  and  rivers,  at  all  degrees  of  temperature,  the  result  of 
its  action  must  be  very  extensive.  But  liow  the  disengagement  of  electri- 
city is  produced,  either  by  the  action  of  oxygen  on  the  structure  of  living 
plants,  or  by  the  action  of  heat  on  water,  is  unknown,  and  will  perhaps 
ever  remain  a  secret  of  Nature.  It  is  easy,  however,  to  conceive  how  the 
electricity  produced  by  these  and  other  sources  must  vary  in  different 
clinaates,  seasons  and  localities,  and  at  different  bights  in  the  atmosphere.;f 

(306.)  It  thus  appears  that  the  sources  of  electricity  are  found  to  be 
evolved  in  every  2)0!isihle  form  of  action.  It  is  excited  by  almost  every  sub- 
stance in  nature,  by  friction,  which  is  a  mechanical  action ;  it  is  as  readily 
evolved  by  chemical  action,  as  you  have  just  learned  ;  as  also  in  the  cases 
of  condensation  and  evaporation  of  liquids  ;  and  it  has  also  been  proved 
to  be  excited  by  vital  action,  as  in  the  case  of  vegetation  ;  and  as  the  ac- 
tion of  oxygen  is  the  same  in  the  animal  as  in  the  vegetable  function,  it  is 
as  likely  that  the  respiration  of  animals  produces  electricity  as  that  of 
vegetables.  When  the  sources  of  this  mysterious  and  subtle  agent  are 
thus  so  numerous  and  extensive,  you  need  not  only  not  be  sui-prised  at  its 
extensive  diffusion,  but  the  universality  of  its  presence  indicates  that  its 
assistance  is  necessary  to  the  promoting  of  every  o])eration  of  Nature.  Its 
identity  in  all  cases  is  also  proved  by  the  fact,  that  though  the  means 
employed  for  its  excitation  are  various,  its  mode  of  action  is  always  the 
same.  In  every  case  of  excitation,  one  body  robs  the  other  of  a  portion 
of  its  electricity,  the  former  being  ^jZw*  or  ]>ositivc,l\ie  other  minus  or  nega- 
tive in  its  natural  (]uantity.  "  The  two  species,  or  negative  and  positive 
electricity,"  says  Dr.  Bird,  "  exist  in  nature  combined,  forming  a  neutral 
combination  (in  an  analogous  manner  to  the  two  magnetic  fluids)  incapable 
of  exerting  any  obvious  jihysical  actions  on  ponderable  matter :  by  the 
process  of  friction,  or  other  mechanical  or  chemical  means,  we  decompose 
this  neutral  combination,  the  negative  and  positive  elements  separate,  one 
adhering  to  the  surface  of  the  excited  substance,  the  other  to  the  rubber ; 
hence  in  no  case  of  electrical  excitatiim  can  we  obtain  one  kind  of  electri- 
city without  the  other  being  simultaneously  developed.  We  do  not  ob- 
serve any  fi-ee  electricity  on  the  surface  of  metallic  bodies  submitted  to 
friction,  in  consequence  of  their  so  readily  conducting  electricity  that  the 


•  I/eilhcad  on  Electricity.  t  Bird's  Elementa  of  Natural  Philosophy. 

X  Forbes's  Report  on  Meteorology,  voL  i. 
(326) 


THE   WEATHER  IN  WINTER.  183 

union  of  the  negative  and  positive  fluids  takes  place  as  rapidly  as  they  are 
separated  by  the  friction  employed."* 

(307.)  The  natural  state  of  every  body  in  I'egard  to  its  electiicity  is  thus 
in  a  state  of  quiescence  or  equilibrium,  but  this  equilibrium  is  very  easily 
disturbed,  and  then  a  series  of  actions  supei-\'ene,  which  illustrate  the  pe- 
culiar agency  of  electricity,  and  continue  until  the  equilibrium  is  again 
restored. 

(308.)  'Y\\e  force  of  the  electrical  agency  seems  to  be  somewhat  in  the 
propoition  to  the  energy  with  which  it  is  roused  into  action.  Dr.  Fara- 
day states,  that  one  grain  of  water  "  will  require  an  electric  cunent  to  be 
continued  for  3^  minutes  of  time  to  effect  its  decomposition  ;  which  cur- 
rent must  be  strong  enough  to  retain  a  platina  ^vire  jJ  ^  of  an  inch  in 
thickness  red-hot  in  the  air  during  the  whole  time."  "  It  will  not  be  too 
much  to  say,  that  this  necessary  quantity  of  electiicity  is  equal  to  a  very 
powerful  flash  of  lightning."t  When  it  is  considered  that,  during  the  fer- 
mentation and  putrefaction  of  bodies  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  water  is 
decomposed,  and  that  to  effect  its  decomposition  such  an  amount  of  elec- 
tric action  as  is  here  related  is  required  to  be  excited,  we  can  have  no  dif- 
ficulty in  imagining  the  great  amount  of  electricity  which  must  be  derived 
from  the  various  sources  enumerated  being  constantly  in  operation. 

(309.)  In  mentioning  the  subject  of  electricity,  I  will  take  the  opportu- 
nity of  expressing  my  opinion  that  the  electrometer  is  a  meteorological  in- 
strument of  much  gieater  utility  to  you  than  some  of  the  insti'uments  I 
have  described ;  because  it  indicates,  with  a  great  degree  of  delicacy,  the 
existence  of  free  electricity  in  the  air  ;  and  as  electricity  cannot  exist  in 
that  state  without  producing  some  sort  of  action,  it  is  satisfactory  to  have 
notice  of  its  freedom,  that  its  effects,  if  possible,  may  be  anticipated.  The 
best  sort  of  electrometer  is  the  "  condensing  electroscope :"  it  consists  of  a 
hollow  glass  sphere  on  a  stand,  inclosing  through  its  top  a  glass  tube,  to 
the  top  of  which  is  affixed  a  flat  brass  cap,  and  from  the  bottom  of  which 
are  suspended  two  slips  of  gold-leaf  At  the  edge  of  the  flat  brass  cap  is 
screwed  a  circular  brass  plate,  and  another  circular  brass  plate,  so  as  to  be 
parallel  to  the  first,  is  inserted  in  a  support  fixed  in  a  piece  of  wood  moving 
in  a  gioove  of  the  stand  which  contains  the  whole  apparatus.  This  is  a 
very  delicate  instrument,  and,  to  keep  it  in  order,  should  be  kept  free  of 
moisture  and  dust. 

(310.)  In  regard  to  the  usual  state  of  the  electricity  in  the  atmosphere, 
it  is  generally  believed  that  it  is  positive,  and  that  it  increases  in  quantity 
as  we  ascend.  In  Europe  the  observations  of  M.  Schiibler  of  Stuttgardt, 
intimate  that  the  electricity  of  the  precipitating  fluids  from  the  atmosphere 
is  more  frequently  negative  than  positive,  in  the  proportion  of  155  ;  100  ; 
but  that  the  mean  intensity  of  the  positive  electricity  is  greater  than  that  of 
the  negative  in  the  ratio  of  69  :  43  ;  and  that  different  layers  or  strata  of 
the  atmosphere,  placed  only  at  small  distances  fi-om  each  other,  are  fre- 
quently found  to  be  in  different  electric  states.^  It  appears,  also,  from  re- 
cent observations  of  M.  Schiibler,  that  the  electiicity  of  the  air,  in  calm 
and  serene  weather,  is  constantly  positive,  but  subject  to  two  daily  fluctua- 
tions. It  is  at  its  minimum  at  a  little  before  sunrise ;  after  which  it  grad- 
ually accumulates,  till  it  reaches  its  first  maximum  a  few  hours  afterward 
—at  8  A.  M.  in  May  ;  and  then  diminishes  until  it  has  descended  to  its 
second  minimum.  The  second  maximum  occurs  in  the  evening  about  two 
hours  after  sunset ;  and  then  diminishes,  at  first  rapidly,  and  next  in  slower 
brogi-ession  during  the  whole  of  the  night,  to  present  again  on  the  follow- 

*  Bird's  Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy.  t  Faraday's  New  Researches,  8vo  edition. 

\  Forbes's  Report  on  Meteorology,  vol.  1. 
(327) 


184  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

ing  day  the  same  oscillations.  It  is  probable  that  the  exact  time  of  its  in- 
crease and  decrease  is  hifluenced  by  the  seasons.  The  intensity  increases 
from  July  to  January,  and  then  decreases ;  it  is  also  much  more  intense  in 
the  winter,  though  longer  in  summer,  and  appears  to  increase  as  the  cold 
increases.*  These  fluctuations  may  be  observed  throughout  the  year  more 
easily  in  fine  than  in  cloudy  weather.  "  Among  the  causes  modifying  the 
electric  state  of  the  atmosphere,"  observes  Dr.  Bird,  "  must  be  ranked  its 
hygrometric  state,  as  well  as  probably  the  nature  of  the  effluvia  which  may 
become  volatilized  in  any  given  locality.  Thus,  Saussure  has  observed 
that  its  intensity  is  much  more  considerable  in  elevated  and  isolated  places 
than  in  naiTow  and  confined  situations  ;  it  is  nearly  absent  in  houses,  u;i- 
der  lofty  trees,  in  narrow  courts  and  alleys,  and  in  inclosed  places.  Tii 
some  places  the  most  intensely  electric  state  of  the  atmosphere  appears 
to  be  that  in  which  large  clouds  or  dense  fogs  are  suspended  in  the  air  at 
short  distances  above  the  surface  of  the  earth  ;  these  appear  to  act  as  con- 
ductors of  the  electricity  from  the  upper  regions.  Cavallo  ascertained, 
fi^om  a  set  of  experiments  performed  at  Islington  in  1776,  that  the  air  al- 
ways contains  free  positive  electiicity,  except  when  influenced  by  heavy 
clouds  near  the  zenith.  This  electricity  he  found  to  be  strongest  in  fogs 
and  during  frosty  weather,  but  weakest  in  hot  weather,  and  just  previous 
to  a  shower  of  rain  ;  and  to  increase  in  proportion  as  the  instrument  used 
is  raised  to  a  greater  elevation.  This,  indeed,  necessarily  happens,"  con- 
tinues Dr.  Bird,  "  for  as  the  earth's  surface  is,  coctcris  paribus,  always  neg- 
atively electrified,  a  continual  but  gradual  combination  of  its  electricity 
with  that  of  the  air  is  constantly  taking  place  at  its  surface,  so  that  no  free 
positive  electricity  can  be  detected  within  4  feet  of  the  surface  of  the 
earth."t 

(311.)  A  comparative  view  of  the  fluctuations  of  the  barometer  and  elec- 
trometer may  tend  to  show  that  in  their  mode  of  action  all  the  physical 
agencies  may  be  governed  by  the  same  law.  The  mean  results  of  many 
observations  by  various  philosophers  are  as  follows  : 

l8t  MRximum. 

Density 10  A.M. 

Electricity 8-9  A.  M. 

(312.)  These  are  all  the  general  remarks  which  are  called  for  at  present 
on  the  subject  of  atmospherical  electricity.  As  electrical  phenomena  ex- 
hibit them.selves  most  actively  in  summer,  observations  on  particular  ones 
will  then  he  more  in  season  than  in  winter  ;  and  the  only  electrical  excita- 
tion that  is  generally  witnessed  in  winter  is  the  aurora  horcatis  or  noithem 
lights,  or  "  merry  dancers,"  as  they  are  vulgarly  called.  It  mostly  occurs 
in  the  northern  extremity  of  the  northern  hemisphere  of  the  globe,  where 
it  gives  almost  constant  light  during  the  absence  of  the  sun.  So  intense  is 
this  radiance,  that  a  book  may  be  read  by  it,  and  it  thus  confers  a  great 
blessing  on  the  inhabitants  of  the  Arctic  Regions,  at  a  time  when  they  are 
benighted.  The  aurora  borealis  seems  to  consist  of  two  varieties  ;  one  a 
luminous,  quiet  light  in  the  northern  horizon,  gleaming  most  frequently 
behind  a  dense  stratum  of  cloud  ;  and  the  other  of  virid  coruscations  of 
almost  white  light,  of  a  sufticient  transparency  to  allow  the  transmission 
of  the  light  of  the  fixed  stars.  They  are  sometimes  colored  yellow,  green, 
red,  and  of  a  dusky  hue.  The  coruscations  are  generally  short,  and  con- 
fined to  the  proximity  of  the  northern  horizon  ;  but  occasionally  they  reach 
the  zenith,  and  even  extend  to  the  opposite  horizon  ;  their  direction  being 
from  N.  W,  to  S.  E.     It  seems  now  undeniable,  that  the   aurora  borealis 


8t  Minimum. 

2d  Maximum. 

2d  Minimum. 

4-0  P.  M. 

10-11  P.  M. 

4-5  A.  M. 

4  P.M. 

9  P.M. 

6  A.  M. 

*  Journal  of  Science  and  the  Arte,  No.  IV.  t  Bird's  KIcmcnts  of  Natural  PhiloBophy. 

(328) 


THE  WEATHER  IN  WINTER.  185 


fi-equently  exercises  a  most  marked  action  on  the  magnetic  needle  ;  thus 
affording  another  proof  of  the  identity  of  the  magnetic  and  electric  agencies. 

(313.)  It  is  not  yet  a  settled  point  among  philosophers,  whether  the  au- 
rora borealis  occurs  at  the  highest  part  of  the  atmosphere,  or  near  the  earth. 
Mr.  Cavendish  considered  it  probable,  that  it  usually  occurs  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  71  miles  above  the  earth's  surface,  at  which  elevation  the  air  must 
be  but  jxg^5  e^y  time  the  density  of  that  at  the  surface  of  the  earth,  a  degree 
of  rarefaction  far  above  that  afforded  by  our  best  constructed  air-pumps. 
Dr.  Dalton  conceives,  from  trigonometrical  measui'ements  made  by  him  of 
auroral  arches,  that  their  hight  is  100  miles  above  the  earth's  surface.  His 
most  satisfactory  measurement  was  made  from  that  of  the  29th  March, 
1826.  As  the  peculiar  appearance  of  aurora  and  its  coruscations  pre- 
cisely resemble  the  phenomena  which  we  are  enabled  to  produce  artifi- 
cially by  discharges  of  electricity  between  two  bodies  in  a  receiver  through 
a  medium  of  highly  rarefied  air,  the  opinion  of  Lieut.  Morrison,  R.  N.  of 
Cheltenham,  a  profound  astronomer  and  meteorologist,  is  deserving  of  at- 
tention, as  regards  the  position  of  the  aurora  at  the  time  of  its  formation. 
He  states  that  long,  light  clouds  ranging  themselves  in  the  meridian  line  in 
the  day,  at  night  take  a  fleecy,  aurora-like  character.  "  I  believe,"  he  says, 
"  that  these  clouds  are  formed  by  the  discharges  and  currents  of  electri- 
city, which,  when  they  are  more  decided,  produce  aurora."  Mr.  Leithead 
conjectures  that  the  aurora  becomes  "  visible  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth 
upon  their  entering  our  atmosphere."*  If  these  conjectures  are  at  all  cor- 
rect, tbe  aurora  cannot  he  seen  beyond  our  atmosphere,  and  therefore  cannot 
exhibit  itself  at  the  hight  of  100  miles,  as  supposed  by  Dr.  Dalton,  since 
the  hight  of  the  atmosphere  is  only  acknowledged  to  be  from  40  to  50 
miles.  This  view  of  the  hight  of  the  aurora  somewhat  corroborates  that 
held  by  Rev.  Dr.  Farqharson,  Alford,  Aberdeenshire,  and  which  has  been 
sti'ongly  supported  by  Professor  Jameson.t 

(314.)  There  are  other  atmospherical  phenomena,  whose  various  aspects 
indicate  changes  of  the  weather,  and  which,  although  of  rarer  occurrence 
than  the  clouds  or  electricity,  are  yet  deserving  of  attention  when  they  ap- 
pear. These  are,  Halos  around  the  disks  of  the  sun  and  moon ;  Coronas 
or  hroughs,  covering  their  faces  ;  Parhelia,  or  mock  suns  ;  Falling  Stars  ; 
Fire-balls  ;  and  the  Rainbow.  Of  these,  the  halo  and  corona  only  appear 
in  winter  ;  the  others  will  be  noticed  in  the  course  of  the  respective  sea- 
sons in  which  they  appear. 

(315.)  A  halo  is  an  extensive  luminous  ring,  including  a  circular  area, 
in  the  center  of  which  the  sun  or  moon  appears.  It  is  formed  by  the  in- 
tervention of  a  cloud  between  the  spectator  and  the  sun  or  moon.  This 
cloud  is  generally  the  denser  kind  of  cirro-stratus,  the  refraction  and  re- 
flection of  the  rays  of  the  sun  or  moon  at  definite  angles  through  and  upon 
which,  is  the  cause  of  the  luminous  phenomenon.  The  breadth  of  the 
ring  of  a  halo  is  caused  by  a  number  of  rays  being  refracted  at  somewhat 
different  angles,  otherwise  the  bi-eadth  of  the  ring  would  equal  only  the 
breadth  of  one  ray.  Mr.  Forster  has  demonstrated  mathematically  the  an- 
gle of  refraction,  which  is  equal  to  the  angle  subtended  by  the  semidiame- 
ter  of  the  halo.f  Halos  may  be  double  and  triple  ;  and  there  is  one,  which 
Mr.  Forster  denominates  a  discoid,  halo,  which  constitutes  the  boimdary 
of  a  large  corona,  and  is  generally  of  less  diameter  than  usual,  and  often 
colored  with  the  tints  of  the  rainbow.  "  A  beautiful  one  appeared  at  Clap- 
ton on  the  22d  December,  1809,  about  midnight,  during  the  passage  of  a 

*  Leithead  on  Electricity.  t  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  7th  edition,  art.  Aurora  Borealis. 

J  Forster's  Researches  into  Atmospherical  Phenomena. 
(329) 


186  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

cirro-stratus  cloud  before  the  moon."*  Hales  are  usually  pretty  coirect 
circles,  thou^li  they  have  been  observed  of  a  somewhat  oval  shape  ;  and 
they  are  j^eneraliy  also  colorless,  ihouj^h  they  sometimes  display  faint  col- 
ors of  the  rainbow.  They  are  most  frequently  seen  around  the  moon,  and 
acquire  the  appellation  of  lunar  or  solar  halos,  as  they  happen  to  accom- 
pany the  particular  luminary. 

(316.)  The  corona  or  h rough  occurs  when  the  sun  or  moon  is  seen 
through  a  tiiin  cirro-stratus  cloud,  the  poition  of  the  cloud  more  immedi- 
ately around  the  sun  or  moon  appearing  much  lighter  than  the  rest.  Cor- 
onee  are  double,  triple,  and  even  quadruple,  according  to  the  state  of  the 
intervening  vapors.  They  are  caused  by  a  similar  refractive  power  in  va- 
por as  the  halo;  and  are  generally  faintly  colored  at  their  edges.  Their 
diameter  seldom  exceeds  10°.  A  halo  frequently  encircles  the  moon,  when 
a  small  corona  is  more  immediately  around  it. 

(317.)  Hitherto  I  have  said  nothing  of  rain,  snow,  wind,  or  hail — phe- 
nomena which  materially  aflect  the  operations  of  the  farmer.  Strictly 
speaking,  they  are  not  the  cause,  but  only  the  effects,  of  other  phenomena ; 
and  on  that  account,  I  have  purposely  refrained  alluding  to  them,  until  you 
should  have  become  somewhat  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  the  agencies 
which  produce  them.  Having  heard  of  these,  I  shall  now  proceed  to  ex- 
amine jjarticularly  the  familiar  phenomena  of  ruiri,  snow  and  wind.  Rain 
and  \^-ind  being  common  to  all  alie  seasons,  it  will  be  necessary  to  enter  at 
once  into  a  general  explanation  of  both.  Snow  is  peculiar  to  winter,  and 
will  not  again  require  to  be  alluded  to.  And  hail  will  form  a  topic  of  re- 
mark in  summer. 

(318.)  You  must  be  so  well  acquainted  with  the  phenomenon  of  rain, 
that  no  specific  definition  of  it  is  here  required  to  be  given.  It  should, 
however,  be  borne  in  mind,  that  the  phenomenon  has  various  aspects,  and 
the  variety  indicates  the  peculiar  state  of  the  atmosphere  at  the  time  of  its 
occurrence.  Rain  falls  at  times  in  large  drops,  at  othei"s  in  small,  and 
sometimes  in  a  thick  or  thin  drizzle  ;  but  in  all  these  states,  it  consists  of 
the  descent  of  water  in  drops  from  the  atmosphere  to  the  earth.  In  re- 
flecting on  this  phenomenon,  how  is  it,  (you  may  ask  yourselves)  that  the 
air  can  possibly  support  drops  of  water,  however  minute  %  The  air  cannot 
support  so  dense  a  substance  as  water  ;  and  it  is  its  inability  to  do  so,  that 
causes  the  water  to  fall  to  the  ground.  The  air,  however,  can  support 
vapor,  the  aggi'egation  of  the  particles  of  which  constitutes  rain  or  water. 
Vapor  is  formed  by  the  force  of  the  heat  of  the  sun's  rays  upon  the  surface 
of  land,  sea,  lakes  and  rivers  ;  and  from  its  easy  ascent  into  the  atmosphere, 
it  is  clear  that  water  is  rendered  lighter  than  air  by  heat,  and,  of  course, 
vastly  lighter  than  itself.  The  weight  of  one  cubic  inch  of  distilled  water 
(with  the  barometer  at  30  inches,  and  the  thermometer  at  62°  Fahrenheit) 
is  252'45S  gi-ains  ;  that  of  1  cubic  inch  of  air  is  0-3049  of  a  grain  ;  of  course, 
vapor  must  be  lighter  than  this  last  figure.  Heat  has  effected  this  light- 
ness by  lendering  vapor  highly  elastic  ;  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  is 
electricity  which  maintains  the  elasticity,  after  the  vapor  has  been  canied 
away  beyond  the  influence  of  its  generating  heat,  and  there  keeps  it  in  mix- 
ture with  the  air.  The  whole  subject  of  evaporation  is  instructive,  and 
will  receive  our  attention  in  summer,  when  it  presents  itself  in  the  most 
active  ctiiidition  to  our  view,  and  is  intimately  connected  with  the  phe- 
nomenon of  dew. 

(319.)  The  quantity  of  vapor  in  the  atmosphere  is  variable.  This  Table 
shows  the  weight  in  gi'ains  of  a  cubic  foot  of  vapor,  at  different  tempera- 
tures, from  0°  to  95°  Fahrenheit : 

•  Forrter'B  Researches  into  Atmospherical  Phenomena. 

(330) 


THE  WEATHER  IN  WINTER. 


187 


Tempera- 

Weight in 

Tempera- 

Weight in 

Tempera- 

Weight in 

'I'empera- 

Weight  in 

ture. 

grains. 

ture. 

grams. 

ture. 

gr 

nms. 

lure. 

grams. 

0 

0-8J6 

24 

1-961 

48 

4 

279 

72 

8-924 

1 

0-892 

22 

2-028 

49 

4 

407 

73 

9-199 

2 

0-928 

26 

2-096 

50 

4 

535 

74 

9-484 

3 

0-963 

27 

2-163 

51 

4 

684 

75    • 

9-780 

4 

0-999 

28 

2-229 

52 

4 

832 

76 

10-107 

5 

1-034 

29 

2-295 

53 

5 

003 

77 

10-387 

6 

1-069 

30 

2-361 

54 

5 

173 

78 

10-699 

7 

1-104 

31 

2-451 

55 

5 

342 

79 

11-016 

8 

1-139 

32 

2-539 

56 

5 

511 

80 

11-333 

9 

1-173 

33 

2-630 

57 

5 

679 

81 

11-665 

10 

1-208 

34 

2-717 

58 

5 

868 

82 

12-005 

11 

1-254 

35 

2-805 

59 

6 

046 

83 

12-354 

12 

1-308 

36 

2-892 

60 

6 

222 

84 

12-713 

13 

1-359 

37 

2-979 

61 

6 

399 

85 

]3-081 

14 

1-405 

38 

3-066 

62 

6 

575 

86 

13-458 

15 

1-451 

39 

3-153 

63 

6 

794 

87 

13-877 

16 

1-497 

40 

3-239 

64 

7 

013 

88 

14-230 

17 

1-541 

41 

3-371 

65 

7 

230 

89 

14-613 

18 

1-586 

42 

3-502 

66 

7 

447 

90 

15-005 

19 

1-631 

43 

3-633 

67 

7- 

662 

91 

15-432 

20 

1-688 

44 

3-763 

68 

7- 

899 

92 

15-786 

21 

1-757 

45 

3-893 

69 

8- 

135 

93 

16-186 

22 

1-825 

46 

4-022 

70 

8- 

392 

94  • 

16-593 

23 

1-893 

47 

4-151 

71 

8-658     1 

95 

17-009 

Dr.  Dalton  found  that  the  force  of  vapor  in  the  ton-id  zone  varies  from  0*6 
of  an  inch  to  1  inch  of  mercuiy.  In  Britain  it  seldom  amounts  to  0*5  of 
an  inch,  but  is  sometimes  as  great  as  0'5  of  an  inch,  in  summer ;  whereas, 
in  winter,  it  is  often  as  low  as  O'l  of  an  inch  of  mercury.  These  facts 
would  enable  us  to  ascertain  the  absolute  quantity  of  vapor  contained  in 
the  atmosphere  at  any  given  time,  provided  we  were  certain  that  the  den- 
sity and  elasticity  of  vapors  follow  precisely  the  same  law  as  that  of  gases, 
as  is  extremely  probable  to  be  the  case.  If  so,  the  vapor  will  vary  from 
ro  ^^  Too  P^^^  ^^ ^^^  atmosphere.  Dalton  supposes  that  the  medium  quan- 
tity of  vapor  in  the  atmosphere  may  amount  to  yg  of  its  bulk.* 

(320.)  The  theory  propounded  by  Dr.  Hutton,  that  rain  occurs  from  the 
mingling  together  of  great  beds  of  air  of  unequal  temperatures  differently 
stored  with  moisture,  is  that  which  was  adopted  by  Dalton,  Leslie,  and 
others,  and  is  the  cuiTent  one,  having  betr  illustrated  and  strengthened 
by  the  clearer  views  of  the  nature  of  deposition  which  we  now  possess. 

(321.)  On  the  connection  of  rain  with  the  fall  of  the  harometer,  Mr. 
Meikle  has  shown  that  the  change  of  pressure  may  be  a  cause  as  well  as 
an  effect ;  for  the  expansion  of  air  accompanying  diminished  pressure, 
being  productive  of  cold,  diminishes  the  elasticity  of  the  existing  vapbr, 
and  causes  a  deposition.! 

(322.)  M.  Arago  has  traced  the  progress  of  decrease  in  the  annual 
amount  of  the  fall  of  raxn.  from  the  equator  to  the  poles  ;  and  these  are  the 
results  obtained  by  various  observers  at  the  respective  places  : 

Coast  of  Malabar,  in Lat.  11°  30'  N.  the  quantity  is  135-5  inches. 

At  Grenada,  Antilles 12°         ..  ..  126- 


At  Cape  Francois,  St.  Domingo 19°  46'  ,. 

At  Calcutta 22°  23' .. 

AtRome 41°  54' .. 

InEngland 53° 

At  St.  Petersburgh 59°  16' .. 

AtUlea 65°  30'.. 


120- 

Sl- 
ag- 
as- 

16- 
13-5 


On  the  other  hand,  the  number  of  rainy  days  increases  from  the  equator  to 
the  poles,  according  to  the  observations  of  M.  Cotte.     Thus  : 


*  Philosophical  Magazine,  vol.  xxiii.  p.  353. 
(331) 


t  Royal  Institution  Journal. 


188  THE  ROOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

From  N.  lat  12°  to  43^,  there  are    78  rainy  days. 
..     43°  to  46'=,  ..       103 

..      4G°  to  50^,  ..        134 

..     50°  to  60°,  ..        161 

(323.)  There  is  a  great  variation  in  the  quantity  of  rain  riiat  falls  in  the 
same  latitude  oVi  tlie  different  sides  of  the  same  continent,  and  particularly 
of  tlie  same  island.  Thus,  to  confine  the  instances  to  our  own  island,  the 
mean  fall  of  rain  at  Edinburgh,  on  the  cast  coast,  is  26  inches ;  and  at 
Glasgow,  on  the  west  coast,  in  nearly  the  same  latitude,  the  amount  is  40 
inches.  At  North  Shields,  on  the  east  coast,  the  amount  is  25  inches  ; 
while  at  Coniston  in  Lancashire,  in  nearly  the  same  latitude  on  the  west 
coast,  it  is  as  great  as  85  inches.* 

(324.)  A  remarkable  variation  takes  place  in  the  fall  of  rain  at  different 
hig/tts  ;  the  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  on  high  ground  exceeding  that  at 
the  level  of  the  sea.  This  fact  may  be  easily  explained  by  the  influence 
of  a  hilly  country  retaining  clouds  and  vapor.  At  Lancaster,  on  the  coast, 
the  quantity  that  falls  is  39  inches  ;  and  at  Easthwaite,  among  the  moun- 
tains in  the  same  county,  the  amount  is  86  inches.  By  a  comparison  of 
the  registers  at  Geneva  and  the  convent  of  the  Great  St.  Bernard,  it  ap- 
pears that  at  the  former  place,  by  a  mean  of  32  years,  the  annual  fall  of 
of  rain  is  30'70  inches ;  while  at  the  latter,  by  a  mean  of  12  years,  it  is 
60-05  inches.  Dr.  Dalton  clearly  points  out  the  influence  of  hot  cuiTcnts 
of  air  ascending  along  the  surface  of  the  giound  into  the  colder  strata 
which  rest  upon  a  mountainous  country.  The  consequence  is,  that  al- 
though neither  the  hot  nor  the  cold  air  was  accompanied  with  more  moist- 
ure than  could  separately  be  maintained  in  an  elastic  state,  yet  when  the 
mixture  takes  place,  the  arithmetical  mean  of  the  quantities  of  vapor  can- 
not be  supported  in  an  elastic  state  at  an  arithmetical  mean  of  the  tem- 
peratures ;  since  the  weights  of  vapor  which  can  exist  in  a  given  space 
increase  nearly  in  a  geometrical  ratio,  while  the  temperatures  follow  an 
arithmetical  one.t  But  the  amount  of  rain  at  stations  abi-uptly  elevated 
above  the  surface  of  the  earth,  diminishes  as  we  ascend.  For  example,  at 
Kinfauns  Castle,  the  seat  of  Lord  Gray,  on  the  Tay,  in  Perthshire,  by  a 
mean  of  5  years,  22-66  inches  of  rain  fell  ;  while  on  a  hill  in  the  imme- 
diate neighborhood,  600  feet  higher,  no  less  than  41-49  inches  were  col- 
lected, by  a  mean  of  the  same  period.  This  is  an  instance  of  a  high  ele- 
vation rising  pretty  rapidly  above  the  castle,  but  in  a  natural  manner  ;  and 
it  is  adduced  as  a  contrast  with  an  artificial  elevation  of  a  rain-gauge  at 
the  observatory  at  Paris,  when  the  rain  that  fell  on  the  town,  at  a  vertical 
hight  of  28  metres  (rather  more  than  as  many  yards),  was  50-47  inches, 
whrle,  according  to  the  observation  of  M.  Arago,  it  was  56-37  inches  in 
the  court  below.J 

(325.)  The  variation  in  the  amount  of  rain  in  the  seasons  follows,  in  a 
great  measure,  the  same  law  as  that  propounded  by  Dalton  in  reference 
to  the  hights  of  mountains.  The  greatest  quantiti/  of  rain  falls  in  autumn, 
and  the  least  in  winter.  Thus,  according  to  M.  Flaugergues,  taking  the 
mean  amount  as  1 — 

In  winter,  there  falls  0'1937  inches,  including  December,  January  and  February. 

In  spring,  ..    •     0-2217       ..  ..         March,  April  and  May. 

In  summer,       ..         0-2001       ..  ..         June,  July  and  August. 

In  autumn,       ..        0-3845       ..  ..         September,  October  and  November. 

It  may  be  useful  to  give  the  proportional  results  of  each  month.     Again, 
taking  the  mean  amount  of  the  yeai-  as  1,  the  proportional  result  for 

*  Table  of  the  qunntity  of  Rain  that  falls  in   different  parts  of  Great  Britain.     By  Mr.  Joseph  Atkin- 
»on,  Harraby,  near  Carlisle, 
t  Manchester  Memoirs,  New  Series  vol.  v.  J  Forbcs's  Report  on  Meteoroloey,  vol.  L 

(332) 


THE   WEATHER   IN  WINTER. 


189 


January,  is 00716 

February 00541 

March 00557 

April 00S02 

Mav 0-0847 

June 00765 


July 00544 

August 0  0679 

September 0-1 236 

October 0-1370 

November 01250 

December 0-0693 


As  M.  Flaugergues  observes,  the  maximum  belongs  to  October  and  the 
minimum  to  February,  and  May  comes  nearest  to  the  mean  of  40  years.* 
Taking  these  proportional  results  by  the  months  which  constitute  the 
seasons  of  the  agiicultural  year  as  I  have  aiTanged  them,  the  mean  of  the 
seasons  w^ill  be  respectively  thus  : 


r  November 01250  ( 

Winter,  )  December 0-0693     Summer, . 

(January 00716  ( 


May 0-0847 

June 00765 

July 00544 


Total 0-2659        Total 0-2156 


C  February 00541 

Spring,    /  March 00557 

(April 0-0802 


Autumn, 


■  August 0-0679 

'  September 0-1236 

October 01370 


Total 01900        Total 0-3285 

This  method  of  division  still  gives  the  maximum  of  rain  to  autumn,  though 
it  ti-ansfers  the  minimum  from  the  winter  to  the  spring  ;  which,  as  I  think, 
approaches  nearer  to  the  truth  in  reference  to  Scotland  than  the  conclu- 
sions of  M.  Flaugergues,  which  specially  apply  to  France. 

(326.)  The  last  table  but  one  gives  the  proportional  amount  of  rain  thai 
fell,  in  a  mean  of  40  years,  in  each  month.  It  may  be  useful  to  know  the 
mean  mimber  of  rainy  days  in  each  of  the  months.     They  are  these  : 


In  January 14-4  days 

February 15-8     . . 

March 12-7     .. 

April 14-0     .. 

Mav 15-8     .. 

.  June -. 11-8     .. 


In  July 16-1  < 

August 16-3 

September  . . .  •. 12-3 

October 16-2 

November 15-0 

December 177 


These  tables  show  that  though  the  number  of  rainy  days  is  nearly  equal  in 
the  venial  and  autumnal  equinoxes,  the  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  in  the 
autumn  is  nearly  double  of  that  in  spring.  If  this  last  table  is  ari'anged 
according  to  the  months  of  the  agi'icultural  seasons,  the  number  of  rainy 
days  in  each  season  will  stand  thus  : 


C  November 15-0  days. 

In  Winter,  ^  December 17-7     .. 

(January 14-4     .. 

Total .47-1  days. 

C  February 15-8  days. 

In  Spring,  ^  March 12-7     .. 

(April 140     .. 

Total 42-5  days. 


In  Summer, 


'  May 158  days. 

June 11-8     .. 

(July 16-1      .. 

Total 43^  days. 

In  Autumn, 

Total 44-8  days. 


■  August 163  days 

September 12-3     .. 

October 16-2     .. 


In  all  178'1  days  of  rain.  This  arrangement  shows  that  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  rainy  days  is  in  the  agiicultural  winter,  and  the  least  number  in 
the  spring,  which  seems  to  agree  with  experience. 

(327.)  Mr.  Howard  remarks,  that,  on  an  average  of  years,  it  rains  every 
other  day  ;  and,  by  a  mean  of  40  years  at  Viviers,  M.  Flaugergues  found 
98  days  of  rain  throughout  the  year.t 

(328.)  With  regard  to  the  question.  Whether  more  rain  falls  in  the  night 
than  in  the  day?  Mr.  Howard's  statement  bears,  that  of  21"94  inches — a 
mean  of  31  lunar  months — rain  fell  in  the  day  to  the  amount  of  8'67  inches, 
and  in  the  night  to  13-27  inches.  Dr.  Dalton  also  says,  that  more  rain 
falls  when  the  sun  is  under  the  horizon  than  when  it  is  above  it.f 


Encyclopeedia  Metropolitana,  art.  Meteorology. 
(333J 


\  Ibid. 


+  Ibid. 


190 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


(329.)  It  has  not  been  ascertained  whether,  on  the  whole  amount  over 
the  glohe,  rain  is  increasing  or  diminishing  in  quanfiti/.  As  M.  Arago 
justly  observes,  it  is  very  difficult  to  know  how  many  years  of  observa- 
tions are  necessary  to  get  a  mean  value  of  the  fall  of  rain,  the  amount  be- 
ing extremely  variable.  There  are,  no  doubt,  several  causes  which  may 
tend  to  change  the  amount  of  rain  in  any  particular  spot,  without  forming 
part  of  any  general  law,  such  as  the  destniction  or  forming  of  forests,  the 
inclosure  and  drainage  of  land,  and  the  increase  of  habitations.  M,  Arago 
has  shown  that  the  fall  of  rain  at  Paris  has  not  sensibly  altered  for  130 
years,  and  that  although  an  increase  was  supposed  to  have  been  proved  at 
Milan,  by  obsen-ations  for  54  years,  yet  the  extremes  of  the  annual  results 
between  1791  and  1817  were  24-7  and  58-9  inches.  The  observations  of 
M.  Flaugeigues,  at  Viviers,  establish  an  increase  there  in  40  years.  The 
number  of  rainy  days  throughout  the  year  is  98,  but  dividing  the  40  yeai-s 
into  decades,  the  number  sensibly  increases.     Thus — 

From  1778  to  1787,  there  were    830  days. 
1788  to  1797,  ..  947      .. 

1798  to  1807,  ..  1062     .. 

1808  to  1817,  ..  1082     .. 

But  this  result  must  aiise  from  local  circumstances,  as  at  Marseilles  there 
has  been  a  striking  decrease  in  50  years. 

(330.)  Notwithstanding  the  enormous  annual  Jail  of  rain  at  the  equator, 
particular  instances  of  a  great  depth  of  rain  in  a  short  time  have  occa- 
sionally occuned  in  Europe,  which  probably  have  seldom  been  equaled 
in  any  other  part  of  the  globe.  At  Geneva,  on  the  25th  October,  1822, 
there  fell  30  inches  of  rain  in  one  day.  At  Joyeuse,  according  to  M.  Arago, 
on  the  9th  October,  1827,  there  fell  31  inches  of  rain  in  22  hours.*  With 
regard  to  remarkable  variations  in  the  quantity  of  rain  in  different  places, 
among  the  Andes  it  is  said  to  rain  pei-petually  ;  whereas  in  Peru,  as  Ulloa 
affirms,  it  never  rains,  but  that  for  a  part  of  the  year  the  atmosphere  is 
obscured  by  thick  fogs  called  garuas.  In  Egypt  it  hardly  ever  rains  at 
all,  and  in  some  parts  of  Arabia  it  seldom  rains  more  than  two  or  three 
times  in  as  many  years,  but  the  dews  are  heavy,  and  refresh  the  soil,  and 
supply  with  moisture  the  few  plants  which  grow  in  those  sunny  regions. 

(331.)  According  to  a  statement  of  observations  by  Mr.  Howard,  there 
appears  a  relatioii  to  exist  betwixt  the  winds  and  the  annual  amount  of  rain. 
This  is  his  statement : 


Yeab. 

Wind. 

Calm 

Annual 
rain  in 

N.  K. 

K.  S. 
34 

S   VV 

W.  N. 

days. 

inches. 

1807 

61 

113 

114 

43 

20-14 

1808 

82 

38 

108 

103 

35 

23-24 

1809 

68 

50 

123 

91 

33 

25-28 

1810 

81 

72 

78 

83 

41 

28-07 

1811 

58 

59 

119 

93 

36 

24-64 

1812 

82 

66 

93 

91 

34 

27-24 

1813 

76 

53 

92 

124 

20 

23 -.56 

1814 

96 

65 

91 

96 

17 

26-07 

1815 

68 

36 

121 

107 

33 

21-20 

1816 

64 

66 

106 

102 

28 

32 -.37 

74 

54 

105 

100 

32 

25-18 

The  remarks  which  this  statement  seems  to  warrant  are,  that  in  regard  to 
the  E.  winds,  in  the  dry  year  1807,  the  class  of  N. — E.  winds  is  nearly 
double  of  the  class  of  E. — S.  winds  ;  in  1815,  the  next  driest  year,  is  the 
same  result ;  and  in  1808,  the  next  driest  to  that,  the  result  is  rather  more 
than  double.      Still  farther  in  regard  to  E.  winds,  in  the  wettest  year, 


•  Forbes'a  Report  on  Meteorology,  vol  L 
(334) 


THE   WEATHER  IN  WINTER.  19] 

1816,  the  class  of  E. — S.  winds  exceeds  that  of  N.  E. ;  in  1814  they  were 
I  of  the  latter;  in  1812,  f,  and  1810,  }.  With  regard  to  the  class  of  W. 
winds,  the  class  of  W.  N.  winds  falls  off  gradually  fi-om  1807  to  1810  in- 
clusive, while  the  annual  amount  of  rain  increases  from  year  to  yeai-,  and 
in  thx"ee  of  the  six  remaining  years  the  amount  is  drier  than  the  average 
in  the  diy  years,  and  wetter  than  the  wet  ones. 

(332.)  Mr.  Howard  says,  that  1  year  in  every  5  in  this  country  may  he 
expected  to  be  extremely  dry,  and  1  in  10  extremely  wet. 

(333.)  The  mean  annual  amount  of  rain  and  dew  for  England  and 
Wales,  according  to  the  estimate  of  Dr.  Dalton,  is  36  inches.  The  mean 
quantity  of  rain  falling  in  147  places,  situated  between  north  lat.  11°  and 
60°,  according  to  Cotte,  is  34*7  inches.  If  the  mean  fall  over  the  globe  be 
taken  at  34  inches,  it  will,  perhaps,  not  be  far  from  the  truth.* 

(334.)  The  influence  of  the  lunar  periods  on  the  amonnt  of  rain  deserves 
attention.  Professor  Forbes  believes  that  there  is  some  real  connection 
between  the  lunar  phases  and  the  weather.  M.  Flaugergues,  who  has  ob- 
served the  weather  at  Viviers  with  the  gi'eatest  assiduity  for  a  quarter  of 
a  century,  marked  the  number  of  rainy  days  con-esponding  with  the  lu- 
nar phases,  and  found  them  at  a  maximum  at  the  first  quarter,  and  a  mini- 
mum at  the  last. 

(335.)  It  almost  always  happens  that  rain  brings  dotcn  foreign  matter 
from  the  air.  It  is  known  that  the  farina  of  plants  has  been  carried  as  far 
as  30  or  40  miles,  and  the  ashes  of  volcanoes  have  been  carried  more  than 
200  miles.  We  can  conceive  that  when  the  magnitude  of  the  particles  of 
dry  substances  is  so  reduced  as  to  render  them  incapable  of  falling  in  any 
given  velocity,  that  their  descent  may  be  overcome  by  a  very  slight  cur- 
rent of  the  air ;  but  even  in  still  air  a  sphere  of  water  of  only  the  almost 
inconceivable  size  of  e  o  o^o  o  o  P'^''^  *-'^  ^^  inch  in  diameter  falls  1  inch  in  a 
second,  and  yet  particles  of  mist  must  be  much  larger  than  this,  otherwise 
they  could  not  be  visible  as  separate  drops  ;  the  least  drop  of  water  that 
is   discoverable  by  the  naked  eye  falls  with  a  velocity  of  1  foot  in  the 

[*  It  is  said  tliat,  on  an  average,  half  as  much  more  rain  falls  in  England  than  on  the  Continent  of 
Europe.  In  Ireland,  says  Doctor  Kane,  a  very  able  and  profound  writer  on  the  Industrial  Resources 
of  that  counti-y,  there  is  probably  not  more  rain  than  in  England,  but  there  is  more  damp.  Long 
since,  Arthur  Young,  he  says,  noticed  the  difficulty  of  drying  agricultural  produce  in  Ireland,  and 
to  this  humidity  he  attributed  the  rapid  vegetation  ^vhich  clothes  that  island  vi-ith  natural  herb- 
age, even  where  there  is  scarcely  a  trace  of  soil,  and  causes  it  to  be  likened  to  an  "  emerald  " 
Bet  in  the  ring  of  the  sea.  Like  caus.es  produce  like  effects  in  our  country — hence  on  the  hills 
and  small  mountains  about  Lebanon,  N.  Y.  the  Messrs.  Tilden  carry  through  the  driest  summers 
their  flock  of  1,000  of  the  best  Saxonies  in  the  finest  condition  ;  those  hills  are  ever  green.  The 
average  quantity  that  falls  over  the  entire  surface  of  Ireland  is  put  down  at  36  inches.  Thus, 
if  all  that  falls  in  the  year  were  collected  at  one  time,  it  would  cover  the  whole  Island  to  the  depth 
of  3  feet ;  and  as  the  area  of  Ireland  amounts  to  80,208,271  square  acres,  containing  100,712,631,6'40 
square  yards,  there  are  this  number  of  square  yards  of  water  precipitated  on  the  island  in  every 
year. 

For  youthful  readers  we  may  be  allowed  in  this  place  to  transcribe  from  the  admirable  author 
above  mentioned  the  following  brief  and  simple  explanation  of  the  origin  and  formation  of 
clouds,  rain  and  rivers,  and  "  water  power  :  " 

"The  land  being  placed  on  the  surface  of  our  globe  at  a  level  superior  to  that  of  the  ocean,  by 
which  its  coasts  are  washed,  there  is  produced  continually,  by  atmospherical  conditions,  a  cirf-a- 
lation  of  the  mass  of  water,  which,  evaporating  from  the  surface,  ascends  as  vapor  to  the  higher 
and  colder  regions  of  the  air,  where  it  is  condensed  into  clouds.  These  float  until  the  electrical 
condition  wliich  characterizes  their  peculiar  molecular  state  being  dissipated,  they  fall  a.?  rain,  as 
bail,  or  snow,  and  the  water  thus  regaining  the  .solid  or  liquid  form,  tends  continually  by  its  grav- 
ity, to  a  lower  level,  until  it  gains  the  general  mass  of  ocean  from  whence  it  had  been  originally 
derived.  The  rain  or  snow  thus  falling  into  the  interior  and  elevated  districts  of  country,  forms 
at  first  rivulets,  then  streams,  finally  rivers;  and  the  force  of  the  descending  water  is  capable  of 
giving  motion  to  machinery :  it  is  the  source  best  known,  and  most  simply  applicable,  of  water 
pcncer."  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.} 

(335) 


192  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

second,  when  the  air  is  still.  Although  it  is  probable  that  the  resistance 
opposed  to  the  descent  of  small  bodies  in  air,  may  be  considerably  greater 
than  would  be  expected  from  calculaticjn,  still  the  wonder  is  how  they  are 
supported  for  any  length  of  time.*  In  this  difficulty  there  is  much  inclina- 
tion to  call  in  the  aid  of  electricity  to  account  for  the  phenomenon.  Mr. 
Leithead  accounts  for  it  in  this  way  :  "  When  the  eaith  is  positive  and  the 
atmosphere  negative,  the  electiic  fluid,  in  endeavoring  to  restore  its  equi- 
librium, would  cause  a  motion  among  the  particles  of  the  air  in  a  direc- 
tion from  the  earth  toward  the  higher  region  of  the  atmosphere  ;  for  the 
air  being  a  very  imperfect  conductor,  the  particles  near  the  earth's  surface 
can  only  convey  electricity  to  the  more  remote  particles  by  such  a  motion. 
This  Avonld,  in  effect,  partly  diminish  the  downward  pressure  of  the  air, 
which  is  due  to  its  actual  density  ;  "  and,  in  doing  this,  might  it  not,  at 
the  same  time,  counteract  in  some  degree  the  gravity  of  any  substance  in 
the  air  by  surrounding  it  with  an  electrical  atmosphere  ]  "  When,  on  the 
contrary,"  continues  Mr.  Leithead,  "  the  earth  is  negative  and  the  air 
positive,  this  motion  of  the  particles  wdll  be  reversed  ;  thus  increasing  the 
pressure  toward  the  earth,  and  producing  the  same  effect  as  if  the  air  had 
actually  increased  in  density  ;"t  and  would  it  not  thereby  be  more  capable 
of  supporting  any  foreign  taody  in  it  ? 

(336.)  Rain  falls  at  all  seasons,  but  snow  only  in  winter,  and  it  is  just 
frozen  rain  ;  whenever,  therefore,  there  are  symptoms  of  rain,  snow  may 
be  expected  if  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  sufficiently  low  to  freeze  va- 
por. Vapor  is  supposed  to  be  frozen  into  snow  at  the  moment  it  is  col- 
lapsing into  drops  to  form  rain,  for  we  cannot  suppose  that  clouds  of  snow 
can  float  about  the  atmosphere  any  more  than  clouds  of  rain.  Snow  is  a 
beautifully  crystalized  substance  when  it  falls  to  the  ground,  and  it  is 
probable  that  it  never  falls  from  a  great  bight,  otherwise  its  fine  crystal- 
line configurations  could  not  be  presei-ved. 

(337.)  "Yhe  forms  of  snoiv  have  been  ananged  into  five  orders.  1.  The 
lamellar,  which  is  again  divided  into  the  stelliform,  regular  hexagons,  ag- 
gregation of  hexagons,  and  comhination  of  hexagons  with  radii,  or  spines 
and  projecting  angles.  2.  Another  form  is  the  lamellar  or  sj)herical  nu- 
cleus with  spinous  ramifications  in  different  places.  3.  Fine  sjnculce  or 
6-8ided  prisms.  4.  Hexagonal  pyramids.  5.  <S^/cm?(R,  having  one  or  both 
extremities  affixed  to  the  center  of  a  lamellar  crystal.  There  are  numerous 
varieties  of  forms  of  each  class.|  All  the  forms  of  crystals  of  snow  afford 
most  interesting  objects  for  the  microscope,  and  when  perfect  no  objects 
in  nature  are  more  *beauti fully  and  delicately  formed.  The  crystals  rami- 
fy from  a  center,  or  unite  with  one  another  under  the  invariable  angle  of 
60°,  or  its  complemental  angle  of  120°.  The  lamellated  ciystals  fall  in 
calm  weather,  and  in  heavy  flakes,  and  are  evidently  precipitated  fi-om  a 
low  elevation.  The  spiculcC  of  6-sided  prisms  occur  in  heavy  drifts  of 
snow  accompanied  with  wind  and  intense  cold.  They  are  formed  at  a 
consideral)U'  elevation  ;  and  they  are  so  fine  as  to  pass  through  the  mi- 
nutest chinks  in  houses,  and  so  hard  and  firm  that  they  may  be  poured 
like  sand  from  one  hand  into  another,  with  a  jingling  sound,  and  without 
the  risk  of  being  melted.  In  this  coimtry  they  are  most  frequently  ac- 
companied with  one  of  the  varieties  of  the  lamellar  crystals,  which  meet 
their  fall  at  a  lower  elevation  ;  but  in  mountainous  countries,  and  espe- 
cially above  the  line  of  peii^etual  snow,  they  constitute  the  gieatest  bulk 
of  the  snow,  where  they  are  ready  at  the  surface  to  be  blown  about  with 

•  PolehBtnpton's  Onllcry  of  NBture  find  Art.  vol.  iv. 

t  Leithend  on  Klectiicity,  p.  374.     This  explnnalion  ^^r.  I-oithond  nlso  pivpg  to  Recount  for  the  chan'os  in 
the  density  of  the  atmosphere,  as  indicntod  by  the  oscillations  of  the  barometer. 
\  Encyclopaedia  Meti-opolilana,  nit.  Meteorology. 
(336) 


THE   WEATHER   IN  WINTER.  193 


the  least  agitation  of  the  air,  and  lifted  up  in  dense  clouds  by  gusts  of 
wind,  and  precipitated  suddenly  on  the  unwary  traveler  like  a  sand-drift 
of  the  torrid  zone.  These  spiculee  feel  exceedingly  sharp  when  driven  by 
the  wind  against  the  face,  as  I  have  experienced  on  the  Alps.  How  pow 
erless  is  man  when  overtaken  in  such  a  snow-storm,  as 


'  down  he  sinks 


Beneath  the  shelter  of  the  shapeless  drift, 
Thinking  o'er  all  the  bitterness  of  death  !  "* 

The  other  forms  of  snow  are  more  rare. 

(338.)  All  other  things  being  equal,  Professor  Leslie  supposes  that  a 
flake  of  snow,  taken  at  9  times  more  expanded  than  water,  descends  three 
times  as  slow. 

(339.)  From  the  moment  snow  alights  on  the  ground  it  begins  to  under- 
go certain  changes,  which  usually  end  in  a  more  solid  crystalization  than 
it  originally  possessed.  The  adhesive  property  of  snow  arises  from  its 
needly  crystaline  texture,  aided  by  a  degree  of  attendant  moisture  which 
afterward  freezes  in  the  mass.  Sometimes,  when  a  strong  wind  sweeps 
over  a  surface  of  snow,  portions  of  it  are  raised  by  its  power,  and,  passing 
on  with  the  breeze  under  a  diminished  temperature,  become  crystalized, 
and,  by  attrition,  assume  globular  forms.  Mr.  Howard  describes  having 
seen  these  snow-balls,  as  they  may  be  termed,  in  January,  1814  ;  and  Mr. 
Patrick  Shin-eff,  when  at  Mungoswells,  in  East  Lothian,  observed  the  like 
phenomenon  in  February,  1830.t  I  observed  the  same  phenomenon  in 
Forfarshire,  in  the  great  snow-storm  of  Febniary,  1823. 

(340.)  During  the  descent  of  snow,  the  thermometer  sometimes  rises,  and 
the  barometer  usually  falls.  Snow  has  the  effect  of  retaining  the  temper- 
ature of  the  ground  at  what  it  was  when  the  snow  fell.  It  is  this  property 
which  maintains  the  warmer  temperature  of  the  ground,  and  sustains  the 
life  of  plants  during  the  severe  rigors  of  winter,  in  the  Arctic  Regions, 
where  the  snow  falls  suddenly,  after  the  warmth  of  summer ;  and  it  is  the 
same  property  which  supplies  water  to  rivers  in  winter,  from  under  the 
perpetual  snows  of  the  alpine  mountains.  While  air,  above  snow,  may  be 
38^  below  zero,  the  ground  below  will  only  be  at  zero.f  Hence  the  fine, 
healthy,  green  color  of  young  wheat  and  young  grass,  after  the  snow  has 
melted  off  them  in  spring. 

(341.)  In  melting,  27  inches  of  snow  give  3  inches  of  water.  Rain  and 
snow-water  are  the  softest  natural  waters  for  domestic  purposes  ;  and  are 
also  the  purest  that  can  be  obtained  from  natural  sources,  provided  they 
are  procured  either  before  reaching  the  ground,  or  from  newly  fallen 
snow.  Nevertheless,  they  are  impregnated  with  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and 
carbonic  acid,  especially  with  a  considerable  quantity  of  oxygen  ;  and  rain- 
water and  dew  contain  nearly  as  much  air  as  they  can  absorb.||  Liebip 
maintains  that  both  rain  and  snow-water  contain  ammonia.§ 

(342.)  Snow  reflects  beautifully  blue  and  pink  shades  at  sunset,  as  i: 
observed  with  admiration  on  the  Alps  of  Switzerland.  It  also  reflects  so 
much  light  fi-om  its  surface  as  to  render  traveling  at  night  a  cheerful  occu- 
pation ;  and  in  some  countries,  as  in  Russia  and  Canada,  it  forms  a  delight- 
ful highway  when  frozen. 

(343.)  Hoarfrost  is  defined  to  be  frozen  dew.  This  is  not  quite  a  cor- 
rect definition ;  for  dew  is  sometimes  frozen,  especially  in  spring,  into 
globules  of  ice  which  do  not  at  all  resemble  hoar-frost — this  latter  sub- 
stance being  beautifully  and  as  regulai-ly  crystalized  as  snow.  The  forma- 
tion of  hoar-frost  is  always  attended  with  a  considerable  degree  of  cold, 

*  Thomson.  1  Encyclopsedia  Metropolitana,  art.  Meteorology.  X  Phillip's  Facts. 

II  Reid'g  Chemistry  of  Nature.  §  Liebig's  Organic  Chemistiy. 

(385) 13 


194  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

because  it  is  preceded  by  a  great  radiation  of  heat  and  vapor  from  the 
earth,  and  the  phenomenon  is  the  more  perfect  the  warmer  the  day  and 
the  clearer  the  night  have  been.  In  the  country,  hoar-fiost  is  of  most  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  the  autumnal  months  and  in  winter,  in  such  places  as 
have  little  snow  or  continued  frost  on  the  average  of  seasons ;  and  this 
greatly  from  great  radiation  of  heat  and  vapor,  at  those  seasons  occasioned 
by  a  suspension  of  vegetable  action,  which  admits  of  little  absorption  of 
moisture  for  vegetable  purposes.* 

(344.)  Dr.  Farquharson,  Alford,  Aberdeenshire,  has  paid  great  attention 
to  the  subject  of  hoar-frost  or  rime,  which  frequently  injures  the  crop>8  in 
the  noi-them  portion  of  our  island  long  before  they  are  ripe.  The  results 
of  his  obsen-ations  are  very  instructive.  1.  He  has  obser\-ed  that  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  day  and  night  at  which  injurious  hoar-frosts  may 
occur,  may  be,  relatively  to  the  freezing-point,  very  high.  Thus,  on  the 
nights  of  the  29th  and  31st  August,  1S40,  the  leaves  of  potatoes  were  in- 
jured, while  the  lowest  temperatures  of  those  nights,  as  indicated  by  a 
self-registering  themiometer,  were  as  high  as  41^  and  39^  respectively. — 
2.  Hoar-frost,  at  the  time  of  a  high  daily  mean  temperature,  takes  place 
only  during  calm.  A  very  slight,  £<.eady  breeze  will  quickly  melt  away 
frosty  rime.  3.  The  air  is  always  unclouded,  or  nearly  all  of  it  so,  at  the 
time  of  hoar-frost.  So  incompatible  is  hoar-frost  with  a  clouded  state  of 
the  atmosphere,  that  on  many  occasions,  when  a  white  frosty  rime  has  been 
formed  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  night,  on  the  formation  of  a  close  cloud 
at  a  later  part,  it  has  melted  off  before  the  rising  of  the  sun.  4.  Hoar- 
frosts most  frequently  happen  with  the  mercury  in  the  barometer  at  a  high 
point  and  rising,  and  \nth  the  hygrometer  at  comparative  dryness  for  the 
temperature  and  season ;  but  there  are  striking  exceptions  to  these  rules. 
On  the  morning  of  the  loth  September,  1S40,  a  very  injurious  frost  oc- 
curred, ^\ith  a  low  and  falling  barometric  column,  and  with  a  damp  atmo- 
sphere. 5.  In  general,  low  and  flat  lands  in  the  bottom  of  valleys,  and 
grounds  that  are  in  land-locked  hollows,  suffer  most  from  hoar-frost,  while 
all  sloping  lands,  and  open  uplands,  escape  injurj*.  But  it  is  not  their  rel- 
ative elevation  above  the  sea,  independently  of  the  freedom  of  their  expo- 
sure, that  is  the  source  of  safety  to  the  uplands ;  for,  provided  they  are  in- 
closed by  higher  lands,  without  any  wide,  open  descent  from  tliem  on  some 
side  or  other,  they  suffer  more,  under  other  equal  circumstances,  than  sim- 
ilar lands  of  less  altitude.  6,  A  very  slight  inclination  of  the  surface  of 
the  ground  is  generally  quite  protective  of  the  crops  on  it  from  injury  by 
hoar-frost,  from  which  flat  and  hollow  places  suffer  at  the  time  great  in- 
jury. But  a  similar  slope  downward  in  the  bottom  of  a  narrow,  descend- 
ing hollow  does  not  save  the  crop  in  the  bottom  of  it,  although  those  on  its 
side-banks  higher  up  may  be  safe.  7.  An  impediment  of  no  great  hight 
on  the  surface  of  the  slope,  such  as  a  stone-wall  fence,  causes  damage  im- 
mediately above  it,  extending  upward  proportionally  to  the  hijjht  of  the 
impediment.  A  still  loftier  impediment,  like  a  closely-planted  and  tall 
wood  or  belt  of  trees,  across  the  descent,  or  at  the  bottom  of  sloping  land, 
causes  the  damage  to  extend  on  it  much  more.  8.  Rivers  have  a  bad  re- 
pute a.s  the  cause  of  hoar-frosts  in  their  neighborhood,  but  the  general 
opinion  regarding  their  eril  influence  is  altogether  erroneous  ;  the  protect- 
ive effect  of  running  water,  such  as  waterfalls  from  mill-sluices,  on  pieces 
of  potatoes,  when  others  in  like  low  situations  are  blackened  by  frost,  is  an 
illustration  which  can  be  referred  to.  9.  The  severity  of  the  injury  by 
hoar-fiost  is  much  influenced  by  the  wetness  or  dryness  of  the  soil  at  the 


*  Mndie's  World. 

(3«6) 


THE  WEATHER  IN  WINTER.  195 


place ;  and  this  is  exemplified  in  potatoes  groAving  on  haugh-lands,  by  the 
sides  of  rivers.     These  lands  are  generally  dry,  but  bars  of  clay  sometimes 

intersect  the  dry  portions,  over  which  the  land  is  comparatively  damp. 

Hoar-frost  ^^^ll  affect  the  crop  growing  upon  these  bars  of  clay,  while  that 
on  the  dry  soil  will  escape  injury ;  and  the  explanation  of  this  is  quite 
easy.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  damp  lands  is  lower  than  that  of  the 
dry,  and,  on  a  diminution  of  the  temperature  during  frost,  it  sooner  gets 
down  to  the  freezing  point,  as  it  has  less  to  diminish  before  reaching  it. — 
10.  Hoar-frost  produces  peculiar  cuiTents  in  the  atmosphere.  On  flat 
lands,  and  in  land-locked  hollows,  there  are  no  currents  that  are  at  all  sen- 
sible to  the  feelings ;  but  on  the  sloping  lands,  during  hoar-frosts,  there  is 
rarely  absent  a  very  sensible  and  steady,  although  generally  only  feeble, 
cun-ent  toward  the  most  direct  descent  of  the  slope.  The  cun-ent  is  pro- 
duced in  this  way.  The  cold  first  takes  place- on  the  surface  of  the  giound, 
and  the  lower  stratum  of  air  becoming  cooled,  descends  to  a  lower  tem- 
perature than  that  of  the  air  immediately  above,  in  contact  \\ith  it.  By 
its  cooling,  the  lower  stratum  acquires  a  greater  density,  and  cannot  rest 
on  an  inclined  plane,  but  descends  to  the  valley  ;  its  place  at  the  summit 
of  the  slope  being  supplied  by  warmer  air  from  above,  which  prevents  it 
from  getting  so  low  as  the  freezing  temperature.  On  the  flat  ground  be- 
low, the  cool  air  accumulates,  and  commits  injury,  while  the  warmer  cux'- 
rent  down  the  slope  does  none  ;  but  should  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
day  and  night  be  already  very  low  before  the  calm  of  the  evening  sets  in, 
the  whole  air  is  so  cooled  douai  as  to  prevent  any  cuiTent  doA\Ti  the  slope. 
Injury  is  then  effected  both  on  the  slope  and  the  low  ground  ;  and  hence 
the  capiicious  nature  of  hoar-frost  may  be  accounted  for.* 

(345.)  Frost  has  been  represented  to  arise  from  the  absence  of  heat ; 
but  it  is  more,  for  it  also  implies  an  absence  of  moisture.  Sir  Richard 
Phillips  defines  cold  to  be  '"  the  mere  absence  of  the  motion  of  the  atoms 
called  heat,  or  the  abstraction  of  it  by  evaporation  of  atoms,  so  as  to  con- 
vey away  the  motion,  or  by  the  juxtaposition  of  bodies  susceptible  of  mo- 
tion. Cold  and  heat  are  mere  relations  of  fixity  and  motion  in  the  atoms 
of  bodies."t  This  definition  of  heat  implies  that  it  is  a  mere  property  of 
matter — a  point  not  yet  settled  by  philosophers ;  but  there  is  no  doubt 
that,  by  motion,  heat  is  evolved,  and  cold  is  generally  attended  by  stillness 
or  cessation  of  motion. 

(346.)  Frost  generally  originates  in  the  upper  portions  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, it  is  supposed,  by  the  expansion  of  the  air  carrying  off  the  existing 
heat,  and  making  it  susceptible  of  acquiring  more.  What  the  cause  of  the 
expansion  may  be,  when  no  visible  change  has  taken  place,  in  the  mean 
time,  in  the  ordinary  action  of  the  solar  rays,  may  not  be  obvious  to  a 
spectator  on  the  ground ;  but  it  is  known,  from  the  experiments  of  Lenz, 
that  electricity  is  as  capable  of  producing  cold  as  heat,  to  the  degree  of 
freezing  water  rapidly. | 

(347.)  The  most  intense  frosts  in  this  countiy  never  penetrate  more  than 
one  foot  into  the  ground,  on  account  of  the  excessive  dryness  occasioned 
in  it  by  the  frost  itself  withdrawing  the  moistui'e  for  it  to  act  upon.  Frost 
cannot  penetrate  through  a  thick  covering  of  snow,  or  below  a  sheet  of  ice. 

(348.)  Ice  is  water  in  a  solid  state,  superinduced  by  the  agency  of  frost. 
Though  a  solid,  it  is  not  a  compact  substance,  but  contains  large  interstices 
filled  with  air  or  other  substances  that  may  have  been  floating  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  water.  Ice  is  an  aggregation  of  ciystals  subtending  with  one 
another  the  angles  of  60°  and  120°.     It  is  quickly  formed  in  shallow,  but 

*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  -aXv. 
t  Phillips's  Facts.  ^  Bird's  Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy. 

(387) 


19t)  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

takes  a  long  time  to  form  in  deep  water,  and  it  cannot  become  veiy  thick 
in  the  lower  latitudes  of  the  globe,  from  want  of  time  and  intensity  of  the 
frost.  By  11  years'  obsei-vations  at  the  Observatoiy  at  Paris,  there  were 
only  58  days  of  frost  throughout  the  year,  which  is  too  short  and  too  de- 
Bultoiy  a  period  to  freeze  dvep  water  in  that  latitude. 

(349.)  The  freezing  of  water  is  effected  by  frost  in  this  manner.  The 
up])cr  Him  of  water  in  contact  with  the  air  becomes  cooled  do^^^l,  and 
when  it  reaches  39^.39  it  is  at  its  densest  state,  and  of  course  sinks  to  the 
bottom  through  the  less  dense  body  of  water  below  it.  The  next  film  of 
water,  which  is  now  uppermost,  undergoes  the  same  condensation,  and  in 
this  way  does  film  after  film  in  contact  with  the  air  descend  toward  the 
bottom,  until  the  whole  body  of  water  becomes  equally  dense  at  the  tem- 
perature of  39°. 39.  When  this  vertical  circulation  of  the  water  stops,  the 
upper  film  becomes  frozen.  If  there  is  no  wind  to  agitate  the  surface  of 
the  water,  its  temperature  will  descend  as  low  as  28°  before  it  freezes, 
and  on  freezing  vv^ll  start  up  to  32°  ;  but,  should  there  be  any  wind,  then 
the  ice  will  form  at  once  at  32°,  expanding  at  the  same  time  ^  larger  than 
in  its  former  state  of  water. 

(350.)  It  is  worth  while  to  trace  the  progress  of  this  curious  phenome 
non — the  expansion  of  ice.  In  the  first  place,  the  water  contracts  in  hulk 
by  the  frost,  until  it  reaches  the  temperature  of  39°.39,  when  it  is  in  its 
state  of  greatest  density,  and  then  sinks.  It  then  resists  the  freeaing  power 
of  frost  in  a  calm  atmosphere,  until  it  reaches  28°,  rvitJwut  decreasing  more 
in  hulk,  and  it  remains  floating  on  the  warmer  water  below  it,  which  con- 
tinues at  39°.39.  When  so  placed,  and  at  28°,  it  freezes,  and  suddenly 
starts  up  to  the  temperature  of  32°,  and  as  suddenly  expands  \  more  in 
bulk  than  at  its  ordinary  temperature,  and  of  course  more  than  that  when 
in  its  most  condensed  state  at  39°.39.  It  retains  its  assumed  enlarged 
state  of  ice  until  it  is  melted. 

(351.)  So  great  is  the  force  of  water  on  being  suddenly  expanded  into 
ice,  that,  according  to  the  experiments  of  the  Florentine  Academy,  eveiy 
cubic  inch  of  it  exerts  a  power  of  27,000  lbs.  This  remarkable  power  of 
ice  is  of  use  in  Agiiculture,  as  I  shall  illustrate  when  I  come  to  speak  of 
the  eftects  of  frost  on  plowed  land. 

(352.)  It  is  obvious  that  no  large  body  of  fresh  water,  such  as  a  deep 
lake  or  river,  can  be  reduced  in  temperature  below  39°.39,  when  water  is 
in  its  densest  state,  as  what  becomes  colder  only  floats  upon  and  covers 
the  denser,  which  is  at  the  same  time  warmer,  portion ;  and  as  ice  is  of 
larger  bulk,  weight  for  weight,  than  water,  it  must  float  above  all,  and,  in 
retaining  that  position,  prevent  the  farther  cooling  of  the  mass  of  water 
below  39°.39.  On  the  other  hand,  sea-w^tev  freezes  at  once  on  the  sur- 
face, and  that  below  the  ice  must  retain  the  temperature  it  had  when  the 
ice  was  formed.  Frost  in  the  polar  regions  becomes  suddenly  intense,  and 
the  polar  sea  becomes  as  suddeidy  covered  with  ice,  without  regard  to  the 
temperature  of  the  water  below.  The  ice  of  the  polar  sea,  like  the  snow 
upon  the  polar  land,  tlnis  becomes  a  protective  mantle  against  the  intense 
cold  of  the  atmosphere,  which  is  sometimes  as  great  as  57°  below  zero. — 
In  this  way,  sea  animals,  as  well  as  land  vegetables,  in  those  regions,  are 
protected  against  the  e fleets  of  the  intensest  frosts. 

(353.)  Ice  evaporates  moisture  as  largeh/  as  wafer,  which  property  pre- 
serves it  from  being  easily  melted  by  any  unusual  occuiTcnce  of  a  high 
temperature  of  tlie  air,  because  the  rapid  evaporation  occasioned  by  the 
small  increase  of  heat  superinduces  a  greater  coldness  in  the  body  of  ice. 

(354.)  The  great  cooling  jfoicers  of  ice  may  be  witnessed  by  the  simple 
experiment  of  mixing  1  lb.  of  water  at  32°  with  1  lb.  at  172°,  the  mean 

(388] 


THE  WEATHER  IN  WINTER.  197 


temperature  of  the  mixture  will  be  as  high  as  102° ;  whereas  1  lb.  of  ice 
at  32°,  on  being  put  into  1  lb.  of  water  at  172°,  will  reduce  the  mixture  to 
the  temperature  of  ice,  namely,  32°.  This  perhaps  unexpected  result  arises 
from  the  greater  capacity  of  ice  for  caloric  than  Avater  at  the  temperature 
of  32°  ;  that  is,  in  other  words,  more  heat  is  required  to  break  up  the  crys- 
talization  of  ice  than  to  heat  water, 

(355.)  It  may  be  worth  while  to  notice  that  ponds  and  lakes  are  gener- 
ally frozen  with  different  thicknesses  of  ice,  owing  either  to  irregularities 
in  the  bottom,  which  constitute  different  depths  of  water,  or  to  the  exist- 
ence of  deep  springs,  the  water  of  which,  as  you  have  seen,  seldom  falls 
below  the  mean  temperature  of  the  place,  that  is,  40°.  Hence  the  un 
known  thickness  of  ice  on  lakes  and  ponds,  until  its  stz-ength  has  been  as- 
certained ;   and  hence  also  the  origin  of  most  of  the  accidents  on  ice. 

(356.)  The  phenomenon  of  Fog  or  Mist  occurs  at  all  seasons,  and  it  ap- 
pears always  under  the  peculiar  circumstances  explained  by  Sir  Humphry 
Davy.  His  theory  is,  that  radiation  of  vapor  from  land  and  water  sends 
it  up  until  it  meets  with  a  cold  stratum  of  air,  which  condenses  it  in  the 
form  of  mist — which  naturally  gravitates  toward  the  surface.  When  the 
radiation  is  weak,  the  mist  seems  to  lie  upon  the  ground  ;  but  when  more 
powerful,  the  stratum  of  mist  may  be  Seen  elevated  a  few  feet  above  the 
ground.  Mist,  too,  may  be  seen  to  continue  longer  over  the  water  than 
the  land,  owing  to  the  slower  radiation  of  vapor  from  water;  and  it  is  gen- 
erally seen  in  the  hollowest  portions  of  ground,  on  account  of  the  cold  air, 
as  it  descends  fi'om  the  surrounding  rising  groimd  and  mixes  with  the  air 
in  the  hollow,  diminishing  its  capacity  for  moisture. 

(357.)  Mist  also  varies  in  its  character  according  to  its  electiic  state ;  if 
negatively  affected,  it  deposits  its  vapor  more  quickly,  forming  a  heavy 
sort  of  dew,  and  wetting  everything  like  rain  ;  but  if  positively,  it  contin- 
ues to  exist  as  fog,  and  retains  the  vapor  in  the  state  in  which  it  has  not 
the  property  of  wetting  like  the  other.  Thin,  hazy  fogs  occur  frequently 
in  winter  evenings  after  clear  cold  weather,  and  they  often  become  so  per- 
manently electric  as  to  resist  for  days  the  action  of  the  sun  to  disperse 
them.  Thick,  heavy  fogs  occur  also  in  the  early  part  of  summer  and  au- 
tumn, and  are  sometimes  very  wetting. 

(358.)  The  fogs  in  hollows  constitute  the  true  stratus  cloud.  We  see 
vapor  at  a  distance  in  the  atmosphere,  and  call  it  cloud  ;  but  when  it  sinks 
to  the  earth,  or  will  not  rise,  and  we  are  immersed  in  it,  we  call  it  mist  or 
fog.  When  immersed  in  a  cloud  on  a  mountain,  we  say  we  are  in  a  mist ; 
but  the  same  mist  will  be  seen  by  a  spectator,  at  a  distance  in  the  valley, 
as  a  beautiful  cu'ro-stratus  resting  on  the  mountain. 

(359.)  The  magnifying  power  of  mist  is  a  well-known  optical  illusion. — 
Its  concealing  and  mistifjing  effects  may  have  been  obsei-ved  by  every  one  ; 
and  its  causing  distant  sounds  to  be  heard  as  if  near  at  hand,  may  also  have 
been  noticed  by  many.  The  illusive  effects  of  mist  are  very  well  described 
in  these  lines  : 

"  When  all  you  see  through  densest  fog  is  seen, 
When  you  can  hear  the  fishers  near  at  hand 
Distinctly  speak,  yet  see  not  where  they  stand, 
Or  sometimes  them  and  not  their  boat  discern, 
Or  hall  concealed  some  figure  at  the  stern; 
Boys  who,  on  shore,  to  sea  the  pebble  cast, 
Will  hear  it  strike  against  the  viewless  mast; 
While  the  stem  boatman  growls  his  fierce  disdain 
At  whom  he  knows  not,  whom  he  threats  in  vain."* 

•  Crabbe 


(389) 


198  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM — WINTER. 


19.    CLIMATE. 

'  "  Betwixt  th'  extremes,  two  hBppier  climates  hold, 

The  temper  that  partakea  of  hot  and  cold." 

Drvden. 

(360.)  This  seems  a  favorable  opportunity  for  saying  a  few  words  on 
climate — a  most  interesting  subject  to  the  farmer,  inasmuch  as  it  will  en- 
able him  to  discover  the  favorable  and  unfavorable  particulars  connected 
with  the  site  of  the  farm  which  he  may  wish  to  occupy.  This  is  a  point, 
in  looking  at  farms,  which  I  am  afraid  is  entirely  overlooked  by  farmers, 
much  to  their  disappointment  and  even  loss,  as  I  shall  have  occasion  to 
obsene  when  we  come  to  be  on  the  outlook  for  a  farm.  Meantime  let  us 
attend  to  a  few  general  principles.* 

[*  It  would  be  vain  to  attempt  to  make  notes  on  a  subject  bo  comprehensive,  with  a  view  to 
adapt  the  observations  of  the  author  in  hand  to  any  peculiar  circumstances  as  connected  with  the 
climate  of  the  United  States,  and  its  connection  with  the  health  and  agricultural  industry  of  its  in- 
habitants. To  do  so,  it  would  be  necessarj-  to  write  a  book,  and  that  has  been  done  already  by 
the  late  Samuel  Fokry,  M.  D.,  with  a  degree  of  ability  and  in  a  spirit  that  do  honor  to  his 
memory. 

The  meteorological  phenomena  established  by  observations  at  our  military  posts,  taken  and 
•ollected  and  published  under  the  direction  of  our  accomplished  Surgeon  General  Lawson,  form 
the  basis  of  Dr.  Forry's  book  on  "  The  Climate  of  the  United  States,"  published  in  1842. 

Well  aware  that  tciTcstrial  temperature,  in  its  effect  on  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdom,  is 
modified  as  well  by  local  causes  as  by  the  position  of  the  sun,  the  author  of  this  highly  interesting 
and  valuable  work  has  adopted  a  classification  of  climates  based  on  physical  geography,  without 
reference  to  latitude. 

The  military  posts  from  which  the  facts  are  supplied  for  the  basis  of  his  deductions,  are  divided 
into  Northern,  Middle,  and  Southern.  The  first  embracing  posts  on  the  coast  of  New-England, 
extending  as  far  south  as  the  harbor  of  New-York — posts  on  the  northern  chain  of  lakes,  and  posta 
remote  from  the  northern  and  inland  seas.  The  Middle  embracing  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Dela- 
ware Bay  to  Savannah,  and  interior  stations.  And  the  Southern,  the  posts  on  the  Lower  Missis- 
sippi, and  posts  in  the  peninsula  of  Ea.st  Florida.  The  last  comprehending  a  region  characterized 
by  the  predominance  of  low  temperature — the  Southern  a  high  temperature,  and  the  Middle  phe- 
nomena vibrating  to  both  extremes. 

It  is  to  be  lamented  that  a  sufficient  number  of  thermometrical  observations  have  not  been  made 
through  the  range  of  our  mountain  regions,  to  determine  more  exactly  the  influence  of  altitude  as 
well  as  of  latitude ;  but  as  at  such  interior  and  elevated  jjoints  we  have  no  occasion  for  military 
stations,  it  would  not  accord  with  the  policy  of  this  llcpublican  Goveiument  to  make  provision 
for  the  collection  of  facts  to  enlighten  and  give  more  activity  and  profit  to  mere  industrial  pur- 
suits. Tabular  ab.-^tracts  presented  in  the  work  of  Dr.  Forry  embrace  the  condensed  results  of 
observations  made  at  various  posts  between  'iP  33'  and  46"^  3!>'  of  north  latitude,  and  between 
67°  4'  and  9.')-'  43'  of  longitude  west  of  Greenwich,  embracing  an  extent  of  22°  6'  of  latitude  and 
28^  39'  of  longitude. 

To  any  one  having  a  just  apprehension  of  what  is  needed  to  a  rational  education  of  young  men 
intended  to  be  cultivators  of  the  soil,  with  a  knowledge  of  subjects  which  it  becomes  every  gen- 
tleman to  know  something  about,  we  need  not  sny  how  proper  and  useful  it  would  be  to  place 
such  books  as  this  in  all  our  countrj-  schools.  This  we  can  aver  with  the  less  hesitation,  inasmuch 
as,  in  the  attempt  to  extract  some  passages  for  the  edification  of  young  readers,  we  find  it  difficult 
to  make  choice  of  a  portion,  whore  all  is  alike  instructive.  On  the  general  subject  of  climate, 
perhaps  the  be-st  paper  is  to  be  found  in  the  Encyclopn<dia  Britannica,  art.  Climate.  In  that  arti- 
cle. Professor  Leslie  estimates  that  the  diminution  of  temperature  of  1'^  of  Fahrenheit's  scale  cor- 
responds to  an  extent  of  300  feet.  But  this,  says  Brando,  will  hold  true  only  of  moderate  eleva- 
<390) 


CLIMATE.  199 

(361.)  Climate  may  be  divided  into  general  and  local.  The  foi-mer  af- 
fects alike  all  places  in  the  same  parallel  of  latitude ;  it  is  measured  fiom 
the  equator  to  the  polar  circles  in  spaces,  in  each  of  which  the  longest  day 
is  half  an  houi'  longer  than  that  nearer  the  equator;  and  from  the  polar 
circles  to  the  pole,  it  is  measured  by  the  increase  of  a  month.  It  is  obvi- 
ous that  the  breadth  assumed  for  those  spaces  is  quite  arbitrary,  and  it  is 
equally  clear  that  each  space  is  subject  to  a  different  temperature.  In  fact, 
a  difference  of  temperature  constitutes  the  chief  distinction  in  the  general 
climate  of  places  ;  and  it  is  this  great  distinction  Avhich  has  given  rise  to 
the  division  of  zones  on  the  surface  of  the  globe  into  the  tonid,  temperate, 
and  frigid — names  indicative  of  different  degrees  of  temperature.- 

(362.)  The  torrid  zone  embraces  that  space  of  the  globe  on  both  sides 
of  the  equator  in  which  the  sun  passes  across  the  zenith  during  the  year. 
Being  under  the  perpendicular  direction  of  the  sun's  rays,  this  is  the  hot- 
test portion  of  the  globe.  It  comprehends  23^°  on  each  side  of  the  equa- 
tor, or  47°  in  all. 

(363.)  The  temperate  zones  extend  43'^  on  each  side  of  the  tonid,  and 
being  acted  upon  by  the  sun's  rays  in  an   oblique   direction,  are  not  so 


tions.  At  the  altitude  of  1  mile,  2  m.  3  m.  4  m.  and  5  miles,  the  increase  of  elevation  correspond- 
ing to  1°  Fahr.  will  be  respectively  295,  277,  252,  223,  and  192.  Configuration,  too,  has  a  pow- 
erful influence  on  temperature.  The  form  of  the  limits  of  any  large  mass  of  land,  as  determined 
by  its  contact  w^ith  the  ocean — that  is  to  say,  the  greater  or  less  extent  of  coast  it  possesses  in  pro- 
portion to  its  area — exercises,  says  Brande,  and  as  is  well  known,  a  considerable  influence  on 
climate.  The  small  amount  of  variation  in  the  temperature  of  the  ocean  tends  to  equalize  the  pe- 
riodic distribution  of  heat  among  the  different  seasons  of  the  year ;  and  the  proximity  of  a  great 
mass  of  ■water  moderates,  by  its  action  on  the  winds,  the  heat  of  summer  and  the  cold  of  winter. 
Hence  the  great  contrast  between  the  climate  of  islands  and  of  coasts,  and  the  climate  of  the  inte- 
rior of  vast  continents.  Europe  presents  a  remarkable  example  of  this.  From  Orleans  and  Paris 
to  London,  Dublin,  Edinburgh,  and  even  farther  north,  the  mean  temperature  of  the  year  dimin- 
ishes very  little,  notwithstanding  the  increase  of  latitude  ;  while  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Conti- 
nent each  degree  of  latitude,  according  to  Humboldt,  produces  a  variation  of  l°.l  Fahr.  in  the 
mean  temperature. 

We  must  take  room  here  for  another  extract  from  Forry  : 

"  Where,  indeed,  do  we  not  meet  the  evidences  of  design  ?  As  temperature  decreases  pro 
gressively  with  the  elevation  of  land,  great  varieties  of  vegetation  are  presented  in  the  8a;me  re- 
gion. While  the  flowers  of  spring  are  unfolding  their  petals  on  the  plains  of  Northern  France, 
Winter  continues  his  icy  reign  upon  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees.  By  this  beneficent  appointment  of 
Nature,  the  torrid  zone  presents  many  habitable  climates.  On  the  great  table-plain  of  Mexico 
and  Gautemala,  a  tropical  is  converted  into  a  temperate  clime.  As  the  vernal  valley  of  Q,uito  lies 
in  the  same  latitude  as  the  destructive  coasts  of  French  Guiana,  so  the  interior  of  Africa  may  pos- 
sess many  localities  gifted  with  the  same  advantages.  In  our  own  country,  reference  has  already 
been  made  to  the  marked  contrast  between  the  Atlantic  Plain  and  the  parallel  mountain  ridges  ; 
but  it  is  in  the  geographical  features  of  Columbia,  in  South  America,  that  we  find  mo.st  strikingly 
displayed  the  physical  phenomenon  of  hight  producing  the  effect  of  latitude — a  change  of  cli- 
mate, with  all  the  consequent  revolutions  of  animal  and  vegetable  life,  induced  by  local  position. 
It  is  on  the  mountain  slopes  of  from  3,000  to  7,000  feet,  beyond  the  influence  of  the  noxious  mias- 
mata, that  man  dwells  in  perpetual  summer  amid  the  richest  vegetable  productions  of  Nature. — 
In  the  mountains  of  Jamaica,  at  the  hisjht  of  4,200  feet,  the  vegetation  of  the  tropics  gives  place  to 
that  of  temperate  regions ;  and  here,  while  thousands  are  cut  oft'  annually  along  the  coast  by  yel- 
low fever,  a  complete  exemption  exists.  In  these  elevated  regions,  the  inhabitants  exhibit  the 
ruddy  glow  of  health  which  tinges  the  countenance  in  northern  climes,  forming  a  striking  con- 
trast to  the  pallid  and  sickly  aspect  of  those  that  dwell  below.  In  ascending  a  lofty  mountain  of 
the  torrid  zone,  the  greatest  varietj'  in  vegetation  is  displayed.  At  its  foot,  under  the  burning 
sun,  ananas  and  plantains  flourish  ;  the  region  of  limes  and  oranges  succeeds  ;  then  follov\'  fields 
of  maize  and  luxuriant  wheat ;  and.  still  his/her,  the  series  of  plants  known  in  the  temperate  zone. 
The  mountains  of  temperate  rearions  exhibit,  perhaps,  less  variety,  but  the  change  is  equally 
striking.  In  the  ascent  of  the  Alps,  having  once  passed  the  vine-clad  belt,  we  traverse  in  succes- 
sion those  of  oaks,  sweet  chesnuts,  and  beeches,  till  we  gain  the  region  of  the  more  hardy  pmes 
and  stunted  birches.  Beyond  the  elevation  of  6,000  feet,  no  tree  appears.  Immense  tracts  are 
then  covered  with  herbaceous  vegetation,  the  variety  in  which  ultimately  dwindles  down  to 
mosses  and  lichens,  which  struggle  up  to  the  barrier  of  eternal  snow.  In  the  United  States  proper, 
we  have  at  least  two  summits,'' the  rocky  pinnacles  of  which  shoot  up  to  the  altitude,  perhaps,  of 
6,500  feet.  Of  these,  Mount  Washington,  in  New-Hampshire,  is  one.  Encircling  the  base  is  a 
(391) 


200  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


warm  in  any  part  of  them  as  the  toirid,  and  the  temperature  of  their  sev- 
eral parts,  of  course,  decreases  as  they  are  situated  fartlier  from  the  torrid. 
Besides  this,  these  zones  being  entirely  intercepted  by  tlie  tonid,  the  tem- 
perature of  tlieir  northern  and  southern  divisions  is  hotter  and  colder  as  the 
sun  is  faither  oft'  or  nearer  to  the  northern  or  southejm  exti'emes  of  his  de- 
clination. 

(364.)  The  frigid  zones  extend  from  the  temperate  to  the  poles.  They 
are  intercepted  by  both  the  torrid  and  temperate  zones.  The  sun's  rays 
affect  them  at  a  still  more  oblique  angle  than  the  temperate,  and,  of  course, 
their  mean  temperature  is  yet  lower  than  theirs.  They  are  so  far  remi)ved 
fi'om  the  sun,  that  in  winter  the  sun  is  never  seen  in  them  above  the  hori- 
zon, while  in  summer  he  is  never  under  the  horizon ;  and  it  is  this  accu- 
mulation of  the  sun's  rays  in  summer  that  in  a  degree  compensates  for  the 

heavy  forest — then  succeeds  a  belt  of  stunted  firs — next  a  growth  of  low  bushes — and  still  farther 
up  only  moss  or  lichens,  or  lastly  a  naked  surface,  the  summits  of  which  are  covered,  during  ten 
months  of  the  year,  with  snow.  Of  the  snow-capped  peaks  of  Oregon,  we  possess  no  precise 
knowledge." 

As  it  is,  even  if  it  were  proper  to  make  more  extended  extracts,  we  have  room  only  for  the  fol- 
lowinp — recommending  the  book  itself  to  evei-y  one  who  would  desire  to  possess-some  acquaint- 
ance with  a  matter  that  equally  affects  his  own  health  and  the  growth  of  every  thing  around  him 
to  which  his  labor  is  applied,  and  on  which  he  depends  for  his  subsistence  ;  for  truly  the  investi- 
gation of  the  laws  of  climate  embraces  almost  every  branch  of  natural  philosophy — constituting, 
as  it  does,  according  to  the  broad  and  true  definition  of  Dr.  F.,  '•  the  aggregate  of  all  external 
physical  circumstances  appertaining  to  each  locality  in  its  relation  to  organic  natiire." 

Here  it  may  be  proper,  for  the  information  of  the  useful  reader,  to  state,  as  it  may  sen-e  him  in 
his  readings  in  relation  to  the  geography  of  climate,  that  writers  illustrating  the  general  laws  of 
temperature  have  drawn  around  the  globe  a  series  of  curves  or  lines  of  equal  annual  tempera- 
ture, called  isothermal  lines;  lines  of  equal  summer  called  isothermal  lines,  and  lines 
of  equal  winter  called  isochemical  curves.  It  is  pleasing,  says  Dr.  F.,  to  contemplate  such  a  di- 
vision of  the  earth — each  isothermal  belt,  as  well  as  those  of  summer  and  winter  temperatures, 
representing  zones,  in  which  we  may  trace  the  causes  of  the  similarity  or  diversitj-  in  animal  and 
vegetable  productions  ;  and  then  again  he  says,  to  determine  the  influence  of  these  zones  respect- 
ively upon  the  animal  economy  in  health,  and  the  agency  exercised  in  the  cessation  of  disease, 
have  proved  investigations  still  more  interesting. 

"  For  full  mental  and  corporeal  development,  the  due  succession  of  the  seasons  is  requisite. — 
Those  countries  which  have  a  marked  spring,  summer,  autumn,  and  winter,  are  best  adapted  by 
this  agreeable  and  favorable  vicissitude  for  developing  the  most  active  powers  of  man.  It  is,  ac- 
cording to  Malle-Brun,  between  the  40th  and  60th  degrees  of  north  latitude,*  that  we  find  the 
nations  most  distinguished  for  knowledge  and  civilization,  and  the  display  of  courage  by  sea  and 
by  land.  In  countries  which  have  no  summer,  the  inhabitants  are  destitute  of  taste  and  genius; 
^vhile,  in  the  regions  unfavored  by  winter,  true  valor,  loj-all\-  and  palriotisim  are  almost  unknown. 
To  this  all-pervading  agency  of  atmospheric  constitution,  must  be  referred,  in  a  considerable  de- 
gree, the  superiority  of  the  warlike  nations  of  Southern  Europe  over  the  effeminate  inhabitants 
of  Asia ;  and  to  the  same  cau.se,  in  connection  with  others,  is  to  be  ascribed  the  subse<)uent  con- 
quest of  the  former  by  the  formidable  hordes  which  issued  from  Northern  Europe.  And  in  regard 
to  the  political  horizon  of  North  America,  if  we  look  upon  history  as  philosophy  teaching  by  ex- 
ample, it  requires  not  the  gift  of  divination  to  foresee  the  destiny  of  Mexico  anil  the  States  south 
of  it,  whose  inhabitants,  enervated  by  climate,  conjointly  with  other  causes,  will  yield,  V)y  that  ne- 
cessity which  controls  all  moral  laws,  to  the  energetic  arm  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race.  The  future 
history  of  these  States  woulii  wem  to  b(!  typified  in  that  of  Texas.         »        »         » 

"  One  of  the  most  interesting  problems  in  history  is  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  human 
family  ;  for  the  oldest  records  seldom  allude  to  an  uninhabited  country.  From  remote  ages,  it  is 
well  known  that  the  inhabitants  of  evorj-  extended  locality  have  been  marked  by  certain  physical, 
moral  and  intellectual  peculiarities.  8<;rving.  no  less  than  particularity  of  languaire.  to  distinguish 
them  from  all  other  people;  but  how  far  this  result  ought  .justly  to  be  ascribed  to  the  agency  of 
climate  is  still  an  undetermined  point.  It  may,  however,  with  good  reason,  be  assumed  that  the 
physical  characteristics  which  di.'<tincuish  the  primitive  nices  of  the  human  family,  usually  cla.s.sed 
under  five  varieties,  e.Kist  independent  of  external  causes;  while  the  various  families  or  nations 
composing  each  race  owe  their  similarity  of  physical  and  monil  character,  and  of  languatrc,  to  the 
influence  of  climate,  habits  of  life,  and  various  collateral  circumstances.     Political  institutions  and 

*  This  limitation,  no  drmht  well  adapted  to  Europe,  is  inapplicable  to  the  United  States.    This  is  apparent 
from  the  fact  that  the  isothermal  lines,  in  being  traced  around  the  plnbc,  eutfer  preat  depression,  a,«  will  be 
shown,  on  the  Atlantic  region  of  North  America.    The  32d  and  the  46th  parallels  would  consequently  form 
a  reasonable  boundary. 
(392) 


CLIMATE.  201 


entii-e  depiivation  of  them  in  winter,  and  has  the  effect  of  raising  the  mean 
temperature  of  those  zones  to  a  hight  in  which  both  human  life  and  vege- 
tation may  exist.     The  frigid  zones  extend  47°. 

(365.)   The  three  zones  occupy  these  relative  proportions  of  space: 

The  ton-id 470 

The  temperate 86° 

The  frigid 470 

180°  fi'om  pole  to  pole. 

"  The  climates  of  diiferent  parts  of  the  earth's  surface  are  unquestionably 
owing,  in  gi-eat  measure,  to  their  position  with  respect  to  the  sun.  At  the 
equator,  where  the  sun  is  always  nearly  vertical,  any  given  part  of  the  sur- 
face receives  a  much  greater  quantity  of  light  and  heat  than  an  equal  por- 
tion near  the  poles ;  and  it  is  also  still  more  affected  by  the  sun's  vertical 
rays,  because  their  passage  through  the  atmosphere  is  shorter  than  that 
of  the  oblique  rays.  As  far  as  the  sun's  mean  altitude  is  concerned,  it  ap- 
pears fi'om  Simpson's  calculations,  that  the  heat  received  at  the  equator 
in  the  whole  year  is  nearly  2^  times  as  great  as  at  the  poles ;  this  propor- 
tion being  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  meridian  heat  of  a  vertical  sun, 
to  the  heat  derived,  at  23^°  from  the  poles,  in  the  middle  of  the  long  an- 

eocial  organization  even  struggle  successfully  against  climatic  agency;  for  heroes,  men  of  genius 
and  philosophers  have  arisen  both  in  Egypt,  under  the  tropics,  and  in  Scandinavia,  under  the  polar 
circle.  Climate,  however,  modifies  the  whole  nature  of  man.  The  powerful  influence  of  locality 
on  human  organization  is  apparent  at  once  in  surveying  the  external  characters  of  the  different 
nations  of  auj'  quarter  of  the  earth.  Even  in  casting  one's  eye  over  our  National  Legislature,  the 
diversity  of  physiognomy,  caused  by  endemico-epidemic  influences,  is  so  obvious  that  the  general 
countenance  of  each  State's  delegation  aords  a  pretty  sure  criierion  tojudge  of  its  comparative 
salubrity.  We  can  at  once  distinguih  the  ruddj'  inhabitant  of 'that  mountain  chain  where  health 
and  longevity  walk  hand  in  hand,  where  Jefferson  and  Madison  inspired  its  cheerful  and  invigo- 
rating breezes,  from  the  blanched  resident  of  our  southern  lowlands — those  fair  and  inviting  plains, 
■whose  fragrant  zephyrs  are  laden  with  poison,  the  dews  of  whose  summer  evenings  are  replete 
with  the  seeds  of  mortality.    As  in  the  smiling,  but  malarial,  plains  of  Italy — 

"  In  florid  beauty  groves  and  fields  appear ; 
Man  seems  the  only  growth  that  dwindles  here." 

"Nothing  is  more  obvious,  as  a  general  law,  than  that  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms  have 
been  adapted  to  particular  climates — the  effects  of  which,  for  example,  in  cold  and  w-arm  coun- 
tries, upon  the  same  animal,  are  so  great  that  the  fleece  of  the  same  species  of  sheep  in  the  former 
is  soft  and  silky,  and,  in  the  latter,  coarse,  resembling  hair. 

"  As  regards  vegetation,  it  is  in  tropical  countries,  beneath  a  vertical  sun,  that  it  displays  its  ut- 
most glory  and  magnificence.  It  is  there,  amid  eternal  summer,  that  we  find  groves  ever  verdant, 
blooming,  and  productive.  Advancing  to  the  north  or  south,  w-e  soon  discover  forests,  which,  de- 
nuded of  their  leaves,  assume,  during  half  the  year,  the  appearance  of  death  ;  and,  still  approach- 
ing the  poles,  we  meet  vegetable  life  under  a  variety  of  stunted  forms,  which  are  ultimately  su- 
perseded by  a  few  coarse  grasses  and  lichens. 

"  In  Agriculture,  England  has  been,  and  to  a  certain  extent  still  is,  our  principal  school  of  in 
etruction ;  but  her  les.sons  must  be  corrected  by  ob.serving  the  difference  of  climate  and  collateral 
circumstances.  To  effect  this  purpose,  a  comparative  view  of  the  meteorology  of  the  two  coun- 
tries would  avail  much.  But  the  science  of  meteorology  concerns  more  particularly  the  horticul- 
turist; for  Agriculture  has  for  its  object  the  fertilization  of  the  soil  and  the  growth  and  nourish- 
ment of  indigenous  plants,  and  such  as  have,  by  a  long  course  of  treatment,  become  inured  to  the 
climate ;  while  horticulture  aims  not  only  at  a  knowledge  of  the  constitution  of  soils,  but  aspires 
to  the  preserving  and  propagating  of  exotic  vegetation. 

"  So  closely  identified  is  this  science  with  the  every-day  occurrences  of  life,  that  man  is  by  na- 
ture a  meteorologist.  The  shepherd  and  the  mariner,  in  ages  remote,  when  philosophy  had  not 
yet  asserted  its  noble  prerogative  of  releasing  the  mind  from  the  bondage  of  superstition,  were 
wont  to  look  with  awe  upon  the  face  of  heaven  as  an  index  to  prognosticate  future  results  from 
present  appearances,  and  to  read  upon  it  '  times  and  seasons.'  " 

Can  we  doubt  but  that  we  have  sufficiently  exposed  the  interesting  character  of  this  subject, 
and  its  bearing  on  Agriculture,  to  show  that  climate  is  one  of  the  topics  which  ought  to  be  treated 
in  a  Book  of  the  Farm,  and  one  with  which  every  instructor  of  youth,  and  every  gentleman  and 
political  economist,  ought  to  make  himself  acquainted  so  far  as  that  may  be  done,  as  it  may  by 
giving  an  hour  a  day,  for  a  few  weeks,  to  the  perusal  of  works  which  illustrate  the  researches  of 
those  who  have  devoted  attention  to  the  subject  ?  .Etf.  Farm.  Lib.] 

(393) 


202  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

nual  day  at  the  poles.  But  the  difference  is  rendered  still  gieater  by  the 
effect  of  the  atmosphere,  which  intercepts  a  greater  proportion  of  the  heat 
at  the  poles  than  elsewhere.  Bouguer  has  calculated,  upon  the  supposi- 
tion of  the  similarity  of  the  effects  of  lijjht  and  heat,  that,  in  lat.  4.5^,  80 
farts  of  100  are  transmitted  at  nr)on  in  July,  and  .5-5  only  in  December. — 
t  is  obvious  that,  at  any  individual  place,  the  climate  in  summer  must  ap- 
proach in  some  degree  to  the  equatorial  climate,  the  sun's  altitude  being 
gi-eater,  and  in  winter  to  the  climate  of  the  polar  regions."* 

(366.)  From  what  has  just  been  observed,  it  is  obvious  that  the  temper- 
ature of  the  air  diminishes  gradually  from  the  equator  to  the  poles  ;  and 
it  also  becomes  gradually  colder  as  we  ascend  in  hight  above  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  Here,  then,  are  two  elements  by  which  to  judge  of  the 
general  climate  of  different  latitudes.  Moreover,  the  diminution  of  heat 
from  the  equator  to  the  poles  is  found  to  take  place  in  an  aiithmetical  pro- 
gi-ession — that  is,  the  annual  temperature  of  all  the  latitudes  are  arithmet- 
ical meanx  between  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  equator  and  the  poles. 
This  law  was  first  discovered  by  M.  Meyer,  but  by  means  of  an  equation 
which  he  founded  on  it,  and  afterward  rendered  more  simple,  Mr.  Kinvan 
calculated  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  ever)'  degree  of  latitude  be- 
tween the  equator  and  the  poles.  The  results  were,  that  the  mean  tem- 
perature at  the  equator  is  84^,  that  at  the  poles  31'^,  and  that  in  N.  lat. 
540  493.20. 

(367.)  From  Mr.  Kinvan's  calculations  of  the  mean  temperatures  of  ev- 
erv  month,  it  appears  that  Januaiy  is  the  coldest  month  in  every  latitude, 
and  that  July  is  the  warmest  month  in  all  latitudes  above  48^.  In  lower 
latitudes,  August  is  the  wannest  month ;  while  the  difference  in  tempera- 
ture between  the  hottest  and  coldest  months  increases  in  proportion  to  the 
distance  from  the  equator.  Eveiy  habitable  latitude  enjoys  a  mean  heat 
of  60^  for  at  least  two  months  ;  and  this  heat  seems  necessary  for  the  pro- 
duction of  com.  Within  10^  of  the  poles  the  temperature  differs  little,  and 
the  same  is  the  case  within  10^  of  the  equator.  The  mean  temperatui^e 
of  different  years  differs  very  little  near  the  equator,  but  it  differs  more  and 
more  as  the  latitudes  approach  the  poles. 

(368.)  As  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  constantly  diminishes  on 
ascendingr  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  temperature  of  congelation  must 
be  attained  at  a  certain  hight  above  every  latitude;  consequently,  mount- 
ains which  rear  their  heads  alx)ve  that  limit  must  be  covered  with  perpet- 
ual snow.  The  elevation  of  the  freezing  region  varies  according  to  the 
latitude  of  the  place,  being  at  all  times  highest  at  the  equator,  and  lowest 
at  the  poles.  In  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  especially  within 
the  tropics,  the  temperature  varies  but  little  throughout  the  whole  year ; 
and  hence,  in  those  brilliant  climates,  the  line  of  perpetual  congelation  is 
stronsrly  and  distinctly  marked.  But,  in  countries  remote  from  the  equa- 
tor, the  boundary  of  frost  descends  after  the  heat  of  summer  as  the  influ- 
ence of  winter  prevails — thus  varj-ing  its  position  over  a  belt  of  some  con- 
siderable depth. 

(369.)  But  beyond  the  line  of  congelation  is  another  which  forms  the 
boundary  of  the  ascent  of  visible  vapor,  and  this  point  it  is  obvious  must 
be  less  liable  to  change  than  the  point  of  congelation.  At  the  equator  the 
highest  point  of  vapor  is  28,000  feet,  at  the  pole  3,432  feet,  and  in  N.  lat. 
54^  it  is  6,047  feet.  In  tracing  this  point  successively  along  every  latitude, 
vre  learn  that  heat  diminishes,  as  we  ascend,  in  an  arithmetical  progression. 
Hence  it  follows  that  the  heat  of  the  air  above  the  surface  of  the  eaith  is 

*  Polehampton's  Gallery  of  Nature  and  Art,  vol.  ir. 
(394) 


CLIMATE.  203 

not  owing  to  the  ascent  of  hot  strata  of  air  fi'om  the  surface,  but  to  the  con- 
ducting power  of  the  air  itself* 

(370.)  The  question  of  local  chmate  presents  a  much  greater  interest  to 
the  faraier  than  that  of  the  general  climate  of  the  countiy  which  he  inhab- 
its. Local  climate  maybe  defined  to  signify  that  peculiar  condition  of  the 
atmosphere  in  regard  to  heat  and  moisture  which  prevails  in  any  given 
place.  The  diversified  character  which  it  displays  has  been  generally  re- 
teiTed  to  the  combined  operation  of  several  different  causes,  which  are  all 
reducible,  however,  to  these  two  :  distance  from  the  eqnator,  and  hight 
aboce  the  level  of  the  sea.  Latitude  and  local  elevation  form,  indeed,  the 
great  basis  of  the  law  of  climate  ;  and  any  other  modifications  have  only  a 
partial  and  very  limited  influence.t 

(371.)  The  climate  of  every  individual  countiy  may  be  considered  local 
in  reference  to  that  of  all  other  countries  in  the  same  degi'ees  of  latitude. 
Islands  are  thus  warmer  than  continents.  The  E.  coast  of  all  countries  is 
colder  than  the  W.,  though  the  latter  is  moisten  Countries  lying  to  the 
"windward  of  great  ranges  of  mountains  or  extensive  forests  are  waiTnei 
than  those  to  leeward.|  Small  seas  are  warmer  in  summer  and  colder  in 
winter  than  the  standard  portion  of  great  oceans,  as  they  are  in  some  de- 
gree aifected  by  the  condition  of  the  surrounding  land.  Low  countries 
are  warmer  than  high,  and  level  plains  than  mountainous  regions.  Plains 
present  only  one  species  of  climate,  which  differs  in  its  seasonal  characters 
alone,  but  mountains  exhibit  every  variety,  from  their  latitude  to  the  pole 
along  the  meridian  of  the  quadrant.  In  this  way,  high  mountains,  situate 
in  the  tropics,  present  every  variety  of  climate.  "  If  we  take  each  mount 
ain,"  says  Mr.  ^ludie,  "  which  rises  above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  as 
the  index  to  its  OAvn  meridian,  we  shall  find  that  each  one  expresses,  by  its 
vegetation,  all  the  varieties  of  climate  between  it  and  the  pole  ;  and  thus 
these  lofty  mountains  become  means  of  far  more  extensive  information 
than  places  which  are  situated  near  the  main  level  of  the  sea,  and  more 
especially  than  plains,  which,  when  their  surfaces  are  nearly  flat,  have  no 
stoiy  to  tell,  but  the  same  uniform  and  monotonous  one,  for  many  miles." 
But  although  the  high  tropical  mountains  are  thus  indices  of  climate  reach--  ' 
ing  fi"om  the  equator  to  the  pole,  they  are  not  subject  to  the  seasonal  dif- 
ferences which  the  climates  are  along  the  meiidian  of  the  quadrant.  "Al- 
though," continues  Mr.  Mudie,  "  the  temperature  does  ascend  and  descend 
a  little,  even  upon  the  mountains  immediately  under  the  equator,  and  al- 
though the  seasonal  change  becomes  more  and  more  conspicuous  as  the 
latitude  increases,  either  northward  or  southward,  yet,  within  the  whole 
tropical  zone,  the  seasonal  difference  is  so  slight  that  there  is  no  marked 
summer  or  winter  apparent  in  the  native  and  characteristic  vegetation.  . 
From  the  small  change  of  seasons  in  this  region,  they  are  almost  all 
plants  of  uniform  growth  throughout  the  year,  and  have  no  Avinter  for  re- 
pose ;  so  that,  at  great  elevations,  their  growth  is  at  all  times  much  slower 
than  that  of  plants  in  polar  latitudes,  during  the  perpetual  sunshine  of  the 
summer  there.  .  .  .  Say  that  the  altitude  of  the  mountain  under  the 
equator,  upon  which  the  seasonal  action  is  displayed,  is  a  little  more  than 

[t  Mr.  Jefferson  considered  the  difference  as  equal  to  3^  of  latitude — for  example,  that  the  cul- 
ture of  cotton  might  be  carried  3-  farther  north  on  the  Mississippi  than  on  the  Atlantic  ;  and  Vol- 
ney  ascribed  this  to  the  influence  of  south-west  winds  carrjnng  the  warm  air  of  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico up  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi ;  but  Forrj-  contests  the  truth  of  the  theon,-  of  these  philoso- 
phers, by  a  train  of  reasoning,  for  which  we  regret  we  have  not  room.  The  reader  is  referred  to 
the  whole  of  section  3,  part  1,  of  his  work.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

*  For  tables  of  the  altitudes  of  the  points  of  congelation  and  vapor,  see  Kncyclopsedia  Britannica,  7th  edi 
tion,  art.  Climate.  "  t  Ibid. 

(395; 


204  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

3  miles.  Then,  estimating  in  round  numbers,  1  foot  of  altitude  on  the 
mountain  will  correspond  to  about  16,000  feet  on  the  meridian  ;  that  is,  a 
single  foot  of  elevation  on  the  mountain  is  equivalent,  in  difference  of  tem- 
perature, to  about  3  miles,  or  more  nearly  3  minutes  of  a  decree  in  lati- 
tude, and  theref(»re  20  feet  are  equal  to  a  whole  degree ;  and  when  one 
once  arrives  at  the  mean  temperature  of  London,  400  feet  more  of  eleva- 
tion will  bring  one  to  the  climate  of  Lapland."* 

(372.)  From  these  facts  and  reasonings,  it  appears  that  a  slight  differ- 
ence of  elevation  in  a  mountainous  district  of  this  country,  which  stands 
upon  so  high  a  parallel  of  latitude,  may  make  a  considerable  difference  of 
climate,  and  that,  other  things  remaining  the  same,  that  farm  which  is  sit- 
uated on  a  high  elevation  has  a  much  greater  chance  of  being  affected  by 
changes  of  climate  than  one  at  a  lower  level.  Yet  certainly  local  circum- 
stances have  a  material  effect  in  rendering  the  general  position  of  any  farm 
less  desirable,  such  as  vicinity  to  a  lake  or  marsh,  or  a  leeward  position  to 
a  hill  or  large  wood  in  reference  to  the  direction  from  which  the  wind  gen- 
erally blows,  as  these  tend  to  lower  the  temperature  below  that  of  the 
mean  of  the  country.  So,  in  like  manner,  any  position  in  a  long,  narrow 
valley,  or  on  the  side  of  a  large,  isolated  hill,  or  in  a  pass  betwixt  two 
mountains  separating  plains,  is  moi'e  subject  to  the  injurious  effects  of  wind 
than  the  mean  of  the  countiy,  as  the  wind  acquires  an  accelerated  motion 
in  such  localities.  An  elevated  table-land  is  subject  to  a  lower  tempera- 
ture and  hisrher  winds  than  a  plain  of  the  same  extent  on  a  lower  level; 
hence  most  situations  among  hills  are  colder  and  more  windy  than  on 
plains.  On  the  other  hand,  the  being  on  the  windward  side  of  a  hill  or 
large  wood,  or  on  flat  ground  backed  with  hills  and  woods  to  the  N.  and 
E.,  or  being  in  the  midst  of  a  cultivated  country,  all  insure  a  higher  tem- 
perature and  less  injurious  winds  than  the  mean  of  the  country.  An  ex- 
tensive plain  or  valley,  through  which  no  large  river  passes,  or  in  which 
no  large  lake  or  wood  exists,  is  subject  to  very  little  violent  wind.  In  the 
former  exposed  situations,  the  snow  lies  long,  and  the  winds  are  cutting 
keen  ;  while  in  the  more  sheltered  positions  the  snow  soon  disappears,  and 
the  wind  is  less  violent  and  keen.  All  these  diffei'ences  in  circumstances 
have  a  sensible  effect  on  the  local  climate  of  every  country,  and  in  a  small 
one  like  Great  Britain,  varied  as  it  is  in  its  physical  geography,  and  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides  by  water,  they  have  the  effect  of  dividing  the  country 
into  as  many  climates  as  there  are  varieties  of  surface  and  differences  of 
position  in  regard  to  the  sea.  These  local  influences,  in  most  seasons, 
nave  a  greater  eff"oct  on  the  time  of  growth,  quantity  and  quality  of  the 
produce  of  the  earth,  than  the  general  climate  of  the  country  ;  although, 
no  doubt,  the  latter  exercises  such  a  predominating  influence  in  some  rea- 
sons, by  excessive  heat  or  rain,  as  to  overcome  all  local  influences,  and 
stamp  an  universality  of  character  over  the  season.  "  According  to  Cot- 
te's  aphorisms,  local  heat  l>ecomes  gi-eater  on  plains  than  on  hills  ;  it  is 
never  so  low  near  the  sea  a,s  in  inland  parts  ;  the  wind  has  no  effect  on  it; 
its  maximum  and  minimum  are  about  6  weeks  after  the  solstices ,  it  varies 
more  in  summer  than  in  winter  ;  it  is  lea.st  a  little  before  sunrise  ;  its  max- 
ima in  the  sun  and  shade  are  seldom  on  the  same  day  ;  and  it  decreases 
more  rapidly  in  autumn  than  it  increases  in  summer."t 

(373.)  Besides  all  these  causes,  there  is  another  phenomenon  which  has 
a  material  eflfect  on  local  climate,  and  that  is,  the  darting  of  cold  pulsations 
downward  from  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  and  of  warm  pulsa- 
tions upward  from  the  earth.     This  is   a  different  phenomenon  from  ra- 


*  Mudie's  World.  f  Poleluunpton'i  Gallery  of  Nature  and  An,  vol.  iv 

(396) 


CLIMATE.  205 


diant  heat.  These  pulsations  of  temperature  are  detected  by  a  new  instru- 
ment called  the  cethrioscope  ;  and  although  the  experiments  with  it  have  aa 
yet  not  been  sufficiently  numerous  to  insure  implicit  confidence  in  its 
results,  yet  the  experience  of  all  who  have  paid  attention  to  the  vaiieties 
of  circumstances  which  affect  climate,  can  tell  them  that  many  causes  are 
evidently  at  work  in  the  atmosphere,  to  produce  effects  which  have  not 
yet  been  recognized  by  the  instruments  in  common  use.  "  The  aethrioscope 
opens  new  scenes  to  our  view.  It  extends  its  sensations  through  indefinite 
space,  and  reveals  the  condition  of  the  remotest  atmosphere.  Constructed 
with  still  greater  delicacy,  it  may  perhaps  scent  the  distant  winds,  and 
detect  the  actual  temperature  of  any  quarter  of  the  heavens.  The  impres- 
sions of  cold  which  arrive  from  the  north  will  probably  be  found  stronger 
than  those  received  from  the  south.  But  the  facts  discovered  by  the  aethxio- 
scope  are  nowise  at  variance  with  the  theory  already  advanced  on  the 
gradation  of  heat  from  the  equator  to  the  pole,  and  from  the  level  of  the 
sea  to  the  highest  atmosphere.  The  internal  motion  of  the  air,  by  the 
agency  of  opposite  cuiTents,  still  tempers  the  disparity  of  the  solar  impres- 
sions ;  but  this  effect  is  likewise  accelerated  by  the  vibrations  excited  from 
the  unequal  disti'ibution  of  heat,  and  darted  through  the  atmospheric  me- 
dium with  the  celerity  of  sound.  Any  surface  which  sends  a  hot  pulse  in 
one  direction,  must  evidently  propel  a  cold  pulse  of  the  same  intensity  in 
an  opposite  direction.  The  existence  of  such  pulsations,  therefore,  is  in 
perfect  unison  with  the  balanced  system  of  aerial  cuiTents.  The  most  re- 
condite principles  of  harmony  are  thus  disclosed  in  the  constitution  of  this 
nether  world.  In  clear  weather,  the  cold  pulses  then  showered  entire  from 
the  heavens  will,  even  during  the  progi-ess  of  the  day,  prevail  over  the  in- 
fluence of  the  reflex  light,  received  on  the  ground,  in  places  which  are 
screened  from  the  direct  action  of  the  sun.  Hence  at  all  times  the  cool 
ness  of  a  northern  exposure.  Hence,  likewise,  the  freshness  which  tem- 
pers the  night  in  the  sultriest  climates,  under  the  expanse  of  an  almost 
azure  sky.  The  coldness  of  particular  situations  has  very  generally  been 
attributed  to  the  influence  of  piercing  winds  which  blow  over  elevated 
tracts  of  land.  This  explication,  however,  is  not  well  founded.  It  is  the 
altitude  of  the  place  itself  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  not  that  of  the 
general  surface  of  the  country,  which  will  mould  its  temperature.  A  cold 
wind,  as  it  descends  fi'om  the  high  grounds  into  the  valleys,  has  its  capacity 
for  heat  diminished,  and  consequently  becomes  apparently  warmer.  The 
prevalence  of  northerly  above  southerly  winds  may,  however,  have  some 
slight  influence  in  depressing  the  temperature  of  any  climate.  In  our 
northern  latitudes,  a  canopy  of  clouds  generally  screens  the  ground  from 
the  impressions  of  cold.  But  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  the  surface  of  the 
earth  is  more  effectually  protected  by  the  perpetual  fogs  which  deform 
those  dreary  regions,  and  yet  admit  the  light  oi"  day,  Avhile  they  absorb 
the  frigorific  pulses  vibrated  from  the  higher  atmosphere.  Even  the 
ancients  had  remarked  that  our  clear  nights  are  generally  likewise  cold. 
During  the  absence  of  the  sun,  the  celestial  impressions  continue  to  accu- 
mulate ;  and  the  ground  becomes  chilled  to  the  utmost  in  the  morning,  at 
the  very  moment  when  that  luminary  again  resumes  its  powerful  sway. 
But  neither  cold  nor  heat  has  the  same  effect  on  a  gi'een  sward  as  on  a 
plowed  field,  the  action  being  neai'ly  dissipated  before  it  reaches  the  gi'ound 
among  the  multiplied  surfaces  of  the  blades  of  grass.  The  lowest  stratum 
of  air,  being  chilled  by  contact  with  the  exposed  surface,  deposits  its 
moisture,  which  is  either  absorbed  into  the  earth,  or  attracted  to  the  pro- 
jected fibres  of  the  plants,  on  which  it  settles  in  the  form  of  dew  or  hoar- 
frost.    Hence  the  utility,  in  this  country,  of  spreading  a\\Tiings  at  night, 

(397) 


206  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

to  screen  the  tender  blossoms  and  tl)e  delicate  fruits  fr<im  the  influence  of 
a  gelid  sky;  and  hence,  likewise,  the  advantage  of  covering  walled  trees 
with  netting,  of  which  the  meshes  not  only  detain  the  fiigoiiHc  pulses,  hut 
intercept  the  miimte  icicles,  that,  in  their  formation,  rob  llie  air  of  its  cold. 
It  has  often  been  observed  as  an  incontrovertible  fact,  that  the  clearing  of 
the  ground  and  the  extension  of  Agiicullure  have  a  malejial  tendency  to 
ameliorate  the  character  of  any  climate.  But  whether  the  sun's  rays  be 
spent  on  the  foliage  of  the  trees,  or  admitted  to  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
their  accumulated  effects,  in  the  course  of  a  year,  on  the  incumlient  at 
mosphere,  must  continue  still  the  same.  The  direct  action  of  the  light 
would  no  doubt  more  powerfully  warm  the  ground  during  the  day,  if  this 
superior  efficacy  were  not  likewise  nearly  counterbalanced  by  exposure  to 
the  closer  sweep  of  the  winds,  and  the  influence  of  night  must  again  re- 
establish the  general  equilibrium  of  temperature.  The  drainage  of  the 
surface  will  evidently  improve  the  salubrity  of  any  climate,  by  removing 
the  stagnant  and  putrefying  water  ;  but  it  can  have  no  effect  whatever  in  ren- 
dering the  air  milder,  since  the  ground  will  be  left  still  .suihciently  moist  for 
maintaining  a  continual  evaporation,  to  the  consequent  dissipation  of  heat."* 

(374.)  The  particulars  of  the  geograj)hical  distribution  of  plcvtts  and 
animals  tend  to  show  the  action  of  general  climate  on  the  vegetable  and 
animal  functions  ;  the  effects  of  latitude  and  of  elevation  above  the  earth's 
surface  being  similar  upon  both,  although  most  sensibly  felt  in  the  vegeta- 
ble economy.  M.  Humboldt,  the  celebrated  philosophical  traveler,  paid 
great  attention  to  this  subject,  and,  from  his  own  researches,  constructed 
tabular  views  of  the  range  of  animal  and  vegetable  being  in  both  condi- 
tions of  the  globe  ;  but  as  his  obsei-vations  are  more  particularly  applica- 
ble to  America,  it  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  them  here,  interesting  as  they 
really  are."t  | 

(375.)  It  has  been  said  already,  that  "  the  effect  of  elevation  is  equiva 
lent  to  latitude;  but  it  must  be  recollected  that  plants  will  not  thrive 
equally  in  places  with  the  same  mean  temperature.  Some  require  a  strong 
ephemeral  heat.  Hence,  in  judging  of  the  aptitude  of  any  })lace  for  rear- 
ing particular  plants,  we  must  compare  the  mean  temperature  of  the  sum- 
mer, as  well  as  of  the  whole  year,  before  we  decide.  Thus,  we  are  enabled 
to  explain  why  the  pistacio  nut  ripens  in  Pekin,  but  will  not  ripen  in 
France,  where  the  isothermal  line  for  the  whole  year  is  the  same.  But 
though  the  Chinese  winter  be  more  severe  than  that  of  Fiance,  the  sum- 
mer heat  is  far  greater.  Innumerable  other  instances  might  be  adduced 
of  the  same  fact.  The  moisture  of  a  climate  has  much  ii;tluence  upon  its 
vegetation.  Water  is  the  vehicle  of  the  food  of  plants,  and  perhaps  yields 
a  great  propoition  of  it;  so,  if  moisture  be  deficient,  plants  die;  but  they 
require  water  in  very  diflerent  proportions.  Those  with  broad,  smooth, 
soft  leaves,  that  grow  rapidly  and  have  many  cortical  pores,  require  much 
water  to  maintain  their  vitality ;  on  the  other  hand,  plants  with  few  cor- 
tical pores,  with  oily  or  resinous  juices  and  small  roots,  will  generally 
thrive  best  in  dry  situations.  Exposure  to  light  is  necessary  for  most 
plants.  The  green  color  of  plants  is  oidy  formed  in  light,  as  is  shown  by 
blanching  ;  and  light  appears  to  be  the  cause  of  certain  movements  wliich 
are  remarked  in  the  flowers  of  most  plants,  and  in  olliei'  paits  of  some 

[t  Doctor  Forry  has  sliown  thai  Homboldt's  observations  on  ihe  physical  Histrfbaiion  of  pJants 
'•convey  very  erroneous  impressions,  frora  the  circumstance,  mosilj-.  that  his  limits  of  the  Old 
World  are  confined  to  Western  Europe,  and  of  the  New  World  to  Eastern  America."  See 
Forry  on  the  Climate  of  the  United  States,  page  76.  \Ed.  Farm.  Lib. 

•  Kncyctopa-dia  BritnnnicR.  7tH  edition,  art.  Cihnate. 
1  See  Kdinburgh  Philosophical  Journal,  toU.  iii.  iv.  and  v. 
(398) 


CLIMATE.  207 

delicately  organized  individuals,  which  open  and  close  their  leaves  accord- 
ing to  the  degree  of  light.  This  last  property  is  chiefly  seen  in  tropical 
plants.  Light  appears  to  be  necessary  to  the  decomposition  of  carbonic 
acid,  and  the  fixation  of  carbon  in  their  tissues  ;  and  it  is  indispensable  to 
the  light  performance  of  the  function  of  reproduction.  The  influence  of 
soil  on  vegetables  is  seen  in  the  prefei'ence  w^hich  many  plants  have  for  a 
calcareous  soil ;  some  affect  silicious  sands,  others  clay  retentive  of  water; 
some  plants  thrive  best  in  the  clefts  of  slaty  rocks;  some  delight  to  dwell 
amid  granitic  rocks ;  and  others  on  a  saliferous  soil.  Earthy  matters  en- 
ter lai-gely  into  the  composition  of  some  vegetables  ;  and  in  the  epidermis 
of  the  gramineae,  silica  is  invariably  found.  The  presence  of  animal  mat- 
ters in  soils  is  necessary  to  many  plants,  and  is  generally  nutritive  to  all 
Iron  and  copper  are  found  in  small  quantities  in  some  plants.  The  sta- 
tions of  particular  plants  have  often  been  determined  by  these  peculiarities 
of  soil ;  and  when  a  soil  and  climate  are  equally  suitable  for  many  social 
jflants,  we  find  them  growing  together,  until  the  strongest  obtains  the  mas- 
tery, and  chokes  the  others.  The  common  heath  appears  to  have  usurped, 
in  Europe,  a  space  once  occupied  by  other  genera,  if  we  may  judge  fi'om 
what  generally  happens  on  exterminating  heath  ;  for  then  other  plants 
very  speedily  make  their  appearance,  the  seeds  of  which  seem  to  have  long 
preserved  their  vitality  in  the  earth,  and  only  to  have  wanted  room  to 
spring  into  visible  existence.  A  continuation  of  these  causes  no  doubt 
influences  the  distribution  of  particular  species."  .  .  .  .  "  On  comparing 
the  two  Continents,  we  find  in  general,  in  the  New  World  under  the  equa- 
torial zone,  fewer  Cyperaceae  and  Rubiacege,  but  more  Compositae  ;  under 
the  temperate  zone,  fewer  Labiatte  and  Cruciferae,  and  more  Compositae, 
Ericeae,  and  Amentaceee,  than  in  the  corresponding  zones  of  the  Old 
World.  The  families  that  increase  from  the  equator  to  the  pole,  accord- 
ing to  the  method  of  fractional  indications,  are  Glumeaceae,  Ericeae,  and 
Amentaceae.  The  families  which  decrease  from  the  pole  to  the  equator, 
are  Leguminosae,  Rubiaceae,  Euphorbiaceae,  and  Malvaceae.  The  families 
that  appear  to  attain  their  maximum  in  the  temperate  zone  are  Compositee, 
Labiatae,  Umbelliferae,  and  Cruciferae."* 

(376.)  In  regard  to  the  geogi-aphical  distribution  of  animals,  the  slight- 
est acquaintance  with  zoology  is  sufficient  to  show  that  animals  do  not  in- 
discriminately spread  themselves  over  every  part  of  the  habitable  globe. 
"  But  the  natural  limitation  of  species  has  been,  in  some  measure,  affected 
by  human  agency.  The  domesticated  animals  have  been,  by  man,  im- 
ported from  different  parts  of  Asia  into  Europe,  and  finally  into  America. 
At  the  discovery  of  that  continent,  it  was  without  the  horse,  the  cow,  the 
sheep,  the  hog,  the  dog,  and  our  common  poultry,  all  which  are  spread 
over  it  in  innumerable  herds,  and  in  some  places  have  relapsed  into  the 
wild  state,  in  countries  well  suited  for  their  subsistence.t     The  same  use- 

[t  The  first  neat  cattle,  a  bull  and  three  heifers,  were  imported  into  New-England  by  Edward 
Winsboro,  one  of  the  founders  and  then  Governor  of  the  Plymouth  Colony.  They  were  brought 
over  in  the  ship  Charity,  in  March,  1624.  For  the  first  four  years  the  settlers  of  the  old  Colony 
lived  without  milk.  The  first  notice  of  horses  is  20  years  afterward,  in  1644.  Before  the  intro- 
duction of  horses  it  was,  we  are  told,  no  uncommon  thing  for  people  to  ride  on  bulls.  For  this 
we  have  the  authority  of  a  forthcoming  work  on  the  Lives  of  the  Governors,  by  Jacob  B.  Moore, 
a  victim  of  political  proscription,  removed  for  opinion's  sake  from  a  subordinate  post  in  a  Depart> 
ment,  though  possessing  qualities  to  administer  it  far  superior  to  its  head  and  to  most  of  its  mem- 
bers. With  his  virtues  and  talents,  in  the  army  he  would,  at  his  age,  be  enjoying  a  high  po- 
sition and  the  certainty  of  yet  higher  promotion  and  higher  pay  for  life.  As  this  work  carefully 
eschews  party  politics,  we  do  not  name  any  party  thus  prostitating  the  powers  of  the  Govern- 

*  Eucyclopffidia  Britannica,  7th  edition,  art.  Physical  Geography. 


208  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

fiil  animals  have  been,  by  Europeans,  within  the  last  half  century,  carried 
to  the  larger  Islands  of  the  Pacific,  >vhere  they  were  previously  unknown. 
How  many  insects  may  have  Wen  propagated  by  the  cargoes  of  our  ships 
in  distant  lands,  it  is  easier  to  conjecture  than  to  estimate  ;  how  many  have 
been  imported  with  the  cerealea  and  other  gruniinece  of  Europe  into 
newly  discovered  regions,  it  is  impossible  to  say.  Human  agency  has 
sometimes  been  the  means  of  propagating  in  Europe  disgusting  or  destruc- 
tive species  from  foreign  regions.  Thus,  the  commerce  of  the  Dutch 
wafted  tlie  Teredo  navalis  to  the  dyke-defended  coasts  of  Holland,  to  the 
imminent  hazard  of  that  country  ;  the  brown  rat  and  the  hlatta,  which  now 
infest  this  country,  are  believed  to  be  importations  from  the  East  Indies  ; 
and  the  white  bug,  that  now  lays  waste  our  orchards,  is  stated  to  have 
reached  us  with  American  fruit-trees."* 

(377.)  The  definitions  of  the  limits  of  the  zoological  divisions  on  the 
globe  has  first  been  attempted  by  Mr.  Swainson,  an  eminent  English  nat- 
uralist. *'  He  contenflls  that  birds  of  any  district  afford  a  fairer  criterion 
of  the  limits  of  a  geographical  distribution  than  any  other  class  of  animals. 
Quadrupeds  he  believes  to  be  too  much  under  the  dominion  of  man,  and 
liable  to  have  their  geographic  limits  disturbed  by  human  interference; 
and  the  other  classes  of  animals  are  either  too  numerous  or  too  few,  to  af- 
ford the  means  of  determining  the  limits  of  such  divisions  ;  while  birds, 
though  seemingly  fitted  by  nature  to  become  wanderers,  are  surprisingly 
steady  in  their  localities,  and  even  in  the  limits  of  their  annual  migrations. 
These  migrations  are  evidently  caused  by  scarcity  of  food.  Thus,  our 
swallows  leave  us  when  their  insect-food  begins  to  fail,  and  they  naturally 
pursue  that  route  which  is  shortest,  and  affords  subsistence  by  the  way. 
The  distance  from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  to  Northern  Africa  is  not  half 
80  great  as  between  England  and  America  ;  and  during  the  migration  over 
land,  the  winged  travelers  find  food  and  resting-places  as  they  proceed  to 
more  genial  climate6."t  % 

(378.)  Before  concluding  the  subject  of  climate,  I  may  advert  to  the 
very  generally  received  opinion  among  farmers  and  others  who  are  much 
exposed  in  the  air,  that  the  weather  of  Great  Britain  has  changed  materi- 
ally within  the  memoiy  of  the  present  generation.  I  am  decidedly  of  this 
opinion  ;  and  I  observe  that  Mr.  Knight,  the  late  eminent  botanical  physi- 
ologist, expressed  himself  on  this  subject  in  these  words  :  '*  My  own  habits 
and  pursuits,  from  a  verj'  early  period  of  my  life  to  the  present  time  (1829), 
have  led  me  to  expose  myself  much  to  the  weather  in  all  seasons  of  the 
year,  and  under  all  circumstances  ;  and  no  doubt  whatever  remains  on  my 
mind,  but  that  our  ^^■inte^s  are  generally  a  good  deal  less  severe  than  for- 
merly, our  springs  more  cold  and  ungenial,  our  summers,  particularly  the 

ment,  meaDing  only  to  refer  to  and  to  denounce  the  anti-republican  policy  which  everyvk-here 
gives  the  most  invidious  preference  to  the  military  over  civil  virtues;  and  so  will  it  ever  be  until 
the  sons  of  the  cultivators  of  the  soil  are  differently  educated  from  what  they  have  been. 

Ed.  Farm.  Lib.'\ 

[t  A  work  of  great  and  curious  research  has  been  published  lately  in  France,  by  Marcel  De 
Serres,  with  accompanyinemaps,  on  the  causes  of  the  migrations  of  divers  animals  and  particularly 
of  birds  and  Jishe/:.  We  lament  the  want  of  time  to  translate,  and  of  room  to  append  some  ex- 
tracts. It  is  anollier  of  that  catalogue  of  books  which  should  go  to  make  up  the  library  of  the 
countrj-  gentleman — by  which  we  mean,  once  for  all,  not  the  man  of  fine  apparel  or  of  ample  for- 
tune, for  these  may  belong  to  tlie  fool,  the  upstart,  or  the  demagogue.  We  mean  the  man  of  kind 
and  gentle  nature,  who  would  not  wantonly  give  pain  to  a  fly,  and  who  is  eoirer  to  acquire  and 
trilling  to  impart  information;  men  whose  gracefulness  is  in  the  heart  and  feeling,  rather  than 
in  exterior  pomp  or  ostentatious  di.«play  of  wealth.  Several  such  "  country  gentlemen,"  in  our  es- 
timation, have  we  lately  seen  and  '  eaten  salt  "  with,  in  their  trorking^  clotke.i.   Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

•  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  7th  edition,  an.  Phyiical  Geography.  ♦  Ibid. 

(400) 


CLIMATE.  ^0 


latter  part  of  them — as  warm  at  least  as  they  formerly  were,  and  our 
autumns  considerably  warmer."  He  adds,  that  "  I  think  that  1  can  point 
out  some  physical  causes,  and  adduce  rather  strong  facts  in  support  of 
these  opinions." 

(379.)  Of  the  physical  causes  of  these  changes,  Mr.  Knight  conceives 
that  the  clearing  of  the  country  of  trees  and  brushwood,  the  extension  of 
arable  culture,  and  the  ready  means  afforded  by  draining  to  carry  off 
quickly  and  effectiially  the  rain  as  it  falls,  have  I'endered  the  soil  drier  in 
May  "  than  it  could  have  been,  previously  to  its  having  been  inclosed  and 
drained  and  cultivated  ;  and  it  must  consequently  absorb  and  retain  much 
more  of  the  warm  summer  rain  (for  but  little  usually  flows  off')  than  it  did 
in  an  uncultivated  state  ;  and  as  water,  in  cooling,  is  known  to  give  out 
much  heat  to  suiTounding  bodies,  much  warmth  must  be  communicated  to 
the  ground,  and  this  cannot  fail  to  affect  the  temperature  of  the  following 
autumn.  The  warm  autumnal  rains,  in  conjunction  with  those  of  summer, 
must  necessarily  operate  powerfully  upon  the  temperature  of  the  succeed- 
ing winter."  Hence,  a  wet  summer  and  autumn  are  succeeded  by  a  mild 
winter  ;  and  when  N.  E.  winds  prevail  after  these  wet  seasons,  the  Avinter 
is  always  cloudy  and  cold,  but  without  severe  frosts  ;  probably,  in  part, 
owing  to  the  ground  upon  the  opposite  shores  of  the  Continent  and  of  this 
country  being  in  a  similar  state.  The  fact  adduced  by  Mr.  Knight  in  sup- 
port of  this  opinion  is  that  of  the  common  laurel  withstanding  the  winter, 
notwithstanding  its  being  placed  in  a  high  and  exposed  situation,  and  its 
wood  not  being  ripened  in  November. 

(380.)  "  Supposing  the  ground,"  continues  Mr.  Knight,  "  to  contain  less 
water  in  the  commencement  of  winter,  on  account  of  the  operations  of  the 
drains  above  mentioned,  as  it  almost  always  will  and  generally  must  do, 
more  of  the  water  afforded  by  the  dissolving  snows  and  the  cold  rains  of 
winter  will  be  necessarily  absorbed  by  it ;  and  in  the  end  of  February, 
however  dry  the  ground  may  have  been  at  the  winter  solstice,  it  will  al- 
most always  be  found  saturated  with  water  derived  from  those  unfavorable 
circumstances  ;  and  as  the  influence  of  the  sun  is  as  powerful  on  the  last 
day  of  February  as  on  the  15th  day  of  October,  and  as  it  is  almost  wholly 
the  high  temperature  of  the  ground  in  the  latter  period  which  occasions 
the  different  temperature  of  the  air  in  those  opposite  seasons,  I  think  it 
can  scarcely  be  doubted,  that  if  the  soil  have  been  rendered  more  cold  by 
having  absorbed  a  larger  portion  of  water  at  very  near  the  freezing  tem- 
perature, the  weather  of  the  spring  must  be,  to  some  extent,  injuriously 
affected."  Hence,  the  springs  are  now  more  injurious  to  blossoms  and 
fruits  than  they  were  thirty  years  ago.  Hence,  also,  the  farmers  of  Here- 
fordshire cannot  now  depend  on  a  crop  of  acorns  from  their  extensive 
groves  of  oaks.*  f 

[t  On  this  question  of  the  stability  of  climates  in  Europe  and  America,  and  the  influence  of 
cult"-~at)oa  on  temperature,  the  reader  should  not  rest  satisfied  until  he  turns  to  the  array  of  his- 
♦  '  cal  facts  and  thermometrical  data  adduced  by  Doctor  Forry  in  refutation  of  the  theories  main- 
i'  jed  by  the  philosophers  of  the  Old  and  of  the  New  World — among  the  latter  Jefferson  and 
Mttsh,  the  latter  of  whom  says  :  "  From  the  accounts  which  have  been  handed  down  to  us  by  ow 
ancestors,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  climate  of  Pennsylvania  has  undergone  a  materia 
change.  The  springs  are  much  colder,  and  the  autumns  more  temperate,  insomuch  that  cattle 
are  not  housed  so  soon  by  one  month  as  they  formerly  were.  Rivers  freeze  later  and  do  not  re- 
main so  long  covered  with  ice."  Doctor  F.  gives  tables  of  thermometrical  observations  made  at 
Philadelphia  three  years  successively,  at  intervals  of  25  years,  from  1793  to  1824,  and  during 
thirty-three  years  at  Salem,  Mass.,  to  show  a  remarkable  uniformity  of  mean  temperature.  The 
following  table,  by  Forry,  exhibits  the  duration  of  winter  at  the  City  of  New- York  : 

*  Knight's  Horticultural  Papers. 
(401) 14 


210 


THE   BOOK   OF  THE   FAR.M WINTER. 


20.    OBSERVING  AND  RECORDING  FACTS. 


"  Facts  are  to  the  mind  the  same  thing  its  food  to  the  body.  On  the  due  dieestion 
of  hcu  depend  the  strength  and  wisdom  of  the  one,  just  as  vigor  and  health  depend 
on  the  other.  The  wisest  in  council,  the  ablest  in  debate,  and  the  most  agreeable 
companion  in  the  commerce  of  huinnn  life,  is  that  man  who  has  assimilated  to  his 
understanding  the  greatest  number  of  facta"  Bukke. 

(381.)  These  words  of  "  the  greatest  philosophical  statesman  of  our 
counti-y,"  as  Sir  James  Mackintosh  designated  Burke,  convey  to  the  mind 
but  an  ampUfication  of  a  sentiment  of  Bacon,  which  says  that  "  the  man 
who  writes,  speaks,  or  meditates,  without  being  well  stocked  w'nhjacts  as 
landmarks  to  his  understanding,  is  like  a  mariner  who  sails  along  a  treach- 
erous coast  without  a  pilot,  or  one  who  adventures  on  the  wide  ocean 
without  either  a  rudder  or  a  compass."  The  expression  of  the  same  sen- 
timent by  two  very  eminent  men,  at  periods  so  far  asunder  and  in  so  very 
different  conditions  of  the  country,  should  convince  you  of  the  universal 
application  of  its  tnith,  and  induce  you  to  adopt  it  as  a  maxim.  You  can 
easily  do  so,  as  there  is  no  class  of  people  more  favorably  situated  for  the 
obsei"\'ation  of  interesting  facts  than  agricultural  pupils.  Creation,  both 
animate  and  inanimate,  lies  before  you  ;  you  must  be  almost  always  out 
of  doors,  when  carrying  on  your  operations ;  and  the  operations  them- 
selves are  substantial  matters  of  fact,  constantly  subject  to  modification  by 
the  state  of  land  and  the  atmosphere.     It  is  useful  to  observe  facts  and  to 

First  ice  formed. 

1831 Oct  20 

1832 Nov.   3 

1833 Oct.  31 

1834 Oct  30 

1835 Nov.  13 

1836 Oct  26 

1837 Oct  14 

1838 Oct  31 

1839 Nov.  20 

1840 Oct  26 

The  state  of  the  weather  as  indicated  by  the  course  of  the  winds,  and  the  proportion  of  fair  and 
cloudy  days,  based  upon  three  years'  observations,  are  shown  in  the  following  table  : 


First  enow  fell. 

Last  ice  formed. 

Last  snow  fell. 

Nov.    3 

April  10 

April  30 

Dec.  12 

April  10 

Mar.    17 

Dec.  15 

Mar.  29 

Mar.      1 

Nov.  15 

Mav  15 

April  25 

Nov.  27 

A  prills 

April  16 

Nov.  24 

April  12 

April  13 

Nov.  14 

May     1 

April    4 

Oct  31 

April  17 

April  24 

Nov.  10 

Mar.  31 

April  17 

Nov.  18 

Mar.  26 

April    1 

Places  of 

Winds. 

to 
c 

1 

> 
a 

u 

Weather. 

c 

'S 
> 

Observation. 

> 

N  W 
days 

NE 

K 
days 

S   E 

days 

s  w 

days 

2-64 
5-96 
6-42 
1-67 

w 

days 
1-33 
3-08 
3-17 
0.38 

fair 

cldy 
days 

rain 
days 

1                            Idnys 

days 
9-08 
3-46 

5-58 
10 -.'iO 

days 

days 

Ft.  Marion 
Ft.  King... 
Ft.  Brooke 
Ket  V/est 

\-5r, 

1-62 
1-53 
3-20 

2-86 
2-79 
3-72 
313 

1-03 
3 -.54 
2-89 
5-37 

10-83 
4-37 
4-44 
5-37 

1-11 
5-63 
2-75 
0-54 

S  E 

s  w 
s  w 

N  E 

19-02 
25-75 
20-33 
21-54 

5-19 
2-88 
4-47 
3-08 

6-22 
1-89 
5-64 
5-92 

Kail- 
Fair 

Fnir 

Fair 

"We  must  dismiss  the  subject,  for  the  want  of  room,  with  the  following  summary  obser\-ation 
of  a  writer  who,  had  he  lived,  had  given  earnest  of  his  capacity  to  make  such  contributions  to 
the  stock  of  science  as  would  have  done  yet  more  honor  to  himself  and  his  country: 

"No  accurate  thcrmometrical  observations  yet  made  in  any  part  of  the  world,  warrant  the  con- 
clusion that  the  tempt-raturc  of  a  locality  undergoes  changes  in  any  ratio  of  progression  ;  but  con- 
versely, as  all  facts  tend  to  establish  the  position  that  climates  are  stable,  we  are  led  to  believe 
that  tlie  changes  or  perturbations  of  temperature  to  wliich  a  locality  is  subject,  arc  produced  by 
some  regular  oscillations,  the  periods  of  which  arc  to  us  unknown.  That  climates  are  suscepti- 
ble of  melioration  bv  the  extensive  changes  prod\iced  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  by  the  labors  of 
man,  has  been  pointed  out  already ;  but  these  effects  are  extremely  subordinate,  compared  with 
tlie  modification  induced  by  the  striking  features  of  physical  gco?raphy — the  ocean,  lakes,  monn 
tains,  the  opposite  coasts  of  continents,  and  tL  *•  prolongation  and  enlargement  toward  the  poles. 
(402) 


OBSERVING  AND  RECORDING  FACTS.  21] 


familiarize  yourself  with  them,  as,  when  accumulated,  they  form  the  stores 
from  which  experience  draws  its  deductions.  Never  suppose  any  fact  too 
trivial  to  arrest  attention,  as  what  may  at  first  seem  ti-ivial,  becomes,  in 
many  instances,  far  from  being  so  ;  it  being  only  by  the  comparison  of  one 
circumstance  with  another,  that  their  relative  value  can  be  ascertained ; 
and  familiar  knowledge  alone  can  enable  you  to  discriminate  between 
those  which  influence  others  and  those  which  stand  in  a  state  of  isolation. 
In  this  point  of  view,  obsex-vation  is  always  valuable  ;  because  at  first  the 
pupil  must  necessarily  look  upon  all  facts  alike,  whatever  may  ultimately 
be  found  to  be  their  intrinsic  6r  comparative  importance.  The  unfoldino-s 
of  experience  alone  can  show  to  him  which  classes  are  to  be  regarded  by 
themselves,  and  which  are  not  only  connected  with,  but  form  the  character 
of  others.  Remember,  also,  that  to  observe  facts  correctly  is  not  so  easy 
a  matter  as  may  be  at  first  supposed ;  there  is  a  proper  time  for  the  com- 
mencement of  the  investigation  of  their  historj^  which,  if  not  hit  upon,  all 
the  deductions  will  be  eiToneous ;  and  this  is  especially  the  case  when  you 
are  performing  experiments  instituted  for  the  purpose  of  corroborating 
opinions  already  adopted ;  for,  in  this  way,  many  an  acute  experimentalist 
has  been  proselytised  into  an  eiToneous  system  of  belief.  But  as  pupils 
you  should  have  no  preconceived  notions  to  gratify,  no  leanings  to  any 
species  of  prejudice.  Look  upon  facts  as  they  occur,  and  calmly,  cau- 
tiously, and  dispassionately  contrast  and  compare  them.  It  is  only  thus 
that  you  will  be  able  to  discriminate  causes  from  consequences,  to  know 
the  relative  importance  of  one  fact  to  another,  and  to  make  the  results  of 
actual  observation  in  the  field  subservient  to  your  acquiring  a  practical 
knowledsre  of  Aorriculture. 

(382.)  The  facts  to  which  you  should,  in  the  first  instance,  direct  youi 
attention,  are  the  effects  of  the  weather  at  the  time,  not  only  on  the  opera- 
tions of  the  fields  and  on  their  productions,  but  also  on  the  condition  of 
the  live-stock.  You  should  notice  any  remarkable  occuiTence  of  heat  or 
cold,  rain  or  drouth,  unpleasant  or  agi-eeable  feeling  in  the  air ;  the  effects 
following  any  peculiar  state  of  the  clouds,  or  other  meteors  in  the  air,  as 
storms,  aurora  borealis,  halos,  and  the  like ;  the  particular  operation  of 
rain  in  retarding  or  materially  altering  the  labors  of  the  field,  and  the 
length  of  time  and  quantity  of  rain  that  it  has  taken  to  produce  such  an 
effect ;  as  well  as  the  effects  on  the  health  or  gi-owth  of  plants,  and  the 
comfort  and  condition  of  animals.  The  effects  of  cold,  or  snow,  or  drouth, 
upon  the  same  subjects,  deserve  equal  attention. 

(383.)  You  should  particularly  observe  the  time  at  which  each  kind  of 
crop  is  committed  to  the  ground ;  how  long  it  is  till  it  afterward  appears 
above  it ;  when  it  comes  into  ear ;  and  the  period  of  harvest.  Try  also  to 
ascertain  the  quantity  of  every  kind  of  crop  on  the  ground  before  it  is  cut 
down,  and  observe  whether  the  event  con-oborates  your  judgment.  In  the 
same  way,  try  to  estimate  the.  weight  of  cattle  by  the  eye  at  different  pe 
riods  of  their  progress  toward  maturity  of  condition,  and  check  your  triak 
by  measurements.  The  very  handUng  of  beasts  for  the  purpose  of  meas 
uring  them  will  convey  to  you  much  information  regarding  their  progress 
ive  state  of  improvement.  When  sheep  are  slaughtered,  attend  to  the 
weight  of  the  carcass,  and  endeavor  to  correct  any  errors  you  may  have 
committed  in  estimating  their  weights. 

(384.)  Keep  a  register  of  each  field  of  the  farm  ;  note  the  quantity  of 
'abor  it  has  received,  the  quantity  of  manure  which  has  been  applied,  and 
the  kind  of  crop  sown  on  it,  with  the  circumstances  attending  these  opera- 
tions— whether  they  have  been  done  quickly  and  in  good  style,  or  inter- 
■'.iptedly,  from  the  hinderance  of  the  weather  or  other  circui      rnces  ;   and 

(403) 


212  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


whether  in  an  objectionable  or  favorable  manner.  Ascertain,  in  each  field, 
the  nunibiT  oindtri-s  required  to  make  an  acre,  and  whether  the  ridtjes  be 
of  equal  lenijth  or  not.  Jiy  this  you  will  the  more  ca.sily  ascertain  how 
much  duntj  the  fiehl  is  receivintj  per  acre,  the  time  taken  to  perform  the 
same  quantity  of  work  on  ridt!;eH  of  different  lenc;lh,  and  the  comparative 
value  of  crop  produced  (»n  an  acre  in  different  j)arts  of  the  field.  The  sub- 
division of  the  fit-Id  into  acres  in  this  manner  will  also  enable  you  to  com- 
pare the  rtdative  values  of  the  crops  j)roduced  on  varieties  of  soil,  if  any, 
in  the  same  field,  under  the  same  circumstances  of  treatment. 

(385.)  Tlu^  t'asiest  and  most  satisfactoiy  ftiode  of  ])reserving  and  record- 
inc^  all  thost'  facts  is  in  the  tiihi/lar  form,  which  admits  of  every  fact  being 
put  <lowii  under  its  own  proper  head.  This  form"  not  only  exhibits  a  full 
exposition  of  the  whole  facts  at  a  glance,  but  admits  of  every  one  being 
recorded  with  the  least  trouble  of  WTiting.  The  advantage  of  writing  them 
dov\Ti  consists  not  entirely  in  recording  them,  but  also  of  impressing  them 
more  strongly  on  the  memory. 

(386.)  The  tables  should  consist  of  ruled  columns,  in  a  book  of  sufficient 
size  of  leaf  to  contain  columns  for  every  subject.  There  shojild  also  be  a 
plan  of  the  farm,  with  every  field  represented,  having  its  figure,  dimen- 
sions, and  name,  the  direction  of  the  ridges,  and  the  number  of  ridges  re- 
quired to  make  an  acre  visibly  marked  upon  it.  It  would  be  advisable  to 
enter  each  field  into  the  book,  in  which  could  be  noted  the  various  sorts 
of  labor  it  has  received,  and  the  produce  it  has  yielded ;  so  that  the  whole 
transactions  connected  with  it  for  the  year  could  be  seen  at  a  glance. — 
There  should  also  be  apian  of  the  stack-yard  made  every  year,  with  each 
stack  represented  in  it  by  a  circle,  the  area  of  which  should  contain  the 
name  of  the  field  upon  which  the  crop  in  the  stack  was  grown,  the  quan- 
tity of  com  yielded  by  the  stack,  and  in  what  way  the  produce  was  dis- 
posed of;  and  even  the  cash  (if  any)  which  the  produce  realized,  should 
be  marked  down.  This  plan  of  the  stack-yard  should  be  comprehended 
on  a  single  page  of  the  book. 

(387.)  To  render  the  whole  system  of  recording  facts  complete,  a  sum- 
mary of  them  in  regard  to  the  weather  in  each  season,  together  with  the 
produce  and  value  of  the  crop  and  stock,  should  be  made  up  every  year 
to  the  end  of  autumn — the  end  of  the  agiicultural  year.  In  this  way,  an 
immense  mass  of  useful  facts  would  be  recorded  within  the  nanow  com- 
pass of  a  single  book.  Comparisons  could  thus  be  easily  made  between 
the  results  of  different  seasons,  and  deductions  drawn  which  could  not  be 
ascertained  by  any  other  means. 

(388.)  The  onhj  ohjcction  you  can  possibly  urge  against  the  adoption  of 
this  plan  is  the  time  required  to  record  the  facts.  Were  the  records  to  be 
made  twice  or  thrice  a  day,  like  the  obser\'ations  of  a  meteorological  regis- 
ter, the  objection  would  be  well  founded ;  because  I  cannot  conceive  any 
task  more  irksome  than  the  noting  down  of  dry  and  (in  themselves)  un- 
meaning details.  l?ut  the  variations  .and  effects  of  the  weather  assume  a 
very  different  importiuice,  when  they  possess  an  overruling  influence  over 
the  progress  of  the  crops.  The  recording  of  these  and  such  like  facts  can 
only  be  required  at  occa.sional  times,  of  perhaps  an  interval  of  days.  The 
only  toil  connected  with  the  scheme  would  be  the  drawing  up  of  the  al>- 
stract  of  the  year  ;  but  when  the  task,  even  if  irksome,  is  for  your  pi-ofei« 
sional  benefit,  the  time  devoted  to  it  should  be  cheerfully  bestowed. 


,(404) 


SOILS  AND   SUBSOILS.  •  213 


21.    SOILS  AND  SUBSOILS. 


"  I  wander  o'er  the  various  rural  toil, 
And  know  the  nature  of  each  different  soil." 

Gav. 


(389.)   Having  expatiated  on  every  subject  w-ith  which  it  seemed  to  ra' 
expedient  that  you  should  be  acquainted,  to  prepare  your  mind  for  the  re 
ception  of  lessons  in  practice,  we  shall  now  proceed  together  to  study  farm 
ing  in   right  earnest.     The  first  thing,  as  regards   the  farm  itself,  whic»- 
should  engage   your  attention,  is  the  kinds  of  soil  which  it  contains.     'lt» 
become  acquainted  with  these,  so  as  to  be  able  to  identify  them  anywherB. 
you  should  know  the  external  characters  of  every  soil  usually  met  with  on 
a  farm  ;  because  very  few  farms  contain  only  one  kind  of  soil,  and  the  gen- 
erality exhibit  a  considerable  variety. 

(390.)  Practicalhj,  a  knowledge  of  the  external  characters  of  soils  is  a 
matter  of  no  great  difficulty  ;  for,  however  complex  the  composition  of  any 
soil  appears  to  be,  it  possesses  a  character  belonging  to  its  kind,  which  can- 
not be  confounded  with  any  other.  The  leading  characters  of  ordiuaiy 
soils  are  derived  from  only  two  earths,  day  and  sand,  and  it  is  the  greater 
or  less  admixture  of  these  which  stamps  the  peculiar  character  of  the  soil. 
The  properties  of  either  of  these  earths  are  even  found  to  exist  in  wnat 
seems  a  purely  calcareous  or  purely  vegetable  soil.  When  either  eartn  is 
mixed  with  decomposed  vegetable  matter,  whether  supplied  Tiaturally  or 
artificially,  the  soil  becomes  a  loam,  the  distinguishing  character  of  which 
is  derived  from  the  predominating  earth.  Thus,  there  are  clay  soils  and 
sandy  soils,  when  either  earth  predominates ;  and  when  either  is  mixed 
with  decomposed  vegetable  matter,  they  are  then  clay  loams  and  sandy 
loams.  Sandy  soils  are  divided  into  two  varieties,  which  do  not  vary  in 
kind,  but  only  in  degree.  Sand  is  a  powder,  consisting  of  small,  round 
particles  of  silicious  matter;  but  when  these  are  of  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut 
and  larger — that  is,  gravel — they  give  their  distinguishing  name  to  the 
soil ;  they  then  form  gravelly  soils  and  gravelly  loams.  Besides  these, 
there  are  soils  which  have  for  their  basis  another  kind  of  earth — lime,  of 
which  the  chalky  soils  of  the  south  of  England  consist.  But  these  ditfer 
in  agricultural  character  in  nothing  from  either  the  clay  or  sandy  soils,  ac- 
cording to  the  particular  formation  from  which  the  chalk  is  derived.  If 
the  chalky  soil  is  derived  from  flinty  chalk,  then  its  character  is  like  that 
of  a  sandy  soil ;  but  if  from  the  under  chalk-formation,  its  character  is  like 
that  of  clay.  Wiiters  on  Agriculture  also  enumerate  a  peat-soil,  derived 
from  peat ;  but  peat,  as  crude  peat,  is  of  no  use  to  vegetation,  and,  when 
it  is  decomposed,  it  assumes  the  properties  of  mould,  and  should  be  con- 
sidered as  such  ;  and  mould,  which  forms  the  essential  ingi-edient  of  loams, 
is  decomposed  vegetable  matter,  derived  either  from  Nature  or  fi-om  arti- 
ficial application.  So,  for  all  practical  purposes,  soils  are  most  conveni- 
ently divided  into  clayey  and  sandy,  with  their  respective  loams. 

(391.)  Loam,  in  the  sense  now  given,  does  not  convey  the  idea  attached 
to  it  by  many  ^vl•iters  ;  and  many  people  talk  of  it  as  if  it  must  necessarily 
consist  of  clay.  Thus,  Johnson,  in  defining  the  verb  "  to  loam,"  gives  as 
a  synonym  the  verb  "today;"  and  Bacon  somewhere  says  that  "the 
mellow  earth  is  the  best,  between  the  two  extremes  of  clay  and  sand,  if  i» 

(405, 


214  THE  BOOK     THE  FARM WINTER. 

be  not  loamy  and  hindinsj ;"  evidently  refi'ninjj  to  the  binding  property 
of  clay.  Sir  Humphry  Davy  defines  loam  as  "  the  impalpable  part  of  the 
soil,  which  is  usually  called  clay  or  loam.'"''*  And  Mr.  Keid  defines  the 
same  substance  in  these  words  :  "The  term  'loam'  is  applied  to  soils 
which  consist  of  about  one-third  <»f  finely-divided  earthy  matter,  containing 
much  carlninate  of  lime.  Other  soils  are  peaty,  containing  about  one-half 
of  vegetable  matter."t  Professor  Low  gives  a  more  correct,  though,  in 
my  opinion,  nf)t  the  exact  idea  of  a  loam.  "  The  decomposed  organic 
portion  of  the  soil,"  he  tnily  says,  "may  be  termed  mould  ;  but  he  con- 
tinues to  say,  and  this  is  what  I  doubt,  that  "  the  fertility  of  soils  is,  caete- 
ris  paribus,  indicated  by  the  greater  or  smaller  proportion  of  mould  which 
enters  into  their  composition.  When  soils  are  thus  naturally  fertile,  or  are 
rendered  permanently  so  by  art,  they  are  frequently  tenned  loa)n.s.'"\  You 
thus  see  what  diversity  of  opinion  exists  as  to  what  loam  is.  Loam,  in  my 
opinion,  has  chanijed  its  meaning  so  far  since  the  days  of  Johnson,  as  to 
consist  of  any  kind  of  earth  that  contains  a  large  admixture  of  decomposed 
vegetable  matter — I  say  a  large  admixture  of  vegetable  matter,  because 
there  is  no  soil  under  cultivation,  whether  composed  chiefly  of  clay  or 
principally  of  sand,  but  what  contains  some  decomposed  vegetable  matter. 
L'^nless,  therefore,  the  decomposed  vegetable  matter  of  the  soil  so  prepon- 
derates as  to  greatly  modify  the  usual  properties  of  the  constituent  earths, 
the  soil  cannot  in  truth  be  called  by  any  other  name  than  a  clayey  or 
sandy  soil ;  but  when  the  vegetable  matter  so  prevails  as  matenally  to 
alter  the  properties  of  those  earths,  then  a  clay  loam  or  a  sandy  loa?n  is 
constituted — a  distinction  well  known  to  the  farmer.  But,  if  it  is  neces- 
sary that  clay  should  have  a  preponderance  in  loam,  then  a  sandy  loam 
must  be  a  contradiction  in  terms.  Again,  a  soil  of  purely  vegetable  ori- 
gin— such  as  crude  peat  or  leaf-mould — cannot  be  called  loam  ;  for  ad- 
mixture of  an  earth  of  some  sort  is  required  to  make  loam,  under  every 
recorded  definition  of  that  term.  Nor  is  the  fertility  of  soils  dependent 
on  the  greater  or  smaller  proportion  of  mould  or  decomposed  vegetable 
matter  in  their  composition  ;  for  there  are  soils  with  apparently  very  little 
mould  in  them,  such  as  shaqi  gravels,  which  are  highly  fertile  ;  and  there 
are  moulds,  apparently  with  very  little  earth  in  them,  such  as  deaf  black 
mould,  which  are  far  removed  from  fertility.  Thus,  then,  all  soils  have 
the  pro])erties  of  clayey  or  sandy  soils,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  de- 
composed vegetable  matter  converts  them  into  loam.  Hence  it  is  possible 
for  husbandry  to  convert  an  earthy  soil  into  a  loam,  as  is  exemplified  in 
the  vicinity  of  larjje  towns. 

(392.)  A  pure  c/a  y-soil  has  ver>-  distinctive  external  characters,  by  which 
you  may  easily  recognize  it.  When  fully  wetted,  it  feels  greasy  to  the 
foot,  which  slips  upon  it  backward,  forward,  and  sideways.  It  has  an 
unctuous  feel  in  the  hand,  by  which  it  can  be  kneaded  into  a  smooth  homo- 
geneous mass,  and  retain  any  shape  given  to  it.  It  glistens  in  the  sunshine. 
It  retains  water  upon  its  surface,  and  makes  water  veiy  muddy  when 
mixed  with  it  or  runs  over  it,  and  is  long  of  .'settling  to  the  bottom.  It  is 
cold  to  the  touch,  and  easily  soils  the  hand  and  any  thinrr  else  that  touches 
it.  It  cuts  like  soft  chee.se  with  the  spade,  and  is  then  in  an  tinfit  state  to 
be  worked  with  the  plow,  or  any  other  implement.  When  drv,  clay-soil 
cracks  into  numerous  fissures,  feels  verv-  hard  to  the  foot,  and  runs  into 
lumps,  which  are  often  large,  and  both  large  and  small  are  very  difficult  to 
be  broken,  and  indeed  cannot  l>e  pulverized.  It  soils  the  hand  and  clothes 
with  a  dry,  light-colored,  soft  dust,  which   has  no  lustre.     It   is  heavy  in 

*  Davy's  Agriculnirsl  ChemUtry,  Pro  rdiL  IKS.  f  Reid's  Chemistry  of  Nature. 

]  Low't  Klemenu  of  Practical  Agriculture,  2d  edit 
(406) 


SOILS  AND  SIT    MOILS.  215 


weight,  and  difficult  to  labor.  It  absorbs  moisture  readily,  and  will  adhere 
to  the  tongue.  When  neither  wet  nor  dry,  it  is  very  tough,  and  soon  be- 
comes very  hard  with  a  little  drouth,  or  very  soft  with  a  little  rain.  On 
these  accounts,  it  is  the  most  ticklish  of  all  soils  to  manage ;  being,  even 
in  its  best  state,  difficult  to  turn  over  with  the  plow,  and  to  pulverize  with 
other  implements.  A  large  strength  of  horses  is  thus  required  to  work  a 
clay-land  farm  ;  for  its  workable  state  continues  only  for  a  short  time,  and 
it  is  the  most  obdurate  of  all  soils  to  labor.  But  it  is  a  powerful  soil,  its 
vegetation  being  luxuriant,  and  its  production  great.  It  generally  occurs 
in  deep  masses,  on  a  considerable  extent  of  flat  surface,  exhibiting  only  a 
few  undulations.  It  is  generally  found  near  a  large  river,  toward  its  es- 
tuary, being  supposed  to  have  been  a  deposition  fi-om  its  waters.  Exam- 
ples of  this  kind  of  soil  may  be  seen  in  Scotland,  in  the  Carses  of  Gowrie, 
Stirling,  and  Falkirk.  It  may  be  denominated  a  naturally  rich  soil,  with 
little  vegetable  matter  in  it,  and  its  color  is  yellowish-gray, 

(393.)  When  a  little  sand  and  gravel  are  mixed  icith  day,  its  texture  is 
very  materially  altered,  but  its  productive  powers  are  not  improved.  "When 
such  a  clay  is  in  a  wet  state,  it  still  slips  a  little  under  the  foot,  but  feels 
harsh  rather  than  greasy.  It  does  not  easily  ball  in  the  hand.  It  retains 
water  on  its  surface  for  a  time,  which  is  soon  partially  absorbed.  It  ren- 
ders water  very  muddy,  and  soils  everything  by  adhering  to  it ;  and,  on 
that  account,  never  comes  clean  off  the  spade,  except  when  much  wetted 
with  water.  When  dry,  it  feels  hard,  but  is  easily  pulverized  by  any  of 
the  implements  of  tillage.  It  has  no  lustre.  It  does  not  soil  the  clothes 
much,  and,  though  somewhat  heavy  to  labor,  is  not  obdurate.  When  be- 
twixt the  states  of  wet  and  dry,  it  is  easily  labored,  and  can  be  reduced  to 
fine  tilth  or  mould.  This  kind  of  soil  never  occurs  in  deep  masses,  but  is 
rather  shallow ;  is  not  naturally  favorable  to  vegetation,  nor  is  it  naturally 
prolific.  It  occupies  by  far  the  larger  portion  of  the  surface  of  Scotland  ; 
much  of  its  wheat  is  grown  upon  it,  and  it  may  be  denominated  a  naturally 
poor  soil,  with  not  much  vegetable  matter  in  it.  Its  color  is  yellowish- 
brown. 

(394.)  Clay-loam — that  is,  either  of  those  clays  mixed  with  a  large  pro- 
portion of  naturally  decomposed  vegetable  matter — constitutes  a  useful 
and  valuable  soil.  It  yields  the  largest  proportion  of  the  fine  wheats 
raised  in  this  country,  occupying  a  larger  surface  of  the  country  than  the 
carse-clay.  It  forms  a  lump  by  a  squeeze  of  the  hand,  but  soon  crumbles 
aown  again.  It  is  easily  wetted  on  the  surface  with  rain,  and  then  feels 
soft  and  greasy  ;  but  the  water  is  soon  absorbed,  and  the  surface  is  again 
as  soon  dry.  It  is  easily  labored,  and  may  be  so  at  any  time  after  a  day 
or  two  of  dry  weather.  It  becomes  finely  pulverized,  and  is  capable  of 
assuming  a  high  temperature.  It  is  generally  of  some  depth,  forming  an 
excellent  soil  for  wheat,  beans,  Swedish  turnips  and  red  clover.  It  is  of  a 
deep-brown  color,  often  approaching  to  red. 

(395.)  All  clay-soils  are  better  adapted  to  fibrous-rooted  plants  than  to 
bulbs  and  tubers  ;  but  it  is  that  sort  of  fibrous  root  which  has  also  a  tap- 
root, such  as  is  found  in  wheat,  the  bean,  red  clover,  and  the  oak.  The 
crops  mentioned  bearing  abundance  of  straw,  the  plants  require  a  deep 
hold  of  the  soil.  Clay-soils  are  generally  slow  of  bringing  their  crops  to 
maturity,  which  in  wet  seasons  they  never  an-ive  at;  but  in  dry  seasons 
they  are  always  strong,  and  yield  quantity  rather  than  quality. 

(396.)  A  pure  sandy  soil  is  as  easily  recognized  as  one  of  pure  clay. 
When  wet,  it  feels  firm  under  foot,  and  then  admits  of  a  pretty  whole  fur- 
row being  laid  over  by  the  plow.  It  feels  harsh  and  grating  to  the  touch. 
When  dry  it  feels  soft ;  and   is  so  yielding,  that  every  object  of  the  least 

(407) 


216  THE  ROOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

weight  sinks  in  it  :  it  is  then  apt  to  blow  away  with  the  wind.  In  an  or- 
dinary state,  it  is  well  adapted  to  plants  having  fusiform  roots,  such  as  the 
carrot  and  parsnip.  It  acquires  a  high  temperature  in  summer.  Sandy 
soil  generally  occurs  in  deep  masses,  near  the  termination  of  the  estuaries 
of  large  rivers,  or  along  the  sea  shore  ;  and  in  some  countries  in  the  inte- 
rior of  Europ(%  and  over  a  large  proportion  of  Airica,  it  covers  immense 
tracts  of  flat  land,  and  is  evidently  a  deposition  from  water. 

(397.)  A  grarvUy  soil  consists  of  a  large  j)roportion  of  sand  ;  but  the 
greater  part  of  its  bulk  is  made  up  of  small  rounded  fragments  of  rock 
brought  together  by  the  action  of  water.  These  small  fragments  have 
])oen  derived  from  all  the  rock-fomiatioiis,  while  the  large  bowlders,  im- 
liedded  principally  under  the  surface,  have  been  chiefly  supplied  by  the 
older  formations.  Gravelly  deposits  sometimes  occupy  a  large  extent  of 
surface,  and  are  of  considerable  depth.  Such  a  soil  soon  beccmies  warm, 
but  never  wet,  absorbing  the  rain  as  fast  as  it  falls;  and  after  rain,  it  feels 
somewhat  firm  under  foot.  It  can  be  easily  labored  in  any  weather,  and 
is  not  unpleasant  to  work,  though  the  numerous  small  stones,  which  are 
seen  in  countless  numbei's  upon  the  surface,  render  the  holding  of  the  plow 
rather  unsteady.  As  an  instance  of  its  dry  nature,  an  old  farmer  of  jrrav- 
elly  soil  used  to  joke  with  his  plowmen,  and  offer  them  a  "  roasted  hen  " 
to  their  dinner  on  the  day  they  got  their  feet  wet  at  the  plow.  This  soil 
is  admirably  adapted  to  plants  having  bulbs  and  tubers  ;  and  no  kjid  of 
soil  affords  so  dry  and  comfortable  a  lair  to  sheep  on  turaips,  and  on  this 
account  it  is  distinguished  as  "  turnip-soil^ 

(398.)  Savfly  and  gravelly  loafns,  if  not  the  most  valuable,  are  certainly 
the  most  useful  of  all  soils.  They  become  neither  too  wet  nor  too  dry  in 
ordinary  seasons,  and  are  capable  of  growing  every  species  of  croj),  in 
every  vaiiety  of  season,  to  considerable  perfection.  On  this  account,  they 
are  esteemed  "  kindly  soils."  They  never  occur  in  deep  masses,  nor  do 
they  extend  over  large  tracts  of  land,  being  chiefly  confined  to  the  mar- 
gins of  small  rivers,  forming  haughs  or  holms,  through  which  the  rivers 
meander  from  their  source  among  the  mountains  toward  the  larger  ones, 
or  even  to  the  sea;  and,  in  their  progress,  are  apt  at  times  to  become  so 
enlarged  with  rain,  both  in  summer  and  winter,  as  to  overflow  their  banks 
to  a  limited  extent  on  either  side, 

(399.)  These  are  all  the  kinds  of  soil  usually  found  on  a  farm  ;  and  of 
these,  the  two  opposite  extremes  of  the  pure  clay  and  the  pure  sand  may 
most  easily  be  recognized  by  you.  The  intermediate  shades  in  the  va- 
rieties of  soil,  occasioned  by  modifications  of  greater  or  smaller  (juantity 
of  decomposed  vegetable  matter,  it  would  be  impossible  to  describe.  Every 
soil,  however,  may  be  ranked  under  the  general  heads  of  clayey  and  sandy 
soils  ;  the  gravelly  and  sandy,  as  you  have  learned,  constituting  diflerences 
rather  in  degree  than  in  kind  ;  and  as  every  soil  possesses  the  property  of 
either  clay  or  sand — be  the  sand  derived  from  silicious  or  calcareous  de- 
posit— it  is  useless  to  maintain  the  nomenclature  of  chalky  and  peaty  soils, 
although  these  distinctive  terms  may  be  retained  to  indicate  the  origin  of 
the  soils  thereby  implied  by  them. 

(400.)  You  are  now  jirepared  to  consider  the  question,  what  constitutes 
(he  soil — properly  so  called  ]  You  will  perceive  the  propriety  of  such  a 
question,  when  you  consider  the  difterent  ideas  entertained  of  soil  by  per- 
sons of  different  denominations.  The  geologist  considers  the  uppermost 
alluvial  cove  ng  of  the  earth's  crust  as  the  soil,  and  whatever  stratum 
that  rests  t  pon,  as  the  subsoil.  The  botanist  considers  as  the  soil  that 
portion  of  the  earth's  surface  which  supports  plants.  People  generally 
consider  the  gi'ound  they  walk  upon  as  the  soil ;  but  none  of  these  ideas 

(408) 


SOILS  AND   SUBSOILS. 


217 


define  the  soil  in  the  agricultural  sense.  In  that  sense,  the  soil  consists 
only  iii  iivAl  jfortion  uf  the  earth  which  is  stirred  by  the  ploiv,  and  the  sub- 
soil of*  that  which  is  A>und  immediatehj  beloio  the  flow's  course.  In  this 
way  the  subsoil  may  consist  of  the  same  kind  of  eaith  as  the  soil,  or  it 
may  be  quite  different,  or  it  may  be  of  rock.  As  it  is  of  importance  for 
you  to  keep  this  distinction  of  soil  and  subsoil  always  in  mind,  the  subject 
should  be   illustrated  by  a  figure.     Let  a,  fig.  34,  be  the  surface   of  the 


Fig.  34. 


SECTIONS   OF  SOILS   AND  SUBSOILS. 


ground,  the  earthy  mould  derived  from  the  growth  and  decay  of  natural 
plants  ;  b,  a  dotted  line,  the  depth  of  the  plow-furrow.  Now,  the  plow-sole 
may  either  just  pass  through  the  mould,  as  at  b,  when  the  mould  will  be 
the  soil,  and  the  earth  below  it  the  subsoil :  Or  it  may  not  pass  entirely 
througli  the  mould,  as  at  c,  when  the  soil  and  subsoil  will  be  similar,  that 
is,  both  of  mould  :  Or  it  may  pass  through  the  earth  below  the  mould,  as 
at  d,  W'hen  the  soil  and  subsoil  will  again  be  similar,  while  neither  will  be 
mould,  but  earth  :  Or  it  may  move  along  the  surface  of  e,  when  the  soil 
v/ill  be  of  one  kind  of  earth,  and  the  subsoil  of  another,  that  is,  either  an 
open  subsoil  of  gravel,  or  a  retentive  one  of  clay  :  Oi"  it  may  move  upon 
the  su7-face  of  /^  when  the  soil  will  be  earth,  or  a  mixture  of  clay,  sand 
and  mould,  and  the  subsoil  rock.  These  different  cases  of  soil  and  sub- 
soil are  represented  in  the  figure,  each  in  a  distinct  sectional  division. 

(401.)  The  subsoil,  then,  in  an  agricultural  sense,  is  the  substance  which 
is  found  immediately  below  the  line  of  the  course  of  the  plow,  be  it  earth 
or  rock.  However  unifonn  in  substance,  or  similar  in  quality,  the  subsoil 
and  soil  may  have  been  at  one  time,  cultivation,  by  supplies  of  vegetable 
matter,  and  by  presentation  of  the  surface  to  the  action  of  the  air,  soon 
effects  a  material  difference  betwixt  them,  and  the  diff*erence  consists  of  a 
change  both  in  texture  and  color,  the  soil  becoming  finer  and  ha^^ng  a 
darker  tint  than  the  subsoil. 

(402.)  The  nature  of  the  subsoil  produces  a  sensible  effect  on  the  condition 
oj  the  soil  above  it.  If  the  soil  is  clay,  it  is  impervious  to  water,  and  if  the 
subsoil  is  clay  also,  it  is  also  impervious  to  water.  The  immediate  effect 
of  this  juxtaposition  is  to  render  both  soil  and  subsoil  habitually  wet,  until 
the  force  of  evapoiation  dries  fiist  the  one  and  then  the  other.  A  reten- 
tive subsoil,  in  the  same  manner,  renders  a  sandy  or  gi'avelly,  that  is  a  po- 
rous, soil  above  it  habitually  wet.  On  the  other  hand,  a  gravelly  subsoil, 
Tvhich  is  always  porous,  greatly  assists  to  keep  a  retentive  clay  soil  dry. — 
When  a  porous  soil  rests  upon  a  porous  subsoil,  scarcely  any  degree  of 
humidity  can  injure  either.  Rock  may  be  either  a  retentive  or  a  porous 
subsoil,  according  to  its  structure  ;  its  massiveness  throughout  keeping 
'^V'M-y  soil  above  it  habitually  wet ;  but  its  stratification,  if  the  lines  of  strat- 
Pcation  dip  downward  from  the  soil  (as  at  f,  fig.  34),  will  keep  even  a  re- 
tentive soil  above  it  in  a  comparatively  dry  state. 

(403.)  These  are  the  different  conditions  of  sit'^  und  subsoils,  considered 

(■lO'j) 


218  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

practically.     They  have  terms  exprpssive  of  their  state,  which  you  should 
keep  in  remembrance.     A  s(jil  is  saiil  to  be  utij"  or  hcaiy,  when  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  cut  through,  and  is  otherwise  laborious  to  work  with  the  ordinary 
implements  of  the  farm  ;  and  all  clay  soils   are  more   or  less   so.     On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  light  or  free,  when   it  is  easy  to  work ;  and  all  sandy  and 
gravelly  soils,  and  sandy  and  gravelly  loams,  are  so.     A  soil  is  said  to  t-5 
icet,  when  it  is  habitually  wet;  and  to  be  dnj,  when  habitually  so.     All 
soils,  es])ecially   clays,  on  retentive  subsoils,   are  habitually  wet ;  and  all 
soils  on  porous  subsoils,  especially  gravels  and  gravelly  loams,  are  habiti:- 
allv  dry.     Anv  soil  that  cannot  bring  to  maturity  a  fair  crop,  without   an 
inordinate  quantity  of  manure,  is  considered  y^wvr  ;   and  any  one  that  does 
so  naturallv, />i"  vields  a  large  retux'n  with  a  moderate  cjuantity  of  manure, 
is  said  to  be  rich.     Thin,  hard  clays   and  ordinary  sands  are  examples  of 
poor  soils  ;  and  soft  clays   and  deep  loams,  of  rich.     A  soil  is  said  to  be 
deep,  when  the  surface-earth  descends  a  good  way  below  the  reach  of  the 
plow  ;  and  in  that  case  the  plow  may  be   made  to  go  deeper  than  usual, 
and  yd  continue  in  the  same  soil ;   and  a  soil   is  thin,  when  the  plow  can 
casilV  reach  beyond  it.     Good  husbandry  can,  in   time,  render  a  thin  soil 
deep ;  and  bad,  shallow  plowing  may  cause  a  deep   soil  to  assume   the 
character  of  a  thin  one.     A  deep  soil  conveys  the  idea  of  a  good  one,  and 
a  thin,  or  shallow,  or  ebb,  that  of  a  bad.    Carse  clays  and  sa.idy  loams  are 
instances  of  deep  soils,  and  poor  clays  and  poor  gravels  those  of  thin.     A 
soil  is  said  to  be  a  hnvgry  one,  when  it  requires  frequent  applications  of  a 
larc^e  quantity  of  manure  to  bear  ordinary  crops.     Thin,  poor  giavels  are 
instances  of  a  hungiy  soil.     A  soil  is  said  to  be  grateful,  when  it  returns  a 
laro-er  produce  than  was  expected  from  what  was  done  for  it.     All  loams, 
whether  clayey,  gravelly,  or  sandy — especially  the  two  last — are  giateful 
soils.     A  soil  is  said  to  be  Jdndli/,  when  every  operation  perfomied  upon  it 
can  be  done  without  doubt,  and  in  the  way  and  at  the  time   desired.     A 
sandy  loam,  and  even  a  clay  loam,  both   on  porous  subsoil,  are  examples 
of  kindly  soils.     A  soil  is  said  to  become  sicA-,  when  rhe  crop  that  has  been 
made  to   grow  upon  it  too  frequently  becomes  deteriorated ;  thus,  soils 
soon  become  sick  of  growing  red  clover  and  turnips.     A  sharj)  soil  is  that 
which   contains   such  a  number  of  small,  gritty  stones   as  to  clear  up   the 
plow-irons  quickly.     Such  a  soil  never  fails  to  be  an  open  one,  and  is  ad- 
mirably adapted  for  turnips.     A  fine,  gi-avelly  loam   is   an  instance  of  a 
sharp  soil.     Some  say  that  a  sharp  soil  means  a  readi/  one — that  is,  quick 
or  prepared  to  do  anything  required  of  it ;  but  I  am  not  of  this  opinion, 
because  a  sandy  loam  is  ready  enough  for  any  crop,  and  it  is  never  called 
a  sharp  soil.     A  deaf  soil  is  the  contrary  of  a  sharp  one  ;  that  is,  it  con- 
tains too  much  inert  vegetable  matter,  in  a  soft,  spongy  state,  which  is  apt 
to  be  canied   forward  on  the  bosom  of  the  plow.     A  deep,  black   mould, 
whether  deiivcd  from  peat  or  not,  is  an  example  of  a  deaf  soil.     A  jmrovs 
or  open  soil  and  subsoil,  are  those  which  allow  water  to  pass  through  them 
freely  and  (piickly,  of  which  a  gi-avelly  loam  and  gravelly  subsoil  are  ex- 
amples.    A  retentive  or  close  soil  and  subsoil  retain  water  on  them  ;   and  a 
clay  soil  upon  a  clay  subsoil  is  an  instance  of  both.     Some  soils  are  always 
hard,  as  in  the  case  of  thin,  retentive  clays  when  dry,  let  them  be  ever  so 
well  worked  ;  while  othere  are   soft,  as  fine,  sandy  loams,  which  are  very 
apt  to  become  so  on  being  too  often  plowed,  or  too  much  marled.     Some 
soils  are  always^«f,  as  in  the  case  of  deep,  easy  clay  loams  ;  oth  jrs  coarse 
or  harsh,  as  in  thin,  poor  clays  and  giavels.     A  fine  clay  is  sino  th  when 
iai  a  wet  state,  and  a  thin  clayey  gravel  is  roiigh.  when  dry.     As*    1  is  said 
p  ..ave  a  fine  skin  when  it  can  be  finished  off  with  a  beautifully  granulated 
Buiface.    Good  culture  vnW  bring  a  fine  skin  on  ni%>iy  soils,  and  rich  sandy 

(410) 


SOILS  AND  SUBSOILS.  219 


and  clay  loams  have  naturally  a  fine  skin ;  but  no  art  can  give  a  fine  skin 
to  some  soils,  such  as  thin,  hard  clay  and  rough  giavel. 

(404.)  The  colors  of  soils  and  subsoils,  though  various,  are  limited  in 
their  range.  Black  soils  are  instanced  in  crude  peat  and  deep  vegetable 
mould ;  and  ichite  are  common  in  the  chalky  districts  of  England.  Some 
soils  are  blue  or  hluish-gray,  fi'om  a  peculiar  sort  of  fine  clay  deposited  at 
the  bottom  of  basins  of  still  water.  But  the  most  prevailing  color  is  brown, 
fj-om  light  haii'-brown  to  dark  chestnut,  the  hazel-brow^n  being  the  most 
favorite  color  of  the  class.  The  sand  and  gravel  loams  are  instances  of 
these  colors.  The  browns  pass  into  reds,  of  which  there  are  several  vari- 
eties, all  having  a  dark  hue  ;  such,  for  instance,  are  some  clay  loams.  The 
brown  and  red  soils  acquire  high  degi-ees  of  temperature,  and  they  are  also 
styled  warm  in  reference  to  color.  There  are  also  yellow  and  gray  soils, 
a  mixture  of  which  makes  a  yellowish-gray.  They  are  always  cold,  both 
in  regard  to  temperature  and  color  ;  and  are  the  opposite,  in  these  respects, 
to  brown  and  red  soils.  Color  is  indicative  of  the  nature  of  soils.  Thus, 
all  yellow  and  gray  colors  belong  to  clay  soils.  Gray  sand  and  gray  stones 
ai'e  indicative  of  soils  of  moory  origin.  Black  soils  are  deaf  and  inert ;  the 
brown,  on  the  other  hand,  are  sharp  and  grateful,  and  many  of  them  kind- 
ly ;  while  the  reds  are  always  prolific.  The  color  of  subsoils  is  less  uni- 
form than  that  of  soils — owing,  no  doubt,  to  their  exclusion  from  culture. 
Some  subsoils  are  very  party-colored ;  and  the  more  they  are  so,  and  the 
brighter  the  colors  they  sport,  they  are  the  more  injurious  to  the  soils 
above  them :  they  exhilait  gray,  black,  blue,  green,  bright  red,  and  bright 
yellow  colors.  The  dull  red  and  the  chestnut  brown  subsoils  are  good ; 
but  the  nearer  they  approach  to  hazel  brown  the  better.  Dull  browns, 
reds,  and  yellowish  grays  are  permanent  colors,  and  are  little  altered  by 
cultivation ;  but  the  blues,  greens,  bright  reds  and  yellows  become  darker 
and  duller  by  exposure  to  the  air  and  by  admixture  with  manures. 

(405.)  These  ax-e  all  the  remarks  required  to  be  made  on  soils,  in  as  far 
as  practice  is  concerned ;  but  a  great  deal  yet  remains  to  be  said  of  them 
as  objects  of  natural  history,  and  subjects  of  chemistry,  and,  above  all,  as 
the  staple  of  the  farm.  Part  of  the  natural  history,  and  pai't  of  their  chem 
istry,  will  appear  in  the  paragi-aphs  immediately  below,  and  part  of  both 
will  deserve  our  attention  when  we  treat  of  the  fertility  of  soils ;  but  the 
management  of  soils  will  occupy  our  thoughts  through  ever'y  season. 

(406.)  The  external  characters  of  minerals  established  by  Werner,  and  recognized  by- 
mineralogists,  have  never  been  used  to  describe  agricultural  soils.  It  would,  perhaps,  sen'e 
no  practical  purpose  to  do  so  ;  because  there  are  naturally  such  minute  shades  in  the  varie- 
ties of  soils,  and  those  shades  are  constantly  undergoing  changes  in  the  course  of  good  and 
bad  modes  of  cultivation,  that  definitions,  even  when  establishad,  would  soon  become  inap- 
plicable. In  respect,  therefore,  to  a  scientific  classification  of  soils  by  external  character 
there  ai-e  as  yet  no  data  upon  which  to  establish  it,  and  the  only  alternative  left  is  to  adop' 
such  a  division  as  I  have  endeavored  to  describe.  In  adopting  that  classification  I  have  sub* 
divided  it  into  fewer  heads  than  other  writers  on  the  same  subject  have  done.  In  their  sub- 
divisions they  include  calcareous  and  peaty  soils  with  the  clayey  and  sandy.  Practically ,- 
however,  calcareous  matter  cannot  be  detected  in  ordinary  soils ;  and,  as  to  chalky  soils 
themselves,  their  management  is  so  similar  to  that  of  light  and  heavy  ordinary  soils,  accord- 
uig  to  the  formation  from  which  they  are  derived,  that  no  practical  distinction,  as  I  have  said, 
need  be  drawn  betwixt  them ;  and  in  regard  to  peaty  soils,  when  reduced  to  earth,  which 
they  easily  are  by  cultivation,  they  partake  of  the  character  of  mould.  The  kind  of  mould 
which  they  forai  you  will  learn  when  I  come  to  treat  of  the  fertility  of  soils. 

(407.)  In  regard  to  the  relation  of  soils  to  the  subjacent  strata,  it  is  held  by  a  recent  prac- 
tical writer  on  soils  that  "  the  surface  of  the  earth  partakes  of  the  nature  and  color  of  the  sub- 
Boil  or  rock  on  which  it  rests.  The  principal  mineral  in  the  soil  of  any  district  is  that  of  the 
geological  formation  under  it ;  hence  we  find  argillaceous  soil  resting  on  the  various  clay 
formations — calcareous  soil  over  the  onalk — and  oolitic  rocks  and  silicious  soils,  over  the  va 
rious  sandstones.  On  the  chalk  the  »»1  if  \k\,'"^\  i.u  tbo  r«d  SHndstone  it  is  red  ;  and  on  IH» 
(411) 


t20  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WiNTER. 

sands  and  clavs  the  surface  has  nearly  the  same  shade  of  ctAnr  as  the  8nl>»oil."*  I  do  not 
think  that  tkiii  dt'scription  of  the  position  of  soil*  i*  eenerally  correct,  because  many  instances 
occur  Ui  mr  knowledge  of  great  tract*  of  goils,  including  sul)#<jils.  h;i\  ing  no  relation  to  the 
'•  geological  fiirmatiou  under  llje«i."  The  tine,  stniiig.  deep  clay  of  the  Carse  of  Go%n-rie 
rests  on  the  old  red  sandstone,  a  rock  having  nothing  in  c«nninon,  either  in  consistence  or 
color,  with  the  clay  above  it.  The  large  extent  of  the  gray  sands  of  Barrie,  and  the  great, 
gray  gravelly  deposits  of  the  valley  of  the  Lunan,  in  Furlai-shire,  Ijolh  rest  on  the  same  form- 
ation as  the  carse  clay,  namely,  the  old  red  j-and^tone ;  aud  so  of  numerous  other  examples 
in  Scr)tland.  Id  fact,  s^^iils  are  frequently  found  of  iufinitely  diversified  character,  over  ex- 
tensive districts  of  rock,  whose  constituents  are  nearly  uniform;  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
soils  of  unifoi-m  character  occur  in  districts  where  the  uuderlpng  rocks  are  different  as  well 
in  their  chemical  as  their  geological  pro|)erties.  Thus,  an  uuifonn  integiiment  of  clay  rests 
upon  the  •n-ay  sandstone  to  the  westward  of  the  Carse  of  Gowiie.  in  Perthshire,  and  the 
same  clav  covets  tlie  Ochil  Hills  in  that  county  and  Fil'eshii-e  with  an  uniform  mantle — over 
hills  which  are  entirely  composed  of  trap.  Oii  the  other  hand,  a  diversified  clay  ajid  gi-avel 
are  fimnd  to  cover  au  uniform  tract  of  graj-wacke  in  rertshine.  •'  We  have  gray  sandstone," 
says  Mr.  Buist,  aptlv.  when  treatijig  of  the  geolog},-  of  the  nortli-east  portion  of  Perihshire, 
"  red  sandstone,  and  rtxk-marl.  as  it  is  called,  cut  by  various  massy  veins  of  trap  or  beds  of 
con"lonierate  and  lime ;  yet  I  defy  any  man  to  form  the  smallest  guess  of  the  rocks  below 
from  the  soils  above  them,  though  the  gnjund  is  sufficiently  uniform  to  give  fair  scope  for  all 
to  manifest  tlie  infiuence  possessed  by  tliera.  There  are  lands  whose  agricultural  value  has 
been  so  greatly  modified  by  the  presence  or  withdrawal  of  a  bed  of  gravel  berween  the  ara- 
ble soil  and  tillv  subsoil,  which,  when  present,  affords  a  universal  drain,  when  absent,  leaves 
die  land  almost  unarable.  But  if  we  must  show  a  i-elation  betwixt  the  sandstone  aud  any 
of  these  beds,  which  of  the  three,"  very  properly  asks  Mr.  Boist,  "  are  we  to  select  as  hav- 
ing affinity  with  the  rock  ?"t 

(■103.)  In  {Ki-ssing  fmm  practical  to  scientific  opinion  on  the  origin  of  soils,  we  find  Mr.  De 
la  Beche  giving  his  opinion  that  •'  uatunilly  soils  are  merely  decomposed  parts  of  the  subja- 
cent rock,  mixed  with  the  decomposed  portions  of  vegetable  substances  which  have  grown 
or  fallen  upon  it,  and  with  a  proportion  of  animal  substances  derived  from  the  droppings  of 
creatures  which  liave  fed  upon  the  vegetation,  from  dead  insects  and  worms  which  once  in- 
liabited  the  surface,  and  from  llie  decomposition  of  animals  that  have  perished  on  die  land, 
and  which  have  not  altogetiier  been  removed  by  those  quadinipeds.  birds  and  insects  that  act 
as  natural  scavengei-s.''t  This  view  of  the  origin  of  soils  seems  to  corroboiate  the  oj)inion 
of  .Mr.  Moitnn.  qrioted  above;  but  if  you  look  more  closely  into  the  definitions  of  the  terms 
used  bv  both  writers,  you  will  find  there  is  not  that  identity  of  opinion  between  them  which 
appears  at  firet  sight.  For  "  the  term  rock."  says  Mr.  De  la  Beche,  "  is  applied  by  geolo- 
gis'.s,  not  only  to  the  liard  substances  to  w  hich  this  name  is  commonly  giveu,  but  also  to  those 
viu-ious  sfindx.  gravels,  shales,  marls,  or  clai/s.  which  form  beds,  strata,  or  masses. "||  Tak- 
ing this  correct  geological  definition  of  mck.  Mr.  De  la  Bethe's  view  is  quite  correct  in  re- 
ganl  to  afrricu/fmal  soils,  for  they  certainly  are  decomposed  p<jrtion8  of  the  rock,  geologi- 
cally spe;iking — that  is,  of  those  "  sands,  gravels,  or  clays,"  upon  which  they  rest;  but  the 
inq)ression  left  on  the  mind  of  the  reader  on  penising  Mr.  Morton's  accoiuit  of  the  origin  of 
soils,  is  that  the  rocki/  strata,  commonly  so  called,  because  indurated,  became  decomposed  to 
f'>nn  soil :  and  his  reference  to  the  various  geological  f<)miations  of  England,  in  explanation 
of  the  soils  louud  above  them,  wan-ant  the  correctness  of  this  impression  ;  but  it  is  this  very 
impression  which  I  wish  to  remove  from  your  minds,  because  it  conveys,  :u  my  opinion,  an 
erroueous  idea  of  the  origin  of  soils. 

(■I(lf».)  No  doubt  the  chemical  action  of  the  air,  and  the  physical  force  of  rain,  frost,  and 
wind,  pnnluce  visible  effects  u|ion  the  most  indurdted  rocks,  but,  of  coui-se,  much  greater  ef- 
fects ii|)on  incoherent  rocks.  We  know  that  the  action  of  these  agents  loads  the  waters  of 
the  Ganges  with  detritus  to  the  extent  of2i  percent,  of  their  volume,  which  is  an  enoiTnous 
quantiiy'when  we  consider  that  the  water  discharged  by  that  river  into  the  sea  is  500,000 
cubic  feet  ;)er  second,  although  this  amount  falls  far  short  of  Major  Rennel's  statement  of  25 
per  cent. ;  yet  these  agents  have  not  had  sufficient  pnver  to  accumulate,  by  their  owii  action 
on  iiuiurated  n»cky  strata,  all  the  de|x»sils  of  clay,  gravel,  and  sand,  found  accimnilated  W 
the  depth  of  many  feet.  Combined  in  their  action,  they  could  only  originate  a  mere  o  i  ng 
of  soil  over  the  surface  of  indurated  rock,  if  the  rock  were  situated  within  the  regicrs  .^(  -.A-n- 
nogamous  veg'Jtation,  because  then  it  would  be  consianily  covered  with  p'^s*.  'V».t  tl« 
planU,  in  then  "nni,  wcmld  protect  to?  rocks  against  the  action  of  tbov.<  4,i>'Hcies,  and,  al- 
though they  cMild  not  entirely  prevent,  lliey  could  at  least  reUid,  ibr  accumulation  of  soil 
beyond  what  the  decay  of  vegetation  supplied.  Even  in  the  tropics,  where  vegetation  dis- 
plays its  greatest  luxuriance  on  the  globe,  the  mould  does  not  increase,  though  the  decay  of 
vegetables  every  year  is  enormous.  "  Tho  quantity  of  timber  and  vegetable  matter  which 
grows  in  a  tropical  forest  in  the  courseofac— 'turj."  says  .Mr.  Lyell,  "  is  enormous,  and  mul- 
tinides  of  animal  skeletons  are  scattered  there  during  the  same  period,  besides  innumerable 

*  Morton  on  ?'oiIs.  1  Vrize  Kssays  of  the  Highland  and  AffricuIlunU  Society,  toL  sfiL 

i  De  la  Beche,  How  lo  Obaervc  Geulogy.  |1  De  la  Beche*  Manual  of  Ceolog)-. 

(412) 


SOILS  AND  SUBSOILS.  2!> 


laad  shells  and  other  organic  substances.  The  aggregate  of  these  materials,  therefore,  mi<^ht 
constitute  a  mass  greater  in  volume  than  that  wliich  is  produced  in  any  coral-reef  durin"  the 
same  lapse  oi'  years ;  but,  although  this  process  should  continue  on  the  land  for  ever,  no 
moxmtains  of  wood  or  bone  would  be  seen  sb-etching  far  and  wide  over  the  countiy,  or  push- 
ing out  bold  promontories  into  the  sea.  The  whole  soHd  mass  is  either  devoui-ed  by  animals, 
or  decomposes,  as  does  a  portion  of  the  rock  aaJ  soil  (into  their  gaseous  constituents)  on 
which  the  animals  and  plants  are  supported.''^  These  are  the  causes  of  the  prevention  of 
the  accumulation  of  soils  in  the  ti'opics.  In  colder  regions  a  similar  result  is  thus  brought 
about.  "  It  is  well  known,"  continues  Mr.  Lyell,  "  that  a  covering  of  herbage  and  shnibs 
may  protect  a  loose  soil  fi-oni  being  carried  away  by  rain,  or  even  by  the  ordiuaiy  action  of  a 
river,  and  may  prevent  hills  of  loose  sand  from  beuig  blown  away  by  the  wind ;  for  the  roots 
bind  together  the  separate  particles  into  a  firm  mass,  and  the  leaves  intercept  the  rain-water, 
80  that  It  dries  up  gradually,  instead  of  flowing  oft"  in  a  mass  and  with  great  velocity. "t 

(410.)  Some  other  agent,  therefore,  more  powei-fiil  than  tlie  ordinary  atmospherical  ele- 
ments, must  be  brought  to  bear  upon  indui-ated  I'ocks,  before  a  satisfactoiy  solution  of  the 
fonnation  of  soils  can  be  given.  This  other  agent  is  water ;  but  the  moment  that  we  assent 
to  the  agency  of  water  bemg  able  by  its  gi'eat  abrasive  power  and  gi'eat  buoyant  property, 
when  in  motion,  to  transport  the  abraded  parts  of  rocks  to  a  distance,  and  let  them  tall  on 
coming  in  contact  with  some  opjTOsing  banier,  that  moment  we  must  abandon  the  idea  of 
soils  havmg  been  universally  derived  from  the  indurated  rocky  strata  upon  which  they  are 
found  to  rest.  I  quite  agree  with  Mr.  Buist  in  the  conclusions  he  has  drawn  in  regard  to 
Boils,  after  he  had  described  their  relative  positions  to  the  rocks  upon  which  they  rest  in  a 
large  and  important  district  of  Perthshire,  where  he  says,  "  that  the  alluvial  matters  of  these 
districts,  in  general,  belong  to  periods  much  more  remote  than  those  ordinarily  assigned  to 
them,  and  came  mto  existence  under  circumstances  prodigiously  difterent  from  those  which 
presently  obtain :  that  the  present  causes — that  is,  the  action  of  our  modem  rivers,  brooks, 
and  toiTents,  and  of  the  air  and  water  on  the  surfaces  now  exposed  to  them — have  had  but 
little  share  in  modifying  om-  alluvial  fonnations,  or  bringing  them  into  their  present  fomi. — 
The  doctrine  seems  to  me  most  distinctly  demonstrable,  that  wherever  gravel  or  clay  beds 
alternate  with  each  other,  and  wherever  bowlder  stones  prevail  remote  from  the  parent  rock, 
or  cut  oft"  from  it  by  high  intervening  ridges,  that,  at  the  time  when  the  surface  of  the  solid 
rock  became  covered  with  such  alluvium,  much  the  gi-eater  part  of  it  was  hundreds  of  feet 
beneath  the  waves.  The  supposition  of  the  prevalence  of  enormous  lakes,  requiring  barriers 
only  less  stupendous  than  our  highest  secondaiy  mountain-ranges,  whose  outbursts  must  have 
swept  every  movable  thing  before  them,  seems  far  more  untenable  than  the  assumption  that 
the  present  dry  land,  at  the  era  of  bowlders  being  tiansported,  was  beneath  the  level  of  the 
ocean,  from  which,  by  slow  elevations,  it  subsequently  emerged.  Our  newer  alluvia,  again, 
■which  are  destitute  of  en-atic  bowlders  in  general,  such  as  our  Carse  of  Gowrie  and  other 
clays,  must  have  originated  when  the  sea  occasionally  invaded  the  land  to  such  moderate  ex- 
tent that  the  transportation  of  rocky  masses,  fi-om  great  distances  from  our  mountain-land,  had 
been  rendered  impossible,  by  the  intenention  of  elevated  ridges,  or  of  secondaiy  mountain- 
i-anges.''^  More  than  this,  is  it  not  probable  that,  when  the  sti-atified  rocks  were  being  de- 
posited in  water,  portions  of  the  matter  of  which  they  were  about  to  be  formed  weie  car- 
ried away  by  cui'rents,  and,  by  reason  of  the  motion  given  them,  were  deposited  in  eddies 
xn  a  mechanical  state,  instead  of  getting  leave  to  assume  the  crystiiline  form  of  indurated 
stratified  rock  ?  May  not  all  diluvium  have  thus  originated,  instead  of  being  abraded  fi-om 
solid  strata,  although  it  is  possible  that  some  portion  may  have  been  derived  from  the  abra- 
sion of  rocks  ?  It  is  also  quite  conceivable  that  where  indurated  rocks,  such  as  ch;ilk,  and 
sandstone,  and  limestone,  were  left  bare  by  the  subsiding  waters,  and  exposed  to  atmospher- 
ica'-  influences,  part  of  the  soil  upon  them  may  have  been  derived  at  first  immediately  from 
them. 

(411.)  The  soil,  or  incoherent  rocks,  when  complete  in  all  theii*  members,  consist  of  three 
parts.  The  oldest  or  lowest  part,  not  unfrequently  teniied  diluvium,  but  which  is  an  ob- 
jectionable term,  inasmuch  as  it  conveys  the  idea  of  its  having  been  formed  by  the  Noachiau 
deluge,  wliich  it  may  not  have  been,  but  may  have  existed  at  a  much  older  period  of  the 
globe.  This  cannot  be  called  a/luvium,  according  to  the  definition  of  that  deposit  given  by 
Mr.  Lyell,  who  considers  it  to  consist  of  "  such  transported  matter  as  has  been  thrown 
down,  whether  by  rivers,  floods,  or  other  causes,  upon  laud  not  permanently  submerged 
beneath  the  waters  of  lakes  or  seas — I  say  'permanently  submerged,  in  order  to  distin- 
guish betw^een  alluviums  and  regular  subaqueous  deposits.  These  regular  strata,"  he  con- 
tniues,  "  are  accumulated  in  lakes  or  great  submarine  receptacles ;  but  the  alluvium  is  iu 
the  channels  of  rivers  or  currents,  where  tlie  materials  may  be  regarded  as  still  in  transitu, 
or  on  their  way  to  a  place  of  rest."||  Diluvium,  therefore,  should  rather  be  tenned  subaque- 
ous deposits,  and  may  consist  of  clay,  or  gravel,  or  sand,  in  deep  masses  and  of  large  extent. 
It  may,  in  fact,  be  trimsported  materials,  which,  it  they  had  been  allowed  to  remain  in  their 

*  Lyell's  Principles  of  (^"eology,  vol.  iii.  f  Ibid. 

t  Prize  Kseayg  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland,  vol.  xiii. 
J  {.yell's  Principles  of  Geclogy,  vol.  iii. 
(413) 


222  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

original  site,  would  have  formed  indurated  aluminous  and  silicious  rocks.  When  such  sub- 
aqueous deposits  are  exposed  to  atmospherical  influences,  an  arable  soil  is  easily  formed 
ujion  ihem. 

(412.)  True  alluvial  deposits  may  raise  themselves  by  accumulation  above  their  depositing 
waters,  and  ait  can  assist  the  natural  process,  by  the  erection  of  enibiuikmeuts  against  tlie  en- 
croachments of  these  waters,  and  by  the  casting  out  of  large  ditches  for  carrying  them  away, 
as  has  been  done  in  several  places  in  the  rivers  and  coasts  of  our  country.  Atmospherical 
mfluences  soon  raise  an  arable  soil  on  alluvium. 

(413.)  The  third  member  of  soils  is  the  upper  mould,  which  has  been  directly  derived 
from  vegetation,  and  can  only  come  into  e.\istence  after  either  of  the  other  soils  has  been 
placed  in  a  sitiiation  favorable  for  the  support  of  plants.  Mould,  being  in  contact  v^nlh  air, 
always  exists  on  tlie  surface,  but  when  either  the  subacpieous  deposit  or  tlie  alluvium  is 
wantuig,  the  mould  then  rests  upon  the  one  present ;  or  both  may  be  wanting,  and  then  it 
rests  upon  the  indurated  rocky  strata. 

(414.)  When  the  last  case  happens,  if  the  rocky  stratum  is  porous,  by  means  of  numerous 
fissures,  or  is  in  inclined  beds,  the  arable  soil  is  an  earthy  mould  of  good  quality  for  agricul- 
tural purposes  ;  such  as  are  the  moulds  upon  sandstones,  limestones,  and  trap,  and  the  up- 
per chalk  fonnatiou;  but  if  it  rest  on  a  massive  rock,  then  the  mould  is  converted  into  a 
spongy,  wet  j)abulum  for  subaquatic  plants,  forming  a  marsh,  if  the  site  is  low,  and  if  high, 
it  is  converted  into  tliin  peat ;  and  both  are  worthless  soils  for  Agriculture.  When  the 
mould  rests  immediately  upon  clay  subaqueous  deposit,  a  coarse  and  rank  vegetation  exists 
upon  it,  and  if  the  water  which  supports  it  has  no  opportunity  of  passing  away,  in  time  a 
bog  is  formed  by  the  cimiidative  growth  of  the  subaquatic  mosses.*  When  mould,  on  the 
otlier  hand,  is  fonned  on  gi-avelly  deposit,  the  vegetation  is  short,  and  dry,  and  sweet,  and 
particulai'ly  well  adapted  to  promote  the  sound  feeding  and  health  of  sheep.  On  such  de- 
posits water  is  never  seen  to  remain  after  the  heaviest  fall  of  rain.  When  mould  rests  on  al- 
luvial deposit  of  whatever  natTire,  a  rich  soil  is  the  consequence,  and  it  will  be  naturally  dry 
only  when  the  deposit  is  gravelly  or  sandy. 

(41.5.)  Mr.  De  La  Beche  seems  to  think  that  farmers  do  not  know  the  reason  why  subsoils 
are  favorable  or  unfavorable  to  the  soil  upon  them.t  I  suspect  they  know  more  about  them 
than  he  is  aware  of.  They  know  quite  well  that  a  diy  subsoil  is  more  favorable  to  Agricul- 
ture than  a  retentive  one  ;  that  gi~dvel  forms  a  drier  subsoil  than  clay  ;  and  that  the  reason 
why  tliese  results  should  be  so  is,  that  clay,  or  a  massive  rock,  will  not  let  water  pass 
tlu-ough  it  so  easily  as  gi-avel,  and  I  presume  no  geologist  knows  more  of  the  matter. 

(416.)  [We  must  now  obsers^e  soils  and  subsoils  in  another  point  of  view.  A  practical 
outline  of  the  characters  of  various  soils,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  may  be  distinguished 
one  from  another,  having  been  already  pointed  out  to  you,  my  intention  now  is,  to  consider 
them  scientifically,  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  your  minds  for  follo\\-ing  me  through  the 
mazy  windings  of  theoretical  Agriculture,  as  developed  by  the  joint  application  of  chemistry, 
mechanical  philosophy,  and  vegetable  physiology.  Although,  to  the  contemplative  and  still 
more  to  the  speculative  student,  this  branch  of  the  subject  will  exhibit  the  greatest  charms, 
still  I  beg  you  to  bear  m  mind  continually,  that  it  is  with  practice  you  have  to  do,  and  that 
theory  must  oidy  be  used  cautiously  as  an  adjunct  to  well-studied  and  assiduously -applied 
practical  knowledge  ;  and  although,  by  so  doing,  I  fully  believe  you  will  not  only  increase 
greatly  your  interest  in  the  whole  matter,  but  will  likewise  proceed  vv-ith  more  rapid  sti'ide.* 
in  the  progress  of  improvement,  I  feel  equally  satisfied  that  an  opposite  course,  viz.  the  study 
of  theory  antecedent  to  the  application  of  practice,  will  almost  invariably  be  productive  of 
just  the  opposite  effects,  viz.  the  retardation  of  your  real  advance  in  knowledge,  and  wiU, 
moreover,  make  you  nin  a  rea  t  risk  of  becoming  speculative  men,  than  wliich  uotliing  can 
be  more  inimical  to  real  improvement. 

(417.)  Soil,  considered  scientifically,  may  be  described  to  be  essentially  a  mixture  of  an 
imjialpable  jrowder  with  a  greater  or  smaller  quantity'  of  visible  particles  of  all  sizes  and 
shapes.  Careful  examination  will  prove  to  us,  that  although  the  visible  particles  have  seve- 
ral indirect  effects,  of  so  great  importance  that  they  are  absolutely  necessary  to  soU,  still  ihe 
impalpable  powder  is  the  only  portion  which  directly  exerts  any  influence  upon  vegetation. 
Tliis  impalpable  powder  consists  of  two  distinct  classes  of  substances,  viz.  inorganic  or  mis- 
tral matters,  and  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  in  all  the  various  stages  of  decomposition. 

(418.)  A  very  simple  method  may  be  employed  to  separate  these  t^vo  classes  of  particles 
from  each  other,  viz.  the  impalpable  powder  and  the  visible  particles  ;  and,  in  so  doing,  we 
obtain  a  veiy  useftil  index  to  the  real  value  of  the  soil.  Indeed  all  soils,  except  stiff"  clays, 
can  be  discriminated  in  this  mamier.  The  greater  the  proportion  of  the  impalpable  matter, 
the  gi'eater,  cceteris  paribus,  will  be  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  (438.) 

(419.)  To  effect  this  separation,  the  following  easy  experiment  may  be  performed  Take 
a  glass  tube  about  2  feet  long,  closed  at  one  end ;  fill  it  abo\it  lialf  full  of  water,  and  shake 
into  it  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  soil  to  be  examined  to  fill  the  tube  about  2  inches  fiom  the 
bottom ;  then  put  in  a  cork,  and  liaving  shaken  the  tube  well  to  mix  the  earth  and  water 

*  For  an  account  of  the  origin  of  Bogs,  see  Aiton  on  Moas. 
t  Pe  La  Beche,  How  to  observe  Geology. 
(414) 


SOILS  AND  SUBSOILS.  22^ 


thoroughly,  set  the  tube  in  an  upright  position,  for  the  soil  to  settle  down.  Now,  as  the 
larger  particles  are  of  course  the  heavier,  they  fall  first,  and  form  the  undermost  layer  of  the 
deposit,  and  so  on  in  regular  gradation,  the  impalpable  powder  being  the  last  to  subside,  and 
hence  occupying  the  uppermost  portion.  Then  by  examining  the  relative  thickness  of  the 
various  layers,  and  calculating  their  proportions,  you  can  make  a  very  accurate  mechanical 
analysis  of  the  soil. 

(420.)  The  stones  which  we  meet  with  in  soil  have  in  general  the  same  composition  as  the 
soil  itself,  and  hence,  by  their  gradually  crumbling  down  under  the  action  oftair  and  moisture, 
they  are  continually  adding  new  impalpable  matter  to  the  soil,  and  as  I  shall  show  you  here- 
after the  large  quantity  of  this  impalpable  mineral  matter  which  is  annually  removed  by  tho 
crops,  you  will  at  once  perceive  that  this  constant  addition  must  be  of  great  value  to  the  soil. 
This,  therefore,  is  one  important  fiinction  performed  by  the  stones  of  soil,  viz.  their  afibrding 
a  continually  renewed  supply  of  impalpable  mineral  matter. 

(421.)  When  we  come  to  consider  the  nourishment  of  plants,  we  shall  find  that  their  food 
undergoes  various  preliminary  changes  in  the  soil  previous  to  its  being  made  use  of  by  the 
plants,  and  the  aid  of  chemistry  will  prove  to  us  that  the  effect  is  produced  by  the  joint 
action  of  air  and  water ;  it  follows,  therefore,  that  soil  must  be  porous.  Now,  this  porosity 
of  the  soil  is  in  part  produced  by  the  presenct  of  the  larger  particles  of  matter,  which,  being  of 
all  varieties  of  shape,  can  never  fit  closely  together,  but  always  leave  a  multitude  of  pores 
between  them ;  and  in  this  manner  permit  of  the  free  circulation  of  air  and  water  through 
the  soil. 

(422.)  As  the  porous  nature  of  soil  may,  to  a  certain  extent,  be  taken  as  an  index  of  its 
power  of  retaining  moisture,  it  is  advisable  to  determine  its  amount.  This  is  effected  in  the 
following  way :  Instead  of  putting  the  water  first  into  the  tube,  as  directed  above  (419),  and 
shaking  the  soil  into  it,  take  a  portion  of  soil  dried  by  a  heat  of  about  200°  F.  and  shake  it 
into  the  dry  tube,  and  by  tapping  the  closed  end  frequently  on  the  table,  make  the  soil  lie 
compactly  at  the  bottom  ;  when  you  have  fuUy  effected  this,  that  is,  when  farther  tapping 
produces  no  reduction  of  bulk,  measure  accurately  the  column  of  soil,  cork  the  tube,  shake 
it  till  the  soil  becomes  again  quite  loose,  and  then  pour  in  the  water  as  directed  above  (419.) 
After  it  has  fully  subsided,  tap  the  tube  as  before,  and  re-measui-e  ;  the  increase  of  bulk  is 
dependent  upon  the  swelling  of  each  particle  by  the  absorption  of  water,  and  hence  shows 
the  amount  of  porosity.  In  very  fertile  soil  I  have  seen  this  amount  to  one-sixth  of  the  whole 
bulk. 

(423.)  The  fimctions  of  the  impalpable  matter  are  far  more  complicated,  and  will  require 
a  somewhat  detailed  description.  In  this  poi-tion  of  the  soil  the  mineral  and  organic  matter 
are  so  completely  united  that  it  is  quite  impossible  to  separate  them  from  each  other  ;  indeed, 
there  are  very  weighty  reasons  for  believing  that  they  are  chemically  combined.  It  is  from 
this  portion  of  the  soil  that  plants  obtain  all  their  mineral  ingi-edients,  and  likewise  all  their 
organic  portions,  in  so  far  as  these  are  obfrained  by  the  roots ;  in  fact,  plants  receive  nothing 
from  the  soil,  except  water,  which  has  not  been  associated  with  that  portion  which  is  at 
present  engaging  our  attention. 

(424.)  The  particles  forming  the  impalpable  matter  are  in  such  close  apposition  that  the 
whole  acts  in  the  same  way  as  a  sponge,  and  is  hence  capable  of  absorbing  liquids  and  re 
taiiiing  them.  It  is  in  this  way  that  soil  remains  moist  so  near  the  surface  even  after  a  long 
continued  drouth  ;  and  I  need  not  tell  you  how  valuable  this  property  must  be  to  the  plants, 
since  by  tliis  means  they  are  supplied  with  moisture  during  the  heat  of  summer,  when 
otherwise,  unless  artificially  watered,  they  would  very  soon  wither. 

(425.)  Another  most  useful  function  of  this  impalpable  portion  is  its  power  of  separating 
organic  matter  from  water  in  which  it  has  been  dissolved.  Thus,  for  example,  if  you  take 
the  dark  brown  liquid  which  flows  from  a  dunghill,  and  pour  it  on  the  surface  of  some  earth 
in  a  flower  pot,  and  add  a  sufficient  quantit)'  to  soak  the  whole  earth,  so  that  a  portion  flows 
out  through  the  bottom  of  the  pot,  this  latter  liquid  will  be  found  much  lighter  in  color  than 
before  it  was  poured  upon  the  earth,  and  this  effect  will  be  increased  the  nearer  the  soil  ap- 
proaches in  its  nature  to  subsoil.  Now,  as  the  color  was  entu'ely  owing  to  the  organic  mat- 
ter dissolved  in  it,  it  follows  that  the  loss  of  color  is  dependent  upon  an  equivalent  loss  of  or- 
ganic matter,  or,  in  other  words,  a  portion  of  the  organic  matter  has  entered  into  chemical 
combination  with  the  impalpable  mineral  matter,  and  has  thus  become  insoluble  in  water. 
The  advantage  of  this  is,  that  when  soluble  organic  matter  is  applied  to  soil,  it  does  not  all 
soak  through  with  the  water  and  escape  beyond  the  reach  of  the  roots  of  the  plants,  but  is 
retained  by  the  impalpable  portions  m  a  condition  not  hable  to  uijury  from  rain,  but  still  ca 
pable  of  becoming  food  for  plants  when  it  is  required. 

(426.)  Hitherto  I  have  pointed  out  merely  the  mechanical  relations  of  the  various  constit- 
uents of  soil,  with  but  little  reference  to  their  chemical  constitution ;  this  branch  of  the  sub- 
ject, although  by  far  the  most  important  and  interesting,  is  nevertheless  so  difficult  and  com- 
plex that  1  cannot  hope  for  the  practical  farmer  doing  much  more  than  making  himself  famil- 
iar with  the  names  of  the  various  chemical  ingredients,  and  learning  their  relative  value  as 
respects  the  fertility  of  the  soil ;  as  to  his  attempting  to  prove  their  existence  in  his  own  soil 
by  analysis,  I  fear  that  is  far  too  difficult  a  subject  for  him  to  grapple  with,  unless  regularly 
educated  as  an  analytical  chemist. 
(415) 


224  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

(427.)  Sfiil,  to  be  useful  to  the  British  agriculturist,  must  contain  no  less  than  12  different 
chemical  substances,  viz.  silica,  alumina,  oxide  of  inm,  o.iide  of  manganese,  lime,  magnesia, 
potass,  8<^>da.  phosphoric  acid,  sulphuric  acid,  chlorine,  and  organic  matter;  each  of  these  sub- 
stances must  engage  our  attention  siiortly ;  and  as  I  by  no  means  purpose  to  burden  youi' 
memories  by  relatuig  all  the  facts  of  interest  connected  wth  them,  I  sliali  confine  my  obser 
rations  almost  solely  to  their  relative  imjx»rtaiK-e  to  plants,  and  their  amount  in  soil. 

(428.)  Silica.  This  is  the  pure  matter  of  sauil,  and  also  constitutes  on  an  average  about 
60  per  cent,  of  the  various  clays  ;  so  that  in  soil  it  generally  amounts  to  from  75  to  9.'j  per 
cent.  In  its  uncombined  state,  it  has  no  direct  influence  ujjon  plants,  beyond  its  mechanical 
action,  in  supporting  the  roots,  &.c. ;  but,  as  it  possesses  the  properties  of  an  acid,  it  unites 
with  various  alkaline  matters  in  the  eoU,  and  produces  comjHJUuds  which  are  requii-ed  in 
greater  or  less  quantity  by  everj'  plant.  The  chief  of  these  are  the  silicates  of  potass  and 
soda,  by  which  expression  is  meant  the  comp<Junds  of  silica,  or,  more  properly,  silicic  acid 
with  tlie  alkalies  potass  antl  soda. 

(429.)  Alumina.  This  substance  never  exists  pure  in  soil.  It  is  the  characteristic  ingre- 
dient of  clay,  although  it  exists  in  that  compound  to  the  extent  of  only  30  or  40  per  cent.  It 
exerts  no  direct  chemical  influence  on  vegetation,  and  Ls  scarcely  ever  found  in  the  ashes  of 
plants.  Its  chief  value  in  soil,  therefore,  is  owing  to  its  effects  in  rendering  soil  more  reten- 
tive of  moisture.     Its  amount  varies  from  ^  per  cent,  to  13  per  cent. 

(430.)  Oxide  of  Iron.  There  are  two  oxides  of  iron  found  in  soils,  namely,  the  protoxide 
and  peroxide ;  one  of  which,  the  protoxide,  is  frequently  very  injurious  to  vegetation — in- 
deed, so  much  so,  tliat  ^  per  cent,  of  a  soluble  salt  of  this  oxide  is  suflicient  to  render  soil 
almost  barren,     The  peroxide,  however,  is  often  found  in  small   quantities  in  the  ashes  of 

{)lants.     The  two  oxides   together  constitute  from  ^  to  10  per  cent,  of  soil.     The  blue,  yel 
ow,  red  and  brown  colors  of  soil  are  more  or  less  dependent  upon  the  presence  of  inm. 

(431.)  Oxide  of  Manganese.  This  oxide  exists  in  nearly  all  soils,  and  is  occasionally 
found  in  jilants.  It  does  not,  however,  appear  to  exert  any  important  influence  either  me- 
chanically or  chemically.  Its  amount  varies  from  a  mere  trace  to  about  1^  per  cent.  It  ai 
gists  in  giWng  the  black  color  to  soil. 

(432.)  These  4  substances  constitute  by  far  the  greatest  bulk  of  even.'  soil,  except  the 
chalky  and  peaty  varieties,  but,  nevertheless,  che-inicaUi/  speaking,  are  of  trifling  imj>orlance 
to  plants;  whereas,  the  remaining  8  are  so  absolutely  essential  that  no  soil  can  be  cultivated 
with  anv  success  unless  provided  with  them,  either  naturally  or  artificially.  And  when  you 
consider  tliat  scarcely  any  of  them  constitute  1  per  cent,  of  the  soil,  you  will  no  doubt  at  first 
be  surprised  at  their  value.  The  sole  cause  of  their  utility  lies  in  the  fact  that  they  constitute 
the  ashes  of  the  plants ;  and  as  no  plant  can,  by  possibility-,  thrive  v^-iihout  its  inorganic  con 
stituents  (its  ashes),  hence  no  soil  can  be  fertile  which  does  not  contain  the  ingredients  of 
which  these  are  made  up.  I  shall  not  treat  of  each  separately,  but  will  fiuiiish  you  witli  one 
or  two  analyses  of  soil  to  show  their  importance,  and  to  impress  them  more  fully  on  your 
memorj'.  I  regret  that  I  must  look  to  foreign  works  to  fhmish  these  analyses ;  but  the  truth 
is,  we  have  not  one  single  published  analysis  of  Briti.«h  soil  by  a  British  chemist  whicli  is 
worth  recording.  Sir  Humphiy  Davy  just  analyzed  soil  to  determine  the  amount  of  the  first 
4  substances  mentioned,  and  one  or  two  olliers,  and  failed  to  detect  5  or  6  of  the  most  import- 
ant ingredieriLs.  In  tact,  the  only  u.seful  analyses  we  possess  are  those  performed  by  Spren- 
gel,  and  <)uoted  in  Dr.  Lyon  Playfair's  second  edition  of  Liebig's  Organic  Chemistry  appUed 
to  Agriculmre,  from  which  valuable  woik  I  quote  the  following  examples. 

(433.)  Ajialysis  of  a  very  fertile  aUuvial  soil  from  Honigpolder.  Com  had  been  cultivated 
upon  this  soil  for  70  years  without  any  manure  ha\Tng  been  applied  to  it,  but  it  was  now  and 
then  allowed  to  lie  fallow : 

Silica  with  fine  silicious  sand ,..64.800 

Alumina 5.700 

Peroxide  of  iron 6.100 

manganese 0.090 

Lime 5.880 

Mspnesia 0.840 

Potass  combined  with  silica 0.210 

Soda  combined  vith  silica 0.393 

Sulphuric  acid  combined  with  lime 0.210 

Chlorine  in  common  salt 0.201 

Phosphoric  acid  combined  tcitk  lime 0.4.30 

Carbonic  acid  combined  with  lime 3.920 

_  .    (Humus 5.600 

organic^  Hnmus  »o/mW«  in  alkalies 2.540 

™"^®'-  (  Azotized  matter 1.582 

Water 1 .504 

lOO.OOO* 


Liebig's  Organic  Chemistry  applied  to  Agriculture,  2d  edit 
(4J6J 


SOILS   AND   SUBSOILS.  225 


^434.)  Alluvial  soil  from  Ohio,  remarkable  for  its  fertility — 

Silica  with  fine  silicious  sand 79.538 

Alumina 7.306 

Protoxide  and  peroxide  of  iron,  with  mnch  magnetic  iron-sand 5.824 

Peroxide  of  manganese 1.320 

Lime 0.619 

Magnesia 1.024 

Potass  combined  with  silica 0.200 

Soda - 0.02,4 

Phosphoric  acid  combined  with  lime  and  iron 1.7.6 

Sulpliuric  acid  combined  with  lime 0.122 

Chlorine  in  common  salt 0.036 

f^         ■    (Hamaa  soluble  in  alkalies 1.950 

"""^f""^^  Humus  with  azotized  matter 0.236 

matter,  ^  jj^egj^oug  matter  and  wax 0.025 

100.000 

(435.)  Loamy  sand  from  the  environs  of  Brunswick,  very  barren — 

Silica  with  coarse  silicious  sand 95.843 

Alumina 0.600 

Peroxide  of  iron 1.800 

Peroxide  of  manganese a  trace. 

Potass  and  soda 0.005 

Lime  combijied  w ith  silica 0.038 

Magnesia  combined  with  silica 0.006 

Sulphuric  acid 0.002 

PhosphorK  acid  combined  with  iron 0.198 

Chlorine  in  common  salt 0.006 

Organic  {  Humus 0.502 

matter,   (  Humus  soluble  in  alkalies 1.000 


100.000 


Here  the  sterility  is  evidently  produced  by  the  small  amount  of  potass,  soda,  lime,  magne- 
sia, and  sulphuric  acid — all  of  -which  are  essential  for  the  ashes  of  most  of  our  usually  culti- 
vated crops. 

(43<).)  These  analyses  -will  give  you  some  idea  of  the  complex  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the 
necessity  of  most  minute  analysis  if  we  wish  to  ascertain  its  real  value.  The  reason  for  such 
minuteness  in  analysis  becomes  obvious  when  we  consider  the  immense  weights  with  whicli 
you  have  to  do  in  practical  Agriculture  ;  for  example,  every  imperial  acre  of  soil,  considered 
as  only  8  inches  deep,  will  weigh  1884  tons,  so  that  0.00*2  percent,  (the  amount  of  sulphm-ic 
acid  in  the  barren  soil)  amounts  to  80.64  lbs.  per  imperial  acre. 

(437.)  I  have  purposely  avoided  saj-ing  anything  of  the  organic  matter  of  soil,  as  tliis  is  a 
most  complicated  subject,  and  will  be  far  better  considered  under  the  head  of  manures. 

(438.)  All  these  substances,  except  the  silica  contained  in  the  form  of  sand,  constitute  the 
impalpable  matter  of  soil.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  this  may  differ  much  in  chemical 
constitution  without  ditfering  in  amount,  and  yet  have  the  greatest  influence  upon  the  fertil- 
ity of  the  soil ;  my  design,  therefore,  of  introducing  the  words  "  casteris  paribus"  in  para- 
gi-aph  (418)  was  to  induce  you  to  bear  in  mind  thafthe  statement  refers  solely  to  soil  consid- 
ered mechanically.  For  fear  of  being  misunderstood,  therefore,  I  would  paraplirase  the  sen 
tence  thus  :  Witliout  a  certain  amount  of  impalpable  matter,  soil  cannot  possibly  be  fertile , 
yet,  while  the  existence  of  this  material  proves  the  soil  to  be  mechanically  well  suited  for 
cultivation,  chemical  analysis  alone  can  prove  its  absolute  value  to  the  fanner. 

(439.)  Potass  and  soda  exist  in  variable  quantities  in  many  of  the  more  abundant  miner- 
als, and  hence  it  follows  that  their  proportion  in  soU  will  vary  according  to  the  mineral  which 
produced  it.  For  the  sake  of  reference,  I  have  subjoined  the  following  table,  which  shows 
the  amount  per  cent,  of  alkalies  in  some  of  these  minerals,  and  likewise  a  rough  calculation 
of  the  whole  amount  per  imperial  acre  in  a  soil  composed  of  these,  supposing  such  a  soU  to 
be  10  inches  deep. 


Name  of  Mineral. 

Amount  per  cent, 
of  Alkali. 

Name  of  Alkali. 

.4mount  per  Imperial  Acre 
in  a  soil  10  inches  deep. 

17.75 
3.31  to  6.62 
2.75  to  3.31 
5.75  to  10. 

927,360  lbs. 

Potass  and  Soda 

161.000  to  322,000  lbs. 

Clay-slate 

80.500  to  161.000  lbs. 

Basalt 

Potass  and  Soda 

37,887  to     56.875  lbs. 

(440.)  From  the  above  table  you  see  the  abundant  quantities  in  which  these  valuable  sub- 
stances are  contained  in  soU ;  some,  however,  of  you,  who  are  acquainted  with  chemistry, 
will  naturally  ask  the  question.  How  is  it  that  these  alkalies  have  not  been  long  ago  washed 
away  by  the  rain,  since  they  are  both  so  very  soluble  in  water  ?  Now  the  reason  of  their 
not  having  been  dissolved  is  the  following ;  and  it  may  in  justice  be  taken  as  an  example  of 
(417) 15 


22G  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINIHR 

those  wise  provisions  of  Nature,  whereby  what  is  useful  is  never  wasted,  and  yet  is  at  all 
times  supplied  abuiidjuuly. 

(441.)  These  iilkiilies  exist  in  combination  with  the  various  other  ingredients  of  the  rock 
in  whicn  they  occur,  and  in  this  way  have  sucli  a  jiovverful  attraction  for  each  other  that  they 
are  capable  of  resisting  completely  the  solvent  action  of  water  so  long  as  the  integrity-  of  the 
mass  is  retained.  When,  however,  it  is  reduced  to  a  perfectly  impalpable  powder,  this  at- 
ti-action  is  diminished  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  then  the  alkali  is  much  more  easily  dis- 
solved. Now  this  is  the  case  in  soil ;  and,  consecpiently,  while  the  stony  portions  of  soil  con- 
tain a  vast  supply  of  these  valuable  ingredients  m  a  condition  in  which  water  can  do  them 
no  injury,  the  impalpable  powder  is  supplied  with  them  in  a  soluble  state,  and  hence  in  a 
condition  available  to  the  wants  of  vegetation. 

(44'2.)  In  the  rocks  which  we  have  mentioned,  the  alkalies  are  always  associated  -with 
clay,  and  it  is  to  tins  substance  tliat  they  have  the  greatest  attraction  ;  it  follows,  therefore, 
that  the  more  clay  a  soil  contains,  the  more  alkalies  will  it  have,  but  at  the  same  time  it  will 
yield  them  less  easily  to  water,  and  through  its  medium  to  plants. — H.  R.  M.] 


22.    PLANTING  OF  THORN-HEDGES. 

"  Next,  fcnc'd  with  hedges  and  deep  ditches  round, 
Exclude  th'  encroaching  cattle  from  thy  ground." 

Dryden's  ViRGir.. 

(443.)  Immediately  in  connection  with  the  subject  of  inclosures  is  the 
construction  of  the  fences  by  which  the  fields  are  inclosed.  There  ar." 
only  two  kinds  of  fences  usually  employed  on  farms,  namely,  thorii-Jicdg 
and  stonc-dykcs.  As  winter  is  the  proper  season  for  planting,  or  runninj^, 
as  it  is  termed,  thorn-hedges,  and  summer  that  for  building  stone-dykes,  I 
shall  here  describe  the  process  of  planting  the  hedge,  and  defer  the  de- 
scription of  building  the  dyke  until  the  anival  of  the  summer  season.  It 
may  be  that  the  farm  on  which  you  have  entered  as  a  pupil,  or  that  which 
you  have  taken  on  lease,  may  not  require  to  be  fenced  with  thorn-hedges. 
Still  it  is  requisite  that  you  should  be  inade  acquainted  with  the  best  mode 
of  planting  them.* 

[*  The  dryness  of  our  soil  and  climate,  and  yet  more  the  want  of  fersiatcnce  which  character- 
izes American  agriculturists,  and  which  is  so  particularly  requisite  in  the  formation  of  a  good 
hedge,  will  render  the  rearing  of  hedges  a  work  of  very  limited  extent  and  of  doubtful  success. 
Moreover,  the  liahility  of  all  estates  to  be  again  and  again  divided  and  subdivided,  will  cooperate 
with  other  reasons  to  the  same  end.  Still,  they  answer  well  and  arc  highly  ornamental  for  small 
inclosures,  and  for  that  purpose  we  are  inclined  to  believe  the  Madura,  or  Osage  Orange,  will 
prove  valuable  as  it  is  beautiful,  as  any  one  may  see  at  Mr.  Cushing's,  near  Boston. 

As  an  agricultural  topic,  we  confess  we  do  not  regard  it  as  one  of  general  interest,  and  might 
have  omitted  it  altogether  but  for  reasons  already  alleged,  in  similar  cases.  The  subscriber -who 
reflects  that  in  Stephens's  Book  of  the  Farm  he  is  getting  a  work  that  would  cost  him  more  than 
$20,  will  be  content  to  put  up  with  some  things  that  may  not  have  for  him  immediate  value. 

On  large  estates  in  the  South,  everything  forbids  the  expectation  that  hedges  will  ever  be  re- 
sorted to  as  division  fences ;  and  on  small  ones  in  the  North,  stone  supplies  a  more  convenient 
material.  Besides,  we  anticipate  the  extension  of  the  soiling  system,  of  which  one  great  bene- 
fit will  be,  that  cross  fences  may  be  dispensed  with,  and  thus  one  of  the  greatest  burdens  on 
Agriculture  be  shaken  off 

In  the  old  American  Farmer  much  may  be  found  on  the  subject  of  hedges.  It  was  verj'  fully 
treated  oy  Caleb  Kirli,  an  intelligent  practical  Quaker  farmer  of  Delaware.  But  what  is  now 
needed  to  be  known  by  American  cultivators  who  are  disposed  to  make  experiments  in  hedging, 
is  well  condensed  in  the  following  article  from  that  popular  and  excellent  periodical,  the  old 
Albany  CuUivator  : 

Hedges  for  America. — A  great  difference  of  opinion  exists  in  relation  to  hedges  for  this 

country.     There  have  been  some  very  successful  attempts,  and  there  have  also  been  many  failures. 

An  examination  into  the  cavsex  of  this  difference  of  success,  in  actual  experimiuits,  will  doubtless 

be  of  use,  and  enable  us  to  judge  whether  hedges  possess  advantages  over  other  kinds  of  fence 

(418) 


PLANTING   OF   THORN-HEDGES.  227 


(444  )  The  proper  time  for  planting  thorn-hedges  extends  from  the  fall 
of  the  leaf,  in  autumn,  to  April,  the  latter  period  being  late  enough.  The 
state  of  the  ground  usually  chosen  for  the  process  is  when  in  lea.     1  recom- 


in  any  case.  We  lately  examined  several  specimens  of  successful  hedge-making.  A  part  of 
thetn  were  made  by  John  Bx)binson,  of  Palmyra,  N.  Y.,  a  vigorous  and  enterprising  English 
farmer,  v^^hose  experiments  are  of  several  years'  continuance.  He  has  over  a  hundred  rods  of 
hedge  in  different  stages  of  growth,  the  management  or  treatment  of  which  appears  to  be  par- 
ticularly worthy  of  attention. 

The  young  thorns  are  set  out  in  the  hedge-row  at  two  years  of  age,  after  which  they  are  cut  off 
at  the  surface  of  the  ground  the  first  year,  to  cause  a  thick  growth  of  sprouts ;  they  are  again  cui 
off  the  second  year,  from  four  to  six  inches  from  the  ground,  according  to  their  hight  and  vigor, 
which  causes  a  second  crop  of  thick  sprouts  at  that  hight ;  the  third  year  they  are  cut  off  six  or 
eight  inches  higher,  and  so  on,  rising  about  at  that  rate  until  the  hedge  is  five  or  six  feet  high. 
This  mode  of  treatment,  which  is  well  known  and  often  practiced  in  England,  obviates  the  neces- 
sity of  plashing,  if  it  is  successfully  performed  ;  the  successive  crops  of  thick  sprouts  thus  occa- 
sioned, densely  interlace  each  other,  and  the  hedge  becomes  a  thick  mass  of  entangled  shoots 
and  branches,  which  cannot  be  separated.  It  is  in  fact  precisely  similar  to  the  process  ot'feltine-. 
but  on  a  larger  scale  ;  and  when  the  best  specimens  thus  grown  are  forcibly  shaken  at  any  point, 
whole  rods  on  either  side  are  shaken  with  it  as  in  one  mass.  This  felting  property  thus  becomes 
of  more  value  by  far,  to  the  impregnability  of  the  hedge,  than  the  thorns. 

One  hedge  had  received  three  different  modes  of  treatment.  A  part  had  been  imperfectly 
cultivated  ;  another  portion  had  been  well  cultivated  for  a  distance  of  two  feet  on  each  side  ;  and 
a  third  stood  on  ground  which  was  trenched  two  feet  deep  before  planting.  The  growth  of  the 
second  was  twice  as  great  as  the  first,  and  of  the  trenched  portion  still  greater.  Indeed,  one  may 
as  well  think  of  raising  corn  by  planting  a  row  in  a  thick  meadow,  as  to  raise  a  good  hedge  with- 
out keeping  the  soil  constantly  mellow  about  the  young  trees.  A  space  two  feet  wide  on  either 
side  of  the  hedge  is  the  distance  usually  kept  cultivated. 

From  six  to  eight  years  are  needed  to  make  a  good,  substantial  hedge,  proof  against  cattle. 

These  hedges  are  set  on  a  bank  about  eighteen  inches  above  the  surface,  with  a  ditch  two  feet 
deep  serving  to  carry  off  surface  water  on  one  side.  The  plants  are  set  six  inches  apart.  If 
closer,  they  do  not  grow  so  well. 

The  greatest  difficulty  which  J.  Robinson  finds,  is  protecting  the  young  hedge  for  several 
years,  until  it  is  proof  against  cattle.  For,  although  it  may  be  placed  along  the  side  of  a  fence, 
next  to  crops,  or  meadow,  yet  in  the  course  of  rotation  it  is  thrown  into  pasture,  and  is  thus  en- 
dangered.    A  longer  course  of  alternating  crops  would  be  the  remedy  in  usual  cases. 

Hedges  for  plashing  are  not  subjected  to  the  successive  shortening  down  which  has  been  ju.st 
described ;  but  the  young  stems  are  suffered  to  grow  until  several  feet  high  and  an  inch  or  more 
in  diameter,  when  they  are  cut  partly  off  near  the  ground  and  bent  over  to  an  angle  of  forty-five 
degrees  in  the  direction  of  the  line  of  the  hedge.  A  thick  growth  of  branches  is  not  needed  be- 
fore this  operation.  All  the  large,  branches  should  be  cut  off  at  the  time,  but  not  clo.sely.  Young 
shoots  afterward  ascend,  and  growing  upright,  form  cross-bars  with  the  main  stems  which  have 
been  bent  over,  and  interlocking  with  them  produce  a  sort  of  lattice-work  possessing  ultimately 
great  strength.  A  small  portion  of  the  trees  are  not  bent,  but  remain  upright,  to  stiffen  the  rest, 
and  slender  poles  are  run  along  the  top,  alteniating  with  them,  to  keep  them  to  their  place  until 
the  whole  is  firmly  established.  These  poles  being  green  and  of  perishable  wood,  cost  little,  and 
rot  out  when  they  are  no  longer  needed. 

The  selection  of  suitable  trees  for  forming  hedges,  is  of  the  very  first  importance.  One  great 
reason,  without  any  doubt,  why  so  many  have  failed  in  their  experiments,  is  bad  selection,  or  a 
want  of  adaptation  of  certain  species  to  the  climate  where  they  were  used.  The  English  haw- 
thorn has  been  found  entirely  unsuited  to  most  parts  of  the  United  States.  At  Newburgh,  accord- 
ing to  A.  J.  Downing,  "its  foliage  becomes  quite  brown  and  unsightly  after  the  first  of  August." 
He  also  remarks  that  it  is  there  extremely  liable  to  the  attacks  of  the  borer.  Farther  south,  where 
the  summers  are  longer  and  dryer,  and  consequently  more  dissimilar  to  those  of  England,  it  is  of 
no  value  whatever.  But  in  the  cooler  summers  of  Western  New- York,  and  where,  perhaps,  the 
soil  may  exert  also  a  favorable  influence,  it  has  continued  to  flourish  in  well-managed  hedges  for 
many  years.  All  the  hedges  of  John  Robinson,  already  described,  are  of  this  species ;  a  very 
vigorous  hedge,  on  the  grounds  of  John  Baker  of  Macedon,  N.  Y.,  is  of  the  same.  "We  had  sup- 
posed that  moist,  rich  land  would  be  better  suited  to  this  thorn  than  dry  upland ;  but  in  the  ex- 
periments of  these  intelligent  farmers  it  has  been  found  that  good  fertile  upland  is  incomparably 
better. 

The  sudden  failures,  however,  of  this  thorn,  in  some  places  farther  south,  should  induce  its 
cautious  use  on  a  large  scale,  especially  while  American  species  have  been  found  in  most  parts 
of  the  country  so  much  superior.  The  Washington  thorn,  fCratcegus  cordata)  is  preferred  by 
some,  and  pos.sesses  the  advantage  of  the  seeds  vegetating  freely  the  first  year.  But  in  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Delaware,  where  both  this  and  the  Newcastle  thorn  (C.  crus-galli)  have  been  ex- 
tensively used  for  many  years,  the  latter  has  in  all  cases  been  found  so  decidedly  superior  in 
hardiness,  vigor  and  freshness  of  growth,  to  the  former,  as  to  give  it  eminently  the  preference. 
Indeed,  the  Newcastle  thorn  appears  to  be  the  only  American  species  extensively  tried,  which 
has,  in  all  cases  whatever,  proved  to  be  entirely  free  from  all  disease  or  defect.  It  is  not  improb- 
able, however,  that  the  Washington  thorn  may  succeed  finely  so  far  north  as  northern  or  western 
New-York,  where  the  English  species  is  itself  so  much  more  successful  than  elsewhere.  Its  easy 
growth  from  seed,  besides,  renders  it  worthy  of  trial.  There  are  other  trees,  doubtless,  of  value 
for  this  purpose.  The  Buckthorn  has  been  found  perfectly  hardy  and  successful  around  Boston  ; 
and  the  poisonous  character  of  its  bark  secures  it  from  attacks  of  the  mice.  Its  thorns  are  only 
(419) 


228  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

mencled  lea  as  the  best  state  for  the  process,  in  a  paper  on  ihom-hedges 
which  appeared  some  years  ago  ;*  but  experience  lias  since  convinced  me 
that  this  is  not  the  best  state  of  the  ground  for  the  purpose  ;  because  grass 
grows  up  from  the  turf  around  the  young  thorn-plants,  and  cannot  be 
easily  removed,  but  with  the  removal,  at  the  same  time,  of  a  considerable 
portion  of -the  earth  ui)on  which  the  young  plants  rest.  A  much  better  time, 
therefore,  is  after  the  ground  has  been  thoroughly  fallowed  during  the  sum- 
mer, that  is,  after  it  has  been  perfectly  cleared  of  all  weeds  ;  well  stirred 
and  connnixed  with  the  plow  and  the  haiTow,  and  pulveiized,  if  need  be, 
with  the  roller;  freshened  l)y  lengthened  exposure  to  the  air  ;  amply  ma- 
nured with  good  dung,  to  promote  the  growth  of  the  young  thorn-plants  ; 
and  Bufliciently  limed  to  prevent  worms  traversing  the  soil,  and,  in  conse 
quence,  moles  mining  in  (juest  of  them.  If  the  field  in  which  the  line  of 
hedge  is  proposed  to  be  planted  is  not  intended  to  be  thoroughly  fallowed — 
that  is,  by  a  bare  fallow  or  a  crop  of  potatoes  or  turnips — the  part  to  be  oc- 
cupied by  the  hedge  should  be  so  treated,  in  order  to  render  the  soil  as  clean, 
and  fresh,  and  fertile  as  j)ossible;  and  the  expense  incurred  by  this  treatment 
of  the  soil  will  be  repaid  by  the  increased  health  and  strength  of  the  hedge 
for  many  years  thereafter.  There  is  no  doubt  that  lea-sod  affords  a  firmer 
bed  for  the  young  thom-plants  to  rest  upon  than  fallowed  ground  ;  but  it 
is  of  much  greater  importance  to  secure  the  ground  from  weeds,  and  health 
and  strength  to  the  young  plants,  than  mere  firmness  of  soil  under  them, 
but  v/hich  peculiar  advantage  may  be  attained,  too,  partly  by  allowing  the 
fallowed  ground  to  consolidate  for  a  time  before  commencing  the  opera- 
tion, and  paitly  by  trampling  the  soil  thoroughly  while  in  the  act  of 
planting. 

(445.)  The  gi'ound  having  been  thus  prepared,  the  planting  of  the  hedge 
may  be  pnoceeded  with  forthwith.  If  its  line  of  direction  is  determined 
by  existing  fences ;  that  is  to  say,  if  one  side  of  a  field  only  requii'es 
fencing,  then  the  new  fence  should  be  made  parallel  with  the  old  one  that 
rtins  N.  or  S.,  and  it  may  take  any  convenient  course,  if  its  general  direc- 
tion is  E.  and  W.  Should  a  field,  or  a  number  of  fiehls,  require  laying  ofl' 
anew,  the  N.  and  S.  fences  should  run  due  N.  and  S.,  for  the  purpose  of 

the  pointed  ends  of  die  branches,  which  are  hardly  sufficient  to  repel  all  kinds  of  intruders.  Of 
its  treatment  by  successive  heading  down,  its  felting  quality,  and  its  capability  of  plashing,  we 
are  not  informed,  as  in  nearly  if  not  quite  all  the  specimens  we  have  seen,  those  operations  were 
omitted. 

The  expense  of  a  vcllmnde  hedge,  until  it  is  cattle  proof,  is  about  fifty  cents  per  rod.  Caleb 
Kirk,  of  Delaware,  who  was  thorough  and  successful  in  his  experiments,  gave  the  following  as 
the  cost  of  an  excellent  hcduo  thirteen  years  old  : 

1,000  quicks,  cost  from  nursery $5  00 

Planting,  man  and  boy,  each  two  daj's 2  50 

Dressing,  first  year,  with  plow  and  hoe 1  00 

Expenses  first  year $8  50 

Dressing  for  five  successive  years,  plow  and  hoe 5  00 

7th  year,  trenching  with  plow,  and  throwing  up  ditch,  three  days $3  75 

500  stakes  (for  upright.s),  cutting,  and  timber 3  50 

Poles  (horizontal),  and  cutting  them 2  00 

One  hand  three  days,  at  plashing 3  00 

12  25 

8th  to  13th  year  inclusive,  one  day  each  year  trimming  and  cleaning...  4  50 

Expense  13  years,  sixty  rods $30  25 

It  may  be  questioned  whether  hedges  will  ever  be  extensively  used  where  timber  or  stones  are 
plenty.  But  as  many  places  are  destitute,  or  likelv  to  become  so,  exiHjriments  to  determine  their 
practicability  must  become  very  desirable.  Tiic  Sisposition  to  neglect  is  so  prevalent  with  most 
farmers,  that  the  preat  care  and  attention,  nnd  constant  culture,  so  necessary,  will  not  be  given, 
and  success  cannot  take  place  in  such  cases.  But  with  skillful  management  and  enterprise  they 
will  doubtless  be  found  highly  jirofitable  ;  that  if  good  they  will  i)rove  a  great  rural  embellish- 
ment, we  all  know  ;  and  that  those  who  have  fruit  gardens  to  protect  from  rogues,  will  find  them 
the  greatest  security,  is  equally  self  evident.] 

*  Ji  will  be  found  in  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  L 
(420) 


PLANTING  OF  THORN-HEDGES.  229 

giving  the  ridges  an  equal  advantage  of  the  sun  both  forenoon  and  after- 
noon. To  accomplish  this  parallelism  a  geometrical  process  must  be  gone 
through  ;  and  to  perform  that  process  with  accuracy,  certain  instruments 
are  required. 

(446.)  In  the  first  place,  3  poles  at  least  in  number,  of  at  least  8^  feet  in 
length,  should  be  provided.  They  should  be  shod  and  pointed  with  iron 
at  one  end,  marked  off  in  feet  and  half-feet  throughout  their  length,  and 
each  painted  at  the  top  of  a  different  color,  such  as  white,  red,  blue,  gi'een, 
or  black,  so  as  to  form  decided  contrasts  with  each  other  when  set  in  line. 
Three  of  such  poles  are  required  to  determine  a  straight  line,  even  on 
level  ground  ;  but  if  the  ground  is  uneven,  four  or  more  are  requisite. 
These  poles  will  be  found  of  use,  not  merely  in  lining  off  fences,  but  they 
will  be  required  every  year  on  the  farm,  to  set  off  the  breadths  of  the 
ridges  of  fields  after  being  fallowed.  2.  An  optical  square  for  setting  off 
lines  at  right  angles,  or  a  cross-table,  for  the  same  pui-pose,  should  also  be 
jjrovided.  The  optical  square  costs  21s.  and  the  cross-table  7s.  6d.  3.  You 
should  also  have  an  imperial  measuring-chain,  of  66  feet  in  length,  which 
costs  13s.,  for  measuring  the  breadth  or  length  of  the  fields,  in  the  process 
of  fencing  ;  or  of  drills,  drains,  and  any  other  species  of  work  set  by  piece 
to  laborers  at  other  times.  Iron  pins,  for  marking  the  number  of  chains 
measured,  generally  go  along  with  the  chain. 

(447.)  Being  provided  with  these  insti-uments,  one  line  of  fence  is  set  off 
parallel  to  another  in  this  way.  Set  off,  in  the  first  instance,  at  i-ight  angles, 
a  given  distance  from  near  one  end  of  the  old  thorn-fence,  if  there  be  one, 
or  of  the  ditch,  and  let  this  distance  be  6  feet  from  the  roots  of  the  thorns, 
so  that  a  space  or  scarcement  of  one  foot  on  the  edge  or  lip  of  the  ditch 
be  left,  and  there  plant  one  of  the  poles.  About  100  yards'  distance  plant 
another  pole  in  the  same  manner,  and  so  on  along  the  length  of  the  fence 
from  which  the  distances  aie  set  off.  If  there  be  no  fence  to  set  off  the 
distances  fi"om,  then  let  a  pole  be  set  perpendicularly  up  in  the  line  the 
new  fence  is  intended  to  occupy,  and  at  noon,  in  a  clear  day,  observe  the 
direction  the  shadow  of  the  pole  takes  on  level  gi'ound,  and  that  is  N.  and 
S. ;  or  a  pocket-compass  can  give  the  direction  required,  deducting  the 
variation  of  the  needle,  which  in  this  countiy  is  about  27°  W. ;  but  the 
plan  with  the  pole  is  the  simplest  and  most  handy  for  work-people.  Poles, 
at  about  100  yards'  distance,  should  be  set  up  in  the  line  of  the  shadow; 
but  you  should  bear  in  mind  that  the  first  two  poles  should  be  set  up 
quickly,  otherwise  a  short  lapse  of  time  will  make  a  material  difference  in 
the  line  of  direction  of  the  shadow.  Twenty  minutes  make  a  difference  of 
5'^  in  the  direction  of  the  shadow  of  the  poles,  and  5°  at  the  first  pole  Avill 
make  a  considerable  deviation  from  the  true  line  of  N.  and  S.  at  the  far- 
thest end  of  the  line  of  the  new  fence.  Adjust  the  poles  with  one  another 
to  form  the  straight  line,  and  this  line  forms  the  base  line  of  your  opera- 
tions. This  line  is  c  u  in  fig.  36,  projected  by  shadow  in  the  manner  just 
described,  or  set  off  from  the  old  hedge  a  b.  Let  c  d  and  e  be  3  poles 
planted  in  that  line.  Let  f  be  the  cross-table  erected  in  the  line  betwixt, 
and  adjusted  by  looking  at  the  poles  c  and  d.  Let  g,  h,  and  i,  be  poles 
set  and  adjusted  to  one  another  by  the  cross-table  in  the  liney"^-,  which  is 
the  breadth  of  the  field,  and  which  distance  is  measured  by  the  chain  to 
contain  a  number  of  ridges  of  given  breadth,  as  any  fractional  part  of  a 
ridge  left  at  either  side  of  the  field  afterward  proves  inconvenient  for  work. 
In  like  manner,  let  the  line  I  p  be  drawn  from  the  cross-table  at  I  by  set- 
ting the  poles  m,  n,  o,  p.  Then  set  the  pole  q  in  a  line  with  the  poles  k  p, 
and  measure  the  distance  betwixt  q  and  u,  along  the  line  r  s  t,  with  the 
chain,  which  distance,  if  the  two  previous  operations  have  been  accurately 

(421) 


230 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


conducted,  should  be  exactly  equal  to  the  distance  betwixt  ^and  k,  or  / 
and  p  ;  but  should  it  prove  greater  or  less  than  either,  then  some  error 
must  have  been  committed,  and  which  can  only  be  rectified  by  doing  the 


Fig  36. 


X... 

I 

4r 


r 1* 


I 

I 


-t? 


PLAX  OF  SETTING  OFF  FENCES  PARALLEL  TO  EACH  OTHER. 

operation  over  again.  The  arrows  show  the  directions  in  which  each  line 
should  be  measured.  Great  accuracy  should  be  obser\'ed  in  running  these 
lines  of  fences  parallel,  for  if  a  similar  error  is  committed  at  each  suc- 
cessive line  of  fence,  the  deviation  from  parallelism  may  prove  very  con- 
siderable betwixt  the  first  and  last  lines.  Three  poles  only  being  employed 
to  set  off  the  lines  fk  and  t  p,  the  ground  may  be  supposed  to  be  nearly 
level ;  but  wherever  such  an  inequality  of  gi-ound  is  found  as  to  cause  you 
to  lose  sight  of  1  of  3  poles,  as  many  should  be  employed  as  to  have  3  of 
them  in  view  at  one  time.  This  point  should  be  constantly  kept  in  view 
in  setting  the  poles. 

(448.)  A  line  of  fence  being  thus  set  off,  the  next  process  is  to  plant  it 
with  thorns,  and  for  this  purpose  certain  insti-uments  are 
required.     1.  A  strong  garden  line  or  cord,  of  at  least  70  Fig- 37. 

yards  in  length,  having  an  iron  reel  at  one  end,  and  a  strong 
iron  pin  at  the  other.  Its  use  is  to  show  upon  the  ground 
the  exact  line  of  the  fence  bet\\nxt  the  poles.  Its  cost 
is,  with  a  common  reel  and  pin,  4s.  2.  A  few  pointed 
pins  of  wood,  with  Jiooked  heads,  to  keep  the  cord  in  the 
direction  of  the  line  of  the  hedge,  whether  that  follows  a 
vertical  curse  or  a  horizontal  one,  occasioned  by  the 
inequalities  of  the  ground.  3.  A  wooden  rule,  6  feet  in 
length,  divided  into  feet  and  inches,  having  a  piece  of  sim- 
ilar wood  about  2  feet  in  length,  fastened  at  right  angles 
to  one  end.  Its  use  is  to  measure  off  short  distances  at 
right  angles.  Any  country  carpenter  can  make  such  a 
rule.  4.  No.  5  spades  are  the  most  useful  size  for  hedg- 
ing, which  cost  4s.  3d.  each.  5.  A  light  hand-j}ick,  to 
loosen  the  subsoil  at  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  and  to  trim 
its  sides,  and  it  costs  5s.  6d.  or  6s.  6.  An  iron  tramp- 
pick  to  loosen  the  subsoil  immediately  under  the  mould, 
and  raise  the  bowlder  stones  that  may  be  found  in  it.  a  tramp-pick. 
In  some  parts  of  the  country  this  pick  is  unknown,  but 
a  more  efficient  implement  cannot  be  employed  for  the  purpose.     This  pick 

(422) 


PLANTING   OF  THORN-HEDGES. 


231 


The  tramp,  fig.  37,  is  movable,  and  may 

Fig.  33. 


Stands  3  feet  9  inches  in  hight. 

be  placed  on  either  side,  to  suit  the  foot  of  the  work- 
man, where  it  remains  firm  at  about  16  inches  from  the 
point,  which  gradually  tapers  and  inclines  a  little  forward, 
to  assist  the  leverage  of  the  shank.  The  shank  is  f  of  an 
inch  square  under  the  eye  through  which  the  handle  passes, 
and  li  inches  broad  at  the  tramp,  where  it  is  the  strongest. 
It  costs  6s.  6d.  7,  A  ditcher's  shovel,  fig.  38.  Its  use  is  to 
shovel  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  ditch,  and  to  beat  the 
face  of  the  hedge-bank.  It  is  1  foot  broad  and  1  foot  long, 
tapering  to  a  point,  with  a  shaft  28  inches  in  length,  and 
its  costis,  No.  5,  4s.  This  is  a  useful  shovel  on  a  farm, 
cleaning  up  the  bottoms  of  dunghills  in  soft  ground  much 
better  than  a  spade  or  square-mouthed  shovel ;  and  yet  in 
some  parts  of  the  country  it  is  an  unknown  implement.  8. 
Three  men  are  the  most  convenient  number  to  work  to- 
gether in  running  a  hedge  ;  and  they  should,  of  course,  be 
all  well  acquainted  with  spade-work.  9.  Should  tree-root* 
be  apprehended  in  the  subsoil,  a  mattock  for  cutting  them 
will  be  required,  and  it  costs  6s.  6d.  10.  A 
sharp  priming-Jcnife  to  each  man,  to  prepare 
the  plants  for  planting,  which  costs  2s.  to  3s. 
each. 

(449.)  The  plant  usually  employed  in  this 
country,  in  the  construction  of  a  hedge,  is  the 
common  hawthorn.  "  On  account  of  the 
stiffness  of  its  branches,"  says  Withering, 
"  the  sharpness  of  its  thorns,  its  roots  not 
spreading  wide,  and  its  capability  of  bearing 
the  severest  winters  without  injury,  this  plant 
is  universally  preferred  for  making  hedges, 
whether  to  clip  or  grow  at  large."*  Thorns 
ought  never  to  be  planted  in  a  hedge  till  they 
have  been  transplanted  at  least  2  years  fi-om  the 
seed-bed,  when  they  will  have  generally  ac- 
quired a  girth  of  stem  at  the  root  of  1  inch,  a 
length  in  all  of  3  feet,  of  which  the  root  meas- 
ures 1  foot,  as  in  fig.  39,  which  is  on  a  scale  of 
1-^  inches  to  1  foot.  The  cost  of  picked  plants 
of  that  age  is  12s.  6d.  per  1,000 ;  or,  as  they 
are  taken  out  of  the  lines,  10s.  6d.  As  thorns 
are  always  transplanted  too  thick  in  the 
nursery  lines,  in  order  to  save  room,  and 
draw  them  up  sooner  to  be  tall  plants,  I 
would  advise  their  being  purchased  from  the 
nursery  at  that  age,  the  year  before  they  are 
intended  to  be  planted  in  the  fence,  and  of 
being  laid  in  lines  in  ample  space  in  garden 
mould,  or  any  space  of  ground  having  a  firee, 
deep,  dry  soil.  By  such  a  process  the  stems 
\vill  acquire  a  cleaner  bark  and  greater 
strength,  and  the  roots  be  furnished  with  a 
much  greater  number  of  minute  fibres,  which 
will  greatly  promote  the  growth  of  the  young 


Fi?.  39. 


*  Withering'8  Botany,  vol.  iii. 
(423) 


A  THORN-PLANT. 


232  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

hedge,  and  thus  amply  repay  the  additional  trouble  bestowed  on  the  care 
of  the  plants.  Jiiit,  whether  the  plants  are  so  treated  before  they  are 
planted  or  not,  the  bundles,  containing  200  plants  each,  should  be  imme- 
aiately  loosened  out  on  their  ariival  from  the  nursery,  and  shevghed  in, 
that  is,  spread  out  upright  in  trenches  in  a  convenient  part  of  the  field, 
and  dry  earth  well  heaped  against  them,  to  protect  the  roots  from  frost, 
and  to  keep  them  fresh  until  planted.  The  plants  are  taken  from  the 
sheughs  when  wanted. 

(450.)  If  the  line  of  fence  is  to  be  straight,  which  should  always  be  the 
case  if  natural  obstacles  do  not  interfere  to  prevent  it,  let  the  poles  be  set 
up  in  as'straight  a  line  as  possible  fi-om  one  end  of  the  fence  to  the  other. 
Should  the  ground  be  a  plain,  this  line  can  be  drawn  straight  with  the 
gi-eatest  accuracy  ;  but  should  elevations,  or  hollows,  or  both,  intel•^•ene, 
however  small,  gi"eat  care  is  requisite  to  preserve  the  straightness  of  the 
line,  because  on  such  ground  a  straightness  of  line,  determined  by  })ole8, 
is  very  apt  to  advance  upon  the  true  line  in  the  hollows,  and  recede  from 
it  in  the  elevations,  especially  if  the  inequalities  are  abrupt.  Surveyors 
use  the  theodolite  specially  to  avoid  this  risk  of  error,  but  it  may  be 
avoided  by  usiug  plenty  of  poles,  so  that  they  may  not  be  set  far  asunder 
fi'om  one  another.  In  case  evil  disposed  persons  shift  the  poles  in  the 
night,  and  thereby  alter  the  line  of  fence,  pins  should  be  driven  at  inter- 
vals, well  into  the  ground,  to  preserve  the  marks  of  the  line.  Having  set 
plenty  of  poles,  and  so  as  to  please  the  eye,  take  the  reel  and  cord,  and, 
pushing  its  pin  finnly  into  the  ground  at  the  end  of  the  line  offence  where 
you  wish  to  begin,  run  the  cord  out  its  full  length,  with  the  exception  of  a 
small  piece  of  twist  round  the  shank  of  the  reel.  Be  sure  to  guide  the 
cord  exactly  along  the  bottoms  of  the  poles  ;  and  should  any  obstacle  to 
your  doing  so  lie  in  the  way,  such  as  clods,  stones,  or  dried  weeds,  remove 
them,  and  smooth  the  ground  with  the  spade  ;  and  then,  with  your  face 
toward  the  cord,  draw  it  backward  toward  you  with  considerable  force 
until  it  has  stretched  out  as  far  as  it  can,  and  then  push  the  shank  of  the 
reel  firmly  into  the  ground.  As  the  least  obstruction  on  the  ground  will 
cause  the  cord  to  (deviate  from  the  true  line,  lift  up  the  stretched  cord  by 
the  middle  about  3  feet  fiom  the  ground,  keeping  it  close  to  the  sides  of 
the  poles,  and  let  it  drop  suddenly  to  the  ground,  when,  it  is  probable,  it 
will  lie  as  straight  as  practicable.  Place  a  rather  heavy  stone  here  and 
there  upon  the  cord  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  its  being  shifted  from  its 
position.  With  the  common  spade  then  cut,  or  as  it  is  technically  termed, 
rut  the  line  of  hedge-bed  behind  the  cord,  with  your  face  toward  the  ditch 
that  is  to  be,  taking  care  to  hold  the  spade  with  a  slope  corresponding  to 
that  of  the  sides  of  the  projiosed  ditch,  and  not  to  press  upon,  or  be  too 
far  back  from,  or  cut  the  cord  with  the  spade.  Then  take  the  wooden 
rule,  and  placing  its  cross-head  along  the  cord,  set  off  the  breadth  of  the 
ditch  at  right  angles  to  the  rutted  line  41  feet — first,  at  both  ends  of  the 
still  stretched  cord,  and  then  here  and  there  ;  and  mark  off"  those  breadths 
with  wooden  pins,  which  will  serve  to  check  any  important  deviation  from 
the  true  line  at  either  end  of  the  cord.  Now,  take  up  and  stretch  the  cord 
anew  along  the  other  side  of  the  ditch,  by  the  sides  of  the  pins,  in  the 
same  manner,  and  with  the  same  pi-ecautions  as  with  the  hedge-bed,  and 
rut  the  line  with  your  face  toward,  and  the  spade  sloping  like  the  side  of 
the  ditch.  After  securing  a  continuation  of  the  line  of  the  hedge-bed,  re- 
move the  poles  and  pins  along  the  length  of  the  cord,  and  the  ditch  is  thus 
marked  out  ready  for  the  formation  of  the  thorn-bed.  AVhen  about  form- 
ing the  thorn-bed,  that  end  of  the  line  should  be  chosen  for  commencing 
the  work  which  best  suits  the  hand  of  the  workman  who  is  intrusted  to 

(424) 


PLANTING  OF  THORN-HEDGES. 


233 


make  it.  The  rule  for  this  is,  whichever  hand  giasps  the  eye  of  the  spade 
should  always  be  nearest  the  thom-bed,  and  the  workman  should  work 
backward. 

(451.)  In  forming  the  tliorn-hed,  raise  a  large,  firm,  deep  spadeful  of 
earth  fi-om  the  edge  of  the  first  rutted  line  of  the  hedge,  and  invert  it  along 
that  line,  with  its  rutted  face  toward  the  ditch.  Having  placed  a  few 
spadefuls  in  this  manner,  side  by  side,  beat  down  their  crowns  with  the 
back  of  the  spade,  paring  down  their  united  faces  in  the  slope  given  to  the 
first  rut,  and  then  slope  their  crowns  with  an  inclination  downwai'd  and 
backward  from  you,  forming  an  inclined  bed  for  the  thorn-plant  to  lie  up- 
on  as  at  b  c,  fig.  40.     In  like  manner,  place  other  spadefuls,  to  the  end  of 


Fig.  40. 


^^^■^ 


THE  THORN-BED. 


the  thom-bed  last  made,  taking  care  to  join  all  the  spadefuls  so  as  to  make 
one  continued  bed,  and  so  on  to  the  whole  length  of  the  cord  of  70  yards. 
(452.)  While  the  principal  hedger  is  thus  proceeding  with  the  thorn-bed, 
his  two  assistants  should  prepare  the  thorn-plants  for  planting.  On  re- 
ceiving the  thorn-plants  from  the  nursery,  the  usual  practice  is  to  put  the 
bundles  of  plants  into  the  soil  in  some  convenient  corner  of  the  field,  until 
they  are  wanted  for  planting.  I  have  recommended  the  plants  being  pur- 
chased the  year  before  they  are  to  be  planted,  and  transplanted  in  wide 
lines  in  good  garden-mould,  to  enlarge  and  multiply  the  root-fibres.  And 
now  that  the  plants  are  more  particularly  to  be  spoken  of,  I  would  farther 
recommend  them  to  be  assorted,  according  to  their  sizes,  as  they  are  taken 
out  of  the  bundles,  and  before  being  transplanted  in  the  lines.  The  ad- 
vantage of  this  plan  is  this.  Plants  should  be  suited  to  the  situation  they 
are  to  occupy.  On  examining  the  bundles,  they  will  be  found  to  contain 
both  stout  and  weak  plants.  The  stoutest  plants  cannot  derive  sufficient 
nourishment  in  the  poorer  class  of  soils,  however  well  the  soils  may  have 
been  previously  treated  for  their  reception  ;  while  weak  plants  will,  of 
course,  thrive  well  in  the  better  soil.  From  this  circumstance,  it  may  be 
concluded  that  weak  plants  are  best  adapted  to  all  classes  of  soils.  Not 
so  ;  for  however  well  weak  plants  may  thrive  in  all  soils,  stout  plants  will 
grow  much  more  rapidly  than  weak  in  good  soils  ;  and  were  all  the  soils 
good,  the  most  profitable  fence  would  be  obtained  from  the  best  and  picked 
plants.  But  as  every  farm  possesses  soils  of  various  degrees  of  fertility, 
although  the  class  of  its  soils  may  be  the  same  ;  and  as  plants  in  a  stout 
and  weak  state  are  usually  mixed  together,  the  most  prudent  practice  is 
to  put  the  weaker  plants  in  the  best  soil,  and  the  stouter  plants  in  the 
worse  kind  of  soil,  thus  giving  a  chance  of  success  to  both  sorts  of  plants 
and  soils.  Were  the  plants  assorted  when  placed  in  transplanted  lines, 
those  could  be  selected  which  would  best  suit  the  soil  which  was  under 
operation  at  the  time.  But  should  this  trouble  not  be  taken  at  first,  still 
the  plants  should  be  assorted  when  being  prepared  for  planting,  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  weaker  being  taken  for  the  good  soil,  and 
the  stronger  for  that  of  inferior  quality.  Want  of  attention  to  this  adapta- 
tion of  means  to  ends  is  one  cause  of  failure  in  the  rearing  of  thorn-hedges 

(425) 


234  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

in  many  parts  of  the  country  ;  and  one  of  those  means  consists  in  trans- 
planting the  weakest  plants  in  good  soil,  and  allowing  them  to  remain 
there  until  they  had  ac(iuired  sufficient  strength  for  being  planted  out.  Al- 
though the  thorn-plant  may  truly  be  said  to  affect  every  kind  of  soil  in  cul- 
tivation, yet  the  plant,  in  its  different  states  of  growth,  will  thrive  better  in 
one  condition  or  kind  of  soil  than  in  another ;  and  this  discrimination 
should  be  exercised  by  the  planter,  if  he  would  have  a  good  hedge. 

(4.53.)  The  prepared  thoni-plant  is  represented  by  fig.  41  ;  and  it  is  pre- 
pared in  this  way.  Grasp  the  stem  of  the  full  plant,  im- 
mediately above  the  root,  firmly  in  the  hand,  and  cut  it 
across  with  a  sharp  knife,  in  an  inclination  toward  the 
top  of  the  plant  at  a  ;  and  the  cut  thus  made  will  be 
about  6  inches  above  the  root  and  fibres.  Cut  away  the 
long  parts  of  the  tap-roots  i,  and  any  other  straggling 
and  injured  roots,  and  even  injured  fibres  ;  but  presnr\-e 
as  many  of  the  fibres  entire  as  possible.  Bum  the  tops 
thus  cut  off',  or  bury  them  deep  in  the  ground  ;  as  they 
will  vegetate,  and  are  easily  blouTi  about  by  the  wind, 
and  very  troublesome  to  sheep  in  the  wool.  Take  great 
care,  in  frost,  to  cover  up  the  prepared  roots  in  earth  un- 
til they  are  planted,  for  roots  in  the  least  affected  by  frost 
will  not  vesretate.     The  safest  plan,  in  frosty  weather,  is   *  thorn-plant  pre- 

,         ,        ^       „  ,  •  ^       r    ^1  T  r\        PARED  FOR  PLANTING. 

to  take  but  a  tew  plants  at  a  time  out  or   the   lines.     Un 
the  other  hand,  in  dry  weather  in  spring,  when  the  hedge  is  to  be  planted 
in  dry  ground,  put  the  roots  of  the  prepared  plants  in  a  puddle  of  earth 
and  water,  in  a  shady  place,  for  some   hours  before  laying   them  in  the 
thom-bed,  and  their  vegetation  will  thereby  be  much  facilitated. 

(4.54.)  When  both  the  thom-bed  and  plants  are  prepared,  the  assistants 
lay  the  plants  in  the  bed.  This  is  done  by  pushing  each  plant  firmly  into 
the  mould  of  the  bed,  with  the  cut  part  of  the  stem  projecting  not  more 
than  1  of  an  inch  beyond  the  front  of  the  thorn-bed,  and  with  the  root-end 
lying  away  from  the  ditch,  at  distances  varying  from  6  to  9  inches  ;  the  6 
inches  being  adapted  to  inferior  land,  and  the  9  inches  to  good  soil.  While 
the  two  assistants  are  laying  the  plants,  the  hedger  takes  up  all  the  fine 
mould  nearest  the  thorn-bed,  and,  dexterously  inverting  the  shovel-fiiUs  of 
the  mould,  places  them  above  the  laid  plants,  and  secures  them  in  their 
places.  The  two  assistants  having  finished  laying  the  thorns,  dig  and 
shovel  up  with  the  spade  all  the  black  mould  in  the  ditch,  throwing  it  upon 
the  roots  and  stems  of  the  plants,  until  a  sort  of  level  bank  of  earth  is 
fomned  OTer  them.  In  doing  this,  one  of  the  assistants  lifts  the  soil  across 
the  ditch,  moving  backward,  while  the  other  proceeds  forward,  face  to 
face,  shoveling  up  all  the  black  mould  he  can  find,  whether  in  a  loose  or 
firm  state,  in  the  ditch.  When  the  hedger  has  finished  covering  the  plants 
with  mould,  and  while  the  assistants  are  proceeding  to  clear  all  the  mould 
from  the  ditch,  he  steps  upon  the  top  of  the  mound  which  they  have 
thrown  up  above  the  plants,  and,  with  his  face  toward  the  ditch,  firmly 
compresses,  with  his  feet,  the  mould  above  the  plants,  as  far  as  they  ex- 
tend. By  the  time  the  compression  is  finished,  all  the  mould  will  have 
been  taken  out  of  the  ditch.  When  the  thorns  have  received  this  quan- 
tity of  earth  above  them,  they  may  be  considered  in  a  safe  state  from 
the  frost ;  but  it  is  not  safe,  in  frosty  weather,  to  leave  them,  even  for  a 
night,  with  less  earth  upon  them  ;  for  plants  may  not  only  be  frosted  in 
that  short  space  of  time,  but  the  earth  may  be  rendered  so  hard  by  frost, 
as  to  be  unfit  for  working  the  next  day  ;  and  should  the  frost  prove  se- 
vere and  the  work  be  altogether  suspended,  the  plants  left  at  all  exposed 

(426) 


PLANTING   OF  THORN-HEDGES. ^^^ 

11  •  .1       T,,  fvnstv  weather  the  plants  should  not  be  laid  on 

T^^r^t/irreafte^oon  LToni;in  the  forenoon,  as  in   the  after- 
the  thorn-bed       ^^^  ^^^^^^  ill  not  be  time  to  cover  the  plants 

noon  of  a  shoit  ^ay      ^le  Pioba^^  y  .^  ^^^^^  ^^^^^^^^,  ^^^^  ^^^ 

with  a  sufficient  q^^"^^%^*  ;™_  the  work  off  altogether- not  only 
around  continues  hard  all  day,  leave   tne  woik  u  «  frosted 

oeS  not  ol  on  acco^.V  the  cloggy  state  of  the .  ground  for  «oa 
Fvn  r  Imt  the  iiiabilitv  of  the  men  to  withstand  much  ram  in  winter.  1  he 
work,  but  tne  ";,!>"'"]  ,  ,      1^     ;,,  1^    „,„,.e  uniform  and  look  better, 

't  "''rctnTiderrWe  etfAh  of  it  is  finished  at  the  same  time,  than  when 
il"  'sartMeinI    at  short  intervals;  but  in  frosty  or-  >n  very  wet 

f^Sixra-rL-UUiti^n^^^^^^^^ 

tt::ri, /thTlru'lnll;  bed,  with  the  end  of  the  stem  projecting  a 
verTlMe  outward,  and  d  the  mound  above  m  .ts  compressed  state. 

milted  n  the  diStCt  Aould  the  ditch  ha.e  to  contain  a  stream  oi  wate^ 
Zu'h  in  winter  only,  it  should  be  made  proport.onably  capacious  ,  for  .t 
though  "  ""«"  .'  ,|j  ;,,,^r  ,,^,.e  to  be  made  so  at  last,  or  the  force  of 
not  so  ™ade  at  fii.t  .t  w  •    a  ^^^^^^  ^^^  .^^^,p_  ^^  ^j^^  ^  „f 

the  water  will  a»""^'i'y,'"  ,,;„,„,  ,,, '  .„  brought  to  a  point  at  the  bottom 
lr?"bSiJn:  e"n'shape  f^rX  -"ris'^They  do  Lt  afford  sufficient 
are  objectionaoie  y  protective  bank  or  mound  for  the  young 

Sorn  ptnts  tl  ey  ar"  easily  fiUedSp  with  the  mouldering  of  earth  Irom  the 
thorn-plants    t.ey  ,         vegetables ;  and  when  any  water  gets  into 

£  o  wUch  here's  eLJ  chance  when  there  is  an  overflow  of  surface- 
tnem,  oi  wxi  j  ^     bottom  with  mud.     JNot- 

rh^tandt 'tSl'c^:LiXtio"of  such  ^ditches  in  works  of  AgricuUure  J 
^ev  sWd^  avoided  when  there  is  the  probab  hty  of  the  least  quan  ity  of 
watlr  reaching  them  ;   and  no  ditch  in  connection  with  a  field  can  be  ex- 

'7:,e)Vl:lT'^^^^^^  to  this  length,  the  other  imple- 

mints  rome  into  use.  If  the  subsoil  of  the  ditch,  however,  be  a  tenacious, 
TctUe  cUv  "he  "pade  alone  is  best  to  remove  it,  as  pick  ng  is  useless  m 
I.  Stance  especially  if  somewhat  moist ;  for  it  will  raise  no  more 
:ra  tLe  tan  he  biSth  'of  the  face  of  the  pick  But  i^f  it  consists  of 
hard  Try  clay  interspersed  with  veins  of  sand  and  gravel-which  com 
nound  forms  a  very  common  subsoil  in  this  country-picking  is  absolutely 
?equ"red  forthes'pade  cannot  get  through  the  small  stones  with  effect, 
r^me 'parts  of  tL  country,.the  handpick  y-Vfrl°"exp^"ic  in 
soil,  while  in  others  the  footpick  is  employed;  and  from  expenence 

'  T^munieations  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  vol.  ii.    Loudon's  Encyclopedia  of  Agriculture. 
(427) 


236  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

both,  I  would  rcconimend  the  latter  as  being  by  far  the  mure  efliiMf-nt  im- 
plement for  such  work,  and  less  laborious  to  the  workman.  Let  one  of 
the  assistants  loosen  the  subsoil  with  the  footpick  as  deep  as  lie  can  «^o  ibr 
the  tramp,  with  the  point  of  the  pick  away  from  him  ;  he  theii  pulls  the 
handle  towaid  him,  until  he  brings  it  down  abt)ut  half  way  to  the  ground, 
and  after  that  he  sits  on  it,  and  presses  it  down  with  the  whole  weight  of 
his  body,  until  the  subsoil  gives  way  and  liecomes  loose,  in  which  state  he 
leaves  it  before  him,  and  steps  backward.  When  the  picker  has  thus  pro- 
ceeded a  short  way,  the  other  assistant  lifts  up  what  has  been  loosened 
with  his  spade,  and  throws  it  upon  the  top  of  the  mould  above  the  thorn, 
taking  care  to  place  the  subsoil  so  thrown  up  continuous  with  the  slope 
backward,  given  to  the  face  of  the  bank.  He  also  throws  some  to  the 
bade  of  the  bank,  to  cover  the  whole  of  the  black  mould  with  the  subsoil ; 
and  endeavors  to  make  the  shape  of  the  bank  uniform.  In  doing  all  this, 
he  works  backwaid  with  his  back  to  the  face  of  the  footpickei",  but  his 
back  would  be  to  the  back  of  a  handpicker,  standing  upon  the  subsoil 
which  has  been  loosened  by  the  footpick.  He  pares  down  the  side  of  the 
ditch  nearest  his  right  hand,  which,  in  this  case,  is  the  opposite  erne  from 
the  hedge.  The  hedger  follows  the  last  assistant,  working  toward  him 
face  to  face,  and  moving  forward,  shoveling  up  all  the  loose  earth  left  by 
the  assistant's  spade,  throwing  it  upon  the  top  and  front  of  the  mound, 
making  all  equal  and  smooth,  and  beating  the  earth  firmly  and  smooth 
on  the  face  of  the  bank.  Should  the  subsoil  retpiii'e  no  picking  at  all,  the 
two  assistants  follow  one  another,  using  the  spade  ;  and  the  hedger  brings 
up  the  rear  as  before,  using  the  shovel.  In  this  way  the  hedger  throws 
the  earth  fully  on  the  face  of  the  bank,  even  although  some  should  trickle 
dovvn  again  into  the  ditch,  rejecting  all  the  larger  stones  that  come  in  his 
way,  paring  down  that  side  of  the  ditch,  griving  the  proper  slope  to  the 
bank,  and  beating  the  face  of  the  bank  with  the  back  of  the  shovel,  and 
smoothing  it  downward  from  its  top  as  far  as  the  black  mould  is  seen  on 
the  side  of  the  ditch.  The  three  men  thus  proceed  regularly  in  their 
work.  Should  there  be  more  earth  at  one  place  of  the  ditch  than  another 
— which  will  be  the  case  where  there  are  inequalities  in  the  depth  of  the 
ditch — the  surplus  earth  should  either  be  thrown  to  the  back  of  the  bank, 
rather  than  its  top  be  made  higher  at  one  place  than  another,  or  wheeled 
away  to  a  spot  on  which  a  deficiency  of  earth  is  apprehended.  Besides 
giving  the  bank  an  irregular  appearance,  it  is  not  desirable  to  cover  the 
young  thorns  too  heavily  with  a  supeiincumbent  load  of  earth,  so  as  en- 
tirely to  exclude  the  air  and  moisture  from  their  roots. 

(457.)  If  going  along  the  ditch  twice  finish  the  work,  the  earth  in  it  will 
have  been  in  a  friable  state  ;  but  with  a  hard  subsoil  the  work  is  not  so 
easily  done.  The  handpick  is  almost  always  used  to  raise  the  last  4  or  5 
inches  of  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  and  in  accomplishing  this  the  same  ar- 
rangement of  the  men,  and  the  kind  of  work  performed  by  each,  will  have 
to  be  gone  through  ;  only  that,  in  this  case,  the  assistant  uses  the  hand  for 
the  tramp-pick,  and  works  forward.  ^V^^ile  this  last  picking  and  shovel- 
ing are  proceeding,  the  hedger  again  tramps  down  the  top  of  the  bank 
before  throwing  up  the  last  portion  of  earth.  The  beating  with  the  back 
of  the  shovel  is  absolutely  necessary  to  produce  a  skin,  as  it  were,  on  the 
face  of  the  bank  ;  because  the  smoothed  surface  will  resist  the  action  of 
the  frost,  and  thereby  prevent  the  mouldeiing  down  of  the  earth  into  the 
ditch.  A  covering  of  clay  over  the  bank,  and  the  poorer  it  is  the  better 
for  the  pui"pose,  is  useful  in  being  extremely  unfavorable  to  the  vegetation 
of  small  seeds.  They  will  readily  take  root  in  fine  mould,  if  that  formed 
the  extei'nal  covering,  and  their  eradication  afterward  would  create  much 

(428) 


PLANTING   OF  THORN-HEDGES. 


237 


ti-ouble  and  cause  much  waste  of  earth.  The  necessity  of  beating  the  clay 
shows  the  expediency  of  projecting  the  plants  but  a  very  short  way  out 
of  the  bank,  as  that  process  might  wound  and  injure  the  pomts  of  the 
stems.  Indeed,  T  would  prefer  their  being  nearly  buried  m  the  bank,  so 
as  the  young  sprouts  had  to  be  relieved  from  captivity,  rather  than  the 
points  should  be  injured  ;  but  the  force  of  vegetation  generally  accom- 
plishes their  release  with  ease.  While  the  two  assistants  are  prepanng 
the  cord  for  another  stretch,  and  rutting  off  both  sides  of  the  ditch  the 
hedger  pushes  back  2  or  3  inches,  less  or  more,  of  the  crest  of  the  bank 
\vith  his  shovel,  in  wder  to  make  the  finished  top  parallel  with  the  row  of 
thorns,  and  after  he  has  gently  beaten  do\\Ti  the  front  of  the  top  into  a 
rounded  form,  the  process  of  planting  thorns  is  finished.  Fig.  42  gives  an 
idea  of  a  section  of  the  whole  work  when  finished. 

Fig.  42. 

r     \    ^^^^-r'- ^ ■'^■:'"^-- "" :;/ 

V  '■' 

''/,  ^^^ ,    '  '''','        .:      '/'" 

FINISHED  HEDGK-BANK. 

(458.)  Hitherto  the  work  has  proceeded  quite  easily,  no  obstacles  hav- 
ing presented  themselves  to  frustrate  or  alter  the  original  design  of  a  level 
fence  ;  but  obstacles  are  sometimes  met  with,  and  means  should  be  used 
to  avert  or  remove  them.  The  obstacles  alluded  to  generally  consist  of 
large  stones,  unequal  gi'ound,  and  stagnant  water.  1.  Landfast  stones  are 
frequently  found  in  clayey  subsoils,  many  of  which  can  be  removed  with 
the  foot  pick,  but  some  are  so  large  and  massive  as  to  defy  removal  but 
through  the' assistance  of  gunpowder.  If  you  should  meet  with  any  such 
enorrnous  masses,  and  much  above  giound,  it  would  be  better  to  can-y  the 
hedge  with  a  sweep  past  them,  than  incur  the  trouble  and  expense  of  re 
moving  them  with  the  simplest  means.  If  they  lie  a  short  way  under  the 
thorn-bed,  but  have  plenty  of  mould  over  them,  they  will  do  no  harm  to 
the  hedge  above  them ;  but  should  the  earth  be  scanty  over  them,  it  will 
be  proper  to  make  the  earth  deep  enough  for  thorns  above  them,  if  that 
can  be  easily  done,  even  although  an  elevation  be  thereby  caused  there, 
above  the  general  line  of  hedge.  2.  With  regard  to  inequality  of  surface, 
when  the  ground  dips  in  the  direction  of  the  hedge,  and  yet  when  particu- 
lar undulations  in  it  are  so  deep  and  high  as  to  prevent  the  flow  of  water 
over  them  in  the  ditch,  the  higher  parts  should  be  cut  the  deeper  and  the 
hollow  parts  the  less,  so  as  a  continuous  fall  may  be  obtained  for  the  flow 
of  the  water  along  the  bottom  of  the  ditch ;  but  the  line  of  the  hedge 
should  be  placed  on  the  natural  surface  of  the  gi-ound,  and  thereby  partake 
of  its  undulations.  It  is  in  such  cases  of  compromise  that  the  supera- 
bundant earth  should  be  wheeled  away  from  the  inordinate  depths,  to 
make  up  for  the  want  of  earth  in  the  hollows,  and  thereby  equalize  the  di- 
mensions of  the  hedge-bank.  Should  any  hollow  be  so  deep  as  that  the 
hight  on  either  side  will  not  allow  the  flow  of  water,  a  dram  should  be 
made  fi-om  the  hoUowest  part  of  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  down  the  declina- 

(429) 


238 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM — WINTER. 


tion  of  the  adjoining  field  to  some  ditch  or  drain  aheady  existing  at  a 
lower  level.  3.  Undulations  of  the  ground  cause  another  inconvenience 
in  hedge-plantin<^,  by  retaining  vi'ater  in  the  hollows  behind  the  hedge- 
bank.  Such  collections  of  water,  though  only  of  temporary  existence,  in- 
jure much  any  hedge,  but  especially  a  young  one.  The  only  effectual 
way  of  getting  rid  of  them  is  fortunately  a  simple  one,  which  is  by  con- 
structing a  conduit  through  the  hedge-bank  from  each  such  hollow  to  the 
bottom  of  the  ditch  ;  and  as  these  conduits  must  be  founded  upon  the  sub- 
soil, completely  under  the  black  mould,  and  a  little  above  the  bottom  of 
the  ditch,  they  are  most  conveniently  built  after  the  ditch  has  been  en- 
tirely dug  out ;  and  on  this  account  the  thorn-bed  cannot  be  formed  across 
these  hollows  until  after  the  completion  of  the  ditch  and  hedge-bank  on 
both  sides  of  them.  Some  taste  and  dexterity  are  required  in  the  hedger 
to  fill  up  the  gaps  thus  left  in  the  planting  of  the  hedge  and  finishing  them 
neatly  afterward.     Fig.  43  will  give  you  an  idea  how  to  overcome  the  in- 

Fig.  43. 


PLAN  HOW  TO  PREVENT  WATER  LODGING  IN  HOLLOWS  OF  FENCES. 

convenience  created  by  these  hollows,  where  a  is  the  line  of  hedge  upon 
the  natural  surface  of  the  undulating  gi-ound,  h  the  top  of  the  hedge-bank 
parallel  to  the  hedge,  c  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  exposed  to  view  by  the 
entire  removal  of  the  gi'ound  on  this  side  of  the  ditch,  and  which  removal 
also  shows  the  positions  of  the  conduits  d,  which  carry  the  stagnant  water 
away  from  behind  the  hedge-bank  through  below  the  hedge  in  the  lowest 
part  of  the  undulations  of  the  ground,  and  it  also  shows  the  position  of 
the  drain  c  through  the  adjacent  ground.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  bot- 
t(>m  of  the  ditch  c  is  not  quite  parallel  with  the  dotted  line  of  hedge  a,  but 
s(>  inclined  from  the  right  and  left,  through  the  bights  and  hollows  of  the 
ground,  as  to  allow  the  water  to  flow  in  a  continuous  stream  toward  the 
lowest  part  by  the  drain  e.  Fig.  42  shows  by  the  dotted  lines  d  and  f  a 
vertical  section  of  the  position  and  form  of  the  conduits  formed  across  anci 
below  the  hedge-bed.  The  ground  behind  the  hedge-bank  is  represented 
in  fig.  43  as  declining  toward  the  hedge,  thereby  giving  a  fall  to  the  sur- 
face water  in  the  same  direction.  To  give  such  water  an  outlet,  a  drain 
should  be  formed  along  the  head-ridge  2  or  3  yards  behind  the  hedge- 
bank,  so  as  to  be  a  little  out  of  the  way  of  the  roots  of  the  thorns  when 
they  push  outward,  and  in  connection  with  all  the  conduits  d.  This  drain 
should  have  a  conduit  at  bottom  such  as  drain-tiles  afford,  and  be  filled 
above  them  with  broken  stones  to  about  1  foot  from  the  top. 

(459.)  In  ordinary  practice,  when  two  lines  of  hedges  meet,  the  one  ter- 
minates against  the  other,  or,  crossing  each  other,  foirn  a  junction  of  4  fields 
by  the  corners  ;  and  where  this  latter  junction  happens,  should  the  land  be 
not  of  much  value,  or  should  the  particular  situation  be  much  exposed  to 

(430) 


PLANTING  OF  THORN-HEDGES. 


239 


the  weather  from  an  obnoxious  quarter,  it  may  be  advisable  to  make  a 
clump  of  planting  of  a  stellar  form.  It  is  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to 
ascertain  what  quantity  of  ground  can  be  conveniently  spared  for  the  pur- 
pose ;  and  that  should  be  determined  by  the  value  of  the  ground,  or  its 
exposed  situation.  If  the  land  is  valuable;  a  smaller  piece  must  suffice ; 
but  if  shelter  only,  and  not  ornament,  is  the  chief  requisite,  then  a  larger 
piece  should  be  appropriated  ;  but  whatever  may  be  the  object  of  forming 
such  a  clump  of  planting,  it  is  not  worth  while  to  inclose  a  smaller  space 
of  ground  than  \  of  an  acre,  and  the  largest  need  not  exceed  1  acre  in  ihe 
low  country.  Supposing  the  space  is  determined  on,  the  inclosure  of  it  is 
gone  about  in  this  manner.  Ascertain  the  point  where  the  two  lines  of 
hedges  would  intersect,  and  fix  a  pole  there,  as  at  a,  fig.  44 ;  and  from  it 

Fig.  44. 


MODES  OF  DESCRIBING  A  CURVE  IN  THE  CORNERS  OF  FIELDS. 

m-easure  equal  distances  with  a  chain  along  each  line  of  fence  to  the  points 
within  which  is  to  be  included  the  space  of  ground  allotted  for  the  plant- 
ing, as  from  a  to  b,  a  to  c,  a  to  d,  and  a  to  e.  Then  there  are  3  ways  of 
describing  an  arc  between  any  two  of  these  outward  points.  1.  Taking 
the  distance  a  b  from  i  as  a  center,  sweep  an  arc,  and  from  c  as  a  center, 
with  the  same  radius,  sweep  another  arc  intersecting  that  from  Z»  in  y / 
and  then  from  y  as  a  center,  still  with  the  same  radius,  sweep  the  arc  c  b. 
In  like  manner  an  arc  of  the  same  radius  may  be  swept  betwixt  c  and  d, 
d  and  e,  and  e  and  b.  This  rule  gives  no  predetermined  arch,  but  it  is  one 
which  presents  a  pleasant  curve  to  the  eye.  2.  Another  plan  is  to  fix  the 
hight  of  the  segment  which  determines  the  point,  beyond  which  the  hedge 
shall  not  approach  toward  a.  This  is  done  by  at  once  fixing  the  point  g, 
which  gives  3  points,  d,  g,  and  c,  by  which  to  find  the  center  of  the  circle 
e  d.  Join  g  d,  which  bisect,  and  from  the  point  of  bisection  raise  a  per- 
pendicular ;  also  join  g  c,  which  bisect,  and  from  the  point  of  bisection 
raise  a  perpendicular,  and  where  these  two  perpendiculars  intersect  at  k 
as  a  center,  sweep  the  arc  d  c.  This  rule  is  founded  on  the  corollary  to 
the  1st  problem  of  the  3d  book  of  Euclid.*  A  simple  rule  which  practical 
gardeners  employ  in  drawing  one  line  at  right  angles  to  another  is  this  : 

*  See  Duncan's  Elements  of  Plane  Geometry. 
(431) 


240 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


From  the  point  of  bisection,  as  above,  measure  6  feet  along  the  lino  to- 
ward c  or  i!,  from  the  same  point  also  measure  outward  8  feet;  from  the 
farther  end  of  the  6  feet  measure  10  feet,  toward  the  end  of  the  8  feet,  and 
where  these  two  lines  meet,  that  is  the  point  in  a  pei-pendicular  direction 
from  the  point  of  bisection,  and  a  line  through  which,  meeting  a  pei-pen- 
dicular  fiom  the  other  point  of  bisection,  intersect  at  the  center  Ji  of  the 
circle  d  c.  This  rule  is  directly  founded  on  the  celebrated  47th  proposi- 
tion of  the  1st  book  of  Euclid.  3.  There  is  still  another  method  of  draw- 
ing what  may  be  called  a  compound  cui-\'e  through  two  given  extreme 
points,  and  other  fixed  points  between  them.  The  method  is  this.  Let  d 
and  e  be  the  teiTninations  of  the  straight  lines  of  the  fences  d  and  e,  and  I 
a  point  in  the  intended  curve  any  where  beyond  the  straight  line  between 
d  and  e,  and  equidistant  from  d  and  e,  but  within  a  quadrant  of  the  two 
lines  of  fence ;  then  set  off  any  point  i  also  equidistant  fiom  d  and  c,  and 
join  i  I ;  from  any  point  on  the  line  /  /,  describe  an  arc  of  such  radius  as 
shall  pass  through  I,  but  will  fall  anywhere  beyond  d  and  e.  Draw  d  o  at 
right  angles  to  the  fence  d,  and  make  d  o  equal  to  i  I,  then  find  a  point  p 
on  the  line  d  o  equidistant  fi'om  o  and  i.  Join  i  ji,  and  produce  it  to  A-,  and 
from  ^  as  a  center  describe  the  arc  d  k.  For,  d  o  and  ^  k  being  equal,  and 
p  0,  p  i  being  also  equal,  the  remaining^  d  &nd^  k  must  be  equal  to  one 
another  and  i  ]>  k  being  in  a  straight  line,  the  circle  of  which  r^  ^  is  an  arc, 
will  touch  the  larger  circle,  of  which  k  m  is  also  an  arc,  according  to  Eu- 
clid, 3d  book,  11  prob.  In  like  manner,  the  arc  e  m  can  be  described  by 
first  drawing  e  n,  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  fence  e,  and  proceed  as  be- 
fore. If  the  lines  of  fence  run  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  the  arcs  d  k 
and  e  m  will  have  equal  radii.  This  is,  perhaps,  too  intricate  a  mode  of 
drawing  such  cui-\'es  for  practical  pui-poses,  but  it  is  well  that  your  inge- 
nuity be  exercised  in  every  possible  way,  so  as  you  may  never  be  at  a  loss 
to  apply  expedients  according  to  circumstances. 

(460.)  A  very  common  practice — a  much  too  common  one — and  recom- 
mended by  almost  every  wiiter  on  planting  hedges,  is  the  leaving  a  broad 
scarsement  in  front  of  the  thorn-bed ;  and  the  reason  given  for  adopting 
the  plan  is,  that  it  is  necessary  to  supply  the  young  thorns  with  moisture. 

Fig.  45. 


EFFECT  OF  A  HEDGE-BANK  WITH  SCARSEMENT. 


It  is  alleged  that  the  sloping  face  of  the  bank  conveys  away  the  rain  that 
falls.  What  although  it  doesi  The  young  thorn  does  not  require  to  im- 
bibe moisture  by  the  point  of  its  stem,  but  by  its  roots,  which  it  can  easily 
do  through  the  mound,  as  it  is  loose  enough  for  the  admission  of  rain. — 

(432) 


PLANTING  OF  THORN-HEDGES.  241 


But,  independently  of  that,  it  is  obvious  that  a  scarsement  is  so  excellent 
a  contrivance  for  the  growth  of  weeds,  that  it  is  impossible  to  clean  a  hedge 
well  where  there  is  one.  To  be  sure,  earth  from  the  bottom  of  the  ditch 
may  occasionally  be  thrown  upon  the  scarsement  to  smother  the  weeds, 
but  its  accumulation  there  must  be  limited  to  the  hight  of*  the  thorn-bed. 
Besides,  weeds  can  grow  as  well  upon  this  eatth  as  upon  the  scarsement ; 
and,  though  they  may  there  be  mown  down  at  times,  the  roots  of  the  pe- 
rennial ones  are  quite  ready  to  spring  up  again  in  favorable  weather.  The 
very  figure  which  a  thorn-hedge  cuts  on  a  scarsement  will  at  once  show 
the  impolicy  of  placing  it  in  such  a  position.  Thus,  in  the  first  place,  in 
fig.  A5~a  is  the  scarsement,  on  which  there  is  nothing  to  hinder  the  weeds 
b  to  grow  in  great  luxuriance,  vying  in  stature  and  strength  with  the  young 
plant  c  itself.  How  true  that  there  "  nothing  teems  but  hateful  docks, 
rough  thistles,  kicksies,  burs,  losing  both  beauty  and  utility ;  and  our 
hedges,  defective  in  their  natures,  grow  to  wildness."*  How  is  it  possible 
in  such  a  nursery  to  "deracinate  such  savagery]"  In  the  next  place, 
such  a  scarsement  holds  out  a  strong  temptation  to  travelers  to  make  it  a 
foot-path,  so  long  as  the  hedge  is  young,  and  when  it  is  situated  by  the 
side  of  a  public  road.  And  it  invites  the  poor  woman's  cow,  pasturing  on 
the  green  road-side,  to  step  upon  it  and  crop  the  tops  of  the  young  hedge 
along  with  the  grassy  weeds  ;  and  it  makes  an  excellent  run  for  hares,  in 
the  moonlight  nights,  on  passing  along  which  they  will  not  fail  to  nibble 
at  the  young  quicks.  "  Fern  is  a  great  enemy  to  young  hedge-plants," 
says  Mr.  Marshall ;  "  it  is  difficult  to  be  drawn  by  hand  without  endanger- 
ing the  plants ;  and,  being  tough,  it  is  equally  diflftcult  to  cut  it  with  the 
hoe  ;  and,  if  cut,  will  presently  spring  up  again  ;"  and  yet,  "  in  a  soil  free 
from  stones  and  other  obstructions  of  the  spade,"  he  says,  "  the  planting 
vnth  an  offset  (scarsement)  is  perhaps,  upon  the  whole,  the  most  eligible 
practice."t  Where  can  fern  obtain  a  better  site  for  gi-owing  upon  than  a 
scarsement  of  a  young  hedge  1  Such  are  the  inconsistencies  into  which 
the  acutest  writers  fall  when  they  relinquish  the  guidance  of  common 
sense, 

(461.)  Where  part  of  a  hedge  is  desired  to  be  carried  across  a  water- 
course, an  arch  or  large  conduit  is  often  made  to  span  it,  and  its  sides  are 
banked  up  with  sods  or  earth,  and  a  quantity  of  mould  wheeled  upon  it, 
to  form  the  thorn-bed.  I  have  seen  such  structures,  but  do  not  approve 
of  them.  If  the  nature  of  the  ground  will  at  all  admit  of  it,  it  is  far  better 
to  plant  the  thorns  on  the  surface  of  the  natural  ground,  as  near  as  possi- 
ble to  the  water-mark,  when  the  water  is  flooded.  The  water-channel, 
which  will  probably  be  dry  in  summer,  when  the  fields  are  only  used  for 
stock,  could  be  fenced  with  paling,  or,  what  is  a  much  better  fence  in  such 
a  situation,  a  stone-wall,  if  stones  can  be  procured  at  a  reasonable  distance, 
with  openings  left  in  it  to  allow  the  water  to  pass  through  in  winter. — 
These  openings  could  be  filled  up  in  summer  with  a  few  thorns,  to  keep 
in  sheep.  This  latter  plan  is  a  much  better  one  than  the  other,  for  I  have 
found  that  hedge-banks  on  a  stone-building  do  not  retain  sufficient  nourish- 
ment in  summer  to  support  even  young  thorn-plants. 

(462.)  If  it  is  desired  to  plant  a  thorn-hedge  on  the  top  of  a  sunk  fence, 
or  along  the  edge  of  a  walk  by  the  side  of  a  shrubbery,  or  to  inclose  a 
shrubbery  or  a  clump  of  trees  in  pleasure-ground  or  lawn,  the  plants  may 
be  assorted  and  prepared  as  directed  above ;  but  instead  of  raising  a 
mound,  which  in  such  situations  would  not  look  well,  trench  a  stripe  of 
ground  with  the  spade,  in  the  intended  line  of  the  hedge,  at  least  3  feet  irf 

*  Shakepeare's  Henry  V.  t  Marshall  on  Planting. 

(481) 16 


242  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

breadth,  pointing  in  dung  and  raking  in  lime  in  adequate  quantities  some 
time  before  the  time  for  planting.  When  that  time  arrives,  stretch  the 
cord  in  the  middle  of  the  stripe,  guiding  the  curves  with  the  wooden  pins. 
First,  smoothen  the  surface  of  the  ground  under  the  cord  with  a  clap  of 
the  spade,  and  then  notch  deeply  with  it  by  the  side  of  the  cord,  drawing 
the  earth  toward  you.  Into  this  fun'ow  carefully  place  the  roots  and 
fibres  of  the  thoni-})lants,  with  their  cut  stems  leaning  against  the  cord ; 
and  thus,  keeping  the  plants  in  their  places  with  the  left  hand,  fill  up  the 
funow  with  earth  with  a  trowel  in  the  right  hand.  Press  the  plants  firmly 
against  the  earth  with  the  outside  of  the  foot  placed  in  a  line  with  the 
stems,  and  make  the  surface  level  with  the  spade.  After  the  removal  of 
the  cord,  press  the  ground  with  the  row  of  thorns  between  your  feet,  and 
finish  off  the  work  with  the  rake.  In  planting  ornamental  hedges,  you 
should  always  bear  in  mind  that,  for  whatever  pui-pose  a  hedge  may  be 
wanted,  the  thorns  should  always  be  planted  on  the  natural  surface  of  the 
ground;  for,  if  set  in  traveled  earth,  unless  it  is  of  considerable  bulk  and 
depth,  they  run  the  risk  of  either  being  stunted  in  growth,  or  of  altogether 
dying  for  want  of  nourishment. 

(463.)  In  setting  poles  for  straight  lines,  ordinary  accuracy  of  eye  will 
suffice ;  but  in  setting  them  in  curves,  where  geometrical  ones  cannot  be 
introduced,  considerable  taste  is  required  by  the  planner.  Such  cui'\'es  can 
only  be  formed  by  setting  up  large  pins,  and  judge  of  their  beauty  by  the 
eye,  so  that  the  sweeps  may  appear  naturally  to  accommodate  themselves 
to  the  inequalities  of  the  ground,  and  form,  on  the  whole,  a  suitable  figure 
for  the  purpose  they  are  intended  to  serve.  Curves  in  fields  should  always 
be  made  conformable  to  the  plowing  of  the  adjoining  land  ;  for,  if  such 
adaptation  is  not  attended  to,  land  may  be  lost  to  tillage  in  the  depth  or 
acuteness  of  the  curves.  After  the  large  pins  are  set  to  show  the  general 
form  of  a  long  cun^e,  or  series  of  long  curves,  smaller  ones  should  be  em- 
ployed to  fill  up  the  segments  between  the  larger,  and  the  cord  then 
stretched  by  the  side  of  all  the  pins,  and  the  beautiful  sweep  of  the  curve 
carefully  preserved  by  the  small  pins  with  the  hooked  heads.  If  a  curved 
ditch  is  required,  the  rutting  of  the  breadth  of  the  ditch,  as  also  the  making 
of  the  thorn-bed,  should  follow  the  cord  in  its  curved  position  ;  but  gieat 
care  is  required  to  preserve  the  two  sides  of  a  curved  ditch  parallel,  for  if 
the  cross-headed  wooden  rule  is  not  held  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the 
hedge,  at  every  point  where  the  breadth  of  the  ditch  is  measured  off — that 
is,  if  the  cross-head  is  not  held  as  a  tangent  to  each  particular  curve — the 
breadth  of  the  ditch  will  vary  considerably  in  different  places,  and,  of 
course,  the  ditch  will  there  present  a  twist.  There  is  no  error  into  which 
laborers  are  so  apt  to  fall  as  this  :  they  measure,  without  thinking  of  the 
consequences,  at  any  angle  across  the  ditch  ;  but  they  should  be  taught  to 
avoid  it,  because,  if  not  rectified  in  time,  it  will  deprive  the  hedge-bank 
of  essential  covenng  at  certain  places,  on  account  of  the  ditch  being  twist- 
ed into  broad  and  narrow  portions. 

(464.)  Whore  tnif  is  plentiful,  it  may  be  employed  in  this  way  to  fence  at  once  one  side 
of  a  hedge.  Let  n.  fig.  4fi,  he  the  tmf  wall  4  feet  high,  18  inches  broad  at  the  base,  and  1 
foot  at  the  top,  co[)ed  witii  a  large  turf;  h  the  stuff  thrown  out  of  the  ditch  c,  and  inclined 
upward  toward  the  top  of  the  wall.  For  keeping  in  Clieviot  or  Black-faced  slieep,  or  cattle, 
a  stJike  and  single  rail  of  paling  d,  will  be  recpiired  on  the  top,  but  not  for  Leicester  sheep. 
In  Norfolk,  a  high  bank  is  thrown  up,  without  a  wall,  from  (5  to  7  feet  in  hight  from  the 
bottom  of  the  ditch,  and  the  thorn-plants  are  set  into  it  as  at  b,  fig.  46,  among  the  crude  earth 
taken  out  of  the  bottom  of  the  ditcli.  As  might  be  expected  in  such  a  plan,  it  is  no  uncom- 
mon sight  in  that  county  to  see  the  face  of  the  bank,  with  the  quicks  in  it,  washed  down  by 
beating  rains;  and  as  the  roots,  enlarge  and  the  bank  moulders  down,  the  yoinig  ])lantshang 
their  heads  downward  upon  the  face  of  the  bank.  The  reason  assigned  for  the  adoption  of 
this  objectionable  practice  is,  that  there  is  no  wood  in  that  county  to  form  temporary  fences 
(482) 


PLANTING   OF  THORN-HEDGES. 


243 


until  the  thorns  shall  grow,  and  that  being  set  upon  the  top  of  a  steep  bank,  they  are  out  of 
the  reach  of  cattle  at  the  bottom  of  the  ditch.  Even  with  a  wall  like  a,  fig.  46,  thorns  at  h 
wiU  never  grow  so  vigorously  as  when  placed  at  e ;  and  in  dry  weather  they  are  soon  stinted 


Fig.  46. 


TURF  FENCE   TO   A  THORN-HEDGE. 


of  moisture.  Where  flat  stones  are  plentiful,  a  good  sheltering  fence  may  be  formed  by  in- 
closing a  space  of  a  few  feet  in  breadth  between  two  walls,  and  on  filling  it  with  earth,  an 
upright  hedge  may  be  planted  in  it,  where  it  wiU  thrive  veiy  well.  Such  fences  mav  be 
seen  in  Devonshire,  where  flat  stones  from  the  primitive  clay-slate  formations  are  obtained 
in  abundance.  In  connection  with  the  mode  of  fencing  considered  in  this  paragraph  is  one 
recommended  of  building  a  2^  feet  wall  on  ike  top  of  the  bank  behind  the  hedge  which  had 
been  throwTi  out  of  the  ditch,  and  to  make  its  coping  of  trnf.  There  are  objections  to  this 
plan ;  in  the  first  place,  a  turf  coping  on  a  stone  wall  never  grows  well,  and  in  consequence, 
turf  soon  becomes /Ae re  an  eyesore.  In  the  next  place,  a  wall  founded  on  earth  that  has 
been  throvvni  out  of  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  will  not  remain  even  but  a  very  short  time,  on 
account  of  the  unequal  subsidence  of  the  earth,  and  the  consequent  sinking  of  the  stones.  A 
3  feet  stone  wall,  founded  upon  the  hai-d  ground,  on  the  site  of  the  tiu-f-wall  a  in  fig.  46, 
with  a  single  railed  paling  raised  behuid  it,  until  the  hedge  get  up,  would  make  a  far  better 
fence  both  for  sheep  and  cattle.  Another  mode  of  planting  a  thom-hedge  is  to  build  a  stone 
wall  as  at  a,  fig.  46,  in  which  are  left  holes,  about  the  position  where  the  letter  a  is  sitaate 
in  the  figure,  through  which  the  thorns  grow  which  have  been  planted  in  the  bank  of  earth 
b.  This  is  also  an  objectionable  mode,  inasmuch  as  the  plants,  whose  roots  are  ramifying  iu 
the  bank  b,  have  no  support  from  that  portion  of  the  stem  which  has  to  gi-ow  in  a  horizontal 
direction  through  the  holes  of  the  wall,  and  the  consequence  is,  that  the  leverage  of  the  part 
of  the  stem  which  grows  upright  in  the  face  of  the  wall  is  apt  to  shake  the  roots, 
and  should  the  horizontal  portion  of  the  stem  rest  for  support  upon  the  wall  within  the  h  e, 
its  weight  and  motion  soon  bring  down  the  wall,  if  it  is  constructed  of  dry  stones,  or  shatter 
it,  if  built  with  mortar  Thorios  have  been  recommended  to  be  planted  at  the  bottom  of  a 
wall,  as  of  a,  fig.  46,  ^^'ith  no  bank  such  as  b  near  it,  but  having  the  ditch  c  before  it  as  a 
fence  to  the  hedge,  with  a  paluig  on  its  hp.  If  a  stone  wall  is  buUt  in  such  a  situation,  there 
seems  no  use  at  all  of  the  hedge  as  a  fence,  and  if  a  turf  one,  then  surely  thorns  will  thrive 
much  better  with  a  bank  of  earth  behind  them,  such  as  b,  than  at  the  bottom  of  a  turf  wall. 


Note — On  Shelters. — The  employment  of  artificial  shelters,  in  fields,  for  plants,  and  treea^ 
and  animals,  is  carried  to  a  degree  of  expense,  if  not  of  refinement,  in  England,  which  is  not 
likely  to  be  extensively  imitated  in  this  country.  Pig.  35  represents  the  form  of  such  shelters 
better  than  words  could  well  do  it. 

Not  only  all  along  the  sea-board  of  Long  Island,  but  more  or  less  along  all  our  whole  sea-coast, 
fruit  anA  other  trees  are  liab'.e  to  be  blasted  and  rendered  unproductive  by  the  strong  blasts  which 
strike  them  after  acquiring  a  powerful  momentum  in  sweeping  over  the  ocean. 

The  wall  and  the  wood  on  the  inside  and  near  to  it  are  of  the  same  hight,  but,  still  farther  m, 
the  wood  rises  considerably  higher,  owing  to  the  peculiar  form  of  the  cope  of  the  wall  and  the 
(483) 


344 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


shape  of  the  wall  itself,  being  like  an  isoceles  triangle — when  the  wind  strikes  its  side,  it  is  re- 
flected upward  into  the  air,  at  the  same  angle. 

Where  such  shelters  can  be  provided,  they  are  decidedly  usefal — as  all  must  have  perceived 
the  difference,  in  early  spring,  between  the  advance  of  vegetation  on  the  south  and  the  north  side 
of  every  inclosnre.  Even  common  garden  walls  in  this  way  afford  opportunities  of  making  beds 
for  early  plants,  of  lettuce,  cabbage,  radishes,  and  other  vegetables.  [Ed.  Farm.  Lib 


Fig.  35. 


(484) 


THE  PLOW.  245 


23.  THE  PLOW. 

"  Howsoever  any  plow  be  made  or  fashioned,  so  it  be  well  tempered,  it  may  the 
better  be  suffered."  Fitzherbekt. 

(465.)  The  plow  serves  the  same  purpose  to  the  fanner  as  the  spade 
to  the  gardener,  both  being  used  to  turn  over  the  soil  and  the  object  of 
doing  this  is,  that  this  form  of  operation  is  the  only  means  known  of  obtain- 
ing such  a  command  over  the  soil  as  to  render  it  friable  and  inclose  ma- 
nure within  it,  so  that  the  seeds  sown  into  it  may  grow  into  a  crop  of  the 
gi'eatest  perfection.* 

[*  VVhat  we  may  lack,  if  any,  of  approbation  from  the  farmer,  we  shall  make  np  in  the  ap 
proval  we  challenge  from  the  plow-maker,  for  the  adoption  of  all  that  is  said  by  the  author  in 
hand  in  respect  of  an  implement  which  is  almost  as  indispensable  in  the  manufacture  of  crops  as 
the  stones  in  the  mill  for  manufacturing  the  wheat  into  flour.  As  of  all  implements  the  plow  is 
the  most  efficient  and  labor-saving,  so  on  none  has  the  ingenuity  of  the  farmer  and  the  machinist 
been  so  much  exercised.  It  would  be  hazardous  to  say,  that  it  has  been  pushed  to  its  ne  plus 
vltra,  and  that  nothing  now  remains  but  to  remove  the  animal  and  hitch  on  steam  power ;  but  it 
is  not  easy  to  imagine  what  desideratum  remains  to  be  supplied  in  the  construction  of  the  plow. 
Instead,  however,  of  suppressing  anything  in  the  Book  of  the  Farm,  we  prefer  rather  to  super- 
add what  we  find  on  the  subject  in  a  very  elaborate  essay  on  the  Agriculture  of  Norfolk,  Eng- 
land, to  which  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  lately  awarded  a  high  prize,  and  paid  the  compli- 
ment of  publishing  it  separately,  in  extenso,  with  all  its  illustrations.  Among  these  ave  the  rep- 
resentations of  the  prize  plow,  which  will  also  be  found  at  the  end  of  this  chapter,  although  we 
do  not  perceive  any  essential  difference  from  or  improvement  upon  the  Mid-Lothian  plow  given 
by  Stephens,  the  plate  of  which  accompanied  our  last  number,  and  which  is  described  in  this  one. 

To  go  back,  as  our  author  does,  and  bring  up  the  history  of  its  progress  to  its  present  excellence 
of  construction,  from  the  rude  implement  in  use  by  the  Romans,  will  need  no  justification  to  the  re- 
flecting mind,  ready  as  all  such  minds  will  be  to  draw  from  it  the  proud  conclusion  that  the  march 
of  improvement  has  been  from  as  humble  beginnings  to  ashighreachings  in  Agriculture  as  in  other 
arts.  Neither  can  it  fail  to  inspire  the  hope  that  much  more  may  yet  be  achieved  in  other  departments 
if  not  in  this.  None  in  fact  is  yet  closed  to  the  career  of  improvement  in  the  estimation  of  those 
who  are  animated  by  that  spirit  for  going  ahead,  without  which  no  melioration  would  occur  in 
any  branch  of  human  industry.  The  French  Vigneron,  wlio,  better  than  any  one  else  under- 
stands the  culture  of  the  vine,  says  that  after  ages  of  observation,  the  art  of  adapting  each  par- 
ticular species  of  vine  to  the  soil  most  congenial  to  its  culture,  is  yet  in  its  ivfancy  !  Let  us 
think  so  of  everjthing  while  to  improve  remains  even  barely  possible  ! 

It  may  here  be  mentioned  as  a  curious  fact  that  President  Jefferson's  explanation  and  diagrams 
to  illustrate  them,  on  the  principles  of  mechanical  philo.sophy  involved  in  the  structure  of  plows, 
and  especially  in  their  mould  boards,  have  been  referred  to  and  quoted  by  writers  of  the  highest 
authority  on  that  subject  in  Europe.  It  is  no  less  curious,  that  his  son-in-law,  Governor  Ran- 
dolph, a  man  of  genius,  has  the  credit  of  being  the  inventor  of  the  hill-side  plow,  with  a  shifling 
mould-board.  In  Mississippi  and  the  South,  where  lands  seem  to  be  peculiarly  subject  to  injury 
by  washing,  owing,  perhaps,  to  the  suddenness  and  violence  of  their  showers,  hill-side  plowing 
is  very  extensively  practiced,  and  with  great  skill  and  dexterity,  by  negro  plowmen,  as  any  one 
may  see  at  Mr.  TumbuU's,  near  Bayou  Sara  and  other  places.  There,  on  lands  very  slightly  un- 
dulating, may  be  found  very  perfect  and  beautiful  specimens  of  this  conservative  process. 

From  the  "  Prize  Report "  on  Norfolk  Agriculture. 
There  is  perhaps  no  implement  which  has  undergone  more  improvement  or  more  variation 
than  the  plow  ;  and  a  glance  at  the  catalogues  which  of  late  years  have  emanated  from  the  most 
celebrated  implement-makers,  will  prove  of  how  vast  importance  it  has  been  considered  to  ob- 
tain such  a  construction  that  while  lightness  and  stiffness  were  insured,  vibration  in  the  beam 
should  be  avoided,  and  a  perfect  action  with  economy  of  power,  or  a  diminution  of  resistance 
should  be  secured,  for  from  such  a  combination  true  work  can  alone  result.  To  obtain  these 
(485) 


246 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


(466.)  The  spade  is  an  implement  so  simple  in  consti-uction,  that  there 
seems  but  one  way  of  using  it,  whatever  peculiarity  of  form  it  may  re- 
ceive, namely,  that  of  pushing  its  mouth  or  blade  into  the  ground  with  the 

great  desiderata,  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  groat  objcctB  with  Messrs.  Ransome,  for  from 
DO  foundry  has  ever  been  seen  a  greater  number  of  these  implements,  or  which  combined  in  a 
lUrger  extent  tlicse  leading  points  ;  but  in  every  case  exhibiting  the  thought  and  skill  from  which 
they  had  proceeded.  The  Reports  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  demonstrate  the  estimation 
in  which  these  progressive  improvements  have  been  held.  It  was,  however,  reserved  for  these 
manufacturers  to  exhibit,  at  the  Southampton  meeting  of  the  year  1844,  a  new  plow,  which 
proved  it-self  equally  well  adapted  for  light  and  heavy  soils.  This  implement  was  chiefly  novel 
in  its  material,  and  formation  of  the  handles  and  beam.  These  are  constructed  of  the  best 
wrought  iron,  combining  lightness  with  adequate  strength.  The  beams  are  made  on  the  "truss 
principle  " — that  is,  connecting  tlie  two  sides  together  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  thorn  from 
giving  way  to  any  amount  of  force,  on  whichever  side  it  may  be  applied.  The  other  new  point 
is  the  mode  of  fastening  the  coulter,  which  facilitates  its  being  placed  in  any  new  position  with 
rapidity  and  ease.  The  following  cut  exhibits  the  figure  of  the  prize  implement,  eitlier  with  two 
or  one  wheel,  and  a.s  a  swing  plow. 


Wo  had  seen  the  plow  at  work  at  Mr.  Henry  Overman's,  of  Weasenham,  in  the  autumn  oi 
1843,  and  the  opinion  of  the  judges  at  Southampton  has  fully  borne  out  the  high  opinion  that 
a  practical  farmer  gave  us  of  its  capability  and  excellence. 

Among  the  implements  of  late  invention  which  have  deservedly  obtained  the  inventor  great 
credit,  and  from  their  utility  liave  come  into  consfderable  u.sc — one  more  particularly  than  the 
other — are  the  subsoil  and  subturf  plows,  the  invention  of  Sir  Edwakd  Stacey,  of  Rackheath 
Hall,  Norfolk.  Although  the.se  implements  are  .10  well  known,  yet  any  report  of  Norfolk  Agri- 
culture would  be  incomplete  were  cither  a  notice  or  a  sketch  of  one  of  them  omitted.  Their  ef- 
fects have  been  found  most  beneficial  on  many  soils,  whore  the  natural  tenacity  is  increased  by  a 
hard  substratum.  On  one  farm  where  the  land  was  subject  to  sutTcr  from  the  rains  in  the  autumn, 
the  subsoil  plow  was  passed  up  the  furrows  on  a  turnip  fallow  previous  to  the  autumn  plowing. 
The  effect  was  to  free  the  land  from  a  more  than  ordinary  quantity  of  moisture  which  happened 
(486) 


THE  PLOW.  247 


foot,  lifting  up  as  much  earth  with  it  as  it  can  carry,  and  then  inverting  it 
so  completely  as  to  put  the  upper  part  of  the  earth  undermost.  This  op- 
eration, called  digging,  may  be  done  in  the  most  pei-fect  manner  ;  and 
any  attempt  at  improving  it,  in  so  far  as  its  uniformly  favorable  results  are 
concerned,  seems  unnecessary.  Hitherto  it  has  only  been  used  by  the 
hand,  no  means  having  yet  been  devised  to  supply  gi-eater  power  than 
human  strength  to  wield  it.  It  is  thus  an  instrument  which  is  entirely 
under  man's  personal  control. 

(467.)  The  effect  attempted  to  be  produced  on  the  soil  by  the  ^Zo^^?  is 
an  exact  imitation  of  the  work  of  the  spade.  From  the  circumstance,  how- 
ever, of  the  plow  being  too  large  and  heavy  an  implement  to  be  wielded 
by  the  hand,  it  is  not  so  entirely  under  man's  control  as  the  spade.  To 
wield  it  as  it  should  be,  he  is  obliged  to  call  in  the  aid  of  horses,  which, 
though  not  capable  of  wielding  it  personally,  as  "man  does  the  spade,  can, 
nevertheless,  through  the  means  of  appropriate  appliances,  such  as  har- 
ness, do  so  pretty  effectually.  It  is  thus  not  so  much  man  himself  as  the 
horses  which  he  employs  that  turn  over  the  ground  with  the  plow,  they, 
in  a  great  measure,  becoming  his  substitutes  in  performing  that  operation  ; 
and  they  are  so  far  his  superiors,  that  they  can  turn  over  a  greater  quan- 
tity of  the  soil  with  the  plow  in  a  given  time  than  he  can  with  the  spade. 
Man,  however,  has  this  advantage  over  horses  in  turning  over  the  soil,  that  he 
can  do  it  well  with  a  very  simple  instrument — the  spade  ;  whereas  horses 
require  an  instrument  of  more  complex  structure — the  plow — to  perform 
the  same  sort  of  work  not  so  well ;  and  the  reason  is  this,  that  although 
the  spade  is  really  a  very  simple  instrument,  the  act  of  digging  with  it  is 

to  fall  that  year,  and  to  benefit  materially  the  following  crop  of  turnips.  Sir  Edward  has  already 
described  the  utility  of  the  former  upon  the  heath-land  attached  to  his  estate,  as  well  as  the  im- 
provement of  his  park  by  the  subturf  plow,  in  the  journals  of  the  Society 


A  practice  has  lately  become  very  prevalent  in  some  parts  of  the  county,  to  lay  the  furrows 
in  one  direction.  This  method,  if  it  should  be  found  advantageous,  will  be  greatly  aided  by 
Lowcock's  new  plow.  This  gentleman  is  a  farmer  at  Westerland,  Devon,  and  his  attention 
was  drawn  to  its  necessity  by  having  found  that  great  injury  was  sustained  in  his  neighborhood 
by  the  currents  of  air  drawn  up  the  furrows  when  the  land  was  either  ridged  or  thrown  into 
stetches.  When  the  land  is  laid  in  one  plain  surface,  it  is  thought  that  the  seed  can  be  more 
easily  deposited — and  that  in  rainy  seasons  it  will  ab.sorb  the  moisture  with  greater  regularity, 
and  in  a  dry  one  would  be  less  injured  by  drouth.  This  implement  seems  to  be  the  combined 
result  of  theoretical  knowledge  and  practical  experience — Mr.  Lowcock  farming  wet  soils. 
_  The  mode  of  adapting  it  to  each  furrow  is  extremely  simple.  When  the  plowman  has  ar- 
rived at  the  end  of  the  furrow,  he  directs  the  horses  round  on  the  unplowed  side  of  the  land, 
and  the  draught  chain  slides  on  a  rod  to  the  other  end.  While  they  are  moving,  he  reverses 
the  handles,  where  a  catch  drops  into  a  mortice  in  the  beam,  and  the  plow  is  again  ready. 
When  the  share  and  coulter  are  at  work  the  mould-board  flies  into  its  proper  direction,  in 
which  place  the  resistance  of  the  newly-cut  furrow  keeps  it.  Presuming  the  conjectures  as  to 
the  effect  of  such  a  system  of  plowing  to  be  correct,  this  will  become  a  very  valuable  imple- 
ment in  Norfolk.  Messrs.  Ransome  obtained  a  prize  for  it  at  Southampton.  (See  the  oppo- 
site page.) 

The  plows  in  mo.st  general  use  are  the  Norfolk  and  the  Swing  Plow,  which  have  been  ren- 
dered lighter  and  steadier  than  formerly.  There  are  none,  perhaps,  as  a  whole,  better  suited 
to  the  soil,  although  for  particular  purposes  there  are  some  superior,  the  Rutland  having  been 
found  from  its  length  of  plat  to  whelm  the  oUand  belter ;  while  the  Norfolk,  from  its  short 
breast,  lays  the  earth  looser  and  rougher  for  the  operations  of  the  winter. 
(487) 


■'W. 


THE   PLOW.  249 


not  a  simple  operation,  but  requires  every  muscle  of  the  body  to  be  put 
into  action,  so  that  any  machine  that  can  imitate  work  that  has  called  into 
requisition  all  the  muscles  of  the  body,  must  have  a  complex  structure. 
This  would  be  the  case  even  were  such  a  machine  always  fixed  to  the 
same  spot,  and,  for  such  a  purpose,  there  is  little  difficulty  in  practical  me- 
chanics in  imitating  the  work  of  man's  hands,  by  complicated  machinery; 
but  it  is  not  so  simple  a  problem  in  practical  mechanics,  as  it  at  first  sight 
may  appear,  to  construct  a  light,  strong,  durable,  convenient  instrument, 
which  is  easily  moved  about,  and  which,  at  the  same  time,  though  com- 
plex in  its  structure,  operates  by  a  simple  action ;  and  yet  the  modem 
plow  is  an  instrument  possessing  all  these  properties  in  an  eminent  degree. 

(468.)  The  common  plow  used  in  Scotland  is  made  either  wholly  of 
iron,  or  partly  of  wood  and  partly  of  iron.  Until  a  few  years  ago  it  was 
universally  made  both  of  wood  and  ii'on,  but  now  it  is  generally  made  en- 
tirely of  iron.  A  wooden  plow  seems  a  clumsier  instrument  than  an  iron 
one,  though  it  is  somewhat  lighter.  The  plow  is  now  made  wholly  of 
iron,  partly  from  the  circumstance  of  its  withstanding  the  vicissitudes  of 
weather  better  than  wood ;  and,  however  old,  iron  is  always  worth  some- 
thing ;  and  partly  because  good  ash  timber,  of  which  plows  were  usually 
made,  is  now  become  so  scarce  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  that  it  fetches 
the  large  price  of  3s.  per  cubic  foot ;  whereas  iron  is  now  becoming  more 
abundant  and  cheap  (204),  being  no  more  than  6£14  per  ton  for  common 
cast  goods,  and  from  c£10  to  c£18  per  ton  for  malleable  ii'on.  A  wooden 
plow  with  iron  mountings  usually  weighs  13  stones  imperial,  and  an  iron 
one  for  the  same  work  15  stones.  The  cost  of  a  wooden  one  is  c£3  16s., 
capable  of  being  serviceable,  with  repairs,  for  the  cuiTency  of  a  lease  of 
19  years  ;  that  of  an  iron  one  ^4  4s.,  which  will  last  a  lifetime,  or  at  least 
many  years.  Some  farmers,  however,  still  prefer  the  wooden  one,  alleging 
that  it  goes  more  steadily  than  the  iron.  Whatever  of  prejudice  there 
may  be  in  this  predilection  for  the  wooden  plow,  it  must  be  owned  that 
the  iron  one  executes  its  work  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  There  is,  I  be- 
lieve, no  great  difference  of  economy  in  the  use  of  the  two  kinds  of  plows. 

(469.)  The  plow,  as  it  is  now  made,  consists  of  a  number  of  parts,  which 
are  particularly  described  below  at  (493),  fig.  48,  and  to  which  you  should 
immediately  refer,  in  order  to  become  acquainted  with  them.  How  well 
soever  these  diiferent  parts  may  be  put  together,  if  they  are  not  all  tem- 
pered, as  it  is  termed,  to  one  another,  that  is,  if  any  part  has  more  to  do 
than  its  own  share  of  the  work,  the  entire  implement  will  go  unsteadily. 
It  can  be  easily  ascertained  whether  a  plow  goes  steadily  or  not,  and  the 
fact  is  thus  practically  ascertained  ;   and  its  rationale  will  be  found  below. 

(470.)  On  taking  hold  of  the  plow  by  the  handles  with  both  hands,  while 
the  horses  are  drawing  it  through  the  land,  if  it  have  a  constant  tendency 
to  go  deeper  into  the  soil  than  the  depth  of  the  furrow-slice  previously  de- 
termined on,  it  is  then  not  going  steadily.  The  remedy  for  this  eiTor  is 
twofold,  namely,  either  to  press  harder  upon  the  stilts  with  the  hands,  and, 
by  their  power  as  levers,  bring  the  sock  nearer  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
a.nd  this  is  called  "steeping  ;  "  or  to  effect  the  same  thing  in  another  way, 
is  to  put  the  draught-bolt  of  the  bridle  a  little  nearer  the  ground,  and  this 
is  called  giving  the  plow  "  less  earth."  The  pressure  upon  the  handles  or 
stilts  should  first  be  tried,  as  being  the  most  ready  remedy  at  your  com- 
mand ;  but  should  it  eventually  fail  of  effecting  the  purpose,  or  the  hold- 
ing the  stilts  so  be  too  severe  upon  your  arms,  the  draught-bolt  should  be 
lowered  as  much  as  required.  But  should  both  these  attempts  at  amend- 
ment fail,  then  there  must  be  some  error  in  another  part  of  the  plow.  On 
examining  the  sock,  or  share,  its  point  may  possibly  be  found  to  dip  too 

(489)  .  "  "^ 


250  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

much  below  the  line  of  the  sole,  which  will  produce  in  it  a  tendency  to  go 
deeper  than  it  should.  Thia  eiTor  in  the  sock  can  only  be  rectified  at  the 
smithy. 

(471.)  Aq[ain,  the  plow  may  have  an  opposite  tendency,  that  is,  a  ten- 
dency to  come  out  of  the  p^round.  This  tendency  cannot  well  he  coun- 
teracted by  the  opposite  method  of  supporting  the  stilts  upward  with  the 
arms,  because  in  this  condition  of  body  you  cannot  walk  steadily,  having 
no  support  for  yourself,  but  rather  affording  support  to  the  plow.  It  is 
for  this  reason  that  a  very  short  man  can  scarcely  hold  a  plow  steady 
enough  at  any  time ;  and  hence  such  a  man  does  not  make  a  desirable 
plowman.  The  draught-bolt  should,  in  the  first  instance,  be  placed  farther 
from  the  ground,  and  in  so  doing  the  j)low  is  said  to  get  "  inare  earths 
Should  this  alteration  of  the  point  of  draught  not  effect  the  purpose,  the 
point  of  the  sock  will  probably  be  found  to  rise  above  the  line  of  the  sole, 
and  must  therefore  be  brought  down  to  its  proper  level  and  position  by 
the  smith  (525). 

(472.)  You  may  find  it  difficult  to  make  the  plow  turn  over  a  furrow- 
slice  of  the  breadth  you  desire.  This  tendency  is  obviated  by  moving  the 
draught-bolt  a  little  to  the  right ;  but  in  case  the  tendency  arise  from  some 
casual  circumstance  under  ground,  such  as  collision  against  a  small  stone, 
or  a  piece  of  unusually  hard  ground,  it  may  be  overcome  by  leaning  the 
plow  a  little  over  to  the  right,  until  the  obstruction  is  passed.  These  ex- 
•pedients  are  said  to  give  the  plow  "  more  land." 

(473.)  The  tendency  of  the  plow,  however,  may  be  quite  the  opposite 
from  this — it  may  incline  to  take  a  slice  broader  than  you  want ;  in  which 
case,  for  permanent  work,  the  draught-bolt  should  be  put  a  little  farther  to 
the  left,  and  for  a  temporary  purpose  the  plow  may  be  leaned  a  little  over 
to  the  left,  and  which  ax'e  said  to  give  the  plow  "  less  land." 

(474.)  These  are  the  ordinary  instances  of  unsteadiness  in  the  going  of 
plows  ;  and,  though  they  have  been  narrated  singly,  two  of  them  may  com- 
bine to  produce  the  same  result,  such  as  the  tendency  to  go  deeper  or 
come  out  with  that  of  a  naiTower  or  broader  furrow-slice.  The  remedy 
should  first  be  tried  to  correct  the  most  obvious  of  the  eiTors  ;  but  both 
remedies  may  be  tried  at  the  same  time,  if  you  apprehend  a  compound 
error. 

(475.)  Some  plowmen  habitually  make  the  plow  lean  a  little  over  to  the 
left,  thus  giving  it  in  effect  less  land  than  it  would  have,  were  it  made  to 
move  upon  the  flat  of  the  sole ;  and,  to  overcome  the  consequent  tendency 
of  the  plow  to  make  a  narrower  furrow-slice  than  the  proper  breadth,  they 
move  the  draught-bolt  a  little  to  the  right.  The  plowing  with  a  consider- 
able lean  to  the  left  is  a  bad  custom,  because  it  makes  the  lowest  side  of 
the  furrow-slice,  when  turned  over,  thinner  than  the  upper  side,  which  i/s 
exposed  to  view,  thereby  deluding  you  into  the  belief  that  the  land  has  all 
been  plowed  of  equal  depth ;  and  it  causes  the  horses  to  bear  a  lighter 
draught  than  those  which  have  turned  over  as  much  land  in  the  same  time, 
with  a  more  equal  and  therefore  deeper  furrow-slice.  Old  plowmen,  be- 
coming infirm,  are  very  apt  to  practice  this  deceptive  mode  of  plowing, — 
The  plow  should  always  move  flat  upon  its  sole,  and  turn  over  a  rectangu- 
lar furrow-slice ;  but  there  are  certain  exceptions  to  this  rule,  depending 
on  the  peculiar  con.struction  of  parts  of  certain  forms  of  plows,  which  will 
be  pointed  out  to  you  afterward. 

(476.)  None  assume  the  habit  of  leaning  the  plow  over  to  the  right,  be- 
cause it  is  not  so  easy  to  hold  it  in  that  position  as  when  it  moves  upon 
the  sole  along  the  land-side. 

(477.)  Other  plowmen,  especially  tall  men,  practice  the  habit  of  con- 

(490) 


THE   PLOW.  251 


Btantly  leaning  hard  upon  the  stilts,  or  of  steeping;  and,  as  this  practice 
has  the  tendency  to  lift  up  the  fore  point  of  the  plow  out  of  the  gi-ound, 
they  are  obliged,  to  keep  it  in  the  ground,  to  put  the  draught-bolt  farther 
from  the  ground  than  it  should  be.  A  little  leaning  of  the  hands  upon  the 
stilts  is  requisite  at  all  times,  in  order  to  retain  a  firm  hold  of  them,  and 
thereby  have  a  proper  guidance  of  the  plow. 

(478.)  A  good  plowman  will  use  none  of  these  expedients  to  make  his 
plow  go  steadily,  nor  will  he  fall  into  any  of  these  reprehensible  habits. — 
He  will  temper  the  irons,  so  as  there  shall  be  no  tendency  in  the  plow  to 
go  too  deep  or  too  shallow  into  the  ground,  or  make  too  wide  or  too  nar- 
.  row  a  furrow-slice,  or  cause  less  or  more  draught  to  the  horses,  or  less  or 
more  trouble  to  himself,  than  the  nature  of  the  work  requires  to  be  per- 
formed in  the  most  proper  manner.  If  he  have  a  knowledge  of  the  imple- 
ment he  works  with — I  mean,  a  good  practical  knowledge  of  it,  for  a 
knowledge  of  its  piinciples  is  not  requisite  for  his  purpose — he  will  temper 
^all  the  parts,  so  as  to  work  the  plow  with  great  ease  to  himself,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  have  plenty  of  leisure  to  guide  his  horses  aright,  and  execute 
his  work  in  a  creditable  manner.  I  have  known  such  plowmen,  and  they 
invariably  executed  their  work  in  a  masterly  way ;  but  I  never  yet  saw  a 
plowman  execute  his  work  well,  who  had  not  acquired  the  art  of  temper- 
ing the  irons  of  his  plow.  Until  he  leams  this  art,  the  best  made  plow 
will  be  comparatively  worthless  in  his  hands. 

(479.)  In  the  attempt  to  temper  the  irons,  many  plowmen  adopt  a  posi- 
tion of  the  coulter  which  increases  the  draught  of  the  plow.  When  the 
point  of  the  coulter  is  put  forward  in  a  line  with  the  point  of  the  sock,  but 
a  good  deal  asundei-,  to  the  left  or  land  side,  in  light  land  that  contains 
small  stones,  a  stone  is  very  apt  to  be  caught  between  the  points  of  the 
coulter  and  sock,  and  which  will  throw  the  plow  out  of  the  ground.  This 
catastrophe  is  of  no  great  consequence  when  it  occurs  on  plowing  land 
preparatory  to  another  plowing ;  but  it  tears  the  ground  on  plowing  lea, 
which  must  be  rectified  instantly  ;  and,  in  doing  it,  there  is  loss  of  time  in 
backing  the  horses  to  the  place  where  the  plow  was  thrown  out.  To  avoid 
such  an  accident  on  such  land,  the  point  ©f  the  coulter  should  be  put  im- 
mediately above,  and  almost  close  upon,  that  of  the  sock ;  and  this  is  the 
best  temper  of  those  irons,  in  those  circumstances,  for  lea-plowing.  In 
smooth  soils — that  is,  free  of  small  stones — the  relation  of  the  coulter  and 
sock  to  each  other  is  not  of  much  importance  in  regard  to  steadiness ;  but 
it  is  the  best  practice  to  cut  the  soil  clean  at  all  times,  and  the  pi'acticabil 
ity  of  this  should  be  suited  to  its  natui'e. 

(480.)  The  state  of  the  irons  themselves  has  a  material  effect  on  the  tem- 
per of  the  plow.  If  the  cutting  edge  of  the  coulter,  and  the  point  and  cut- 
ting edge  of  the  sock,  are  laid  with  steel,  the  irons  will  cut  clean,  and  go 
long  in  smooth  soil.  This  is  an  economical  mode  of  treating  plow-irons 
destined  to  work  in  clay-soils.  But,  in  gravelly  and  all  sharp  soils,  the 
ii'ons  wear  down  so  quickly  that  farmers  prefer  irons  of  cold  iron,  and  have 
them  laid  anew  every  day,  rather  than  incur  the  expense  of  laying  them 
with  steel,  which,  perhaps,  would  not  endure  work  much  longer  in  such 
soil  than  iron  in  its  ordinary  state.  Irons  are  now  seldom  if  ever  steeled ; 
but,  whether  they  are  steeled  or  not,  they  are  always  in  the  best  state  when 
sharp,  and  of  the  proper  lengths. 

(481.)  An  imperfect  state  of  the  mould-board  is  another  intenniption  to 
a  perfect  temper  of  the  plow.  When  new  and  rough,  it  accumulates  the 
loose  soil  upon  it,  whose  pressure  against  the  turning  fuiTOw-slice  causes 
the  plow  to  deviate  from  its  right  course.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the 
mould-board  is  wora  away  much  below,  it  is  apt  to  leave  too  much  of  the 

(491) 


252  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

crumbled  _  soil  in  the  bottom  of  tbe  furrows,  especially  in  plowing  loose 
soils.  Broki'u  si(le-j>lates,  or  so  worn  into  holes  that  the  earth  is  easily 
pressed  thrcoiujh  them  into  the  bosom  of  the  plow,  also  cause  rough  and 
unequal  work ;  and  nuire  or  less  earth  in  the  bosom  affects  the  balance  of 
the  plow,  both  in  its  temper  and  drauglit.  These  remarks  are  made  upon 
the  supposition  that  all  plows  are  equally  well  made,  and  may,  therefore, 
be  tempered  to  work  in  a  satisfactory  manner  ;  but  it  is  well  kno\\Ti  that 
plows  sometimes  get  into  the  possession  of  farmers,  radically  so  ill-con- 
structed that  the  best  tempering  the  irons  are  capable  of  receiving  will 
never  make  them  do  good  work. 

(482.)  When  all  the  particulai-s  which  plowmen  have  to  attend  to  in  ex- 
ecuting their  work — in  having  their  plow-irons  in  a  proper  state  of  repair, 
in  tempering  them  according  to  the  kind  of  plowing  to  be  executed,  in 
guiding  their  horses,  and  in  plowing  the  land  in  a  methodical  way — when 
all  these  particulars  are  considered,  it  ceases  to  sui-prise  that  so  few  plow- 
men should  be  first-rate  workmen.  Good  plowmanship  requires  greater 
powei-s  of  observation  than  most  young  plowmen  possess,  and  greater 
judgment  than  most  will  take  time  to  exercise,  in  order  to  become  famil- 
iarized wtth  all  these  particulars,  and  to  use  them  all  to  the  best  advant- 
age. To  be  so  accomplished  implies  the  possession  of  talent  of  no  mean 
order.  The  ship  has  been  aptly  compared  to  the  plow,  and  the  phrase, 
"  plowing  the  deep,"  is  as  familiar  to  us  islanders  as  plowing  the  land  :  to 
be  able  to  put  the  ship  in  '•  proper  trim,"  is  the  peifection  aimed  at  by  ev- 
ery seaman;  so,  in  like  manner,  to  "temper  a  plow"  is  the  gieat  aim  of 
the  good  plowman  ;  and  to  be  able  to  do  it  with  judgment,  to  guide  horses 
with  discretion,  and  to  execute  plowing  correctly,  imply  a  discrimination 
akin  to  sailing  a  ship. 

(433.)  [The  present  age  is,  perhaps,  the  most  remarkable  that  time  has  produced,  for  the 
perfection  of  almost  every  kind  of  machine  or  tool  required  in  the  various  dejiartments  of 
art  and  of  miiniifactures.  In  that  most  important  of  all  arts — the  production  of  the  raw  ma- 
terial of  hiunun  CkkI — something  like  a  roiresponding  progress  has  been  effected  in  its  ma- 
chineiy  and  tools,  though  certainly  not  to  the  same  degree  of  perfection  as  those  employed 
in  most  of  our  manufacmres,  whether  they  be  in  animal,  vegetable,  mctiiUic  or  mineral  pro- 
ductions. Various  causes  exist  to  prevent,  or  at  least  retard,  an  equal  degree  of  perfection 
being  arrived  at  in  agricultural  machinerj-,  among  which  may  be  noticed  one  per\  ading  cir- 
ctimstance,  that  afiects,  more  or  less,  almost  eveiy  machine  or  implement  employed.  This 
circumstance  is,  that  all  the  important  operations  of  the  fann  are  perfomied  by  seasons  occu 
pying  companitively  short  periods  of  time  ,  and,  should  the  artisjin  be  endeavoring  to  pro- 
duce any  new  or  important  machine,  he  can  only  make  trial  of  it  in  die  proper  season.  The 
imperfection  of  human  perception  is  too  well  known  to  leave  us  in  surprise  at  the  first  at- 
tempt of  any  improvement  turning  out  more  or  less  a  failure.  The  artisan,  therefore,  will 
in  all  probability  find  that  his  project  requires  amendment;  and,  before  that  can  be  effected, 
tlie  season  is  i);ist  in  wliich  a  second  ti-ial  could  be  made,  and,  consequently,  must  lie  over 
for  a  year,  in  the  course  of  which  many  circumstances  may  occur  to  cause  its  being  forgotten 
or  laid  aside.  Impediments  of  this  kind  do  not  occur  to  tlie  inventor  or  improver  of  mana- 
facturing ^machinery,  where  constant  daily  oppoitunities  are  at  htmd  to  test  the  successive 
steps  of  his  invention.  One  other  general  cause,  and  of  another  kind,  exists,  to  supersede 
tlie  necessity,  or  even  the  proprict}',  of  employing  machinery- of  such  high  and  delicate  finish 
as  we  see  in  tiie  machines  of  all  innloor  manufactures.  This  is  the  irregularit)'  of  the  media 
on  which  agricultural  macliinery  is  employed,  and  the  numerous  changes  protluced  on  these 
media — the  soils  and  produce — by  vicissitudes  of  weather  and  other  causes,  which  not  only 
affect  the  operation,  but  also  the  existence  of  many  of  these  machines.  From  this  cause, 
with  its  train  of  incidents,  it  may  be  inferred  that  agricultund  machiner)-  and  tools  must,  of 
necessity,  be  of  simple  construction,  which  embrace  nothing  but  the  essentials  of  usefulness ; 
that  they  have  sufficient  strength  for  their  intended  purpose,  and  free  of  any  undue  weight ; 
that  there  should  bo  no  redund;mcy  nor  misapplication  of  materials  ;  that  all  materials  em- 
ployed should  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  the  workmanship  plain  and  sound.  These  prop- 
erties, it  must  be  admitted,  are  of  greater  importance  to  agricultural  machinerj',  in  general, 
than  the  minute  delicacy  of  construction  and  finish  observable  in  many  of  those  almost  intel- 
lectual tools  employed  in  some  of  the  other  arts  and  manufactures. 

(484.)  Although,  therefore,  agricultural  machines  in  general  do  not  require  a  high  me- 
chanical finish,  yet  there  are  among  them  those  which  aie  ba.sed  on  principles  implying  a 
(492) 


THE  PLOW.  253 


knowledge  and  application  of  science,  as  well  as  mechanical  skill,  in  tbeir  construction ;  and 
in  this  class  is  to  be  ranked  the  plow,  which,  in  one  word,  is  the  most  important  of  all  agri- 
cultural machines. 

(485.)  To  the  plow,  then,  our  attention  is  first  to  be  directed,  not  only  as  standing  at  the 
head  of  all  its  fellows  in  the  ranks  of  the  machinery  of  the  farm,  but  as  being  the  first  imple- 
ment to  which  the  attention  of  the  fanner  is  called,  in  the  commencement  of  this  the  winter 
season. 

(486.)  Before  entering  on  the  details  of  the  implement  as  it  now  appears,  it  will  be  inter- 
esting to  look  back  for  a  moment  into  its  history.  With  the  earliest  stages  of  human  indus- 
try, the  tillage  of  the  ground  in  some  shape  must  be  considered  as  coeval ;  and  in  these  early 
attempts,  some  implement  analogous  to  a  plow  must  have  been  resorted  to.  In  all  ancient 
figures  and  descriptions  of  that  implement,  its  extreme  simplicity  is  to  be  remarked  ;  and 
this  is  but  a  natural  result ;  but  with  the  progress  of  human  intellect,  are  to  be  also  observed 
deviations  from  the  oiiginal  simplicity,  and  an  increase  in  the  number  of  its  parts,  with  a 
corresponding  complexity  in  its  stnicture.  The  Roman  plows,  imperfectly  as  tliey  are  de- 
scribed by  different  Roman  authors,  is  an  example  of  this.  And  as  an  example  of  appa- 
rently very  remote  origin,  the  caschrom,  or  plow  used  even  at  this  day,  in  some  portions  of  the 
Outer  Hebrides  and  in  Skye,  forms  a  very  curious  and  interesting  antiquarian  relic  of  the 
ancient  Celtic  habits.     It  is  formed,  as  in  fig.  47,  of  one  piece  of  wood,  selected  from  its 

Fig.  47. 


e 

THE  CASCHROM. 

possessing  the  natural  bend  at  a,  that  admits  of  the  head  a  b  assuming  a  nearly  horizontal 
position,  when  the  handle  c  is  laid  upon  the  shoulder  of  the  person  who  wields  the  imple- 
ment. A  simple  wedge-shaped  share,  h  d,  is  fitted  to  the  fore  part  of  the  sole.  A  wooden 
peg,  e,  is  inserted  in  the  side  of  the  heel  at  e,  which  completes  the  implement.  On  this  last 
member  the  foot  of  the  operator  is  applied,  to  push  the  instmment  into  the  gi-ound.  It  is  of 
course  worked  by  the  hand  alone,  and  makes  simply  a  rut  in  the  ground.  Yet  even  in  this 
rude  implement  are  to  be  traced  the  rudiments  of  a  plow. 

(487.)  As  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  became  more  and  more  an  object  of  industry,  coito 
spending  improvements  would  naturally  follow  in  the  implements  by  which  such  operations 
were  performed.  But  in  Britain  previous  to  the  beginning  of  the  last  centuiy,  the  plow  ap- 
pears to  have  continued  in  a  very  uncouth  state.  About  that  period  Agriculture  seems  to 
have  become  more  an  object  of  improvement.  Draining  began  to  be  studied,  and  its  effects 
appreciated.  The  amelioration  of  the  soil  produced  by  draining  would  soon  call  for  better 
modes  of  dressing  such  improved  soils  ;  hence,  still  farther  improvements  in  the  plow  would 
come  into  request.  In  accordance  with  this,  we  find  the  introduction  of  an  improved  plow 
into  the  northern  counties  of  England,  under  the  name  of  the  Dutch  or  Rotherham  plow. 
This  appears  to  be  the  foundation  of  all  the  modern  improvements,  and  from  the  circum- 
stance of  engineers  and  mechanics  having  been  brought  from  Holland  to  conduct  the  drain- 
ing of  the  English  fens,  there  is  good  reason  to  conclude  that  the  Rothei-ham  plow  was  ori- 
ginally an  importation  from  Holland,  in  a  similar  manner  as  the  barley-mill  was,  at  a  later 
period,  borrowed  fi-om  that  country.  About  the  middle  of  the  past  century,  the  Rotherham 
plow  appears  to  have  been  partially  introduced  into  Scotland ;  but  until  Mr.  James  Small 
took  up  the  subject,  and,  by  his  judicious  improvements  gave  a  decided  character  to  the 
plow,  little  or  no  progi-ess  had  been  made  with  it. 

(488.)  Small  appears  to  have  been  the  first  who  gave  to  the  mould-board  and  the  share 
a  form  that  could  be  partially  imitated  by  others,  whereby,  following  his  instnictions,  mould- 
boards  might  be  multiplied,  each  possessing  the  due  fonn  which  he  had  directed  to  be 
given  to  them.  It  is  to  be  observed,  that  when  Small  first  taught  the  method  of  construc- 
tion, mould-boards  were  really  boards  of  wood,  and  for  their  defence,  were  covered  with 
(493) 


254 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM — WINTER. 


plates  ofiron.  The  metliotl  of  construction  being  not  very  clearly  defiiK-tl.  and  mould-hoardB 
being  necessarily  constructed  by  many  difl'erent  hands,  tlie  improved  syiiiein.  it  may  be 
easily  conceived,  must  have  been  liable  to  failine  in  practice,  it  was.  ihereliire,  one  of 
those  happy  coincidences  which  now  and  then  occur  lor  the  Ix-ncfit  nl  mankind,  ihal  the 
founding  of  cast-iron  was  then  begiiuiin^  to  become  general.  The  liirlunale  circumstance 
was  seized.  Mould-boanls,  together  with  the  head  or  sheath,  and  the  sole  and  land-side 
plates,  were  made  of  cast-iron;  and  a  model  or  pattern  of  ihese  pnrls  having  been  once 
formed,  any  number  of  duplicates  could  be  obtainetl.  each  pos-sessing  every  quality,  in  point 
of  form,  as  perfectly  as  the  original  mcidel.  The  plow,  thus  in  a  great  measure  placed  be- 
yond the  power  of  uninfonncd  mechanics  to  maltreat,  came  rapidly  and  deservt-dly  into  pub- 
lic esteem,  under  the  name  of  Small's  plow.  Though  originally  pioducetl  in  nervvickshire, 
the  plow  that  seems  to  retain  the  principal  feature  of  Smalls  ini|iriivcmenls — the  mould- 
board is  now  found  chieHy  in  East-Lothian,  and,  as  will  apjicar.  dillt-rs  very  sensibly  from 

that  now  generally  used  in  Berwicksliire. 

(489.)  Other  writers,  about  the  same  period,  published  mcthcxis  fur  constructing  a  mould- 
board  on  just  princii)les.  Among  these,  the  method  j)roj)osed  by  IJailey  of  Clnllingham  may 
be  mentioned  as  approaching  very  near  to  the  tnie  iheoietical  form.  Others  less  perfect 
have  been  proposed,  which  it  is  not  necessary  at  present  to  notice;  while  several  have  pub- 
lished "enenil  descriptions  of  their  construction  of  the  plow,  but  have  withheld  the  princi- 
ples on° which  their  mould-boards  are  fomied. 

(490.)  While  these  improvements  of  the  past  century  were  going  on,  the  plow  was  »ni- 
versally  constructed  with  wooden  framing;  but  about  the  beginning  of  ihe  jiresent  century 
(the  precise  year  cainiot  now  be  well  defined),  malleable  iron  began  to  be  empinyed  in  their 
fabrication.  The  application  of  this  material  in  the  constnictif)n  of  jilows  came  wiili  s<i  much 
propriety',  that  it  is  now,  in  Scotland,  almost  univei-sal.  It  has  many  advantages  ;  but  the 
most  prominent  are  its  gi-eat  durability  under  any  exposure,  and  its  belter  adaptation  to 
withstand  the  shocks  to  which  the  implement  is  frequently  liable  in  the  course  uf  working. 
In  a  national  point  of  vie%v,  it  is  alsf)  deserving  of  the  most  extended  application,  being  a 
produce  for  wliich  Bri^ain  .stands  unrivaled.  This  period  also,  was  productive  of  an  inno- 
vation on  the  form  of  mould-board  and  share  which  had  been  established  by  Small.  The 
mould-boards  loitherto  referred  to  come  under  the  denomination  of  concave,  or  more  prop- 
erly straight-lined ;  when  Mr.  Wilkie,  Uddingslone,  near  Glasgow,  introduced  his  new  form 
with  convex  lines,  to  be  afterward  more  particulaily  noticed,  and  which  has  been  adopted 
in  various  districts  in  Scotland,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  concave  fonn. 

(491.)  At  a  still  latw  period,  a  Ibrra  of  plow  was  bitmght  lin-ward  by  Mr.  Cinmingliam, 
Harlaw,  near  Edinbmfgh,  a  practical  faiTner,  in  which  are  combined  the  properties  ol  Wil- 
kie's,  with  very  slight  deviation  of  form  fiom  that  of  Small's  plow — the  principal  diHerence 
being  in  the  form  of  the  share. 

(492.)  Havhig,  in  this  short  sketch  of  the  progiess  of  the  plow,  brought  it  to  the  point 
when  it  has  diverged  into  three  varieties,  each  of  which  is  iield  in  equal  estimation  in  the 
respective  districts  in  which  it  is  used,  it  is  a  i-emarkable  circumstance  that  each  holds  iu 
sway  in  its  peculiar  locality,  to  the  almost  entire  exclusion  of  its  compeers.  The  first  two 
have  undergone  numerous  sUght  changes,  forming  sub-varieties,  but  retaining  the  respective 
leadin<^  features  of  the  concave  and  convex  mould-boards;  and,  as  they  have  each  spread 
(especmlly  the  first)  over  a  wide  extent  of  country,  I  purpose  to  distinguish  them  by  the 
count)'  hi  which  they  aie  chiefly  employed.  Thus,  the  Small's  plow  shall  be  demuninated 
the  East-Lothian,  aud  Wilkie's  the  Lanarkshire,  plow.  The  third  variety  is  more  limited  in 
its  ran^e  of  applicatimi,  being  almost  exclusively  confined  to  .Mid-Lothian,  and  the  borders 
of  tho^  counties  adjoining  to  it,  tlu-oughont  which  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Currie 
plow,  but  which  it  is  proposed  to  distinguish  here  by  the  name  of  the  Mid-Lothian. 

(493.)  Before  entering  upon  the  detjiiled  description,  it  will  be  useful  to  the  agricijltural 
student  that  a  nomenclature  be  given  of  the  various  parts  of  the  plow.     Thus,  fig.  48,  which 


Fig.  48. 


(494) 


A    TIEW  OF  THE  LAND-SI  DK  OF  A    PLOW, 


CM    t 


THE  PLOW.  255 


is  a  view  of  a  plow  in  perspective,  presents  that  wliicb  plo\\inen  and  agricultural  mechanics 
denominate  the  land-side,  so  called  because  when  in  work  it  is  always  (except  in  the  case 
of  tum-wTest  or  right-and-left  plows)  in  contact  w-ith  the  firm  or  unplowed  laud.  The  oppo- 
eite  or  right  side  of  the  plow,  being  that  which  tunis  over  the  furrow-slice  cut  from  the  firm 
land,  is  called  the  farrow-side.  That  member  of  the  plow  to  which  the  animals  of  draught 
are  yoked,  marked  A  in  the  figure,  is  the  beam.  Those  parts  by  which  the  plowman  holds 
and  guides  the  implement  are  called  the  stilts  or  handles,  B  being  the  great  stilt  or  left  han- 
dle, and  C  the  little  stilt  or  right  handle;  D  is  the  muzzle  or  bridle  by  which  the  horses  are 
attached  to  the  beam ;  E  the  coulter  is  a  cutting  mstiaiment  that  stivers  the  slice  from  the 
firm  land,  and  F  the  sock  or  share  which  cuts  the  sUce  below  from  the  subsoil ;  G  is  called 
the  wrest  or  moidd-board.  It  is  probable  that  the  temi  wrest  applied  formerly  to  only  a  par- 
ticular portion  of  the  mould-boai-d — the  lower  portion  in  the  more  ancient  plow — which  waa 
supposed  to  wrest  or  turn  aside  tlie  slice  after  being  cut  by  the  share ;  thus  we  find  in  the 
Kent  turn-wrest  plow  that  the  wrest  is  a  simple  sti-aight  bai'  of  wood.  The  mould-boai'd,  in 
the  improved  implement,  receives  the  slice  from  the  share,  turns  it  gradually  over,  and  de- 
posits it  continuously  at  the  proper  angle.  H  is  the  sole-shoe  on  which  the  plow  has  its  prin 
cipal  support,  and  on  which  it  moves,  and  I  is  the  land-side  plate,  only  serving  to  complete 
the  sheathing  of  the  land-side,  presenting  a  uniform  smooth  sui-face  to  the  firm  land,  and  pre- 
venting the  crumbled  eai-th  from  falling  within  the  body  of  the  plow.  These  last  pai-ts  cover 
the  body-frame  fi'om  view,  which  \\'ill  be  exhibited  among  the  details. 

(494.)  Without  entering  into  a  description  of  all  the  sub-varieties  of  these  plows,  it  will 
be  sufficient  to  attend  to  the  type  of  each  variety,  and,  first,  as  to  their  general  qualities  and 
characteristics. 

(495.)  The  East-Lothian  plow,  figs.  49  and  50,  Plate  V. — In  this  plow,  the  proper  lines  of  the 
body  on  the  land-side  lie  all  in  one  plane,  which,  in  working,  should  be  held  in  the  vertical  posi- 
tion, or  very  slightly  inclining  to  the  left.  The  coulter  slightly  oblique  to  the  land-side  plane,  the 
point  standing  toward  the  left,  the  rake  of  the  coulter  varies  from  55-'  to  65^.  In  the  mould-board 
the  vertical  sectional  lines  approximate  to  straight  lines,  giving  the  character  of  apparent  concav- 
ity, and  it  is  trancated  forward.  Share  pointed,  with  a  feather  or  cutter  standing  to  the  right, 
having  a  breadth  of  at  least  §  the  breadth  of  the  furrow,  the  cutting  edge  of  the  feather  lying 
nearly  as  low  as  the  plane  of  the  sole.  The  neck  of  the  share  is  prolonged  backward,  joining  and 
coinciding  %vith  the  curve  of  the  mould-board,  which  curvature  is  also  carried  forward  on  the 
back  of  the  feather.  The  character  of  this  plow  is  to  take  a  furrow  of  10  inches  in  breadth  by  7 
inches  in  depth,  cut  rectangular,  leaving  the  sole  of  the  open  turmw  level  and  clean.  The  resist- 
ance to  the  draught  is  generally  below  the  average  of  plows,  and  this  plow  is  employed  for  every 
kind  of  soil. 

(496.)  Lanarkshire  plow,  figs.  51  and  52,  Plate  IX. — In  this  plow,  the  proper  lines  of  the  land- 
side  lie  in  difl'erent  planes  ;  thus  when  the  fore-part  of  the  land-side  of  the  bodj',  taken  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  breast  with  the  beam,  is  vertical,  the  hind  part,  taken  at  the  heel,  overhangs  the  sole- 
line  I  inch,  and  the  beam,  at  the  coulter-box,  lies  to  the  right  of  a  vertical  line  from  the  land-side 
of  the  sole  about  1  inch,  the  point  of  the  beam  being  recurved  toward  the  land-side.  In  working, 
the  fore-part  of  the  body  is  held  in  the  vertical  line,  or  slightly  inclined  to  the  left.  The  coulter, 
by  reason  of  the  bend  in  the  beam  to  the  right,  and  the  point  being  to  the  left  of  the  land-side, 
stands  verj'  oblique,  but  nearly  coinciding  with  the  laud-side,  at  the  bight  of  7  inches  from  the 
sole.  Rake  of  the  coulter  from  55'-'  to  65"^.  The  vertical  sectional  lines  of  the  mould-board  are 
all  convex  toward  the  furrow,  giving  the  mould-board  the  character  of  convexity,  and  it  is  pro- 
longed forward,  covering  the  neck  of  the  share.  Share  chisel-pointed,  with  the  feather  seldom 
exceeding  5^  inches  broad,  the  cutting  edge  rising  from  the  point  at  an  angle  of  8-  till  it  is  1  inch 
above  the  plane  of  the  sole,  when  it  falls  into  the  curve  of  the  mould-board,  while  the  neck  passes 
under  the  latter.  The  character  of  this  plow  is  to  take  a  furrow  whoso  section  is  a  trapezoid,  its 
breadth  from  7^  to  9  inches,  and  greatest  depth  6^  inches,  the  sole  of  the  furrow  being  not  level, 
and  deepest  at  the  laud-side.  In  the  finished  plowing,  the  laid-up  fuiTow-slices  have  the  acute 
angle  upward,  giving  the  character  which  I  call  high-crested  to  the  furrow  slice,  especially  ob- 
servable in  plowing  lea.  Resistance  to  the  draught  about  the  average,  and  it  is  considered  to  be 
well  adapted  to  stiff  clay,  and  to  lealand. 

(497.)  Mid-Lothian  plow,  figs.  53  and  54,  Plate  X. — This  plow  is  always  worked  with  a  chain 
bar  under  the  beam.  The  proper  lines  of  the  laud-side  lie  in  different  planes  ;  thus,  when  the 
fore-part  of  the  land-side,  taken  as  in  the  former  case,  is  vertical,  the  hind-part,  taken  at  the  heel, 
overhangs  the  sole  line  f  inch,  but  the  beam  is  continued  straight.  In  working,  the  land-side  is 
held  vertical,  or  slightly  inclined  to  the  left.  The  coulter  stands  rather  oblique,  and  the  point 
about  IJ  to  2  inches  above  the  point  of  the  share.  Rake  of  the  coulter  varying  from  56°  to  80°. 
The  vertical  sectional  lines  of  the  mould-board  approximate  to  straight  lines,  giving  the  character 
of  concavity,  and  the  mould-board  is  prolonged  forward,  covering  the  neck  of  the  share.  The 
share  is  chisel-pointed,  with  feather  seldom  exceeding  5  inches  broad,  and,  when  trimmed  for  lea- 
plowing,  the  cutting-edge  rises  from  the  point  at  an  angle  of  10°  to  a  hight  of  I5  inches  above  the 
plane  of  the  sole,  ■when  it  falls  into  the  cur\-e  of  the  mould-board,  while  the  neck  passes  under  it. 
The  character  of  this  plow  is  to  take  a  furrow-slice  whose  transverse  section  is  a  trapezoid,  having 
an  acute  angle  with  a  breadth  of  8^  to  9  inches,  and  usually  from  6  to  6^  inches  in  depth.  The 
sole  of  the  furrow  is  not  level,  and  is  deepest  at  the  land-side.  In  the  finished  plowing,  the  laid- 
np  furrow-slices  have  the  acute  angle  upward,  forming  a  high  crest  when  plowing  lea.  Resist- 
ance to  the  draught  is  about  the  average,  and  this  plow  is  considered  applicable  to  every  kind  of 
soil,  but  particularly  to  plowing  'ea. 

(498.)  Before  entering  upon  the  specific  details  of  the  three  varieties  into  which  the  modera 
Scotch  plows  are  here  divided,  it  will  be  necessary  to  lay  down  certain  data,  on  which  the  details 
(495) 


256  TIIK   BOOK   OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

of  each  variety  will  be  bojifd.  For  liiiit  purpoae,  ihc  figiireH  in  elevation,  figs.  49,  51,  and  53,  in 
the  plates  of  the  euiirc  plows  ubuut  to  be  de.-H-ribeil,  are  sappoaed  to  stand  upon  a  level  plane, 
the  heel  and  point  of  the  i-hure  touching  liiat  plane,  these  being  aclually  the  points  on  which  the 

f)low  is  supported  when  in  motion ;  this  plane  sliaJl  be  called  the  base  lint.  The  fore-part  of  the 
and-side  of  the  plow's  body — standing  in  the  vertical  position,  as  seen  in  plan  figs.  50,  5-2  and  54, 
in  the  plates — is  supposed  to  be  placed  upon  a  similar  line,  touching  the  land  side  of  the  sole-shoe 
and  the  point  of  the  share.  The  base-line  is  divided  into  a  scale  of  feet  for  the  convenience  of 
comparison.  The  zero  of  the  scale  is  taken  at  that  part  of  the  plow's  body,  where  a  vertical  trans- 
verse section,  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  land-side,  will  fall  upon  a  point  on  the  surface  of 
the  mould-board,  which  shall  be  distant  from  the  land-side  plane  by  a  space  equal  to  the  greatest 
breadth  of  the  furrow  taken  by  the  respective  plows;  the  bight  of  this  point  above  the  base-hne 
being  also  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  slice.  Or,  the  zero  is  that  vertical  section  of  the  mould 
board,  which,  in  its  progress  under  the  slice,  will  just  place  the  latter  in  the  vertical  position. — 
The  scale,  by  this  arrangement,  counts  right  and  left  of  the  zero.  The  dotted  line  marked  tur- 
face-Une  in  ISgs.  49,  51,  o."?,  in  the  plates,  represents  the  depth  of  the  furrow  taken  by  the  respect 
ive  plows. 

(499.)  This  zero  point  has  not  been  fixed  on  without  much  consideration  ;  for.  having  experi- 
enced the  inconvenience  of  vagne  generalities  in  stating  the  dimensions  of  the  plow,  as  given  in 
works  on  tlie  subject,  it  has  appeared  to  me  desirable  that  some  fixed  point  should  be  adopted, 
and  this  has  been  chosen  as  less  liable  to  change  than  any  other  point  in  the  longitude  of  the 
plow  ;  all  other  points  of  this  implement  being  liable  to  and  may  be  changed  at  pleasure,  without 
change  of  effect.  Thus  the  beam  or  the  bandies  may  be  lengthened  or  shortened,  the  position  of 
the  coulter  and  the  length  of  the  sole  may  be  varied,  the  mould-board  itself  may  be  lengthened  or 
shortened  forward  without  producing  anj-  decided  change  in  the  working  character  of  the  plow, 
the  apparent  changes  being  easily  counteracted  by  a  corresponding  change  in  a  different  direc- 
tion. The  lengthening  of  the  beam,  for  example,  would  only  require  a  corresponding  change  in 
the  hight  of  its  extremity  above  the  base  line  ;  an  alteration  in  the  length  of  the  share,  or  in  the 
ptosition  of  the  coulter-box,  induces  only  a  corresponding  change  in  the  angle  which  the  coulter 
forms  with  the  base  line,  which  angle,  in  any  case,  is  liable  to  change  from  the  wearing  of  the 
irons  themselves,  but  which  can  be  rectified  as  required  by  shifting  the  draught-bolt  in  the  bridle. 
The  zero  point  here  proposed  can,  with  tolerable  exactness,  be  determined  in  any  plow  with  the 
instruments  that  every  mechanic  has  in  his  hands,  squares  and  &  foot-rule. 

(500.)  It  may  be  well,  also,  to  premise  farther,  in  regard  to  the  contour  in  elevation  of  the  differ- 
ent plows,  that  although  the  bights  at  the  different  points  throughout  the  beam  and  handles  are 
given  in  detail,  as  adopted  bj-  the  best  makers,  which  those  unacquainted  with  tlie  implements 
mav  follow  with  confidence,  in  the  construction  of  implements  of  the  same  character,  yet  I  cannot 
pa-ss  over  the  circumstance  without  noticing  that,  with  the  exception  of  one  point— ilie  hight  of 
the  beam  at  the  draught-bolt — any  part  of  the  contour  may  be  altered  to  the  taste  of  the  maker, 
and  even  the  point  of  the  beam,  as  already  noticed,  may  be  altered,  provided  the  alteration  is 
continued  backward  or  forward  in  a  certain  angle.  The  change  in  position  in  the  vertical  direc- 
tion of  three  other  points  is  limited  within  a  certain  range — not  from  principle,  however,  but  for 
convenience.  These  points  are  the  h  ight  of  the  beam  at  the  coHlter-box  and  aX  the  breast-line 
of  the  mould-board  ;  these  cannot  be  brought  lower  than  the  given  dimensions  without  subjecting 
the  plow  to  an  unnecessary  tendency  to  choke  in  foul  ground,  though  they  may  be  raised  higher 
without  injury,  provided  the  corresponding  parts — the  mould-board  and  body-frame — are  altered 
in  proportion.  The  third  point  here  alluded  to  is  the  hight  of  the  handles,  which  is  altogether  a 
point  of  convenience  ;  but  it  may  be  affirmed  of  this  that  it  is  better  to  be  low  than  high,  since  be- 
ing low  places  the  plow  more  under  the  command  of  the  plowman.  The  different  points,  as 
given  in  plan,  being  more  matters  of  principle,  with  exception  of  the  position  of  the  handles,  can- 
not be  deviated  from  without  compromising  the  character  of  the  plow. 

(501.)  With  tliese  preliminary  remarks  I  proceed  to  the  general  description  of  the  three  varie- 
ties, taking  first, 

(502.)  The  East-Lothian  Plow. — Fig.  49,  Plate  V.  represents  an  elevation  of  this  plow,  on 
the  furrow  side,  drawn  to  a  scale  of  1  inch  to  1  foot,  and  fig.  50  a  horizontal  plan  of  the  same.  It 
is  found  witli  various  shades  of  difference,  but  not  to  the  extent  or  of  such  a  marked  character  as 
to  require  separate  description  from  what  follows.  The  beam  and  handles  or  stilts  are  almost  in- 
variably made  of  malleable  iron,  the  body-frame  being  of  cast-iron,  the  latter  varjing  slightly  with 
different  makers.  In  its  construction,  the  beam  and  left  handle  are  usually  finished  in  one  contin- 
ued bar  ABC,  possessing  the  varied  curvature  exhibited  in  fig.  49,  as  viewed  in  elevation.  When 
viewed  in  plan,  as  in  fig.  50,  the  axix  or  central  line  of  the  beam  and  left  handle  are  in  a  straight 
line — thoutrh  in  this  arrangement  there  are  some  slight  deviations  a  nonir  the  different  makers— 
the  point  of  the  beam  being  in  some  cases  turned  more  or  less  to  the  right  or  furrow  side,  and  this 
is  found  to  vary  from  i  inch  to  2  inches  from  tlie  plane  of  the  land-side. 

(503.)  The  Hght  handle.  DE.  is  formed  in  a  separate  bar,  and  is  attached  to  the  body-frame  at 
tts  fore  end  by  a  bolt,  as  will  be  shown  in  detail,  and  farther  connected  to  the  left  handle  by  the 
bohs  FFF,  and  the  stays  GG. 

(504.)  The  coulter  I  is  fixed  in  its  box  K  by  means  of  iron  wedges,  holding  it  in  the  proper  po- 
sition. Its  office  being  that  of  a  cutting  instrument,  it  is  constructed  with  a  sharp  edge,  and  is 
set  at  an  angle  of  from  55^  to  65^  with  the  base-line. 

(505.)  The  mould-board  L,  which  is  fixed  upon  the  body-frame,  and  to  the  right  handle,  is  a 
curved  plate  of  cast-iron,  adapted  for  turning  over  the  furrow-slice.  Its  fore-edge  or  breast  MN 
coincides  with  the  land-side  of  the  plow's  body;  its  lower  edge  T  behind  stands  frotn  9J  to  10 
inches  distant  from  the  plane  of  the  land-side,  while  its  upper  edge  P  spreads  out  to  a  distance  of 
19  inches  from  B,  the  land-side  plane.  In  this  plow  the  mould-board  is  truncated  in  the  fore  part, 
and  is  met  by  the  gorge  or  neck  of  the  share,  the  junction  being  at  the  line  N. 

(506.)  The  thare  or  sock  NR  is  fitted  upon  a  prolongation  of  the  sole  bar  of  the  body-frame, 

(496) 


THE   PLOW.  257 


tenned  the  head,  and  falls  into  the  curves  of  the  mould-board,  of  which  its  surface  forms  a  contin- 
aation. 

(507.)  The  bridle  C,  or  muzzle,  as  sometimes  named,  is  that  part  to  which  the  draught  is  ap- 
plied, and  is  attached  to  the  point  of  the  beam  by  two  bolts,  the  one  S  being  permanent,  upon 
which  the  bridle  turns  vertically.  The  other  bolt  U  is  movable,  for  the  purpose  of  varying  the 
earthing  of  the  plow  ;  the  landing  being  varied  by  shifting  the  draught-bolt  and  shackle  V  to 
right  or  left.  The  right  and  left  handles  are  furnished  at  A  and  D  with  wooden  helves  fitted  into 
the  sockets  of  the  handles. 

(.508.)  The  seneral  dimensions  of  the  plow  may  be  stated  thus,  as  measured  on  the  base-line  : 
From  the  zero-point  O  to  the  extremity  of  the  heel  T,  the  distance  is  4  inches,  and  from  O  for- 
ward to  the  point  of  the  share  R,  the  distance  is  32  inches — giving,  as  the  entire  length  of  sole,  3 
feet.  Again,  from  O  backward  to  the  extremity  of  the  handles  A'  is  6  feet  2  inches,  and  forward 
to  the  draught-bolt  V  4  feet  7  inches,  making  the  entire  length  of  the  plow  on  the  base-line  10 
feet  9  inches ;  but,  following  the  sinuosities  of  the  beam  and  handle,  the  entire  length  from  A  to 
C  is  about  11  feet  3  inches. 

(509.)  In  reference  to  the  bodi/  of  the  plow,  the  center  of  the  coulter-box  K  is  14 J  inches,  and 
the  top  of  the  breast-curve  M  9  inches  before  the  zero-point,  both  as  measured  on  the  base-line  ;  but, 
following  the  rise  of  the  beam,  the  distance  from  M  to  the  middle  of  the  coulter-box  will  be  7  inches. 

(510.)  The  flights  at  the  different  points  above  the  baseline  are  marked  on  the  figure  in  eleva- 
tion, along  the  upper  edge  of  the  beam  and  handle  ;  but  the  chief  points  in  bight  arc  repeated 
here,  the  whole  of  them  being  measured  from  the  base-line  to  the  upper  edge  of  the  beam  and 
handles  at  the  respective  points.  At  the  left  handle  A  the  hight  is  3  feet,  at  the  right  handle  D 
2  feet  9  inches ;  and  a  like  difference  in  hight  of  the  two  is  preserved  till  the  right  handle  ap- 
proaches the  body  at  the  middle  stretcher  F  ;  thence  the  difference  increases  till  it  reaches  the 
body.  The  hight  at  the  point  of  the  beam  is  18  inche.s,  and  the  center  of  the  draught-bolt,  at  a 
medium,  17  inches.  The  lower  edge  of  the  mould-board  behind,  of  this  plow,  at  T  is  usually  set 
about  \  inch  above  the  base-line,  and  at  the  junction  with  the  share  about  the  same  hight. 

(511.)  The  dimensions  in  breadth,  from  the  land-side  line,  embrace  the  obliquity  that  is  given  to 
the  direction  of  the  beam  and  handles,  compared  with  the  land-side  plane  of  the  body  taken  at 
the  sole.  The  amount  of  obliquity,  as  exhibited  by  the  dotted  line  AC,  fig.  50,  which  coincides 
with  the  land-side  plane  of  the  body,  is,  that  the  axis  of  the  beam  at  the  extremity  C  stands  1| 
inches  to  the  right,  and  at  the  opposite  end  the  left  handle  A  stands  about  2  inches  to  the  left  of 
the  line.  These  points  may,  however,  be  varied  slightly  from  the  dimensions  here  given.  In  the 
first — the  point  of  the  beam — it  is  found  in  the  practice  of  different  makers  to  range  from  1  to  2 
inches.  In  the  opinion  of  some  writers  and  practical  men,  it  is  held  that  the  beam  should  be  par- 
allel with  the  land-side  plane  of  the  body.  With  all  deference  to  such  opinions,  I  apprehend  that 
the  direction  of  the  line  of  draught,  in  a  vertical  plane,  cannot  coincide  with  the  plane  of  the  land- 
side  ;  for  the  point  of  resistance  in  the  plow's  body  cannot  fall  in  that  plane,  but  will  pass  through 
some  point  to  the  right  of  it,  and  which,  from  the  nature  of  the  subject,  cannot  be  very  preciselj- 
defined.  Both  reanon  and  experience,  however,  point  this  out  to  the  plow-maker,  and  especially 
to  the  observant  plowman.  Hence,  also,  may  be  remarked,  from  the  instructions  laid  do^vn  by 
Small*  for  the  formation  of  the  beam — which,  in  his  time,  were  made  of  wood— that  the  land-side 
of  the  beam  should  lie  in  the  plane  of  the  land-side  of  the  body ;  and,  as  he  directed  the  beam  to 
be  2^  inches  in  breadth  at  that  point,  its  axis  must  have  been  1^  inches  to  the  right  of  the  land- 
side  plane;  and,  in  all  cases,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  resultant  of  the  effect  will  lie  in  the  axis 
of  the  point,  provided  the  draught-bolt  is  placed  in  that  line.  But,  for  very  sufficient  practical 
reasons,  the  draught-bolt  has  a  range  from  right  to  left,  by  wliich  the  effects  of  variation  of  soil  and 
other  causes  can  be  rectified  at  pleasure. 

(512.)  A  similar  difference  of  opinion  has  prevailed  in  regard  to  the  position  of  the  handles,  in 
reference  to  the  land-side  plane.  In  the  plow  now  under  review,  the  left  handle  deviates  only  2 
inches  from  the  line ;  whereas,  as  we  shall  see,  another  variety  has  the  handle  7  inches  to  the  left 
of  the  line  ;  and  this  deviation  has  been  advocated  on  the  principle  of  allowing  the  plowman  to 
walk  right  in  the  middle  between  the  handles,  his  right  and  left  arms  being  equally  extended.! 
Now  I  would  again  submitwhether  the  man  v^'ho  walks  with  his  arms  equally  extended,  and  his 
body  equally  distant  from  either  handle,  or  he  who  is  compelled  to  have  one  handle  always  near 
his  body,  whereby  he  can,  on  any  emergency,  bring  his  body  in.stantaneously  in  contact  with  the 
hand,  or  that  which  it  grasps — which  of  these  men  will  have  the  greatest  command  over  the  in- 
strument he  guides?  Little  consideration,  I  imagine,  will  be  necessary  to  satisfy  the  inquirer  that 
the  latter  will  have  the  advantage. 

(513.)  The  dimensions  of  the  parts  of  the  froTne-work  of  the  plovv  are:  The  beam,  at  its  junc- 
tion with  the  mould-board  at  M,  is  from  2J  to  2|  inches  in  depth,  by  1  inch  in  breadth — the  same 
strength  being  preserved  onward  to  the  coulter-box  K.  From  the  last  point  a  diminution  in 
breadth  and  depth  begins,  which  is  carried  on  to  the  extremity  C,  where  the  beam  has  a  depth 
of  15  inches,  and  a  breadth  of  ^  to  |  inch. 

(514.)  The  coulter-box  is  fomied  by  piercing  an  oblong  mortise  through  the  bar,  which  has  been 
previously  forged  with  a  protuberance  at  this  place,  on  each  side  and  on  the  upper  edge ;  the 
'morti.se  is  2|  by  |  inches,  and  the  depth  3^  inches. 

(515.)  From  the  junction  with  the  mould-board  at  M  backward,  the  beam  decreases  gradually 
till,  at  the  hind  palm  of  the  body  at  B,  it  is  2  inches  in  depth,  and  |  inch  in  breadth,  where  it 
merges  in  the  left  handle  A.  This  last  member  retains  a  nearly  uniform  size  throughout  of  2 
inches  by  |  inch.  The  right  handle  D  is  .somewhat  lighter,  being  usually  1|  inches  by  f  inch, 
and  both  terminate  in  welded  sockets,  which  receive  wooden  helves,  of  6  or  8  inches  in  length. 
The  stretchers  FFF,  which  support  and  retain  the  handles  at  their  diie  distance  apart,  are  in 
length  suited  to  their  positions  in  the  handles,  and  their  thickness  is  about  |  inch  diameter,  taper- 
ing toward  the  ends,  where  they  terminate  in  a  collar  and  tail-bolt,  with  screwed  nut.     The  up- 

*  Small's  Treatise  on  Plows.  t  Wilkie  in  Farmer's  Magazine,  vol.  xii. 

(497) ir 


258 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


per  stretcher  hao  nleo  a  semicircular  stay  riveted  to  its  middle,  the  tails  of  the  staj's  GG  terminat- 
ing like  the  stretcher  with  screwed  tails  and  nuts. 

/jlG.)  Having  f^iveu  the  gunijral  dimensions  and  outline-description  of  this  plow,  there  remains 
to  DC  described  the  tlrfaiU  of  the  body-frame  and  its  sheathing,  all  the  figures  of  which  arc  on  a 
scale  of  1  i  inches  to  1  foot. 

(517.)  The  bodyfratue. — The  different  views  of  the  body-frame  are  exhibited  in  the  annexed 
cuts,  fig.  55  and  56,  wherein  the  same  letters  refer  to  the  corresponding  parts  in  the  different 

Fig.  55. 


Fig.  57. 


THE  DETAILS  OF  THE  BODT-FRAME. 

figures.  Fig.  55  is  an  elevation  of  the  furrow-side  ;  fig.  56  a  plan  of  the  snle-bar  of  the  frame  in- 
verted ;  and  a  vortical  s(;ction,  on  the  line  x  x,  is  given  in  fig.  57.  In  all  the  figures,  then,  a  a  is 
the  sole-bar,  with  two  arms,  b  and  c,  extending  upward,  and  having  at  the  lower 
cdgg  a  Hangc  d,  running  along  the  rightiiand-sidc.  Each  of  the  arms  b  c  ter- 
minates in  a  palm,  ef,  by  which  it  is  bolted  to  the  beam.  The  arm  c  is  furnislied, 
beside,  with  an  oblique  palm  or  ear,  g,  upon  which  the  fore  edge  of  the  mould- 
board  rcsLs,  and  to  which  it  is  bolted.  The  sole-bar  a,  with  its  flange,  terminates 
forward  in  the  head  h,  which  is  here  made  to  form  the  commencement  of  the 
twist  of  the  mould-board,  and  upon  which  the  share  is  fitted,  reaching  to  the  dot- 
tod  line  ii,  fig.  55.  The  fore  edge  k,  /.  /  of  the  frame  is  worked  into  the  curve 
answering  to  the  oblique  section  of  the  fore  edge  or  breast  of  the  mould-board, 
and  serves  as  a  support  to  the  latter  throughout  their  junction.  The  curvature 
given  to  the  arm  b  is  unimportant  to  the  action  of  the  plow,  but  the  general 
oblique  direction  here  given  to  it  is  well  adapted  to  withstand  the  thrust  con- 
stantly exerted  in  that  direction  when  the  plow  is  at  work.  In  fig.  56,  the 
sloping  edge  d  m  represents  the  enlargement  of  the  sole-bar,  on  which  the  share 
is  fitted,  and  where  the  lower  part  of  the  fore  edge  of  the  mould  board  rests.  The 
deprcs.sed  portion  in  n  is  that  which  is  embraced  by  the  flange  of  the  share.  In 
the  frame,  o  is  the  lower  extremity  of  the  right  handle,  broken  off  at  o,  to  show 
the  manner  in  which  it  is  joined  to  the  sole-flange  of  the  frame  by  the  bolt  p. 
The  bolt-holes  q  q  are  tho.sc  by  which  the  beam  is  secured  to  the  palms  of  the 
frame  ;  r  r  arc  those  by  which  the  land-side  plate  is  attached  ;  and  s  n  those  of 
the  snle-shoe,  I  being  tliat  which  secures  the  mould- board  to  the  car,  and  ii  that 
which  receives  the  lower  stretcher  of  the  handles.  (See  fig.  50,  Plate  V.  at  F 
and  O.)  The  letter  v  marks  the  second  bolt-hole  of  the  mould-board,  while  its 
third  fixture  is  efl"«-cted  upon  the  right  handle  by  the  intervention  of  a  bracket, 
or  of  a  bolt  and  socket,  as  seen  at  O,  fig.  .50,  Plate  V.  The  dotted  lines  m  w  mark 
the  position  of  the  beam  when  attached  to  the  body,  the  beam  being  received  in- 
to the  seals  formed  on  the  land  side  of  the  palms  e  f,  as  seen  more  distinctly  at  ir,  in  fig.  57. 
(518.)  The  body-frame  being  an  important  member  of  the  implement,  regard  is  paid  to  having 
it  as  light  as  may  be  consistent  wilii  a  due  degree  of  strength  ;  hence,  in  the  different  parts, 
breadth  has  been  given  them  in  the  direction  of  the  strain,  while  the  thickness  is  studiously  atten- 
aatod  in  such  places  as  can  be  reduced  with  safety.  The  least  breadth  of  the  sole-bar  a  is  .Tj 
inches,  of  the  arm  c  4  J  inches,  and  of  i  2^  inches.  The  breadth  of  the  sole-flange  is  2  inches,  the 
greatest  thickness  in  any  of  the  parts  is  J  inch,  and  the  total  weight  of  the  frame  is  30  lb». 
(438) 


d 

A  VERTICAL 
SECTIO.V  OF 
THE  FRAME. 


THE   PLOW. 


259 


(519.)  The  share. — Figs.  58-62  are  illustrations  of  the  share  and  its  configuration  ;  fig.  58  is  a 
plan,  59  a  geometrical  elevation  of  the  furrow-side,  and  60  a  direct  end  view  looking  forward,  of 
which  a  is  the  boss  adapted  to  the  curvature  of  the  mould-board,  b  the  land-side  flange  which 
embraces  the  head  on  the  land-side,  c  the  sole-flange,  embracing,  in  like  manner,  the  head  be- 
low ;  and  these  three  parts  form  the  neck  or  socket  of  the  share,  fitting  closely  upon  the  head,  and 
being,  in  eflfect,  part  of  the  mould-board.    The  part  d  ef,  fig.  58,  forms  the  share  proper,  consist- 


Fig.  60. 


Fig.  59. 


Fig.  61. 


Fig.  62. 


THE  DETAILS  OF  THE  SHARE. 

ing  oi  d  ce  the  shield,  terminating  in  the  point  e.  and  of  the  part  c  g  e  the  feather  or  cutter  run- 
ning off  at  the  point  e.  The  extreme  breadth  of  the  share  in  this  plow,  measuring  from  the  land- 
side  to  the  point  g  of  the  feather,  varies  from  6  to  65  inches;  and  its  length  in  the  sole,  including 
the  neck,  is  about  16  inches,  the  feather  being  11  inches  The  other  figures  61  and  62  are  trans- 
verse sections  of  the  share  on  the  lines  g  g  and  h  h  in  the  respective  figures,  exhibiting  the  struc- 
ture and  relation  of  the  shield  and  the  feather,  as  well  as  the  position  of  the  cutting  edge  of  the 
feather  in  relation  to  the  base-line  of  the  plow  represented  by  the  line  A'V,  fig.  49,  Plate  V., 
where,  as  will  be  observed,  the  cutting  edge,  through  its  entire  length,  lies  within  less  than  \  of 
an  inch  of  the  base-line. 

(520.)  The  share  is  always  formed  from  a  plate  forged  for  the  express  purpose  at  the  iron-mills, 
and  known  in  the  trade  by  the  term  sock-plate.    Fig.  63  represents  the  form  in  which  these  plates 

Fig.  63. 


A  SOCK-PLATE. 


are  manufactured,  the  thickness  being  from  ^  to  |  inches ;  they  are  afterward  cut  in  two  through 
the  line  a  b,  each  half  being  capable  of  forming  a  share.  To  do  this,  an  incision  c  ^  is  made  on 
the  short  side  to  a  depth  of  2  inches,  the  part  acde  is  afterward  folded  down  to  form  the  sole- 
flaiige,  and  the  part  bfg  is,  in  like  manner,  folded  down  to  form  the  land-side  flange.  The  point 
k  is  strengthened,  when  requisite,  to  receive  the  proper  form  of  the  shield  and  point,  the  latter 
being  tipped  with  steel.  The  edge  h  c  is  extended  to  the  requisite  breadth  to  form  tlie  feather.  In 
order  to  cut  a  sock-plate  at  the  proper  angle,  so  as  to  secure  a  minimum  expenditure  of  labor  and 
material,  let  a  central  line  h  h  be  drawn  upon  the  plate,  and  bisect  this  line  in  the  point  k,  the  line 
upon  which  the  plate  should  be  cut  will  form  angles  of  70°  and  110°  nearly,  with  the  line  A /t; 
or,  mechanically,  draw  k  I,  equal  to  5^  inches,  at  right  angles  to  h  h,  and  la  parallel  to  h  h,  mark 
off  2  inches  from  I  to  a,  and,  through  the  points  ak,  draw  the  line  a  b,  which  is  the  proper  direc- 
tion in  which  the  plate  should  be  cut. 

(521.)  Tlie  sole-shoe.— The  figures  64-66  are  illustrative  of  the  sole-shoe.  Fi^.  64  is  a  plan  of 
the  shoe,  a  a  being  tlie  sole-flange,  and  b  b  the  land-side  flange.  Fig.  60  is  an  elevation  of  the 
same,  and  fig.  66  a  cross  section,  showing  the  filling  up  of  the  internal  angle  op'posed  to  where 
the  greatest  wear  takes  place.  The  thickness  of  Uie  sole-flange  at  the  heel  a  is  |  inch,  diminish- 
ing forward  to  f  inch  at  3  inches  from  the  point,  and  thence  it  is  thinned  oft"  to  prevent  ob- 
struction m  its  progress  through  the  soil.  The  breadth  of  the  sole  is  2i  inches,  and  its  extreme 
(499) 


260 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


length  20J  inches.  The  Hide-flanRc  is  J  inch  thick  along  the  edge  by  which  it  is  attached  to  the 
Bole,  diminishing  upward  to  {  incli  at  the  top  edge,  the  hight  being  4j  inches  at  the  heel  and  6 
inches  at  the  fore  end  ;  weight  about  14  lbs.  The  upper  land-side  plate  is  IS  inches  in  length  on 
the  lower  edge,  being  1  ^  inch  longer  tlian  the  corresponding  edge  of  the  sole-plate,  the  purpose 


Fig.  66. 


Fig.  65. 


Fig.  64 


THE   SOLK-SHOE. 


Fig.  68. 


of  which  will  be  seen  in  the  figure  of  the  land  side.  fig.  71 ;  the  length  on  the  upper  edge  is  21} 

inches.      The   breadth  and  the  contoar  of  the  upper  edge  must  be 

adapted  to  ilio  form  that  may  have  been  given  to   the   beam.     The        Fig.  67. 

thicknes.s  at  the  lower  edge  must  agree  with  that  of  the  sole-  plate,  and 

be  diminished  to  i  inch  at  the  upper  edge  ;  weight  9  Ib.s. 

(52-2.)  T/ie  coulter. — Fig.  67  is  an  edge  and  68  a  side  view  of  the 
coulter  of  this  plow,  in  which  the  same  letters  of  reference  are  applied. 
The  neck  a  h  by  which  it  is  alBxed  in  the  coulter-box,  is  about  10 
inches  long,  though  it  may,  with  all  propriety,  be  extended  to  c\  the 
neck  is  usually  about  2  inclies  in  breadth  and  J  inch  in  thickness.  The 
blade  bed  varies  in  length  according  to  Uie  variety  of  the  plow  to 
which  it  belongs,  from  IS  to  22  inchesT  The  breadth  of  the  blade  is 
usually  about  3  inches  in  tlie  upper  part,  but  is  curved  off  behind  and 
terminating  in  a  point  at  d.  The  thickness  of  the  back  at  the  shoulder 
b  is  \  inch,  and  tapers  gently  downward  to  where  the  curvature  of  the 
back  begins ;  thence  it  diminishes  toward  the  point  to  \  inch  or 
less.  It  is  formed  quite  flat  on  the  land-side,  and  on  the  furrow-side  is 
beveled  of}"  toward  the  .-uttiug  edge,  where  it  is  about  j  inch  in  thick- 
ness throughout  the  length  of  the  edtre. 

(523.)  The  bridle. — Fig.  69  is  a  plan,  and  fig.  70  a  corresponding  ele- 
vation of  the  bridle,  and  the  manner  of  its  attachment  to  the  beam, 
where  a  is  a  part  of  the  beam,  b  the  cross-head,  and  c  c  the  tails  of  the 
bridle,  with  their  arc-heads  d  embracing  the  beam  on  the  two  sides  :  e 
is  the  joint-bolt  on  which  the  bridle  turns  for  adjustment  to  carthins:  ; 

{is  tiie  temper  pin  or  bolt,  and  by  insertion  of  )t  into  any  one  of  the 
oles  in  the  arc-heads,  and  passing  through  the  beam,  which  is  here 
perforated  for  the  parpo.<e.  the  bridle  is  held  in  any  required  position. 
The  draught  shackle  i'  is  helil  in  its  place  upon  the'cro.ss-head  b  by  the 
draught-bolt  k  passing  through  both  parts,  and  the  cross  head  being  per- 
forated with  five  or  more  holes,  the  bolt  and  shackle  can  be  shifted  from 
right  to  left,  or  from  left  to  riirht.  for  the  proper  adjustment  of  the  land- 
»7i"' of  tlie  plow.  To  the  shackle  is  appended  "the  swivel-hook  7,  to 
which  is  attached  the  main  drauaht-bar.  or  swingle-tree  of  the  yoke. 

(52-J.)  The  land-side. — Figs.  71  and  72  are  illustrations  of  the  land- 
side — fip.  71  being  an  elevation  of  the  body  of  this  plow,  represented 
in  the  working  positions,  but  with  the  extremities  cut  off.  The  point 
of  the  shar"}  and  the  heel  rest  upon  the  ba.<!e-line  at  a  and  b,  and  the 
lines  of  the  sole  lying  between  the.se  points  form  the  very  obtuse  anele 
which  obtains  in  the  sole  of  tliis  plow  :  a  c  is  the  share,  and  d  b  the  sole- 
shoe  ;  (■  is  the  land-side  plate,  and  /g  a  part  of  the  beam.  The  lines 
a  d  and  d  b,  toeether  with  the  base-line,  form  the  very  low  triangle 
a  d  b.  whose  altitude  at  d  does  not  exceed  J  inch,  or  by  extending  the 
sole-line  bd\oh  the  depression  h  a  of  the  point  of  the  share  below  this 
extended  line  will  be  \  inch  nearly.  Fig.  72  repre.«ents  a  horizonul 
section  of  the  body,  as  if  cut  off  at  the  level  of  the  upper  edge  of  the 
sole-shoe.  Here  a  c  is  the  share.  //  d  the  .solc-flanue  of  the  body-frame,  the  bolt-hole  at  b  being  that 
by  which  the  palm  of  the  right  handle  is  fixed  to  the  flange  ■' e  and  /  the  two  arms  of  the  frame, 
AS  cut  across  in  the  section  g  i,  the  land-side  of  the  sole-shoe  coinciding  with  the  land-side  plane,' 
the  continuation  of  this  line,  g  i  to  h,  cxhibiu  the  inclination  of  the  share  to  the  land-side,  which 
in  this  plow  may  be  taken  at  \  inch. 

(525.)  The  inclination  downward  given  to  the  share  is  intended,  and  experience  confirms  the 
intention,  to  give  steadiness  of  motion  to  the  implement,  by  giving  it  a  lengthened  base  on  which 
(500) 


THE  COULTER. 


THE   PLOW. 


261 


to  stand.  It  is  evident  that  if  a  base  the  converse  of  this  were  given  to  it — convex  instead  of  con- 
cave— so  that  it  should  rest  on  tlie  point  d,  when  in  motion,  the  smallest  obstruction  occurring  at 
the  point  of  the  share  vfould  give  it  a  tendency  to  swerve  from  the  horizontal  line  of  progression, 
and  to  lose  either  depth  of  furrove  or  be  thrown  out,  thus  rendering  the  management  of  the  plow 


Fig.  70 


THE   BRIDLE. 


very  diflBcult  and  uncertain.  Even  a  perfectly  straight  base  is  found  not  to  give  the  requisite 
certainty  of  action,  without  a  greater  amount  of  exertion,  as  well  as  closer  attention  on  the  part 
of  the  plowman.    A  like  reason  prevails  for  this  inclination  of  the  share  landward,  as  does  for  its 

Fig.  71. 


Scale. 

THE   DETAILS   OF  THE   LAND-SIDE. 

earthward  inclination ;  and,  for  the  steady  motion  of  the  plow,  the  latter  is  even  more  necessary 
than  the  former ;  but  there  is  another  reason  for  this  landward  inclination,  which  is,  that  as  the 
plow  is  seldom  held  with  its  land-side  truly  vertical,  but  inclining  a  littlfe  landward,  and  it  being 
desirable  to  cut  the  furrow-slice  as  near  as  possible  rectangular,  the  coulter  has  always  a  slight 
tendency  landward  at  the  point;  hence  it  becomes  necessary  to  give  the  share  a  like  bias.  By 
this  arrangement  of  the  parts,  the  incision  made  by  the  coulter  will  be  nearly  vertical.  While  it 
is  admitted  that  these  inclinations  of  the  .share  afford  certain  advantages  in  the  action  of  the  plow, 
(501) 


262 


THE   BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WLNTER. 


it  mast  not  be  concealed  that  the  practice  ia  liable  to  obasc.  It  has  been  slated  that,  if  a  different 
arrangement  were  followed,  a  greater  degree  of  exertion  and  of  attention  on  the  i)art  of  the  plovr- 
man  would  be  called  forth  ;  thus,  if  the  sole  and  land-side  of  the  l)od y  were  perfectly  straight,  the 
plow  would  present  the  least  possible  resistance,  bat  as  it  would  thus  be  so  delicately  u(iju>>ted, 
the  sniiillest  extraneous  obstacle  would  tend  to  throw  it  out,  unless  a  constant,  unceasing  watch  is 
kept  on  its  movements  bv  the  plowman.  To  obviate  it\U,  he  gets  tlie  share  set  with  a  blrong  ten- 
dency to  earth  (tor  it  is  tliis  tendency  that  has  most  etti'ct).  greater  than  is  requisite  ;  and,  to  pre- 
vent "the  plow  taking  a  too  deep  furrow,  he  counteracts  this  by  adjusting  the  draught-bolt  to  an 
opposite  tendency;  the  implement  will  thus  be  kept  in  equilibrium,  but  it  js  obtained  at  an  addi- 
tional expenditure  of  horse-power.  I'ndcr  any  such  circumstances,  the  plow  is  drawn  at  a  disad- 
vantage to  the  horses,  as  will  be  afterward  shown,  by  reasou  of  an  obli(iuity  of  the  line  of  draught 
to  the  direction  of  motion,  and  this  disadvantage  is  augmented  by  every  undue  tendency  given  to 
the  parts  by  which  the  obliquity  of  their  action  is  incrca.--ed  ;  or.  if  not  so  increased,  the  preven- 
tion of  the  increase  will  induce  a  deterioration  in  the  work  performed.  This  point  1  shall  be  able 
also  to  establish  when  I  come  to  speak  of  the  action  of  the  plow  generally.  In  the  mean  time,  it 
may  be  affirmed  that  all  undue  inclination  given  to  the  share,  bui  especially  in  its  earthing,  will 
either  produce  an  unnecessary  resistance  to  the  draught,  or  it  will  deteriorate  the  quality  of  the 
plowing.  It  is,  ilieretbre,  the' interest  of  the  farmer  to  guard  against,  and  to  prevent  as  much  as 
possible,  every  attempt  at  giving  any  undue  bias  to  this  importaiit  member  of  the  plow. 

(di6.)  The  La.vaukshike  Plow. — The  Lanarkshire  plow,  as  cou.structcd  by  Mr.  Wilkie,  Ud- 
dingstone,  is  represented  in  Plate  IX. ;  fig.  51  being  an  elevation,  and  fig.  52  a  plan.  Like  the 
former,  it  now  occurs  with  various  shades  of  ditterence.  but  the  leading  points  remain  unchanged  ; 
like  it,  also,  its  frame-work  is  invariably  made  of  malleable  iron.  but.  in  the  construction  of  this, 
the  application  of  malleable  iron  is  carried  a  step  farther,  as  will  appear  in  the  details. 

(5i!7.)  The  beam  and  left  handle  are  usually  finished  in  one  continuous  bar,  ABC.  possessing  a 
Btiil  more  varied  curvature  than  in  the  former  plow,  inasmuch  as  it  is  curved  hDrizontally  as  well 
as  vertically.  When  viewed  in  plan,  and  compared  with  the  land-Bide  plane  as  applied  to  the 
sole-shoe,  and  the  fore-part  of  the  body  standing  vertical,  it  is  found  that  the  bcain,  where  it  meets 
the  breast-curve,  coincides  with  the  land-side  plane,  but  at  the  coulter-box  it  de%-iates  to  the  right 
to  the  extent  of  Ij  inches,  if  measured  to  the  axis  of  the  beam.  Instead  of  continuing  to  deviate 
in  this  direction,  the  beam  retunis  toward  the  land-side  plane,  till  at  C  it  is  1  inch  to  the  right. — 
This  formation  of  the  fore-part  of  the  beam  gives  a  po.>iiiiou  that  ai)parently  makes  llie  draught 
bear  from  a  point  within  the  body  of  the  plow,  that  may  be  imagined  to  ajiproximate  to  the  cen- 
ter of  resistance  of  the  bodj-.  This  is.  however,  more  apparent  than  real,  for  the  beam  in  this 
case  acts  simply  as  a  bar  bent  at  an  angle,  and  perfectly  rigid,  on  w  hich,  suppose  a  power  and 
resistance  applied  at  its  extremities,  the  resultant  of  the  strain  will  not  follow  the  axis  of  the  bar 
through  its  angular  direction,  but  iu  the  direction  of  the  .shortest  line  between  the  two  points  where 
the  power  and  the  resistance  are  applied.  In  addition  to  this  horizontal  curvature  of  the  beam,  it 
will  be  observed  that  the  box  of  the  coulter  is  formed  by  an  increase  of  thickness  on  the  right  side 
only,  while  there  is  even  a  slight  depression  on  the  left  side.  This  double  deviation  to  the  right 
gives  an  inclination  to  the  plane  of  the  coulter  much  greater  than  in  any  other  variety  of  plow, 
being  about  8"'  from  the  vertical.  Though  this  jieculiarity  in  the  form  of  the  beam  is  one  of  the 
most  decided  characteristics  of  this  plow,  as  we  now  find  it,  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  an 
original  element  in  VVilkie's  plow,  for  the  late  Mr.  Wilkie  says,  '•  the  beam,  which  is  6\  feet  long, 
is  wrought  quite  straight  on  the  land-side  :''"  and,  from  his  data  in  the  same  paper,  his  coulter 
must  have  made  an  angle  with  the  vertical  plane  of  li-,  whereas,  by  the  more  modern  construction, 
the  angle  is  8"^.  Continuing  the  comparison  with  the  land-side  plane,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  left 
handle,  at  its  junction  with  the  tail  of  the  beam,  overhangs  the  land-side  piano  to  the  left  fey  about 
I  inch,  there  being  that  extent  of  twist  on  the  .surface  of  the  land-side,  within  the  limits  of  the  body, 
and  the  same  handle  continues  to  recede  from  that  plane  tdl  at  the  helve  A  it  stands  7  inches  to 
the  left.  This  is  also  a  point  in  construction  of  this  plow,  though  it  does  not  bear  upon  the  prin- 
ciple of  its  actual  workmg.  As  before  obser\-ed  regarding  the  position  of  tlie  i)lowman  in  relation 
to  the  handles  (512),  this  point  is  one  that  may  be  liable  to  be  questioned,  but,  not  being  an  essen- 
tial point,  its  determination  is  of  minor  importance. 

(528.)  The  rif;ht  handle  HV.  is  formed  in  one  bar,  and  attached  to  the  bodj-frame,  as  will  appear 
in  detail :  and  it  is  connected  to  the  left  handle  by  tlie  stretcher  bolts  FFF.  and  tlie  stays  GG. 

(529.)  The  coulter  I  is  fixed  in  its  box  K  ;  the  rake  or  ansh  at  which  the  coulter  stands  in  this 
plow,  as  before  stated  (26G),  is  from  55-'  to  65'^.  The  land-side  lace  of  the  coulter  is  usually  set  to 
form  an  angle  with  the  land  side  plane  of  the  plow,  horizontally,  of  about  4-'. 

(530.)  The  viould-hoard  L,  fixed  upon  the  body-frame  and  the  right  handle,  is  a  curved  plate 
of  cast-iror;,  adapted  to  the  turning  of  the  furrow-slice.  Its  fore-edge  or  breast  MN  coincides  with 
the  land-side  of  the  body ;  its  lower  edge  O  behind  stands  trom  7  J  to  8  inches  distant  from  the 
land-side,  while  its  upper  edge  P  spreads  out  to  18  inches  from  H,  the  land-.side.  In  this  plow, 
the  mould -board  is  prolonged  forward,  covering  the  neck  of  the  share,  meeting  the  shield  at  the 
root  of  the  feather  Q,  of  the  share.  At  this  point  Nti,  the  horizontal  breadth  of  the  mould-board 
is  3  inches:  its  bight  from  the  base-line,  at  the  same  point,  is  from  2|  inches  to  2J  inches,  accord- 
ing as  the  inclination  of  the  share  varies ;  the  length  along  the  lower  edge  from  O  to  N  is  20  inches, 
and  from  P  to  M  23  inches ;  the  extreme  length  in  a  straight  line  from  P  to  N  is  33  inches  :  and 
the  perpendicular  bight  from  the  plane  of  the  base-line  to  P  is  about  11  inches.  Slight  deviations 
from  these  dimensions  of  the  mould-board  are  to  be  found  iu  the  numerous  sub-varieties  of  tliia 
plow. 

(531.)  The  share  Q.R  is  fitted  upon  a  malleable-iron  head,  to  be  afterward  described  ;  the  neck 
passing  under  the  mould  board  at  XQ,.  and  the  shield  falling  into  tlie  curve  of  the  mould-board, 
terminates  forward  in  the  chisel-point  R. 

(532.)  The  bridle  C  is  formed  iu  this  plow  by  tlie  end  of  the  beam  being  converted  into  a  fork 


Farmer's  Magazine,  toL  xiL 
(502) 


THE  PLOW. 


263 


or  sheers,  to  which  is  attached  the  hridle  proper  S,  by  means  of  the  draught-holt  U  ;  the  sheers 
forming  an  adjustment  vertically,  while  the  bridle  yields  it  horizontally,  by  shifting  the  draught- 
shackle  at  S. 

(533.)  The  right  and  left  handles  are  each  furnished  at  A  and  D  with  wooden  helves  fitted  into 
the  sockets  of  the  handles. 

(534.)  The  general  dimensions  of  this  plow  are  :  From  the  zero-point  O  to  the  extremity  of  the 
heel  T,  4  inches,  and  from  O  forward  to  the  point  B/  of  the  share  is  29  inches — giving,  as  the  en- 
tire length  of  sole,  2  feet  9  inches.  Again,  from  O  backward  to  the  extremity  of  the  handles,  the 
distance  is  5  feet  6  inches,  and  forward  to  the  draught-bolt  U  4  feet  4  inches,  making  the  extreme 
length  on  the  base-line  9  feet  10  inches  ;  but  following  the  sinuosities  of  the  beam  and  bandies, 
the  entire  length  from  A'  to  U'  is  about  10  feet  6  inches.  In  reference  to  the  body  of  the  plow, 
the  center  of  the  coulter-box  is  15  inches,  and  the  point  M  of  the  breast-curve  6^  inches  before  the 
zero-point  O,  both  as  measured  on  the  base-line  ;  but,  following  the  rise  of  the  beam,  the  distance 
from  M  to  the  middle  of  the  coulter-box  will  be  10|  inches. 

(535.)  The  hisrhts  of  the  different  points,  as  measured  from  the  base  line  to  the  upper-line  of  the 
beam  and  handle,  are  marked  on  fig.  51 ;  a  few  only  of  these  may  be  repeated  here.  At  the  helve 
of  the  left  handle,  the  bight  is  3  feet  2  inches  ;  at  the  same  point  in  the  right,  it  is  3  feet ;  at  the 
middle  stretcher,  the  difference  in  bight  is  only  1^  inches,  but  it  again  increases  downward  till 
the  right  handle  meets  the  sole-bar,  to  which  it  is  bolted.  The  bight  at  the  point  of  the  beam  ia 
18  inches,  and  at  the  center  of  the  draught-bolt  U  at  a  medium  17  inches.  The  lower  edge  of  the 
mould-board  behind  is  usually  sei  at  \  inch  above  the  plane  of  the  base-line,  and  at  its  junction 
with  the  share  is  from  IJ  to  Ij  inche.s. 

(536.)  The  dimensions  of  the  frame-work  of  this  plow  are  in  general  as  follows:  The  beam,  at 
its  junction  with  the  mould-board  at  M,  is  from  2^  to  3  inches  in  depth,  by  from  1  to  1\  inches  in 
breadth,  the  same  strength  being  preserved  onward  to  the  coulter-box  K  ;  and  thence,  forward  to 
the  root  of  the  sheers,  a  gradual  diminution  goes  on  to  about  2  inches  by  |  inch.  The  coulter  box 
is  formed,  as  before  described,  by  an  oblique  mortise  being  pierced  through  the  beam  ;  which,  for 
this  purpose,  has  been  previously  forged  with  a  protuberance  at  this  place,  to  the  right  side  only 
and  upward,  giving  it  a  depth  of  3  inches.  The  opening  of  the  coulter-box  is  about  2^  by  |  inches. 
From  the  junction  with  the  mould-board,  the  beam  begins  to  diminish  also  backward  till  it  merges 
in  the  left  handle,  and  here  it  measures  only  2  inches  in  depth  by  |  inch  in  breadth.  The  left 
handle,  where  it  joins  the  tail  of  the  beam,  has  a  depth  of  2  J  inches ;  and  here,  also,  it  forks  off  into 
the  hind  branch  of  the  body;  and  it  diminishes  in  depth  backward  to  1|  inches  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  helve-socket.  The  right  handle,  as  in  the  former  case,  is  somewhat  lighter,  and  is  con- 
nected with  the  left  by  means  of  stretchers,  as  already  described  (528) ;  and  both  tenninate  in 
sockets  for  receiving  the  wooden  helves. 

(537.)  The  body-frame. — This  and  the  succeeding  figures  of  the  details  of  this  plow  are  on  a 
scale  of  \\  inches  to  1  foot.  In  the  frame  of  the  Lanarkshire  plow,  as  usually  constructed,  those 
parts  which  in  the  East-Lothian  plow  I  have  called  the  body-frame,  are  here  formed  in  malleable 
iron.  The  two  bars  or  branches  of  the  body  are  w;elded  to,  and  form  prolongations  from,  the  beam 
and  left  handle.    Fig.  73  is  an  elevation  of  this  body-frame ;  a  a  is  a  portion  of  the  beam  ;  b  b  d. 


Fig.  73. 


Fig.  74. 


THE  DETAILS  OF  THE  BODY-FRAME. 


prolongation  of  the  left  handle  after  it  merges  in  the  beam,  forming  the  hind-bar  of  the  body-frame ; 
c  c  is  the  fore-bar  falling  from  the  beam ;  each  of  these  bars  is  kneed  to  the  right  hand  at  the  bot- 
tom, forming  a  palm  by  which  they  are  bolted  to  the  sole-bar  d  e.  This  last  terminates  forward  in 
the  head  ef,  upon  which  the  share  is  fitted.  The  hind-bar  is  forged  to  a  breadth  of  2  inches,  its 
thickness  being  |  inch.  The  fore-bar  is  about  21  inches  broad,  and  |  inch  thick ;  each  being  re- 
spectively thinner  than  the  beam,  at  the  point  where  they  spring  from  it,  by  the  thickness  of  the 
(503) 


264 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


Fig.  75. 


laod-BJde  plate.  The  sole  bar  de  is  made  also  of  malleable  iroo,  and  is  15  inches  in  length  in  tbd 
part  from  d  lo  e,  wiili  a  breadth  of  2  inches  swelled  at  e.  and  depth  of  1  inch  at  c.  The  length 
from  c  to/ is  fi  inclies,  and  in  the  depth  the  bar  is  tapered  off  from  e  toward  /.  where  the  depth  ia 
i  inch.  From  e  it  tapers  backward  to  J  inch  at  d.  A  portion  of  the  right  handle  is  e.xhibiied  as 
broken  off  at  ir  ;  the  lower  extremity  bein_'  twisted  to  a  riv'ht  angle,  so  as  to  lie  flat  on  the  sole-bar 
CO  which  it  is  bolted,  along  with  the  palm  of  the  fore-bar  at  A. 

(538.)  To  determine  the  position  of  the  points  in  this  body-frame,  let  the  zero-point  O,  as  already 
fixed,  be  marked  on  the  beam  at  15  inches  behind  the  center  of  the  coulter-box  K.  and  the  whole 
beam  carved  ai-Teeably  to  the  dimensions  given  fig.  52,  Plate  IX. ;  tlien,  the  bight  from  the  bottom 
of  the  solo-bar  to  the  top  edge  of  the  beam  at  tlie  zero-point  will  be  14i  inches,  as  before  stated, 
le«s  the  ihicknes-s  of  the  sole-shoe  at  that  point,  or  equal  to  1-4  inches.  The  fore-part  of  the  sole-bar 
at  e  will  have  its  position  determined  when  a  siraieht-e<lge  applied  to  its  lower  side  from  d  to  e, 
and  extending  as  far  as  the  point  of  the  beam,  will  place  the  U[iper  edge  of  the  beam,  where  it 
spreads  into  the  .<1ioit.-j.  as  at  C.  Hiz.  .11.  Plate  IX..  18  inches  above  the  strai^kt-fdirr.  or  line  of  the 
sole-bar.  The  heel  d  of  the  sole-bar  will  be  4  inches  behind  the  zero,  and  its  point  f  19  inches 
before  it,  tlie  sole-bar  being  in  all  23  inches.  The  fore-edge  of  tlie  fore-bar  will  be  5  inches  before 
the  zero  at  top  where  it  springs  from  tlie  beam,  and  13  inches  at  bottom,  where  it  joins  the  sole- 
bar.  The  cun-ature  of  the  fore-bar  is  only  necessary  to  prevent  its  lying  in  the  way  of  the  mould- 
board,  and  a  radius  of  I'*  inclies  will  effect  this. 

(539.1  The  provision  tor  fixing'  the  monld-boerd  of  tliis  plow  consists  in  a  gland,  fig.  74,  fixed 
on  the  body-frame  and  risibt  handle  with  bolts  at  i  k,  supporting  the  fore- 
part of  the  mould-board  b\-  means  of  bolts  at  /  »/i.  The  remaining  fixtures 
is  effected  by  a  bracket  H,  attached  also  to  the  right  handle,  as  seen  in  fig. 
52,  Plate  IX.  The  shoe,  as  seen  in  position,  fig.  73.  is  marked  n  o,  and  is 
secured  to  the  body-frame  by  the  bolts />/?.  The  lower  stretcher,  by  which 
the  right  handle  is  connected  to  the  left,  is  marked  y.  and  r  r  mark  the 
bolts  for  fi.xing  the  land-side  plate.  Fig.  74.  already  alluded  to,  is  a  front 
view  of  the  gland  on  which  the  fore-part  of  the  mould-board  is  supported. 
and  this  is  seen  also  in  profile  in  fig.  75.  which  is  a  transverse  section  of 
the  body-frame  on  the  line  x  x.  In  this  figure  a  is  the  beam,  c  the  fore- 
bar  with  its  kneed  palm  at  h.  under  which  is  tliesole-bar  e ;  ^  is  the  broken 
off  part  of  the  right  handle,  terminating  in  the  palm  lying  over  that  of  the 
fore-bar ;  and  these  three  parts  are  secured  by  one  bok  at  h.  The  sole- 
shoe  is  seen  at  op,  with  its  land-side  flange,  which  is  fixed  by  the  bolt  p. 

(540.)  The  sh  are. — The  figures  from  76  to  ?2  are  illu.strati ve  of  the  shares 
of  this  plow,  a.«  ailapted  to  both  fallow  and  lea  plowing,  where  fig.  76  is  a 
plan,  fig.  77  a  geometrical  elevation  of  the  furro%v-side  of  the  eliare  ;  and 
fig.  80  a  direct  end-view  looking  forward,  in  all  which  a  b  is  the  neck  or 
socket  by  which  it  is  attached  to  the  bead  ;  c  is  the  shield,  extending  over 
the  body  and  the  feather,  but,  for  distinction,  I  shall  call  the  portion  e  cf 
in  fig.  76  the  body,  and  b  g'  h  the  feather,  i  being  the  point  of  the  share, 
which  in  this  plow  is  always  chisel-shaped.  Fig.  78  is  an  elevation  of  the 
furrow-side  of  the  lea-share,  and  fig.  79  a  direct  end  view  of  the  same. 
These  views  have  the  same  letters  of  reference ;  and  exhibit  the  rise  of 
the  cutting  edge  of  the  feather  above  the  plane  of  the  base  line,  which, 
when  it  reaches  the  maximum  hight,  stands  1^  inches  above  that  plane, 
which  gives  an  angle  equal  to  8^  or  more  with  the  plane  of  the  sole  in  a 
innsverse  direction.     The  extreme  breadth  of  this  share  at  e  y  is  5J  to  6 

Fig.  78. 


A  SECTION  or  THX 
BODT-FRAMK. 


Fig.  79. 


h .  Fig.  77. 


•^   Fig.  7«. 


THE  DETAILS  OF  THE  SHARE. 


\504) 


THE  PLOW. 


265 


inches  ;  the  length  from  the  point  to  the  head  of  the  shield  i  b,  10  inches,  and  again  from  the  point 
to  the  extremity  of  the  neck  /  a,  is  16  inches.  A  share  thus  formed  will  necessarily  cut  the  furrow 
lower  at  the  land-side  than  at  the  extreme  edge  of  the  furrow  lower  at  the  laud-"side,  than  at  the 
extreme  edge  of  the  feather ;  for,  since  the  share  must  cut  the  slice  all  along  its  cutting  edge  at 
the  same  instant,  that  part  of  the  slice  which  is  cut  by  the  chisel  point  will  be  the  lowest  pos- 
sible, and  every  succeeding  point  backward  will  be  higher  and  higher  till  it  reach  the  apex  of  the 
curved  feather  1^  inches  above  the  true  plane  of  the  sole.  Figs.  79  and  80  exhibit  the  openin°- 
of  the  neck  a  h,  which  fits  upon  the  head,  and  f  c  g-  the  outline  of  the  posterior  end  of  the  shield 
and  feather  of  the  two  shares.  Figs.  81  and  82  are  transverse  sections  of  figs.  76  and  77  on  the 
lines  y  y,  X  X  respectively. 

(541.)   The  sole-shoe. — Fig.  83  is  a  plan  of  the  sole-shoe,  where  a  6  is  the  sole-flange  with  its 
single  bolt-hole,  and  c  d  the  land-side  flange.     Fig.  84  is  an  elevation  of  the  same,  as  viewed  on 

Fig.  84. 


THE  DETAILS  OF  THE  SOLE-SHOE. 

tne  furrow-side,  wherein  a  J  is  the  sole-flange  seen  edgewise,  and  c  d  the  side-flange,  e.xhibitin'^ 
the  notch  e.  2  J  inches  long  and  2  iuches  deep,  adapted  to  receive  the  neck  of  the  share,  while  the 
slope  d  is  adapted  to  the  breast-curve  of  the  mould-board.  Fig.  85  is  a  transverse  section  of  the 
shoe  ;  a  the  sole,  and  c  the  land-side,  exhibiting  also  the  filling,  in  the  internal  angle,  opposite  to 
where  the  greatest  wear  takes  place  on  the  exterior.  The  land-side  flange  is  5  inches  in  hight, 
and  along  the  line  of  junction  with  the  sole  it  is  \  inch  thick,  lessening  upward  to  I  inch  at  the 
upper  edge  ;  the  sole-flange  is  %  inch  in  depth  at  the  heel,  diminishing  forward  to  \  inch  at  the 
fore-end.  and  retaining  a  uniform  breadth  of  2J  inches.  The  length  of  the  sole-flange  is  17  inches, 
and  of  the  land-side  flange  to  the  extreme  point  20  inches.  The  upper  land-side  plate  in  this 
plow  is  loj  inches  in  length  on  the  lower  edge  ;  its  upper  edge,  as  exhibited  in  fi^'.  90,  corre- 
sponds in  its  outline  to  the  beam,  joining  flush  with  the  left  handle.  The  thickness  at  the  lower 
edge  agrees  with  that  of  the  upper  edge  of  the  sole-shoe,  and  is  diminished  at  the  upper  edge  to 
\  inch. 
(542.)   The  bridle. — Figs.  86  and  87  are  two  views  of  the  bridle,  the  first  a  plan,  the  second  a 

Fig.  87. 


(505) 


THE  DETAILS  OF  THE  BRIDLE. 


266 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


Bide  view,  wiih  the  same  letters  to  earh.  a  is  a  portion  of  the  beam,  the  extremity  of  which  ia 
forked  into  the  sheers  i  J,  2  inches  wide,  each  cheek  of  the  sheers  being  also  spread  ont  into 
cross-heads  c  c,  5J  inches  lonisr,  each  famished  with  four  or  more  perforations;  they  are  also  pre- 
vented from  collapsing  by  the  insertion  between  them  of  a  stretclier  t.  The  bridle  d  d  is  adapt- 
ed to  the  cross-heads  of  the  sheers,  and  jointed  on  the  draught-bolt  e.  The  web  d  d  of  the  bridle. 
9  inches  in  Icnirth,  is  also  provided  with  perforations,  and  furnished  with  the  shackle  f,  which  is 
attached  to  it  by  the  bolt  ir.  This  arrangement  affords  the  usual  facility  of  changing  tne  draught 
By  shiftintr  the  bridle  on  the  cross  heads  of  the  beam,  in  the  vertical  direction,  the  earlhinsr  of  the 
plow  is  adjusted,  and  by  the  same  operation  on  the  shackle  of  the  bridle  horizontally,  the  lajid- 
tne  is  adju.ated.  The  draught  swivel-hook  k  is  attached  to  the  shackle,  as  before  described,  to 
which  are  appended  the  draught-bars  afterward  described. 

(543.)  This  plow  is  always  provided  with  a  verj-  useful  appendage,  an  iron  hammer,  fig.  68. 
The  head  and  handle  are  forged  in  one  j)iece  of  malleable 
iron,  the  latter  part  being  fonued  into  a  nut-key.  With  this 
simple  but  uselu!  tool,  the  plowman  has  always  at  hand  tlie 
means  by  which  he  can,  without  lo.ss  of  time,  alter  and  ad- 
just the  position  of  his  plow-irons — the  coulter  and  share — 
and  perform  other  little  operations,  which  circum.«tances  or 
accident  may  require — for  the  performance  of  which  most 
plowmen  are  under  the  necessitj-  of  taking  advantage  of 
the  first  s(one  they  can  find,  merely  from  the  want  of  this 
simple  instrument.  The  hammer  is  slung  in  a  staple  fixed 
in  the  side  of  a  beam  in  anj'  convenient  position,  as  at  s  in 
fig.  73.  This  little  appendage  is  confidently  recommended 
to  all  plowmen,  as  an  essential  part  of  the  famiture  of  the 
plow. 

{544.)   The  plow-staff. — Fig.  89  represents  the  plow-staff,  another  and  a  necessarj-  article  of  the 
movable  furniture  of  the  plow.     It  is  in  form  of  a  small  shovel,  having  a  socket,  into  which  a 


Fig.  88. 


THE  IRON  HAMMER  NUT-KET. 


Fig.  89. 


THE  PLOW-STAFF. 

helve  of  5  feet  in  length  is  inserted,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  countrj-  this  is  furnished  with  an 
oblique  cross-head.  Its  position  in  tlie  plow  is  to  lie  between  the  handles,  and  its  nse  to  enable 
the  plowman  to  remove  all  extraneous  matter,  as  earth,  stubble,  roots,  weeds,  &.C.,  that  may  accu- 
mulate upon  the  mould-board  or  the  coulter.     It  is  common  to  all  plows. 

(545.)   The  Land- Side. — Figs.  90  and  91  are  illustrations  of  the  land-side  of  the  body  of  this 
plow ;  fig.  90  being  an  elevation  with  the  extremities  cat  off,  the  point  of  the  ehare,  as  before, 

Fig.  90. 


Scale. 
THK  DETAILS  OF  THX  LAHD-SIDI. 

rests  upon  the  base-line  at  a  and  b.  and  the  lines  of  the  sole  lying  between  these  points  form  the 
obtuse  angle  in  the  sole  lines  ;  a  c  is  the  share,  n  its  neck,  and  d  h  the  sole-shoe ;  e  is  the  land-side 
plate,  which  is  adapted  to  fill  up  the  entire  space  between  the  side-flange  of  the  sole-shoe  and  the 
beam ;  the  fore  part  being  adjusted  to  finish  with  the  edge  of  the  mould-board,  while  the  posteri- 
(506) 


THE  PLOW.  267 


or  part  may  be  worked  off  to  the  taste  of  the  maker.  The  lines  a  d  and  d  b,  together  with  the 
base  line,  t'orm  a  very  low  triangle,  a  d  b  ;  the  altitude  at  d  being  not  more  than  |  of  an  inch 
and  by  extending  the  side  b  d  to  h,  the  depression  h  a  of  the  point  of  the  share  below  the  line  b  d 
thus  extended,  will  be  from  ^  to  f  of  an  inch.  Fig.  91  represents  a  horizontal  section  of  the  body, 
as  if  cut  otf  at  the  upper  edge  of  the  sole-shoe.  Here  a  c  is  the  share,  7i  its  neck  ;  the  line  g  hhe 
ing  a  continuation  of  the  land-side  plane,  indicates  the  inclination  landward  of  the  point  of  the 
Bhare,  which,  in  this  plow,  is  usuallj'  from  5  to  |  inch ;  b  d  is  the  sole-bar,  the  bolt-hole  at  b  being 
that  by  which  the  right  handle  is  fixed  to  the  bar  ;  e  and_/"the  two  arms  or  bars  of  the  body-frame, 
as  cut  acro-ss  in  the  section  ;  and  g  i  is  the  land-side  flange  of  the  sole-shoe.  The  line  c  i,  con- 
tinued to  h,  exhibits  the  inclination  of  the  point  of  the  share  to  landward  of  the  land-siie  plane. 
The  same  reasoning  applies  to  the  inclinations  of  the  share  from  the  sole  and  land  side  planes,  as 
has  been  offered  in  the  case  of  the  East-Lothian  plow. 

(54(3.)  The  Mid-Lothian  or  Currie  Plow. — The  Mid-Lothian  or  Cnrrie  plow  is  delineated 
in  Plate  X.,  where  fig.  53  is  an  elevation  of  the  furrow-side,  and  fig.  54  a  horizontal  plan  of  the 
entire  plow.  This  variety  of  the  plow,  probably  from  its  more  recent  introduction,  has  under- 
gone fewer  changes  than  the  two  former.  In  one  of  its  essential  parts — the  mould-board,  little  or 
no  difl'erence  is  to  be  found  in  all  the  range  of  this  variety.  In  the  share,  greater  changes  are  ob- 
servable, and  also  in  the  coulter,  as  shall  be  noticed  in  due  course.  In  the  majority  of  these  plows, 
a  cast-iron  body-frame  is  employed,  and  in  all  the  mould-board  is  prolonged  forward  over  the 
neck  of  the  share  ;  and  the  draught  is  applied,  through  the  medium  of  a  chain-bar,  placed  under 
the  beam.  In  respect  of  the  mould-board  of  this  plow,  it  is,  in  point  of  curvature,  nearly  the 
same  as  the  Ea.st-Lothian,  though  in  its  prolongation  forward,  it  bears  a  resemblance  to  the  Lan- 
arkshire, but  without  possessing  that  characteristics  of  that  mould-board  as  will  be  afterward 
shown.  The  share,  in  so  far  as  it  is  immediately  connected  with  the  mould-board,  closely  resem- 
bles the  Lanarkshire,  and  the  external  parts  of  it  take  also  after  that  plow.  The  Mid-Lothian 
plow,  therefore,  may  very  appositely  be  termed  a  hybrid. 

(547.)  In  the  construction  of  the  framework  of  this  plow,  the  beam  and  left  handle  are  usually 
finished  in  one  continued  bar,  ABC,  possessing  the  varied  curvature  exhibited  in  fig.  53.  as 
viewed  in  elevation.  When  viewed  in  plan,  as  in  fig.  54,  the  axis  of  the  beam  lies  in  one  straight 
line,  though  in  this  there  are  slight  shades  of  variation,  with  different  makers ;  and  the  left  han- 
dle, from  its  junction  with  the  tail  of  the  beam,  gradually  deviates  from  the  line  of  the  beam's  axis, 
till,  at  the  extremity  A,  it  stands  3  inches  to  the  left  of  the  line  of  that  axis.  With  reference  to 
the  plane  of  the  land-side,  also,  when  the  fore  part  of  the  body  is  vertical,  the  point  of  the  beam 
is  inclined  to  the  right  of  the  plane  about  1|  inches,  and  the  hind  part  of  the  body  on  the  land- 
side  overhangs  the  edge  of  the  sole  \  inch,  there  being  that  extent  of  twist  upon  the  surface  of  the 
land-side,  within  the  limits  of  the  body.  Some  makers  of  this  plow — and  they  are  those  of  the 
greatest  eminence-^adopt  the  practice  also  of  throwing  the  coulter-box  to  the  right  hand,  in  the 
beam,  making  the  beam  plain  on  the  land-side,  as  in  the  Lanarkshire  plow.  This,  however,  is 
not  universal,  many  still  preferring  to  have  the  coulter  in  the  axis  of  the  beam  In  the  first  case, 
the  land-side  of  the  coulter  stands  at  an  angle  of  about  7'^,  and  the  latter  about  5°  with  the  vertical 
line. 

(548.)  The  right  handle  DE  is  formed  in  a  separate  bar.  and  attached  to  the  body-fi-ame  at  its 
fore  end  by  a  bolt,  as  will  be  shown  in  detail ;  and  it  is  farther  connected  to  the  left  handle  by  the 
stretcher-bolts  FFF,  and  the  stays  GG. 

(549.)  The  coulter  I  is  fixed  in  its  bo.x  K  by  means  of  iron  wedges,  which  set  and  retain  it  in 
its  proper  position.  The  rake  or  angle  that  the  cutting  edge  of  the  coulter  in  this  plow  makes 
with  the  base-line,  takes  a  greater  range  than  any  of  the  other  two.  being  from  45^  to  80°.  The 
land-side  face,  taken  horizontally,  is  usually  set  to  form  an  angle  of  2°  landward,  with  the  land- 
side  plane. 

(550.)  The  monld-board  L  is  fixed  upon  the  body-frame,  as  before  described,  and  is  adapted, 
as  in  the  former  cases,  to  the  turning  over  the  furrow-slice.  Its  fore  edge  or  breast  MN  coincides 
with  the  land-side  of  the  body  ;  its  lower  edge  O,  behind,  stands  from  8^  to  9  inches  distant  from 
the  land-side  ;  while  its  upper  edge  P  spreads  out  to  I93  inches  from  the  land-side.  It  is,  as  al- 
ready observed,  prolonged  forward,  covering  the  neck  of  the  share,  and  meeting  the  shield  at  the 
root  of  the  feather  Ql.  At  the  point  NQ,,  the  horizontal  breadth  of  the  mould-board  is  3  inches,  its 
hight  from  the  base-line,  at  the  same  point  N,  ranges  from  2^  inches  to  3|  inches,  according  to 
the  degree  of  inclination  that  is  given  to  the  share ;  but  the  real  hight  from  the  plane  of  the  sole- 
shoe  is  2\  inches.  The  length  of  the  mould-board  along  the  lower  edge,  from  O  to  N,  is  23 
inches;  from  P  to  M,  along  the  upper  edge,  26  inches;  and  the  e.xtreme  length,  from  P  to  N,  is 
35^  inches.  The  perpendicular  hight,  from  the  plane  of  the  base-line  to  the  upper  edge  at  P,  is 
about  12|  inches,  though  trifling  deviations  from  these  dimensions  may  be  found  among  the 
makers  of  this  plow. 

(551.)  The  share  Q,R  is  fitted  upon  the  head,  which  in  general  is  of  cast-iron,  as  afterward  de- 
scribed, the  neck  passing  under  the  mould-board  at  NQ, :  and  the  shield,  falling  into  the  curve  of 
the  mould-board,  terminates  forward  in  the  chi.sel -point  R. 

(552.)  The  bridle  C  of  this  plow  is  formed  by  a  pair  of  straps  S,  appended  to  the  point  of 
the  beam  ;  and  from  the  lower  parts  of  these,  the  chain-bar  H  passes  to  the  beam,  whereon  it  il 
fixed,  a  few  inches  before  the  coulter.box  K.  The  bridle  proper,  U,  is  attached  by  the  same 
bolt  that  connects  the  chain  to  the  straps.  Shifting  the  straps  S  up  or  down  upon  the  beam,  afr 
fords  the  requisite  adjustment  vertically,  and  the  bridle  U  gives  the  horizontal  adjustment. 

(553.)  The  right  and  left  handles  are  each  furnished,  at  A  and  D,  with  wooden  helves,  fitted  into 
the  sockets  of  the  handles.  In  this  plow,  also,  there  is  usually  applied  a  brace-rod  V,  fixed  at 
the  fore  end  to  the  tail  of  the  beam,  and  behind  to  the  right  handle  by  a  bolt  and  nut,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  supporting  the  right  handle. 

(554.)  The  general  dimensions  of  this  plow  are — From  the  zero  point  O  to  the  extremity  of 
the  heel  T,  the  distance  is  5  inches ;    and  from  O  forward  to  the  point  R  of  the  share,  is  29 
inches ;  making  an  entire  length  of  34  inches  on  the  sole.    Again,  from  O  backward  to  the  ex- 
(507) 


26S 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER 


tremity  of  the  handles  A',  the  distance  is  6  feet  2  iaches ;  and  forward  to  the  dranght-bolt  U', 
4  feetS  inches;  inakiii;;  the  extreme  length  on  the  baseline  10  feet  5  inches;  but  measuring 
alone:  the  sinuosities  of  the  beam  and  handle,  the  entire  length  from  A  to  U  is  11  feel  6  inches. 

(555.)  In  reference  to  the  body  of  the  plow,  the  center  of  the  coulter-box  is  IC  inches,  and 
the  point  M  of  the  breast  curve  8  inches  before  the  zero-point ;  both  as  measured  on  the  base- 
line;  but,  in  following  the  rise  of  llie  beam,  the  distance  irom  M  to  the  middle  of  the  coulter- 
box  is  11  inches. 

(556.)  The  higlUs  of  the  different  points,  from  tlie  base-line  to  the  upper  edge  of  the  beam 
and  handle,  are  marked  on  fig.  53  ;  the  chief  points  only  being  expressed  here.  At  the  helve  of 
the  left  handle,  the  hight  is  3  feet,  the  right  being  2  inches  lower ;  the  difference  in  hight  con- 
tinuing nearly  uniform  throughout  their  length.  The  hight  of  the  point  of  the  beam  at  C  ia 
23  inches,  and  to  the  center  of  the  draught-bolt  at  a  medium  of  16^  inches.  The  lower  edge 
of  the  mould-board,  behind,  is  usually  set  at  i  inch  above  the  plane  of  the  sole  ;  while,  at  its 
junction  with  the  share  at  N,  the  hight  above  the  base  line  runs  from  IJ  to  IJ  inches. 

(557  )  For  the  dimensions  of  all  tlie  individual  parts  of  the  frame-work  of  tliis  plow,  it  is 
unnecessary  to  repeat  them  here,  as  thcv  correspond  so  nearly  with  those  already  stated  in 
treating  oj"  the  first  two  varieties.  In  this  respect,  llierefore,  reference  is  now  made  to  those 
before  described  in  paragraphs  (513)  and  (5361. 

(558.)  The  body-frame. — The  Mid-Loihian,  like  the  East-Lothian  plow,  is  usually  constmcted 
with  a  cast-iron  body-frame,  differing,  however,  in  some  respects,  from  the  latter.  Fig.  92  ia 
an  elevation  of  the  furrow-side  of  the  body-frame.  It  consists  of  a  plate  or  web  a  b  c  d  of 
about  J  inch  thick,  upon  which  is  planted  the  sole-bar  b  ef,  the  beam-flange  a  k,  and  also  the 
ribs  b  i  and  k  I;  these  last  are  for  the  purpose  of  strengthening  the  web.    Fig.  93  is  a  direct  view 


Fig.  94. 


Fig.  92. 


THK   DKTAILS   (IF   TMK    ItOIl  V-r  KA  M  E. 


of  the  under  surface  of  the  sole-bar.  Its  breadth  at  b  and  e  is  2^  inches,  but  from  e  toward  m 
it  is  diminished  to  2  inches,  where  the  thickness  is  ^  inch ;  but  at  e,  where  the  principal  strain 
falls,  through  the  action  upon  the  share,  the  depth  is  increased  to  2  inches,  from  which  it  tapers 
forward  to  /,  where  it  measures  \\  inches  in  breadth  and  j  inch  in  depth.  From  c  it  dimin- 
ishes al.so  backward  ;  and  from  /  to  A  a  filling  piece  is  inserted  in  the  pattern,  in  the  angle,  as 
seen  at  /,  f'g.  34,  to  increase  the  strength.  A  filling  piece  is  also  inserted  at  k,  fig.  92.  to  support 
that  point  whore  the  strain  from  the  beam  falls  upon  the  body,  as  well  as  to  give  a  bearing  to  the 
breast  of  the  mould  board.  Fig.  04  is  a  transverse  section  of  the  body-frame  on  the  line  x  x,  look- 
ing forward  ;  a  is  the  web,  b  e  the  sole-bar,  k  I  one  of  the  ribs  in  fig.  92,  g  the  beam-flange,  and 
w  the  seat  into  which  the  beam  is  received  when  applied  to  the  frame,  ai^  bolted,  as  at  w  w  n. 
In  the  best  examples  of  this  body-frame,  a  part  of  the  land-siue  plating  is  cast  along  with  the 
frame;  the  lower  edge  of  this  portion  is  represented  by  the  dotted  line  o  o,  fig.  92;  and  the 
frame,  as  here  described,  is  alvvays  cast  in  one  piece,  but  having  the  perforation  ;)p/?alwaj-8 
formed  in  it.  A  broken  off  portion  of  the  right  handle  is  marked  q,  and  is  formed  at  the  fore  part 
into  a  palm,  by  which  it  is  bolted  to  the  web.  The  bolt-hole  r  is  the  place  of  insertion  of  the  lower 
stretcher,  which  connects  the  right  handle  to  the  body-frame  ;  .<:  s  are  the  bolts  of  the  land-side 
plate ;  1 1  those  for  the  land-side  flange  of  the  shoe  ;  n  u  are  the  bolts  for  fixing  a  kneed  bracket,  on 
which  the  upper  fore  part  of  the  mould-board  rests,  and  is  bolted,  the  lower  fixture  being  at  r;  and 
a  third  isobtainod  through  a  bracket,  bolted  upon  the  right  handle,  as  seen  at  Y,  fig.  54,  Plate  X. 
The  length  of  the  beam-flange  in  this  frame  is  from  19  to  19J  inches,  and  the  hight  and  outline  of 
that  part  are  obtained  from  the  bights  marked  in  fig.  53,  Plate  X,  deducting  1  inch  for  the  thickness 
of  the  sole-shoe  at  the  heel,  and  \  inch  at  the  point. 
(508) 


THE   PLOW. 


269 


(559.)  The  sole-shoe. — Fig:.  95  is  a  plan  of  the  sole-shoe  ;  a  b  the  sole-flange  17  inches  in  length 
3  teches  in  breadth,  and  1  inch  in  depth  at  a  the  heel,  but  diminished  to  \  inch  at  Z> ;  c  d  is  the  land 
side  flange,  \  inch  in  thickness  at  bottom,  and  |  inch  at  the  upper  edge,  the  hight  being  4  inches. 
Fig.  96  is  the  furrow-side  of  the  shoe,  with  the  same  letters  of  reference  ;  e  is  the  notch  at  the  fore 


Fig.  97. 


Fig.  96. 


THE  DETAILS  OF  THE  SOLE-SHOE. 

part,  for  the  passage  of  the  neck  of  the  share ;  it  is  4 1  inches  in  length  and  Sj  inches  in  hight,  d 
being  the  curve  adapted  to  the  breast  of  the  mould-board.  Fig.  97  is  a  transverse  section  of  of  the 
shoe,  a  the  sole,  and  c  the  side-flange. 

(560.)  The  share. — The  share  of  this  plow,  in  principle  and  construction,  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
Lanarkshire  ;  but  in  the  present  case,  the  head  being  of  cast-iron,  the  neck  is  necessarily  some 
what  larger.    Fig  98  is  a  plan,  in  which  a  6  is  the  neck,  «erf  the  land-side,  and  c  5- e  the  shield;  hffr 

Fig.  9a 


THE  SHARE. 

la  the  feather,  and  fr  d  the  point  of  the  share,  which,  in  this  plow,  is  usually  chisel-pointed,  and  longer 
between  the  termination  of  the  feather  and  the  point,  than  in  the  share  of  the  Lanarkshire  plow. 
In  farther  illustration  of  this  share,  reference  is  made  to  that  of  the  Lanarkshire  plow,  where  fig. 
78  is  a  direct  view  of  the  furrow-side  of  the  share,  exhibiting  the  rise  of  the  cutting  edge  of  the 
feather  above  the  base-line,  which,  in  the  plows  considered  the  most  perfect  for  plowing  lea, 
amounts  to  a  rise  of  1^  to  1 J  inches.  The  extreme  breadth  of  this  share  over  the  feather  ranges  from 
41  to  5|  inches,  the  length  irom  the  point  to  the  head  of  the  shield,  at  a  maximum,  is  11  inches, 
and  including  the  neck,  17  inches;  under  the  same  condition  the  length  from  the  extreme  point 
to  the  commencement  of  the  feather  at  g,  is  about  3|  inches.  Fig.  79  is  an  end-view  of  the  share 
looking  forward,  in  which  also  the  same  letters  are  applied  ;  a  i  is  the  opening  of  the  neck  to  re- 
ceive the  head,  and  e  c  g  shows  the  outline  of  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  shield  and  feather. 
This, like  the  Lanark.shire  plow,  is  held  as  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  plowing  of  lealand  ;  and  aa 
the  share  just  described  is  that  which  is  adapted  for  that  purpose — for  the  chief  and  almost  sole 
difference  between  the  adaptation  of  these  plows  for  lea  and  stubble  land  lies  in  the  configuration 
of  the  share — it  is  necessary  to  advert  to  the  stubble  land  or  fallow-share.  In  this  the  chief,  in- 
deed the  only,  difference  lies  in  the  formation  of  the  feather,  which  for  stubble  land  is  made  broader, 
and  the  cutting  edge,  instead  of  rising  from  the  point  at  an  angle  of  8'-',  is  formed  so  as  to  ap- 
proach to  the  plane  of  the  sole,  or  not  exceeding  an  angle  of  4°. 

(561.)  The  land-side. — Figs.  99  and  100  are  illustrations  of  the  land-side  of  the  body  of  this 
plow — the  extremities,  as  in  the  previous  cases,  being  cut  off.  Fig.  99  is  an  elevation,  a  b  \s  the 
base  line,  a  c  the  share,  11  its  neck,  and  d  b  the  sole-.shoe  ;  e  e  are  the  land  side  plates — the  upper 
one,  as  before  stated,  being  cast  as  a  part  of  the' body,  and  /s"  is  a  part  of  the  beam.  In  the  ex- 
treme cases  of  this  plow,  the  altitude  of  the  low  triangle  a  n  b  is  I  inch  ;  and,  when  the  line  of  the 
sole  b  n  is  extended  to  h,  the  depression  of  the  point  of  the  share  below  that  line  is  found  to  be 
about  1|  inches.  Fig.  100  represents  a  horizontal  section  of  the  body-frame,  as  if  cut  off  at  the 
upper  edge  of  the  sole-shoe  ;  here  a  c  is  the  share,  71  its  neck,  and  b  d  the  sole-flange  ;  f  and  /"are 
the  two  bars  of  the  body  frame,  and  g  i  the  land-side  of  the  sole.  By  continuing  the  line  of  the 
land-side  to  h,  the  inclination  of  the  share  landward  is  found  frequently  to  be  1  inch.         _ 

(562.)   The  bridle.— As  has  been  already  noticed,  this  plow  differs  from  the  others  in  it.s  bridle 
bemg  connected  with  a  chain  bar,  passing  under  and  attached  to  the  beam  near  the  coulter-box ; 
and,  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  this  equipage,  the  point  of  the  beam  is  elevated  to  the  hight  of  23 
(509) 


270 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


inches  above  the  baseline.     The  chain  is  usually  a  single  rod  of  iron,  with  a  link  and  shackle  be« 
hind,  by  which  it  is  i.-oimocted  to  the  beam,  by  moans  ot  a  bolt  passing  throujjh  the  shackle  and 


FiK.99. 


THE  DETAILS  OF  THE  LAND-SIDE. 


the  beam  at  a  point  about  3  inches  before  the  coulter-box.    The  bridle,  of  which  fig.  101  is  an  ele- 
vation and  fig.  10-2  a  plan,  consists  of  a  pair  of  iron  straps  a  b,  10  inches  in  length,  and  \\  inchei 


Fig.  101. 


Fig.  102. 


THE  DETAILS  OF  THE  nitlDLE. 


by  \  inch,  each  having  a  number  of  perforations  by  which  they  ran  be  appended  to  the  point  of  " 
the  beam  c  d.  by  means  of  a  bolt  passing  through  them  and  the  beam  ;  a  strap  (7  b  being  on  each 
side  of  it.    The  fore  end  of  the  chain-bar /c  i8,"in  like  manner,  received  betwe'en.the  lower  enda 
(510) 


THE   PLOW.  271 


of  the  straps  at  b,  and  secured  by  the  draught-bolt  g.  On  the  same  bolt  is  appended  the  bridle 
proper  h  i,  the  bolt  passing  through  the  whole  of  the  parts.  The  bridle  is  formed  with  a  web  h  i 
in  front,  9  inches  in  length,  and  1^  inches  in  breadth,  having  also  a  number  of  perforations  for  re- 
ceiving the  shackle-bolt  k.  In  this  equipage,  the  draught-swivel  hook  /  and  the  shackle  m  are 
combined  in  one,  which  completes  the  arrangement.  Thi.s  combination  of  bridle-mounting  gives 
the  same  facility  as  before  for  shifting  the  direction  of  the  draught — vertically,  by  raising  or  low- 
ering the  straps  a  b  on  the  point  of  the  beam,  and  horizontally,  by  shifting  the  shackle-bolt  and 
shackle  k  in  right  and  left. 

(563.)  Of  the  action  of  the  Plow. — The  couUer,  the  share  and  the  mould-hoard  being  the 
principal  active  parts  of  the  plow,  and  those  which  supply  the  chief  characteristics  to  the  imple- 
ment, it  may  be  useful  to  the  farmer,  as  well  as  to  the  agricultural  mechanic,  to  enter  into  a  more 
minute  descriptive  detail  of  the  nature  and  properties  of  these  members,  before  entering  upon  the 
duties  which  each  in  its  turn  has  to  perform  in  the  action  of  cutting  and  turning  over  the  furrow- 
slice. 

(oC4.)  The  cotdler. — The  coulter,  in  its  construction,  as  well  as  in  the  duties  it  has  to  perform, 
is  the  simplest  member  of  the  plow.  It  is  a  simple  bar,  in  form  as  represented  by  figs.  67  and  68; 
varying  in  length,  according  to  the  variety  of  the  plow  to  which  it  belongs,  from  18  to  22  inches. 
Simple  though  the  fonn  and  duties  of  the  coulter  may  be,  there  is  no  member  of  the  plow  where- 
of'such  a  variety  of  opinions  exi.st  as  to  its  position.  I  have  shown  that,  in  practice,  the  rake  or 
angle  which  its  cutting  edge  makes  with  the  base-line  ranges  from  45^  to  80°,  that  of  its  land-side 
face  from  4~^  to  8°  with  the  vertical,  and  that  the  same  face,  in  the  horizontal  dii-ection,  varies  from 
(P  to  4^  with  the  land-side.  The  objects  of  these  variations  will  be  duly  pointed  out,  as  mere  mat- 
ters of  taste  and  convention  among  plowmen.  Two  points  alone,  in  regard  to  position,  .should  be 
considered  as  standard  and  invariable.  These  are,  1st,  that  the  land-side  face  of  the  coulter  shall 
be  ahuays  parallel,  in  the  horizontal  direction,  to  the  plane  of  the  land-side  of  the  plow's  body  ; 
and,  2d,  that  at  the  hight  of  7  inches,  or  of  6  inches,  according  to  the  depth  of  furrow  to  ichich 
the  ploto  is  adapted,  the  land-side  face  of  the  coulter  shall  be  ^  inch  to  landward,  or  to  the  left, 
of  the  plane  of  the  land-side  of  the  body.  One  other  point  in  position  is  subject  to  a  great  diver- 
sity of  opinion — that  is,  the  position  in  which  the  extreme  point  of  the  coulter  should  .stand  in  re- 
lation to  the  point  of  the  share.  In  respect  to  landing,  or  that  cause  which  requires  the  point  of 
the  coulter  to  be  placed  to  landward  of  the  share,  the  range  of  opinion  is  within  moderate  bounds, 
being  from  0  to  |  inch  ;  but,  in  the  vertical  direction,  the  range  varies  from  ^  inch  to  2  inches,  and 
iu  the  longitudinal  direction  a  like  difference  of  opinion  exists.  Thus  Small  recommends  that  the 
point  of  the  coulter  should  be  2  or  3  inches  in  advance  of  the  point  of  the  share,  and  ^  or  1  inch 
above  the  plane  of  the  sole  (base-line),  while  it  should  be  |  inch  or  1  inch  to  Za«f?«'rtr(^  of  the  land- 
side  plane.*  The  first  of  these  propositions,  as  will  be  afterward  shown,  is  very  much  at  fault; 
and  the  almost  universal  practice,  al.so,  of  keeping  the  two  points  nearly  equal  in  advance,  con- 
demns the  practice,  and  points  out  equality  as  the  rule.  In  regard  to  the  position  of  the  point 
landward,  it  is  liable  to  considerable  variation,  partly  from  the  inclination  that  may  be  given  to  the 
share,  and  likewi.se  from  the  degree  of  obliquity  between  the  coulter  and  the  land-side.  This  last, 
indeed,  combined  with  the  rule  laid  down,  from  the  position  of  the  coulter  in  relation  to  the  land- 
side,  at  the  hight  of  6  or  7  inches,  is  the  true  source  from  which  the  landward  relation  of  the  points 
of  the  coulter  and  share  can  be  ascertained  ;  hence,  therefore,  in  whatever  variety  of  the  plow,  the 
coulter  should  have  its  position  in  regard  to  land  determined  first ;  and  the  point  of  the  share 
should  take  its  position  from  the  coulter.  The  distance  to  which  the  point  of  the  share  stands  to 
the  right  of  the  coulter  should  in  no  case  exceed  |  inch,  but  it  were  better  to  confine  it  to  \  inch. 
In  the  vertical  position,  the  advancing  of  the  point  of  the  coulter  to,  or  retiring  from,  the  share, 
violates  no  principle  in  the  relation  of  the  parts ;  but,  to  place  the  coulter  at  an  undue  distance 
above  the  share  leaves  that  portion  of  tiie  slice  uncut  that  falls  between  the  two  points ;  which 
must  produce  an  undue  resistance,  from  the  part  being  forcibly  pressed  asunder,  by  a  process  like 
clipping,  through  the  inclined  action  of  the  share  upward.  The  nature  of  the  soil,  whether  stony 
or  gravelly,  or  a  loam,  will,  however,  always. have  an  effect  on  this  point  of  the  trimming  of  the 
plow ;  and,  as  no  principle  is  affected,  there  is  no  impropriety  in  giving  a  latitude  in  this  direc- 
tion ;  though  I  conceive  that  a  distance  of  1  inch  between  the  points  of  the  share  and  coulter 
ought  to  be  the  maximum,  except  in  cases  where  the  nature  of  the  8oil  may  demand  a  deviation 
from  that  distance. 

(565.)  The  office  which  the  coulter  has  to  perform  in  the  action  of  the  plow  is  simple  and  uni- 
form, being  merely  to  make  an  incision  through  the  soil,  in  the  direction  of  the  furrow-slice  that 
is  to  be  raised.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that,  in  doing  this,  it  neither  increases  nor  decreases  the 
resistance  of  the  plow  in  any  appi-eciable  degree.  Its  sole  use,  therefore,  is  to  cut  a  smooth  edge 
iu  the  slice  which  is  to  be  raised,  and  an  unbroken  face  for  the  land-side  of  the  plow  to  move 
against  in  its  continued  progress. 

(566.)  In  the  early  works  on  the  principles  of  the  plow,  some  misconceptions  appear  to  have 
been  formed  of  the  influence  of  the  coulter,  under  the  supposition  that  the  coulter  extending  3 
inches  in  front  of  the  share  acted  beneficially  ;  and  that  giving  the  coulter  a  great  rake,  or  a  low- 
angle  with  the  base,  made  it  cut  the  soil  advantageously,  and  with  less  resistance.  From  a  series 
of  experiments,  I  have  satisfied  myself  that  the  first  of  these  suppositions  is  erroneous,  and  that  the 
projection  of  the  coulter  before  the  share  increases  the  resistance  in  a  very  sensible  degree.  With 
regard  to  the  second,  the  resistance  seems  not  to  be  affected  by  the  angle  at  which  the  edge  of 
the  coulter  stands;  and  the  analogy  of  a  common  cutting  instrument!  does  not  hold  in  the  case 
of  the  coulter  of  the  plow.  With  a  razor  or  a  knife  in  the  hand,  we  make  them  pass  through  any 
object  by  drawing  their  cutting  edge  over  the  surface  to  be  cut,  in  the  manner  as  with  a  saw, 
which  greatly  increases  the  effect  without  any  increase  of  force ;  and  this  holds  in  all  proper  cut- 
ting instruments;  but  let  the  edge  of  the  instrument  be  placed  simply  at  an  angle  with  the  direc- 


Small's  Treatise  on  Plows.  f  Ibid. 

(511) 


272  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

lion  in  which  the  stroke  or  cut  ia  to  be  made,  and,  in  raakinj;  the  cut,  let  this  oblicjue  position  be 
retained,  so  that  the  cuitinp  edge  shall  proceed  parallel  to  its  oritrinal  position,  without  any  ten- 
dency to  (Iratrhiir  the  edge  across  the  direction  of  the  cut  ;  no  miving  of  force  is  obtained.  This 
process  must  ho  familiar  to  every  one  who  uses  a  knife  for  any  purpose  whatever.  In  slicing  a 
loaf,  the  operator  is  at  once  sensible  that,  by  moving  the  knife  gently  backward  or  forsvard,  he  is 
required  to  exert  less  force,  while  he  at  the  same  lime  makes  a  smoother  cut,  than  he  would  do 
by  forcing  the  kuife  through  the  loaf,  witli  its  edge  either  at  right  angles  or  obliquely  to  the  direc- 
tion in  which  the  knife  proceeds.  The  coulter  of  the  plow  acts  in  this  last  position  ;  its  cutting 
edge  Htiuids  ohlicjucty  to  the  direction  of  motion,  but  has  no  means  of  drawing  or  slidinf^,  to  cross 
the  forward  motion  ;  it  therefore  cuts  by  sheer  force  of  pressure.*  Where  elastic  substances  oc- 
cur, an  instniment  cutting  in  this  manner  has  some  advantages.  In  the  case  of  fibrous  roots,  for 
example,  crossing  the  path  of  the  coulter — the  latter,  by  pa.ssing  under  ihem,  sets  their  elasticity 
in  action,  by  which  they  allow  the  edge  to  slide  under  them  to  a  small  extent,  and  thus  produces 
the  sairini.'  effect.  In  the  non-elastic  earths,  of  which  soils  arc  chiefly  compo.scd,  nothing  of  this 
kind,  it  is  apprehended,  can  occur;  hence  the  angle  of  the  coulter,  as  it  affects  the  force  rcquisito 
to  move  the  plow,  is  of  little  importance. 

{'jG~.)  I  have  said  that  the  projection  of  the  coulter  in  front  of  the  share  increases  the  resistance, 
and  I  am  borne  out  in  this  asisertion  from  the  result  of  experiments  not  a  little  inexplicable.  On 
a  subject  which  has  of  late  attracted  considerable  attention,  I  was  desirous  of  obtaining  informa- 
tion, from  exi>eriment8  alone,  on  the  actual  implement ;  and,  to  attain  this  the  more  fully,  I  deter- 
mined on  analyzing  the  resistance  as  far  as  po.ssible.  With  this  view,  a  plow  was  prepared  whose 
coulter  descended  7  inches  below  the  line  of  the  sole,  and  fitted  to  stand  at  any  required  angle. — 
This  plow,  with  its  sole  upon  the  surface  of  tiro-ycars'  old  lea,  and  the  coulter  alone  in  the  soil, 
the  bridle  having  been  adjusted  to  make  it  swim  without  any  undue  tendency  ;  the  force  required 
to  draw  this  experimental  instrument,  as  indicated  by  the  djnamometer,  was  26  imperial  stones, 
or  .3|  cwt.,  and  no  sensible  difference  was  ob.served  in  a  range  of  angles  varj'ing  from  45^  to  70°. 
This  coulter  having  been  removed,  the  plow  was  drawn  along  the  surface  of  the  field,  when  the 
dyiiamometer  indicated  8  stones,  the  usual  draught  of  a  plow  on  the  surface.  Another  well- 
tinmmed  plow  was  at  work  in  the  same  ridge,  taking  a  furrow  10  by  7  inches,  and  its  drauL'ht  was 
also  26  stones.  On  removing  the  coulter  from  this  plow,  and  making  it  take  a  furrow  of  the  same 
dimensions,  the  draught  was  still  the  same — namely,  20  stones ;  the  furrow  thus  taken  produced, 
of  course,  a  slice  of  verj-  rough  plowman.ship,  and  though  it  exhibited,  by  a  negative,  the  essential 
use  of  the  coulter — the  clean  cutting  of  the  slice  from  the  solid  ground — the  whole  question  of  the 
operation  and  working  effects  of  the  coulter  are  thus  placed  in  a  very  anomalous  position.  The 
question  naturally  arises,  what  becomes  of  the  force  required  to  draw  the  coulter  alone  through 
the  ground,  when,  as  it  appears,  the  same  amount  offeree  is  capable  of  drawing  the  entire  plow, 
with  or  without  a  coulter  ?  A  definite  and  satisfactory  answer,  it  is  feared,  cannot  at  present  be 
given  to  the  question,  and,  until  experiments  have  been  repeated  and  varied  in  their  mode  of  ap 
.  plication,  any  explanation  that  can  be  given  is  mere  conjecture. 

(568.)  Since  we  have  seen  that  the  same  force  is  required  to  draw  the  plo7v  without  a  coulter 
as  with  it,  and  as  it  has  been  observed  that  the  work  performed  without  the  coulter  is  very  rough, 
by  reason  of  .the  slice  being  in  a  great  measure  torn  from  the  .solid  ground,  the  breast  of  the  plow 
being  but  indifferently  adapted  for  cutting  off  the  slice — it  is  more  than  probable  that  the  tearing 
asunder  of  the  slice  from  the  solid  ground  requires  a  certain  amount  of  force  above  what  would 
be  required  were  the  slice  previously  .severed  by  the  vertical  incision  of  the  coulter.  And  though 
we  find  that  the  force  requisite  to  make  this  incision,  when  taken  alone,  is  equal  to  tiic  whole 
draught,  yet  there  appears  no  improbability  in  the  supposition  that  the  minus  quantity  in  the 
one  may  just  equal  the  phis  in  the  other.  Bo  this  as  it  may,  the  discovery  of  the  anomaly  pre- 
sents at  least  a  curious  point  for  investigation,  and  one  that  may  very  probably,  through  a  train 
of  careful  experiments,  point  out  tlie  medium  through  which  a  minimum  of  draught  is  to  be  ob' 
tained. 

(569.)  Regarding  the  effect  of  change  on  the  angle  of  the  edge  of  the  coulter,  though  it  does  not 
directly  affect  the  draught  of  the  plow,  it  is  capable  of  producing  practical  effects  that  are  of  im- 
portance. In  plowing  stubble  land,  or  land  that  is  very  foul  with  weeds,  the  coulter  .«hould  be 
trimmed  to  a  long  rake — that  is,  set  at  a  low  angle,  say  fnmi  45^  to  55° ;  this  will  give  it  a  ten- 
dency to  free  itself  of  the  roots  and  weeds  that  will  collect  upon  it.  by  their  sliding  upward  on 
the  edge  of  the  coulter;  and,  in  general,  will  be  ultimately  thrown  oft"  without  exertion  on  the 
part  of  the  plowman.  The  accumulation  of  masses  of  such  refuse  on  the  coulter  greatly  increases 
the  labor  of  the  horses.  The  amount  of  this  increased  labor  I  have  frequently  ascertained  by  the 
dynamomoior.  and  have  found  it  to  increase  the  draught  of  the  plows  from  26  stones,  their  ordi- 
nary draught  when  clear,  up  to  36  stones ;  and,  immediately  on  the  removal  of  the  obstruction,  the 
draught  has  fallen  to  an  average  force  of  26  stones.  It  is  unnecessary  to  add  that  the  prevention 
of  such  waste  of  muscular  exertion  ought  to  be  the  care  of  the  farmer,  as  far  as  the  construction 
of  his  machines  will  ailmit  of. 

(.'570.)  To  ai)ply  a  plow,  with  its  coulter  set  in  the  position  above  described,  to  lea-land  with  a 
rough  surface,  would  produce  a  kind  of  plowmanship  not  approved  of;  every  furrow  would  be 
bristling  with  the  withered  stems  of  the  unconsumed  grasses;  for,  to  plow  such  land  with  a  coul- 
ter set  in  this  way,  would  cause  its  partially  matted  surface  to  present  a  ragged  edge,  from  the 
coulter  acting  upon  the  elastic  fibres  and  roots  of  the  grasses,  pressing  them  upward  before  they 
could  be  cut  through.  The  rai;ged  edge  of  the  slice  thus  jiroduced  gives,  when  turned  over,  that 
untidy  appearance  which  is  oftt^n  obsc^rvable  in  lea  plowing.  To  obviate  this.  llu>  coulter  should 
be  set  at  a  higher  angle,  by  which  it  will  cut  the  mat,  without  tearing  it  up  with  a  bearded  edge. 
Crack  plowmen,  when  they  arc  about  to  exhibit  a  specimen  of  fine  plowing,  are  so  guarded 


*  An  ingenioud  application  of  the  drawing  action  here  illustrated  is  to  be  found  in  the  eubterranean  cut- 
ters of  Mr.  Parkes's  steam-plow  for  plowing  moss-land. 
(512) 


THE   PLOW.  273 


against  this  defect  that  they  sometimes  get  their  coulter  kneed  forward  under  the  beam  so  far  as 
to  bring  the  edge  nearly  perpendicular.  The  same  cause  induces  the  makers  of  the  Lanarkshire 
plow  to  set  the  coulter  with  its  land-side  face,  not  coincident  with  the  land-siae  plane  horizontally 
but  at  an  angle  with  it  of  4-^,  thus  placing  the  right  hand  face  of  the  coulter  nearly  parallel  to  the 
land-side  plane,  and  thereby  removing  the  tendency  of  the  ordinary  oblique  position  of  the  right 
hand  face  to  produce  a  rough-bearded  edge  on  the  rising  slice.  The  dynamical  effect  of  such  a 
position  will  be  afterward  treated  of. 

(571.)  The  xhare. — The  structure  and  position  of  the  diflferent  shares  having  been  already  point- 
ed out  (ol9,)  (.">40.)  (560,).  and  also  their  relations  to  the  coulter,  there  remains  to  make  some  gen- 
eral remarks  on  the  action  of  the  .share,  and  on  the  effects  resulting  from  the  varieties  of  that  mem- 
ber of  the  plow. 

[i>l-i.)  We  have  seen  that  the  coulter  performs  but  a  comparatively  small  portion  of  the  opera- 
lion  required  in  the  turning  a  furrow  slice.  The  share,  however,  takes  a  more  important  and  much 
more  e.\;tensive  part  in  the  process;  on  the  functions  of  the  .share,  in  short,  depends  much  of  the 
character  of  the  plow.  Its  duty  is  very  much  akin  to  that  of  a  spade,  if  pushed  horizontally  into 
the  soil  with  a  view  to  lift  a  sod  of  eartli ;  but.  as  its  action  is  continuous,  its  form  must  be  modified 
to  suit  a  continuous  action  ;  hence,  instead  of  the  broad  cutting  edge  of  the  spade,  which,  in  the 
generality  of  soils,  would  be  liable  to  be  thrown  out  of  its  course  by  obstacles  such  as  stone.s,  the 
share  may  be  conceived  as  a  spade  wherein  one  of  its  angles  has  been  cut  oti  obliquely,  leaving 
only  a  narrow  point  remaining,  adapted  to  make  the  first  impression  on  the  .slice.  A  narrow  point 
being  liable  to  meet  obstruction  only  in  the  ratio  of  its  breadth  to  the  breadth  of  the  entire  share, 
the  chances  of  its  encountering  stones  are  extremely  few ;  and  though  the  oblique  edge,  now 
called  the  feather,  has  a  like  number  of  chances  to  come  in  contact  with  stones,  yet,  from  its  form, 
taking  them  always  obliquely,  and  the  direct  resistance  which  the  body  of  the  plow  lueets  with 
on  the  land-side  preventing  any  swerving  to  the  left,  such  stones  as  come  in  contact  with  the  .slop- 
ing edge  of  the  feather  are  ea.iily  pu.shed  aside  toward  the  open  lurrow  on  the  i-ight.  The  share 
thus  acts  by  the  in.sertion  of  its  point  under  the  slice  intended  to  be  raised,  and  this  is  followed  up 
by  the  feather,  which  continues  the  operation  begun  by  the  point,  by  separating  the  slice  horizon- 
tally from  the  subsoil  or  the  sole  of  the  furrow  ;  and,  simultaneous  with  this,  the  coulter  separates 
the  slice  vertically  from  the  still  solid  ground.  Probably  iho  mo.st  natural  impre.ssion  that  would 
occur,  at  the  first  thought  of  this  operation,  will  be  that  the  feather  of  the  share  should  be  of  a 
breadth  capable  of  producing  the  immediate  and  entire  separation  of  the  slice  from  the  sole  ;  but 
experience  teaches  us  that  such  would  not  fulfill  all  the  requisite  conditions  of  good  plowing. — 
The  slice  must  not  only  be  separated  ;  it  must  be  gradually  turned  upon  its  edge,  and  ultimately 
still  farther  turned  over  until  that  which  was  the  upper  surface  becomes  the  lower,  lying  at  an 
angle  of  about  4-5^.  It  is  found  that,  if  the  slice  were  cut  entirely  off  from  the  sole,  the  plow  would 
frequently /a/Z  in  turnins:  it  over  to  "the  position  just  referred  to  ;  it  might,  in  place  of  this,  be  only 
moved  a  space  to  the  right  and  fall  back,  or.  at  most,  it  would  be  liable  to  remain  standing  upon 
its  edge ;  in  either  case  the  work  would  be  verj-  imperfect,  and  it  has  therefore  been  found  neces- 
sary to  leave  a  portion,  usually  from  ^  to  5,  of  the  slice  uncut  by  the  feather  of  the  share.  This 
portion  of  the  .slice  is  left  to  be  torn  asunder  from  the  sole  as  it  rises  upon  the  mould-board,  by 
which  means  the  slice  retains  longer  its  hold  of  the  subsoil — turning  by  that  hold,  as  upon  a  hinge, 
till  brought  to  the  vertical  position,  after  which  it  is  easily  brought  into  its  ultimate  place.  The 
breadth  of  the  .share  is  thus,  of  necessity,  limited  to  J  the  breadth  of  the  slice  at  a  maximum,  though 
its  minimum,  as  will  appear,  may  not  exceed  |. 

f573.)  The  disposition  of  the  feather  comes  next  under  notice.  The  feather  having  to  perform 
the  operation  of  cutting  that  part  of  the  .slice  below  that  lies  between  the  point  of  the  share  and 
the  extremity  of  the  feather,  it  is  formed  with  a  thin  edge  suited  to  cutting  the  soil ;  but  the  posi- 
tion of  that  cutting  edge  forms  a  principal  feature  in  distinguishing  the  varieties  of  the  plow,  as 
before  described.  This  distinguishing  character  is  of  two  kinds:  1st,  that  which  has  the  cutting 
eA^e  lying  parallel,  or  nearly  so.  to  the  plane  of  the  sole,  as  in  the  East-Lothian  plow  ;  and,  2d, 
that  which  has  this  cutting  edge  elevated  as  it  retires  from  the  point  of  the  .share,  rising  at  an  angle 
with  the  base-line,  which  is  found  to  vary  from  4-"'  to  8^  as  in  the  Lanarkshire  and  the  Mid-Lothian 
plows ;  and  all  the  sub-varieties  of  these  plows  have  their  shares  coming  under  one  or  other  of 
these  two  divisions. 

(574.)  The  share,  in  either  of  the  forms  above  described,  passes  under  the  furrow  .slice,  making 
a  partial  separation  of  it  from  the  sole  of  the  furrow,  rising  as  the  share  progresses  ;  the  rise,  how- 
ever, being  confined  entirely  to  the  land-side  edge  of  the  slice — the  furrow  edge,  as  has  been 
shown,  remaining  still  in  connection  with  the  solid  ground ;  and  the  shield  and  back  of  the  share 
being  a  continuation  of  the  mould-board,  the  latter,  in  its  progress  forward,  receives  the  slice  from 
the  share  and  passes  it  onward,  or,  more  properly  speaking,  the  plow  passes  under  it. 

(575  )  One  important  consideration  remains  to  be  noticed  regarding  the  practical  effects  of  the 
two  forms  of  feather.  In  the  first,  which  has  the  cutting  edge  nearly  parallel  with  the  plane  of 
the  sole,  the  furrow-slice  being  cut  below  at  one  level  over  the  whole  breadth  of  the  share  and 
feather,  the  slice,  when  exposed  in  section,  will  be  perfectly  rectangular  or  very  slightly  rhom- 
boidal,  and  the  sole  of  the  furrow  'will  be  perfectly  level  across.  Such  a  share,  theOr  will  lift  a 
slice  of  any  given  breadth  and  depth,  which  shall  contain  a  maximum  quantity  of  soil,  and  this 
problem  can  only  be  performed  by  a  share  so  con.structed. 

(576.)  In  the  second  case,  where  the  feather  ri.ses  above  the  plane  of  the  sole  at  the  angles  al- 
ready named,  the  feather  is  found  sometimes  to  attain  a  hight  of  1  inch  and  I5  inches  above  that 
plane.  In  all  such  cases,  the  feather  is  also  narrow  ;  and.  supposing  that  the  part  of  the  slice  left 
uncut  by  it  may  be  torn  asunder,  in  a  continuation  of  the  cut  so  made,  the  slice  will  have  a  depth 
at  its  furrow  edge  less  by  about  1^  inches  or  more  than  at  its  land-side  edge,  as  cut  by  the  point 
of  the  share.  A  transver.se  section  of  this  slice,  therefore,  fig.  103,  would  exhibit  not  a  rectangular 
parallelogram  as  before,  bat  a  trapezoid,  who.se  sides  a  b  and  c  d  might  be  each  i>  inches,  and  its 
sides  b  d  and  a  c  6  inches  and  4i  inches  respectively.  A  slice  of  this  form  would,  therefore,  be 
(513; IS 


274 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


deficient  in  the  quantitv  of  soil  lifted,  by  a  quantity  contained  in  tlie  triangle  dee,  or  about  1-7  part 
of  the  entire  slice ;  and  this  deficiency  is  left  by  the  share  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  as  part  of 
the  solid  subsoil.  The  abs<iluie  quantity  of  mAI  thus  left  unlified  by  shares  of  this  construction  will 
be  found  to  varj-  with  the  elevation  that  is  given  to  the  feather ;  but,  wherever  this  form  of  share 


a  CL 

THE  CRESTED  FCRROW-SLICE. 

is  adopted,  results  similar  to  that  here  described  will  invariably  follow,  though  they  may  differ  in 
degree;  but  the  quantity  left  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  will  seldom  fall  short  of  10  per  cent,  of 
the  whole  slice.  An  indirect  mode  of  removing  this  defect  is  resorted  to  in  practice,  which  will 
be  noticed  under  the  head  of  mould  board. 

(577.)  The  rule  which  I  would  recommend  to  be  followed  in  order  to  secure  the  maximum  of 
useful  effect  in  the  share,  as  founded  on  practice  and  observation,  as  well  as  combining  the  thcorj' 
of  the  share  and  mould-board,  is.  that  the  length  from  the  tail  of  the  foaiher  to  the  point  of  the  share 
should  be  from  10  to  11  inches  ;  that  the  hight  of  the  shield — the  surface  of  the  share — on  the  land- 
side,  opposite  to  the  tail  of  the  feather,  be  "-JJ  inches  above  the  line  of  the  solo-shoe:  that  the  point 
of  the  share  be  \  inch  below  the  line  of  the  sole-shoe,  and  not  exceeding  \  inch  to  landward  of  the 
land-side  plane,  this  la.st  point  being  more  properly  determinable  from  the  coulter:  and,  lastly, 
that  no  part  of  the  edge  of  the  feather  should  be  more  than  \  inch  above  the  plane  of  the  sole-shoe, 
that  plane  being  alwaj-s  understood  to  be  at  right  angles  to  the  land  side  plane. 

(578.)  The  vionld  board  and  its  action. — Since  the  time  that  Small  achieved  his  great  improve* 
ment  in  the  formation  of  the  mould-board,  that  member  has  been  generally  held  as  the  leading 
point  in  the  plow.  This,  in  one  sense,  is  no  doubt  true  ;  for  if  there  is  a  spark  of  science  required 
in  the  construction  of  the  plow,  it  is  certainly  the  mould-board  that  most  requires  it.  Yet.  for  all 
tliia  1  have  seen  a  plow  making  work  little,  apparently,  inferior  to  the  first  rate  mould-board 
plows,  that  had  nothing  to  enable  it  to  turn  over  the  slice  but  a  straii;lit  bar  of  wood.*  In  this  case, 
however,  the  work  was  but  apparently  well  done,  there  being  nothing  to  consolidate  the  slices 
upon  each  other  as  they  fell  over  by  their  own  weight.  The  real  state  of  the  case  seems  to  be 
this,  that  the  share  impresses  the  furrow-slice  with  its  form  and  characlcr,  and  t!ic  duty  of  the 
moulii  board  is  to  transmit  and  deposit  that  slice  in  the  best  possible  manner,  and  with  the  Ica.st 
possible  injury  to  the  character  previously  stamped  u]ion  it  by  the  share.  If  this  view  is  correct 
— and  there  appears  no  reason  why  it  should  be  questioned — the  mould-board  is  only  a  medium 
through  which  the  slice  is  conveyed  from  the  share  to  its  destined  po.sition.  To  do  this,  however, 
in  the  most  perfect  manner,  the  mould-board  has  to  perform  several"  hii-'hly  important  functions — 
1st,  The  transmission  of  the  slice  ;  2d,  Depositing  it  in  the  proper  position  ;  and,  3d,  Performing 
both  these  operations  with  the  least  po.ssible  resi.stance. 

(579.)  The  raising  and  tranKinitling  the  slice  have  frequently  been  described  as  if  consisting 
of  three  or  more  distinct  movements.  With  all  deference  to  former  writers.  I  conceive  it  may  be 
viewed  as  having  onlj'  two  movements,  namely,  cutting  the  slice  by  the  share  and  coulter,  and 
transmitting  it  to  its  appointed  position  through  the  medium  of  the  mould-board.  The  first  has 
been  already  discussed :  I  now  proceed  to  the  second. 

(5t?0.)  The  object  of  cverj-  mould-board  is  to  transmit  the  slice  in  the  best  manner,  and  with  the 
least  possible  expenditure  of  force  ;  but,  as  might  have  been  expected,  we  find  considerable  differ- 
ence of  opinion  on  both  these  points,  ari.sing  from  the  variations  in  the  form  of  the  mould-board. 
In  a  general  way,  the  transmission  of  the  slice  may  be  explained  in  the  following  manner : 

(581.)  In  fig.  104,  a  a  represents  a  vertical  section  of  part  of  an  unbroken  ridge  of  land,  and  the 
parallelogram  a  1/  c  d  also  a  transverse  section  of  an  indefinitely  short  portion  of  a  slice  which  is 
proposed  to  be  raised  :  the  breadth  a  b  being  10  inches,  and  depth  a  d  ~  inches  ;  the  line  d  c  will 
be  the  bottom  of  the  slice,  or  the  line  on  which  it  is  separated  from  the  sole  by  the  action  of  the 
share.  The  points  of  the  share  and  coulter  enter  at  d  ;  and,  in  progre.s.sing  forward,  the  slice  will 
be  gradually  raised  at  d,  the  point  c  remaining  at  rest,  while  the  parallelogram  revolves  upon  it  as 
a  center.  When  the  share  has  penetrated  to  the  extent  of  the  feather,  the  point  d  of  the  slice  will 
have  been  raised  OJ  to  3  inches.  Uy  the  continued  progress  of  the  plow,  the  parallelogram  repre- 
senting the  slice  will  be  found  in  the  jiosirion  c  r  s  f,  and  again  at  c  g  A  ?".  At  the  fourth  stage,  when 
the  zero-[ioint  of  the  mouldboanl  has  reached  the  supposed  line  of  section,  the  slice  will  have  at- 
tained the  vertical  position  c  k  I  m.  Daring  these  stages  of  this  uniform  process,  the  slice  lias  been 
turning  on  the  point  c  as  on  a  pivot,  which  has  retained  its  original  position,  while  the  point  d,  in 
its  successive  transitions,  has  described  the  quadrant  degk.  By  the  continued  progress  of  the 
plow,  the  revolution  of  the  slice  will  be  continued,  but  it  will  be  obsers-ed  that,  at  this  stage,  it 

-  k  viirii  ty  of  the  Kent  tum-wrcst  plow  which  I  have  seen  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Hamilton,  of  Ciircluie, 
is  an  example  of  this. 
(514) 


THE   PLOW. 


275 


changes  the  center  of  revolution  from  c  to  m  ;  when  the  point  k  will  have  described  the  arc  k  o, 
the  slice  has  then  reached  the  position  m  nop  ;  and  ultimately,  when  the  posterior  extremity  of 


THE  TRANSMISSION  OF  THE  FURROW-SLICE. 

the  mould-board  has  reached  the  line  of  section,  the  slice  will  have  attained  its  final  position  mf 
qr,  lying  at  an  angle  of  45"^,  and  resting  on  the  previously  turned-up  slice. 

(582.)  The  process  of  turning  over  the  slice,  therefore,  appro.\imates  to  a  uniform  motion,  pro- 
vided the  parts  of  the  plow  destined  to  perform  the  operation  are  properly  constructed.  The  uai- 
formity,  however,  is  not  directly  as  the  rectilineal  pi-ogress  of  the  plow,  but  must  be  deduced  from 
a  different  function  to  be  afterward  explained.  And,  though  the  process  here  described  refers 
only  to  an  indefinitely  short  slice,  it  is  only  necessary  to  conceive  a  continuity  of  such  short  slices, 
going  to  form  an  entire  furrow-slice,  extending  to  the  whole  length  of  the  field;  and  the  length- 
ened furrow-slice,  being  possessed  of  sufficient  tenacity  to  admit  of  the  requisite  and  temporary 
extension  -svhich  it  undergoes,  while  the  plow  is  passing  under  and  turning  it  over,  is  again  com- 
pressed into  its  original  length,  when  laid  in  its  ultimate  position.  The  furrow-slice,  therefore, 
under  this  process,  may  not  inaptly  be  compared  to  the  motion  of  a  wave  in  the  ocean,  keeping 
in  view  that  the  wave  of  ttie  slice  is  carried  forward  in  a  horizontal  direction,  whereas  the  ocean 
w^ave  is  vertical.  But  in  both  cases,  though  the  wave  travels  onward,  there  is  no  translation  of 
parts  in  the  direction  in  which  it  seems  to  travel.  In  the  case  of  the  furrow-slice  movement,  it 
appears  as  in  the  annexed  perspective  view,  fig.  105,  where  ab  \b  the  edge  of  the  land  as  cut  by 

Fig.  105. 


A  VIEW  or  THE  MOVEMENT  OF  THE  FURROW-SLICE. 

the  preceding  furrow ;  c  d  the  slice  in  the  act  of  turning  over,  but  from  which  the  plow  has  been 
removed  ;  e  f,  the  edge  of  the  land  from  which  the  slice  c  <i  is  being  cut ;  g  h,  the  sole  of  the  fur- 
rows, and  i  k,  I  m.  slices  previously  laid  up.  A  consideration  of  this  figure  vi'ill  also  .show  that  the 
extension  of  the  slice  takes  place  along  the  land-side  edge  e  d  only,  from  e  to  where  the  backward 
flexure  is  given  to  it  when  rising  on  the  mould-board,  and  where  it  is  again  compressed  into  its^ 
original  lensth,  by  the  back  parts  of  the  mould-board,  in  being  laid  down. 

(583.)  Of  the  fiirrow-s/ice. — To  accomplish  efficient  plowing,  the  fun-ow-slice  should  always, 
be  of  such  dimensions  and  laid  in  such  position  that  the  two  exposed  faces  in  a  series  of  slices 
shall  be  of  equal  breadth ;  any  departure  fi-om  this  rule  is  a  positive  fault,  whether  the  object  be 
a  seed-furrow  or  intended  for  amelioration  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphea-e.  Furrow-slices  laid 
up  agi-eeably  to  this  rule  will  not  only  present  the  maximum  of  surface  to  the  atmosphere,  but 
they  will  also  contain  the  riiaximum  of  cubical  contents,  both  of  which  propositions  may  be  illus- 
trated thus  by  fig.  106.  Let  a  b  represent  the  breadth  of  a  10-inch  furrow-slice,  and  describe  the 
semi-circle  acb  upon  it  as  a  diameter.  From  the  well-known  property  of  the  circle,  that  the  an- 
(515) 


276  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

gle  in  a  semi-circle  is  a  right  anplc*  evcrj"  triangle  formed  upon  tlie  diameter,  as  a  base,  will  be 

right  angled,  oiid  the  only  isosceles  triaiitfle  that  can  bo  formed  within  it  will  be  that  which  has 

tlie  greatest  altitude.     The  trianL'le  ach  possesses  these  properties,  for  produce  cb\D  d,  making 

cd  equal  to  ah — the  breadth  of  ilie  slice,  which  must 

always  be  equal  to  the  di.stance  between  the  apices  of  Fig.  106. 

two  contiinious  furrows.     Complete  the  parallelogram  j  i      c      /  h 

a  c  df,  which  will  represent  the  transverse  section  of  a  ::v.v.- 

rectangular  slice,  whose  breadth  is  10  inches,  and  whose  t'    .■■ 

two  expo.sed  faces  a  c  and  c  h  lie  at  angles  of  45^,  and 

their  breadth,  as  well  as  the  area  of  the  triangle  a  be,  /    /. 

will  be  a  maximum.     In  order  to  prove  this,  let  a  section  /  /Oy 

of  another  slice  be  formed,  whoso  exposed  side  f?/ shall  /.^^^ 

be  ffrea/fr  than  the  corresponding  side  a  c  of  the  former.     ^  'Jl„ 

and  let  this  be  taken  at  8  inches.     From  f.  through  the  ^^_  t"    f  ^^.^ 

point  6,  draw /i'.  then  will  o/ 6  be  a  riuht  angle  as  be-  \\-,  ^s."* 

fore; /s- being  also  made  equal  to  10  inches,  complete  \\'"-  /X"* 

tlie  paralleloi,'ram  r?/ 2- A,  which  will  represent  the  trans-  xVx  / /? 

verse  section  of  a  rectangular  slice  10  inches  bj-  8  inches,  \\\v  ^// 

occupying  the  same  horizontal  breadth  as  before,  and  \  \^   '••.  •'/ x     ^ 

■whose  exposed  faces  will  be  oy"  and _/"i.     Draw  the  line  \  \      \     -^y^ 

i  c /:  parallel  to  a  6.  and  passing  through  the  apex  c  of  -\-..\..._.".'^j^^ 

the  triangle  acb;  and  the  line  »' k'  also  parallel  to  a  b,  \     \  ^^* 

passing  through  tJie  apex  /  of  the  triangle  afb.     Here  \ye 

the  irianrles  acb  and  afb  stand  on  equal  bases  a  i  ;  ^ 

but  the  first  lies  between  the  parallels  nb  and  ick.  and 

the  second  between  those  of  n /- and  i' k ;  the  altitude  PROPORTIO.nal  areas  of  the  furrow- 
//'.  therefore,  of  the  triande  afb,  is  less  than  the  alti-         slice  in  differest  positions. 
tude  cc' of  the  triansle  acb.     And  triangles  on  equal 

ba.se8  beins  proportional  to  their  altitudes,  it  follows  that  the  triangle  afb  is  Itss  than  the  triangle 
acb,  both  in  area  and  periphery.  Suppose,  again,  a  slice  whose  side  o  Z  is  leas  than  the  corre- 
sponding side  a  c,  and  let  it  be  6  inches:  from  /,  through  tlie  point  b,  as  before,  draw  /  m.  and  con- 
struct the  parallelosram  al  m  n,  we  shall  have  a  transverse  section  of  a  third  slice  of  10  by  6  inches, 
whose  expo.sed  faces  a  I.  I  b.  occupy  the  same  horizontal  breadth  as  before.  Here  the  triangle 
alb  lies  between  the  parallels  a  b  and  i'  k',  consequently  equal  to  afb  and  less  than  neb. 

(584.)  This  simple  geometrical  demonstration,  as  applicable  to  the  slice,  may  be  corroborated 

ab 
by  the  usual  formula  of  the  triangle.    Thus,  the  altitude  of  the  triangle  acb  is=:-^:=5  inches=c' <r, 

and  the  side  a  c  or  c  i  ie=-v/<2  c'~-\-cc'2  ;  or  a  c'  and  c  cf  being  each  equal  to  5  inches,  a  c  or  c  b 
will  ^v/  52-f-52=7  071  inches,  which  is  the  depth  due  to  a  slice  of  10  inches  in  &rea<fM,  and  the 
sum  of  the  two  exposed  faces  will  be  "•071X2=14142  inelies. 

(58.5.)  In  the  triangle  afb,  a  b^\0  inches  and  af=8  inches,  then  ab2 — af2=fb2  and  the 

\/f  b2=i6  inches.  The  three  sides,  therefore,  of  this  triangle  are  10,  8  and  6  inches,  and  the  alti- 
tude f'f  is  easily  found  by  the  principles  of  similar  triangles.  Thus,  in  tlie  similar  triani^ies  aff, 
f  b  f' ,  ab  :  a  f :  -.f  b  :  f f .  The  perpendicularly  is  therefore=4-8  inches  ;  hence  the  exposed 
surtaces  are  as  14141  :  14.  and  the  altitudes  as  5  :  48.  Since  it  turns  out  that  a  i  is  e(]ual  to  f  b, 
and  n  b  common  to  both,  it  follows  that  /  i  is  equal  to  af.  and  the  peripherj-  and  altitude  also 
equal,  and  less  in  all  respects  than  the  triangle  acb.  And  so  of  any  other  position  or  dimen- 
sions. 

(586.)  The  slice  which  presents  a  rectangular  section  is  not  tlie  only  form  which  is  practiced  in 
modern  plow^ing.  Of  late  years,  and  since  the  introduction  of  the  improvements  by  \Vilkie  on 
the  plow,  a  .system  of  plowinsr  has  been  revivedt  in  which  the  great  object  seems  to  be  that  of 
raisin?  a  slice  that  shall  preseut  a  lush,  shoulder,  as  it  has  been  called,  or  which  I  have  ventured 
to  denominate  the  crf.<A"rf  /"wrrow.  formerly  alluded  to.  The  general  imjiressions  that  prevail  as 
to  the  advantatres  of  this  mode  of  plowing  are.  that  the  crested  furrow  afibrds  a  prea/er  suiface 
to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  and  a  greater  quantity  of  cover  to  the  seed  in  the  case  of  a  seed 
furrow  in  lea.  As  there  appears  to  me  some  decree  of  fallacy  in  the  reasoninprs  on  this  point 
among  practical  men.  and  as  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  hitherto  sufficiently  investigated,  I 
shall  venture  a  few  remarks  in  the  hope  of  leading  others  to  a  more  full  consideration  of  the  points 
involved  in  the  subject. 

(587.)  Tr?e  crested  slice,  instead  of  the  rectangular  section  of  the  one  already  described,  pre- 
sents a  rhomboidal  but  more  frequently  a  trapezoidal  section  :  indeed  the  latter  may  be  held  aa 
inseparable  from  the  practice ;  but  in  comparing  them  I  shall  first  take  the  exposed  surface.  In 
fig.  107,  then,  \ei  abed  represent  a  transverse  section  of  a  rectangular  slice  of  10  by  7  inches,  a  e 
the  base  of  the  triancle,  whose  sides  ab,  be  represent  the  two  exposed  surfaces  of  the  slice  when 
set  np  with  the  sides  at  angles  of  45^  to  the  horizen.  its  angle  at  b  being  90-^ — its  altitude  b  fyviil 

ac 
be  as  before "7r=  5  inches.  Again,  let  ^  A  be  the  base  of  the  triangle  whose  siies  g  b,  b  h,  rep- 
resent the  exposed  surfaces  of  a  crested  slice — whose  ba.se  /r  h.  equal  to  g"  d.  may  be  taken  at  9 
inches,  that  being  the  breadth  at  which  such  plows  take  their  furrow.  Supposinsr,  also,  that  the 
cresting  is  such  as  to  give  an  altitude  /  6  of  5  inches,  as  in  that  of  the  rectangular  slice,  we  shall 
have  the  sides  gb,  bh,  from  the  usual  formula,  £'/ 2 "h/" ^ "  =o  ^^'  ^'^^  S'/ being  4 J  inches/ i=5 


*  Euclid.  31,  iii. 

t  Blith'a  "  English  Improver  Improved,"  p.  266,  edit,  1692. 
(516) 


THE   PLOW. 


277 


inches,  then  they'-'S  +5  =CT2  iaches^g  h  or  b  k,  being  rather  more  than  the  best  practical 
authorities  tor  cresting  i)low  s  give  to  the  depth  of  a  slice  ;  the  dimensions  recommended  bemg 
from  8|  to  9  inches  broad,  and  from  ei  to  6i  inches 
in  depth.  It  will  therefore  always  fall  short  in 
perpendicular  bight  of  the  rectangular  slice  of  10  by 
7  inches.  But  allowing  the  hight  to  be  the  same,  we 
have  two  triangles,  a  be  and  g  bh  oi  equal  hight  but 
of  unequal  bases;  their  areas  will  therefore  be  une- 
qual and  proportional  to  their  bases. 

(588.)  In  bringing  these  two  systems,  however,  into 
practice  over  any  extent  of  surtace,  suppose  a  ridge 
of  a  field,  the  nnmber  oi  furrows  of  each  required  to 
turn  over  such  ridge,  will  be  exactly  in  proportion  to 
the  length  of  the  base  of  the  triangle,  or  as  9  to  10. 
Hence,  though  the  individual  crested  slices  or  triangles 
h.ave  an  area  less  than  that  of  the  rectangular  slice  in 
the  proportion  of  9  to  10  ;  yet  the  aggregate  area  of  all 
the  triangles  over  any  given  breadth  of  surface,  wher- 
ever the  number  of  slices  of  the  one  exceeds  that  of  the 
other  in  the  proportion  of  10  to  9,  will  be  the  same,  but 
no  more.  The  imaginary  advantage,  therefore,  of  a 
greater  cover  to  the  seed  with  a  crested  furrow  falls  to 
the  ground,  provided  the  comparison  is  made  with  a 
plow  that  takes  a  furrow  of  10  inches  wide  by  7  inches 
deep,  such  as  the  East-Lothian  plovr. 

(589.)  It  is  to  be  admitted  that,  were  cresting  plows  that  cut  their  slices  9  inches  wide,  to  take 
them  7  inches  deep,  and  still  preserve  the  rhomboidal  or  trapezoidal  section,  they  might,  in  that 
case,  produce  an  increase  of  cover  to  the  seed,  as  compared  with  a  rectangular  slice  of  9  by  7 
inches.  Let  us  refer  again  to  the  last  figure,  fig.  107,  and  suppose  sr  b=l  inches,  g  /"being,  as  be- 
fore, i\  inches,  then  g  h"^ — g  f-=bf'^.  or  b  f  will  be  equal  to  536  inches,  while,  by  the  same 
method  the  rectangular  slice  of  9  by  7  inches  would  give  6/  equal  to  only  4-39  inches,  "the  crested 
slice  in  this  case  giving  a  difference  of  hight  of  -97  inch,  and  ^  of  this,  or  -48  inch,  of  greater  cover  of 
seed.  B  ut  this  is  not  a  practicable  case,  inasmuch  as  the  cresting  plow  cannot  be  worked  in  a  furrow 
of  9  by  7  inches,  and  lay  it  at  an  angle  that  would  give  equal  exposure  to  both  sides  of  the  slice, 
whether  it  possess  a  rectangular  or  rhomboidal  section,  the  true  depth  being  6-36  inches  nearlj-, 
for  a  slice  whose  breadth  is  9  inches;  and  the  hight  b  f  oi  its  triangle  would  be,  if  rectangular, 
only  4-5  inches.  Compared  with  itself,  therefore,  the  plow  that  takes  a  9-inch  furrow  rectangular 
yields  \  inch  less  cover  to  the  seed  than  when  it  raises  the  crested  slice;  but,  even  with  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  crest,  it  is  not  better  than  the  plow  that  takes  a  10-inch  furrow  ;  while,  as  will  ap- 
pear, the  former  labors  under  other  disadvantages  arising  from  that  peculiarity  of  structure  for 
which  it  is  valued. 

(590.)  In  order  to  exhibit  the  difference  of  effect  of  the  rectangular  and  the  trapezoidal  slices, 
as  lifted  and  laid  on  each  other  by  the 


THE  COMPARISON  OF  THE  RECTANGULAR 
A.ND  CRESTED  SLICES. 


Fig.  108. 


plow,  and  as  they  affect  the  real  inten- 
tions of  tillage.  I  shall  consider  them  in 
separate  detail.  Fig.  108  is  an  example 
of  the  rec:anguiar  slice  of  10  by  7  inches, 
abed  may  be  taken  as  a  transverse  sec- 
tion of  the  body  of  the  plow,  the  line  a  c 
being  the  terminal  outline  of  the  mould- 
board,  af  a  section  of  the  slice  which  is 
just  being  laid  up,  and  g  h  a.  slice  previ- 
ously deposited.  In  the  triangle  i  gk  the 
base  i  k  is  10  inches,  being  alwaj's  equal 
to  the  breadth  of  the  slice,  the  angle  at  g 
a  right  angle,  and  the  sides  i  g,  g  k  each 
equal  to  7-071  inches,  the  perpendicular 
hight  gl  being  5  inches,  as  before  demon- 
strated. Fig.  109  is  a  similar  representa- 
tion, of  a  cre§ting-plow,  with  its  effects  on 
the  slice  and  the  subsoil ;  k  n  o  p  \s  a.  sec- 
tion of  the  plow,  k  m  a.  section  of  a  slice 

in  the  act  of  being  deposited  on  the  preceding  slice  c  /.  Here  the  slices  are  trapezoidal,  as  they 
are  always  cut  by  this  species  of  plow  ;  and  from  this  configuration  of  the  slice,  the  broader  sides 
are  not  parallel,  nor  do  the  conterminous  sides  of  the  adjacent  slices  lie  parallel  to  each  other  in 
the  transverse  direction.  The  side  b  c  lying  at  an  angle  of  48=^  with  the  base  a  b,  while  the  side 
b  m  makes  the  opposite  angle  at  b  only  41'^,  the  angle  at  c  being  84-*,  and  the  triangle  abc  isos- 
celes. The  base  a  6  of  the  triangle  a  b  c  in  now  supposed  to  be  8^  inches— the  breadth  recom- 
mended for  a  seed-furrow— and  the  side  ac  6^  inches,  the  opposite  side  I  h  being  i\  or  5  inches. 
The  base  a  b,  when  bisected  in  d.  gives  a  rf=4-25  inches,  and  since  a  c'^—a  d-=r  d'',  c  d  will  be 
4-918  inches,  which  is  less  than  given  by  the  former  demonstration  of  the  crested  slice  ;  but  I  have 
observed  cases  still  more  extreme,  where,  still  referring  to  the  same  figure;  a  b  was  only  7i  inches, 
but  the  angle  at  c  became  so  acute  as  75^,  yet  with  these  dimensions  c  d  \s  still  under  5  inches; 
hence,  in  all  practical  cases,  with  a  furrow  less  than  9  inches  in  breadth,  the  result  will  be  a  re- 
daction in  the  quantity  of  cover  for  seed. 

(591.)  One  other  point  remains  to  be  noticed  in  reference  to  the  two  forms  of  slice.     We  have 
(517) 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  A   Ut 


278  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

seen  tliat  llie  rectangular  slice  necessarily  iin|ir.cs  tliat  tlie  bottom  of  the  furrow  shall  be  cut  upon 
a  level  in  its  transverse  section,  ti^.  108  ;  while  the  slice  that  is  cut  by  the  cresting-plow  leaves 
the  bottom  of  the  furrow  with  a  tslopinir  riiie 

from  the  huuiside  toward  the  fuiTowside  at  Fig.  109. 

every  slice,  and  this  rist^  may  raUL'c  from  1  to 
11   inch  or  more.      Hoturninu:  to  fitr.  109,  the 
serrated  line  f  li  o  exhibits  a  transverse  sec- 
tion of  the  surface  of  the  6ub.'»oil,  from  which 
the  soil    has  been  turned  up  by  the   cresting 
plow.     The  triangular  spaces  efg,  gh  i  rep- 
resent the  quantity  of  soil  left  by  such  piows 
at  the  lifting  of  each  slice.     These  quantities, 
which,  as  before  observed,  may  amount  to  1  7 
of  what  the  slice  ouclit  to  be.  are  thus  robbed 
from  it,  anil  left  adiieriny  to  the  subsoil,  ex- 
cept in  so  far  as  they  may  be  rubbed  down 
by  the  ubrailing  action  of  the  lower  edge  of  .  ^      - 

the  mouldboard,  as  nt_/and  k,  an<l  the  por-  ,^,'„    ...    ...  ^l\.. 

tious  of  soil  so' rubbed  oft' are  thrust  into  the  ^  ^ 

spaces  under  the  edge  of  the  slices  as  they  the  effects  OF  A  TRAPEZOIDAL  OR  CRESTED 
are  successively  laid  up.     This  last    process  rVRROW-SLiCE. 

may  be  readily  observed  at  any  lime  when 

the  plow  is  working  in  tough  land  or  in  lea.  With  a  cresting-fjlow  the  spaces/^  o  will  be 
seen  more  or  less  tilled  up  with  crumbled  soil,  while  with  the  rectangular  plow,  the  corre- 
sponding spaces  will  be  left  nearly  void.  1  cannot  take  upon  me  to  say  whether  or  not  the 
filling  in  of  these  voids  is  beneficial  to  the  land  in  a  greater  degree  than  if  the  1-7  here  left  below 
had  been  turned  up  with  the  slice  ;  but  this  I  can  say,  that  it  is  more  frequently  left  adhering  to 
the  sub.^oil  than  it  is  to  be  found  stuffed  under  the  edge  of  the  slice.  Under  any  view,  the  system 
of  the  crested  furrow-plowing  is  not  unworthy  the  consideration  of  the  farmer. 

(590.)  In  considering  the  question,  there  are  two  points  deserving  attention.  Ist,  The  imme- 
diate effects  upon  the  labor  of  men  and  horses.  It  may  be  a.s.-;erted  generally,  that  all  plows 
adapted  to  form  a  crested  furrow  are  heavier  in  drauglit  than  those  that  produce  the  rectangular 
furrow.  This  seems  a  natural  inference  from  the  manner  in  which  they  work;  the  tendency  ikat 
they  all  have  to  nnder-cnlhy  the  coulter  ;  the  naiTow  feather  of  the  .«hare  leaving  more  resistance  to 
the  body  in  raising  and  turning  the  slice  ;  and  not  least,  the  small  ridge  left  adhering  to  the  bottom 
of  the  furrow,  if  rubbed  down  and  stuffed  under  the  slice,  is  performed  by  an  unneces.sary  waste 
of  power,  seeing  that  the  mould-board  is  not  adapted  for  removing  such  adhering  obstructions. 
2d,  The  loss  of  time  and  labor  arising  from  the  breadth  of  furrow,  compared  with  those  plows 
that  take  a  10-inch  furrow.  Thus,  in  plowing  an  imperial  acre  with  a  10-inch  furrow — leaving 
out  of  view  the  taking  up  of  closings,  turnings,  &.c. — the  distance  walked  over  by  the  man  and 
horses  will  amount  to  9-!>  miles  nearly  ;  with  a  9-iiich  furrow  the  distance  will  be  U  miles:  with 
Sj-inch  furrovi'.  it  will  be  11^  miles  or  thereby;  and  with  a  7iinch  furrow  13|  miles  nearly. 

(.593.)  It  may,  therefere.  be  of  importance  for  the  agriculturist  to  weigh  these  considerations, 
and  endeavor  to  ascertain  whether  it  is  more  for  his  interest  that  his  plowing  should  be  essen- 
tially well  done,  and  with  ihc  least  expenditure  of  power  and  time,  or  that  it  should  be  done  more 
to  please  the  eye,  with  a  high  surface  finish,  though  this  may  perhaps  be  gained  at  a  greater  ex- 
penditure of  power  and  time  ;  while  the  essentials  may  in  some  degree  be  imperfectly  performed. 

(.'39-I.)  On  this  part  of  tin-  subject.  I  cannot  refrain  a  passing  remark  on  the  very  laudable  exer- 
tions that  have  been  made  all  over  the  country  in  producing  that  emulation  among  our  plowmen 
which  has  been  so  successful  in  producing  excellence  in  their  vocation  among  that  useful  class  of 
agricultural  laborers,  as  to  give  them  a  preeminence  over  all  others  of  their  class  in  any  country. 
I  mean  the  institution  of  plowing-matches.  While  I  offer  my  humble  though  ardent  wishes  for  a 
continuance  of  the  means  which  have  raised  the  character  of  the  Scottish  plowmen,  I  cannot  pre- 
vent doubts  rising  in  my  mind,  that,  however  good  and  beneficial  these  competitions  are  calcu- 
lated to  be,  if  the  exertions  of  the  class  arc  properly  directed  ;  yet  the  best  exertions  oi  both  the 
promoters  and  the  actors  may  he  frustrated  by  allowin^r  a  false  taste  to  he  engendered  among 
the.se  operatives.  That  such  a  false  taste  has  taken  root  I  have  no  doubt ;  and  the  results  cf  it  are 
appearing  in  the  spread  of  opinions  favorable  to  that  kind  of  plowing  which  to  me  appears  not 
much  deservinsr  of  encouragement — the  high-crested  system.  I  have  observed,  at  various  plowing- 
matches.  that  the  palm  was  awarded  to  that  kind  of  plowmanship  which  exhibited  the  highest 
surface-finish,  without  reference  at  all  to  the  ground  work  of  it ;  and  I  have  compared  by  actual 
weight,  ail  crumbs  included,  the  quantities  of  soil  lifted  by  plows  that  gained  prizes  with  oUiers 
^vhi<•h  did  not,  becau.se  their  work  was  not  so  well  dres.sed  on  the  surface ;  and  I  have  found  thai 
the  one  to  whom  the  prize  was  awarded  had  not  lifted  so  much  soil  by  1-10  as  some  of  tho.«c  that 
■were  rejected.  I  am  far  from  intending,  by  these  remarks,  to  throw  discreilit  on  plowing-matches  ; 
on  the  contrary,  I  wouhl  see  them  meet  with  tenfold  encouragement,  and  would  also  wish  to  see 
many  more  than  is  usually  met  with,  of  the  good  and  the  great  of  the  land,  assembled  at  snch 
meetings,  to  encourage  and  stimulate  by  their  presence  the  exertions  of  tlie  competitors  in  such 
intcrcstins-  exhibitions.  With  this  short  ditrression  I  leave  this  subject  for  the  present,  with  the 
intention  of  resuming  it  in  another  division  of  the  general  subject. 

(.')9.''>.)  The  I'Ki.scipi.ES  and  formation  of  the  Moi'LD-iiOARn. — Of  the  various  individuals 
who  have  written  upon  the  plow  and  the  formation  of  the  mould-board.  Bailey  of  Chillingham 
and  Small  of  Berwick.shire  are  perhaps  the  oidy  two  who  have  communicated  their  views  in  a 
practical  shape,  and  even  in  their  descriptions  there  is  somewhat  of  ambiguity  and  uncertainty, 
but  such  may  be  inseparable  from  the  subject.  Many  other  nameless  srtisaus  have  varied  the 
mould  board  until  almost  every  county  has  something  peculiarly  its  own,  and  each  district  claims 
for  its  favorite  all  the  advantages  due  to  perfection. 
(5181 


THE  PLOW. 


279 


(596.)  I  have  been  at  irreat  pains  to  analyze  a  considerable  number  of  these  varieties  ;  and  as 
the  subject  is  not  unimportant  in  a  work  of  this  kind,  I  have  selected  a  few  of  those  best  known, 
and  of  highest  chai-aeter.  as  objects  of  comparison. 

(597.)  The  method  adopted  to  obtain  a  mechanical  analysis  ofthe.se  mould-boards  has  been 
simple,  but  perfectly  correct ;  and  as  the  principle  may  be  applied  to  the  attainment  of  counter- 
parts of  otlier  objects,  perhaps  more  important  than  a  mould-board,  it  may  be  deserving  of  a 
Elace  here.  As  a  matter  of  justice,  also,  to  the  fabricators  of  tlie  ditFerent  mould-boards  here  ex- 
ibited,  I  am  desirous  to  show  the  principle  on  which  these  transcripts  of  their  works  have  been 
thus  brnusht  forward  in  a  new  form,  and  in  contrast  with  each  other. 

(598.)  The  instrument  employed  for  this  purpose  is  a  double  parallel o£;ram  or  parallel  niler, 
as  represented  in  fig.  110,  which  is  a  perspective  of  the  apparatus.     Tlie  bars  a  b,  c  d,  ef,  are 


THE   PAR.^LLEL  RULER. 

slips  of  hard-wood  about  3  feet  long-,  or  they  may  be  of  any  convenient  length,  and  1^  incnes 
broad  by  5  inch  thick  ;  each  of  which  is  perforated  at  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,f,  the  perforations  being  exactly 
equidistant  in  all  the  bars.  Four  similar  bars,  of  about  half  the  length,  are  perforated  also  at  one 
uniform  distance,  and  the  seven  bars  thus  prepared  are  jointed  together  upon  brass  studs,  and  se- 
cured so  as  to  move  freely  at  every  joint,  but  without  shake  on  the  studs.  The  form,  wheu  con- 
structed, is  that  of  the  two  parallelograms  abed  ami  c  d  ef.  In  the  end  of  the  bar  c  f  a  stout  wire 
pointer^'  is  fixed  of  about  6  inches  in  length,  lying  in  the  plane  of  the  instrument,  aiid  parallel  to 
the  edge  of  the  bar.  In  a  continuation  of  this  parallel  upon  the  bar  e  f,  a  .socket  capable  of  re- 
taining a  pencil  or  tracer  is  fixed  anywhere  at  g.  The  instrument  so  formed  is  fixed  upon  a  flat 
board  h  i,  of  about  3  feet  square,  by  means  of  two  screw  nails  passing  through  tlie  bar  a  b,m  z 
position  parallel  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  board  ;  thus  leaving  all  the  other  bars  at  liberty  to  move 
upon  their  joints  ;  which  completes  the  instrument.  From  the  well-known  proiierties  of  the  par- 
allelogram, as  applied  to  the  nentograph  and  the  eidoarraph,  it  is  unnecessary  to  demonstrate,  that 
whatever  line  or  figure  may  be  traced  with  the  pointer  /.  will  be  faithfully  repeated  by  the  tracing 
pencil  i:,  upon  any  sub.stance  placed  before  it.  and  of  the  same  dimensions  as  the  original. 

(599.)  Another  board  or  table  or  a  level  platform,  is  now  to  be  selected,  and  a  line  /  vi,  which 
may  be  called  the  fundamental,  or  leading  line,  drawn  upon  it.  This  line,  to  an  extent  of  3  feet 
or  more,  is  divided  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  but  in  tliis  case  the  divisions  were  3  inches 
each  ;  through  the.se  points  of  division  are  drawn  the  straight  lines  I  n.  op,  q  r,  &c.,  indefinitely 
on  each  side  of  the  line  /  ;«,  and  at  right  angles  to  it.  The  board  carrying  the  instrument  is  pro- 
vided with  a  foot  behind,  that  keeps  the  face  of  the  board  always  perpendicular  to  the  platform 
on  which  it  stands.  The  plow  with  the  mould-board  about  to  be  analyzed  is  now  set  upon  the 
table  or  platform  upon  which  the  leading  line  and  the  divisions  have  been  laid  down  ;  the  land- 
side  of  the  plow  being  set  parallel  to  the  leading  line,  and  at  any  convenient  distance  from  it, 
suited  to  the  instrument ;  pre.-^entinir  the  mould  in  the  po.sition  .s  f'.  and  so  placed  in  reference  to 
the  lines  of  division  that  the  zero  line  shall  coincide  with  one  of  them,  provided  the  extremities 
do  not  overreach  the  divisions  either  way.  the  laudside  of  the  plow  being  at  the  same  time  per- 
pendicular. The  instrument  is  now  brought  toward  one  extremity  of  the  mould-board,  and  placed 
upon  that  parallel  of  the  divisions  that  come  nearest  to  the  extremity,  as  No.  1  in  the  figure,  the 
edge  /  /  of  the  instrument  coinciding  with  the  leading  line  I  m.  A  sheet  of  paper  having  been 
now  fixed  upon  the  board  h  i  of  the  instrument,  and  a  tracing-pencil  inserted  in  the  socket  g,  the 
operation  of  tracing  commences.  The  tracing  point  is  passed  in  the  vertical  direction  over  the 
surface  of  the  mould-board,  tracing  along  a  line  No.  1  ;  the  pencil  at  the  .same  time  tracing  a  cor- 
responding line  No.  1,  on  the  paper,  which  will  be  an  exact  outline  of  the  face  of  the  mould- 
board  at  that  division,  supposing  the  mould-board  to  be  cut  by  a  transverse  section  in  that  line. 
The  instrument  and  board  are  now  to  be  moved  one  division  upon  the  leading  litie  Im,  the  coin- 
cidence of  the  edge  I  i  of  the  board  with  that  line  being  still  preserved.  The  tracing  point  is 
again  made  to  pass  vertically  over  the  face  of  the  mould-board,  wheu  the  pencil  g  will  trace  on 
(519) 


280 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


the  paper  a  socomi  line  No.  2.  This  process,  repealed  at  each  successive  division,  3,  4.  5,  6  Ac, 
the  corresponding  lines.  3,  4,  5,  6,  &c.,  on  the  paper  will  be  traced  out,  exhibitin.c  a  series  of  per- 
fect sectional  lines  of  the  mould-board,  each  line  being  that  which  would  arise  from  an  imaginary 
vertical  plituc  cutting  the  body  of  the  plow  at  ripht  anirles  to  its  land-side  at  everj-  3  inches  of  its 
length.  To  prevent  any  inaccuracy  tliai  might  arise  from  a  nii.sapplication  of  the  tracing  point  to 
the  oblique  surface  of  the  mould  board,  a  straiglit-edged  ruler,  in  form  of  a  carpenter's  sijuare  «  r  x, 
is  applied  to  the  mould-board.  The  stock  u  v  of  the  square  being  placed  on  the  platform,  and 
parallel  to  the  line  /  m.  which  brintrs  the  edge  r  jr  always  into  the  vertical  plane,  and  the  tracing 
rod  mu.st  be  kept  in  contact  with  this  edge,  while  it  traverses  the  face  of  the  mould-board  at  each 
successive  section. 

(600.)  This  mode  of  aijalysis,  it  is  to  be  ob-ser^-ed.  has  not  been  adopted  from  its  having  any  re- 
lation to  the  principles  on  which  the  difterent  mould-boards  have  been  constructed,  but  because 
it  presents  an  unerring  method  of  comparing  a  series  of  sectional  lines  of  any  (.nc  mould-board 
with  tho.<e  of  any  other:  hence  il  aflbrd.-;  a  correct  system  of  compari.'on.  But  it  is  not  merely  a 
comparative  view  that  is  afforded  by  it.  for  in  the  sequel  it  will  be  seen  that  a  ground-work  is  thus 
afforded  from  which  the  mechanic  may  at  any  time  or  place  construct  a  fac-«imUe  of  any  moald- 
board,  the  analysis  of  which  has  been  made  after  this  manner. 

(601.)  The  results  of  the  analysis  of  a  few  of  the  mould  boards  from  the  plows  of  highest  charac- 
ter, as  taken  by  this  method,  are  given  in  the  following  tigures.  Plate  XI.,  fiir.  111.  is  a  eeomel- 
rical  elevation  in  a  plane  parallel  to  the  land-side  of  the  mould-hoard  of  the  East-Loihian  plow  /  d, 
being  its  base  line.  The  perpendicular  lines  of  division,  commencinir  from  the  line  oo  the  zero, 
and  extending  right  and  left,  are  the  lines  of  s«!Ctiou.  Tlio.^e  to  the  right  or  fore  end  of  the  mould- 
board,  marked  aa,bb.  &,c.,  and  those  to  the  left  1  1,  2  2.  &c.  The  curved  line  xy  z  represents 
the  path  described  on  the  face  of  the  mould-board  by  the  lower  land-side  edge  of  the  furrow-slice, 
as  the  mould-board  passes  under  it:  this  line  I  shall  rail  the  line  of  iranxit.  Fig.  112  is  a  front 
view  in  elevation  of  the  mould-board  of  the  same  plow,  and  corre.-iponding  to  fig.  Ill  ;  km  is  the 
base-line  of  the  plow  ;  m  g  \&  the  land-side  plane  iu  a  vertical  position,  m  is  also  the  place  of  the 
point  of  the  share,  and  /(  ;  the  line  of  .junction  between  the  neck  of  the  share  and  the  mould-board; 
tlie  remaining  lines  beyond  h  i  exhibit  the  outline  of  all  the  sections  taken  by  the  instrument  in 
reference  to  the  lines  in  fig.  111.  Thus,  o  o  s-  m  is  the  .section  of  the  entire  body  of  the  plow  in  the 
plane  of  the  zero,  o  y  o  being  the  outline  of  the  mould-board  at  this  section,  and  y  the  zero-point ; 
a  a  g  m  the  first  section  forward  from  the  zero,  bb  sm  the  second,  and  so  ou.  In  like  manner, 
1  1  ^  TO  is  the  first  section  backward  from  the  zero,  2  2  ir  wi  the  second,  and  so  on ;  each  section  so 
lettered  and  numbered  having  relation  to  the  divisions  carryinar  the  corresponding  letters  and  nu- 
merals in  fig.  111.  The  entire  .series  of  lines  1  1,  2  2.  &c.  and  a  a.  bh.  &c.  thus  form  a  series  of 
profiles  of  the  mould-board,  supposing  it  to  be  cut  vertically  by  planes  at  right  aiiffles  to  the  land- 
side  of  the  plow.  In  fig.  112,  also,  the  doited  line  m  x  y  z  represents  the  path  of  the  slice  or  line 
of  transit,  as  in  fig.  Ill,  and  z  k  represents  a  transverse  section  of  the  flicc  as  finally  deposited  by 
the  mould  board.  Figs.  113  and  114  exhibit,  in  the  same  manner,  the  mould-board  of  the  Currie 
or  Mid-Lothian  plow ;  tlie  divisional  and  sectional  lines  being  all  laid  off  in  the  same  manner  from 
the  zero  as  in  the  example  just  described  of  the  East-Lothian  plow,  and  the  zero-point  y  in  the 
line  o  y  o,  which  is  9  inches  from  the  plane  of  the  land-side.  Fig.  114  bears  also  the  same  relation 
to  fig.  113,  and  as  the  letters  and  numerals  in  these  have  the  same  relation  and  value  as  in  figs.  Ill 
and  112 — the  East-Lothian — the  description  given  of  that  apjilies  not  only  to  the  Mid-Lothian,  but 
to  the  five  succeeding  figures.  \\z  : 

Figs.  115  and  116  represent  the  Berwickshire  plow,  being  that  which  has  been  so  success- 
fully adopted  by  the  Marquis  of  Tweeddale. 

Figs.  117  and  118  are  of  the  Lanarkshire  plow. 

Figs.  119  and  120,  Plate  XII.,  are  of  the  Saline  or  We.stem  Fifeshire  plow. 

Figs.  121  and  122  are  of  the  FF  plow  of  Me.ssrs.  Bansome,  of  Ipswich. 
(602.)  With  reference  to  tiie  characters  of  these  different  mould-boards,  it  may  be  remarked  : 
Of  the  Rnstl.othiaii  mould-board,  fig.  112.  Plate  XI..  that  those  ponions  of  the  sectional  lines  lying 
between  the  lower  edse  and  the  line  of  transit  are  essentially  straight,  the  two  lines  beyond"  the 
zero  backward  excepted,  these  being  slightly  concave' toward  the  lower  edge ;  and,  although  the 
lines  before  the  zerx)  and  above  the  line  of  transit  are  concave,  that  part  of  the  .enrface  has  no  efifect 
upon  the  furrow-.slice.  It  is,  likewise,  to  be  observed  that  the  parallelogram  k  y.  which  represents 
a  section  of  the  slice  when  brought  to  the  vertical  position,  has  its  upper  anirle  y  only  touching  the, 
zero  line,  and  no  other  part  of  the  side  of  the  parallelogram  in  contact  with  the  zero  line  of  section 
o  y  o;  hence  the  mould-board,  by  its  pressure  being  exerted  chiefly  ag;iin.st  the  upper  edge  of  the 
slice,  will  always  have  a  tendency  to  abrade  tlie  crest  of  its  rectangular  slice  in  its  progress  over 
the  mould-board. 

(603.)  /;■.  the  Mid-Lothian  mould-board,  figs.  113  and  114,  the  lines  are  also  approximating  to 
straight,  except  in  the  lower  portions  of  those  before  the  zero,  where  they  produce  a  convexity 
of  surface,  but  this  part  of  the  mould-board  can  have  little  influence.  The  chief  difference,  then, 
lies  in  those  parts  of  the  .sectional  lines  which  lie  above  the  path  of  the  slice,  and  they  also  have 
no  effect  whatever  in  the  foniiation  or  the  conveyance  of  the  slice:  neither  can  the  circumstance 
of  elongation  forward  in  this  mould-board  have  any  influence,  for  the  same  lines  are  to  be  found 
on  the  7icck  of  the  shnre  of  ihc  East-Lothian  as  are  here  exhibited  in  the  prolongation  of  the  mould- 
board.  We  have,  therefore,  two  i)lows  in  which  the  essential  lines  of  the  mould-board  are  the 
same,  but  which  produce  work  of  an  opposite  character.  It  must  be  kej)t  in  view,  however,  that 
in  the  Mid-Lothian  the  zero-point  y  is  only  9  inches  from  the  land-side,  while  in  the  East-Lothian 
it  is  10  inches;  but  the  length  behind  the  zero-line  being  nearly  alike  in  both,  and  the  width  at 
the  tail  also  the  same,  the  difference  in  distance  of  the  zero-point  from  the  land-side  produces  a 
difference  in  the  effect  of  the  pressure  of  the  mould-board  on  the  edce  of  the  slice.  This  will  be 
perceived  from  the  relation  in  which  the  section  k  y,  representing  the  slice,  stands  to  the  zero-line 
o  y  o  of  the  mould  board  ;  for  in  this  case  the  anirle  at  y,  formed  by  the  side  of  the  parallelogram 
and  the  zero-line,  is  not  more  than  i  of  that  iu  the  former  case.  This  mould-board,  therefore,  will 
(520) 


I'lie  Buok-of  iti.'  !■■ 


I'l.ii.   xir. 


OK  MOliLD    BOARDS 

T)if  Western  hfeshirf. 


F 

t/.  Il!> 

, 

J ' 

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\ 

' ,.          h          <: 

J-lo.  121. 


Ransorae's  F:F. 


Fu/.  122. 


Tb^ .A7w Mould  board. 
F'rqs.  123-128. 


-4 


/>>.  r^'t 


JFooc. 


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FVibished  by  Greeley  ,&.  M'Elrath.New-York. 


THE   PLOW.  281 


sonvey  the  slice  in  whatever  form  it  may  be  cut,  with  less  risk  of  injury  to  the  crest  than  can  be 
expected  Irom  the  former.  But,  as  these  discrepancies  cannot  produce  the  marked  difference 
that  exists  in  the  appearance  of  the  work  performed  by  these  two  plows,  it  is  not  in  the  mould- 
board  we  are  to  look  for  the  cause,  but  in  the  conformation  of  the  share  and  the  position  of  the 
coulter,  while  the  mould-board,  from  the  circumstance  last  pointed  out,  is  better  adapted  to  convey 
die  slice  unaltered. 

;604.)  The  Bene kkghire  mould-board,  fi^s.  11.5  and  116,  which  is  also  truncated  forward,  has 
the  sectional  lines,  lyintr  before  the  zero,  nearly  straight ;  but,  as  they  approach  the  zero,  they  be- 
come grailually  and  decidedly  concave,  which  increases  toward  the  extremity.  This  concavity, 
it  will  be  observed,  exists  only  to  a  certain  e.xtent  below  the  line  of  transit,  and.  as  the  sectional 
lines  approach  the  line  of  transit,  the  curvature  is  reversed,  and  the  surface  becomes  convex. — 
This  is  a  form  well  adapted  to  deliver  a  slice  free  of  injury  to  the  edge  or  crest,  for,  from  the  con- 
vexity immediately  below  the  line  of  transit,  the  mould-board  will  never  press  upon  nor  abrade 
the  edge  of  the  slice,  the  pressure  being  exerted  always  within  the  extreme  edge,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  section  k  z  of  the  slice,  as  applied  at  the  extremity  of  the  mould-board;  though,  when  in 
the  vertical  position,  as  in  k  j/.  the  .•section  of  the  slice  touches  the  zero-line  at  its  upper  edge,  at  an 
angle  nearly  equal  to  that  in  the  East-Lothian,  showing  that  it  is  liable  to  abrasion  until  it  has 
passed  that  line.  But  this  plow,  in  practice,  sets  up  a  lurrow  of  the  rectangular  species,  with  its 
angle  or  crest  better  pre.served  than  in  many  others  of  this  class,  vshile,  at  the  same  time,  it  takes 
out  the  sole  with  the  characteristic  levelness  which  belongs  to  the  class. 

(605.)  The  Lanarkshire  mould-board,  figs.  117  and  118,  has  all  its  lines  convex,  the  terminal 
edge  excepted,  which  is  nearly  straight  below,  but  preserves  the  convexity  as  it  approaches  the 
line  of  transit.  Even  above  the  line  of  transit  the  convexitj-  is  continued,  and,  though  not  affect- 
ing the  slice,  it  gives  in  appearance  a  still  more  decided  character  of  convexity,  and,  by  thus  mak 
ing  the  upper  edge  of  the  mould-board  retire,  gives  a  long  rake  to  the  breast  of  the  plow.  It  \\ill 
be  readily  conceived  that  this  mould-hoard,  from  the  convexity  of  all  its  sectional  lines,  is  essen- 
tially formed  for  turning  up  a  crested  furrow,  more  especially  when  the  !orm  of  its  share  and  the 
position  of  its  coulter  are  considered.  These  last,  being  formed  for  cutting  the  slice  with  a  very- 
acute  angle,  will  deliver  it  to  the  mould-board  ;  and.  from  the  form  of  the  latter,  the  slice  will  pass 
over  it  uninjured  ;  for  the  pressure  upon  the  mould-board  will  be  always  greatest  upon  tho.se  parts 
of  the  surface  of  the  slice  lying  within  the  edge,  preventing  therebj-  the  abrasion  of  that  tender 
part.  These  circumstances  are  clearly  seen  from  the  relation  of  the  section  of  th(^  slice  ky  as  ap- 
plied to  the  zero-line  o  i/  o,  the  point  of  contact  lying  considerably  within  the  angle  at  y  of  the 
slice ;  and  the  same  relation  holds  throughout  the  entire  transit,  up  to  the  delivery  of  the  slice  in 
tlie  ultimate  position  k  z. 

(606.)  The  Western  Fifeshire  mould-board,  figs.  119  and  120.  Plate  XII ,  it  will  be  readily  per- 
ceived, belongs  to  the  Lanarkshire  class ;  but  in  this  the  convexity  is  carried  so  far  to  an  extreme 
as  to  round  away  the  lower  parts  of  the  mould-board,  till,  at  the  lower  edge  behind,  the  width  is 
only  6  inches.  The  terminal  line,  also,  is  prominently  convex  throughout.  It  difl'ers  also  from  its 
original  type  in  having  those  parts  of  the  sectional  lines  lying  above  the  line  of  transit  tending  to 
recurvature.  This,  by  carrying  forward  the  upper  part  of  the  breast,  gives  the  appearance  of 
greater  length  to  the  mould-board ;  but.  besides  this,  the  part  lying  behind  the  zero  is  actually 
longer  than  in  any  of  the  preceding  plows,  as  will  appear  from  the  sectional  divisions,  figs.  Ill, 
113^  115,  and  117,  Plate  XI.  As  maj-  be  anticipated,  this  variety  of  the  Lanarkshire  plow  is  famed 
for  the  acuteness  of  the  furrow  which  it  forms,  though,  in  this  respect,  it  does  not  excel  its  proto- 
type. From  the  way  in  which  the  section  k  y  of  the  slice,  when  in  the  vertical  position,  is  applied 
to  th3  zero-line,  where  the  point  of  contact  is  seen  to  lie  at  \  of  its  breadth  within  the  edge  of  the 
slice,  it  will  at  once  appear  how  well  this  mould-board  is  adapted  to  transmit  an  unbroken  crest. 
In  every  position  of  its  transit  up  to  its  ultimate  position,  the  slice  will  be  equally  secure  from  in- 
jury in  respect  to  the  crest ;  and,  %vere  the  crested  furrow  a  true  criterion  of  good  plowing,  the 
plow  that  bears  this  mould-board,  with  share  and  coulter  adapted  thereto,  would  be  the  most  per- 
fect ;  but  there  are  various  and  important  arguments  against  it. 

(607.)  In  RayiMine's  Bedfordshire,  or  FF  mould-board,  figs.  121  and  122,  the  sectional  lines  are 
of  a  mi-Kcd  character ;  those  in  the  fore  part  being  convex,  gradually  diminishing  in  convexity  to 
the  zero,  behind  which  they  become  straight  lines,  tending  to  concave — the  terminal  line  being 
slitrhtly  so — but  becoming  convex  at  the  upper  edge.  It  differs  from  all  the  Scotch  mould-boards 
in  having  the  terminal  edge  lengthened  out  below,  instead  of  the  usual  shortening,  and  in  hav- 
ing the  breast  cut  away  nearly  parallel  to  the  line  of  transit.  The  plows  mounted  with  this 
mould-board  are  generally  worked  with  cast-iron  shares,  having  a  wide-spread  feather  formed 
for  cutting  a  level  furrow-sole.  The  furrow  usually  taken  with  it  is  shallow,  and,  when  set  up, 
looks  flat  in  the  crest ;  but  the  ^vork,  so  far  as  it  goes,  is  what  may  be  termed,  in  plow  lan- 
guage, true ;  that  is  to  say,  the  slice  is  rectangular  and  cut  from  a  level  sole.  Though  tlie 
sectional  lines  before  the  zero  possess  a  form  that  would  save  the  slice  from  abrasion,  yet,  at 
the  zero  line  and  behind  it,  they  have  the  opposite  character  in  the  extreme,  and  we  accord- 
ingly find  that  this  mould-board' lays  a  very  flat  crested  furrow,  while  the  share  and  coulter  are 
perfectly  adapted  to  cut  it  rectangular. 

(608.)  ^Vith  all  the  foregoing  mould-boards,  it  will  be  observed  that  the  section  of  the  furrow- 
slice,  in  its  ultimate  position,  seems  to  encroach  upon  the  tail  of  the  mould-board  ;  and  this  is  to 
be  understood  as  arising  from  the  circumstance  of  the  slice  being  represented  as  incompressible, 
and  uuabraded  below  or  above.  In  practice,  the  slice  is  pressed  downward  on  the  angle  at  ^•, 
and  pres.sed  home  upon  the  preceding  slice,  so  as  to  bring  the  face  of  the  shce  simply  in  contact  with 
the  terminal  Hne  of  the  mould-board  instead  of  the  apparent  mutual  interpenetration  exhibited  in 
the  figures. 

(609.)  From  the  examples  here  given  of  the  forms  of  mould-boards,  and  the  effects  which  they 

produce  when  combined  with  any  particular  form  of  share  and  position  of  coulter,  it  will  be  easy 

to  draw  a  conclusion  as  to  the  kind  of  work  that  will  be  performed  by  any  plow  that  comes  under 

our  observation,  and  that  without  any  previous  knowledge  of  its  merits ;  keeping  in  mind  that  the 

(521) 


282  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

nltiinnle  form  of  the  furrow  will  ahvays  d«.punJ  on  Uio  form  of  ihe  share  and  position  of  the 
coulter,  lliat  the  pussaire  of  the  slice  over  li)e  mould-board  will  liave  but  a  very  partial  cflic'ct  on 
tlie  form  of  the  slice,  and  that  this  etlrct  will  be  greater  or  less  according  to  the  form  of  Burtace. 
Thus,  a  slitiht  convexity  of  surface,  immediately  below  the  line  of  transit,  will  w  ith  jireater  cer- 
tainty secnre  the  transit  t>l'  the  slice  without  injury  to  its  cdf:e,  than  may  be  expected  from  a  sur- 
face which  has  a  concavity  crossintr  the  line  of  transit.  thoui;li  it  may  be  obtained,  as  in  the  Mid- 
Lothian  and  EastLotliian  plows,  with  a  straight-lined  n)ouldboard  ;  but  it  will  be  more  certainly 
obtained  if  the  share  is  narrow,  as  in  the  Mid  Lothian  ;  thouL'h  this  last  expedient  will  induce  dis- 
advanlaires  in  point  of  draught,  and  risk  ol  losijii:  the  efl'ect,  by  any  undue  placement  of  the  coul- 
ter. These  disadvantages  may  arise  Irom  the  coulter  not  being  sufficiently  set  to  landward, 
then'hy  admiltinir  the  breast  of  the  plow  to  scrape  upon  the  land,  and  send  a  small  portion  of  earth 
along  the  njould-board,  accompanying  the  edge  of  the  slii'u,  which  may  have  the  etl'ect  of  abrad- 
ing it  so  much  as  to  injui'e  the  (iji/H'iriiiice  of  the  work,  though  not  in  fact  affecting  its  efficiency. 

(filO.)  Having  thus  enilcavored  lo  establi.sli  some  data  by  which  the  agricultural  mechanist, 
whether  amati'ur  or  operative,  may  be  assisted  in  determining  from  observ.alion,  what  practical 
ctl'ects  may  be  ex|iecled  lo  result  from  any  form  of  mould-board  and  share,  I  proceed  to  mention 
some  rules  by  which  he  may  Ibrm  a  mould-board  on- w  hat  1  conceive  to  be  the  true  principle, 
but  upon  which  may  be  enural'ted  such  deviations  as  taste  or.other  circumstances  may  require. 

((ill.)  Those  writers  who  contributed  to  the  improvement  of  the  plow  in  the  early  stages 
of  its  modern  hi.storv,  laboretl  at  a  time  when  mould-boards  of  wood  only  were  cmidoyed. 
He«co.  their  instructions  related  to  the  tbnnation  of  that  material  alone,  into  mould-boards.  Later 
writers  have  followed  in  nearly  the  same  course,  and  have  given  rules  for  forming  a  mould- 
board,  out  of  a  block  of  wood,  of  sufficient  dimensions  to  contain  all  the  extreniilies  of  the 
projio-sed  fabric.  The  change  now  pervading  this  branch  of  mechanics,  wherein  the  introduction 
of  cast-iron  has  become  universal,  precludes  the  necessity  of  falling  back  upon  any  of  Uie  old 
rules;  what  the  agricultural  mechanic  is  now  reiiuired  to  furnish  being  not  a  mould-board,  bnt, 
in  the  language  of  the  Ibundry,  a  patlcni,  from  which  castings  are  to  be  obtained  perfect  fac- 
similes of  the  original  pattern,  and  which  may  be  repeated  ud  libiliim  ;  from  this  last  circum- 
stance, it  follows  that  the  making  of  a  pattern  will  be  a  comparatively  rare  occurrence,  and  one 
which  he  will  seldom  be  called  upon  to  perform.  It  neveriheless  appears  desirable  that  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  construction  of  such  a  fabric  should  Ix;  communicated  in  a  manner  that  may  enable  an 
ordinarily  skille4  mechanic  to  construct  a  pattern  when  inquired,  with  accuracy  and  certainty  of 
effect. 

(612.)  It  ha.s  been  shown  that  very  considerable  discrepancies  exist  in  the  form  given  to  mould- 
boarils,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  jieculiarities  of  soil  may  demand  variations  in  form  ;  but  the 
propriety  of  such  wide  deviations  may  be  called  in  question,  and  the  actually  required  deviation 
brought  within  very  «arrovv  limils.  It  appears,  indeed,  that  one  form  may  be  brought  to  answer 
all  required  purpS.ses.  if  aided  by  a  properly  adjusted  share  and  coulter. 

(013.)  From  a  careful  study  of  the  foregoing  analytical  diagrams,  and  from  comparison  of  nu- 
merous implements  and  their  jirailieal  effects,  together  with  a  consideration  of  the  dynamical 
principles  on  which  the  plow  operates,  I. have  been  led  to  adopt  a  theoretical  form  of  mould-board, 
which  seems  to  fulfill  all  the  conditions  required  in  the  investigation,  and  which  is  capable,  bj- 
very  simple  modifications  of  adai)lati()n  to  the  circumstances  of  the  medium  on  which  it  works. 
In  the  out.set,  it  is  a.ssumed  that  the  soil  is  homogeneous,  and  that  it  posse.s.ses  such  a  degree  of  te- 
nacity and  elasticity  as  to  yield  to  the  jiassing  form  of  the  jdow,  and  to  resume,  when  laid  in  the 
due  position,  that  Ibrm  which  was  first  impres.sed  upon  the  slice,  by  the  action  of  the  .share  and 
coulter;  the  second  consideration  being  the  cutting  of  a  slice  from  the  solid  land.  In  a  theoret- 
ical view,  this  must  be  an  operation  through  its  whole  depth  ami  breadth  ;  hence  the  share  is  con- 
ceived to  be  a  cutting  edge  w-hich  shall  have  a  horizontal  breadth  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  slice 
that  is  to  be  raised,  and  that  the  face  or  land-side  of  the  coulter  shall  stand  at  right  angles  to  this. 
Another  consideration  is.  that  the  slice  now  supposed  to  be  cut  has  to  In;  raised  on  one  side,  and 
turned  over  through  an  angle  of  Ki.')-'.  the  turning  over  being  performed  on  the  lower  right-hand 
edge,  as  on  a  hinge,  through  the  first  SW^,  the  remaining  45'^  being  performed  on  what  was  at  first 
the  upper  right-hand  edge.  (Fig.  10-1.)  The  slice,  in  going  through  this  evolution,  has  to  under- 
go a  twisting  action,  and  be  again  returned  to  its  original  form  of  a  right  pri.«m.  To  accomplish 
this  last  process,  it  is  evident  that  a  n-edi^r,  fuisfed  on  its  upper  surface,  must  be  the  agent ;  and 
to  find  the  form  and  dimensions  of  this  wedge,  is  solving  the  problem  that  gives  the  surface  of  the 
mould-board  required. 

(GH.)  \Ve  have  seen,  fig.  104,  that  the  slice,  in  passing  through  the  first  90"',  describes  the 
quadrant  with  its  lower  edge,  and  in  doing  so,  we  can  conceive  a  continued  slice  to  form  tlie  solid 
of  revolution  abrdc,  fig.  123,  which  is  a  quarter  of  a  cylinder,  as  shown  here  in  isometrical  per- 
spective ;  the  radius  a  b  or  a  c  being  e(iual  to  the  breadth  of  the  slice.  We  have  next  to  consider 
the  angle  of  elevation  of  the  twisted  wedge ;  and  in  doing  this,  we  must  not  only  consider  the 
least  resistance,  but  also  the  most  convenient  length  of  the  wedge.  In  taking  a  tow  angle,  which 
would  present,  of  course,  proiiortiou.-dly  little  resistance,  it  would,  at  the  .sanie  time,  yield  a  length 
of  mould  board  that  would  be  highlv  inconvenient,  seeing  that  the  generating  point,  in  anv  eec- 
tion  of  the  slice,  must  ultimately  reach  the  same  hight,  whether  by  a  low  or  a  higher  angle.  From 
experience,  we  find  that,  from  the  point  of  the  share  to  that  point  in  the  plow's  body  where  the 
slice  arrives  at  the  perpendicular  position,  and  which  1  have  named  the  zero,  that  30  "inches  form 
a  convenient  length.  The  length  c  d  of  the  solid  is  therefore"  made  equal  to  30  inches  or  more, 
and  this  being  divided  into  10  equal  part,*,  the  parallels  1  1,  2  2,  3  3,  <5cc.,  are  to  be  drawn  upon  the 
cylindrical  surface,  and  between  the  points  b,  d,  a  curve  has  to  be  described  that  shall  be  the  line 
of  transit  of  the  slice.  After  investigating  the  application  of  various  curves  to  this  f>urpose.  I  have 
found  that  a  circular  arc  is  the  only  one  that  can  he  adopted.  It  presents  the  least  attainable  re- 
sistance in  the  first  stages  of  the  ascent,  where  the  force  reiiuired  to  raise  the  slice  is  the  greatest, 
and  in  the  last  stages,  where  the  force  of  raising  has  vanished,  leaving  only  what  is  necessary  to 
turn  the  slice  over,  there  the  resistance  is  at  the  greatest  j  and,  above  all,  the  circle  being  of  eqaal 
(522) 


THE  PLOW.  283 


flexure  tbronghout,  it  13  in  every  way  best  adapted  to  the  objects  here  required.  To  determine 
the  radius  of  cur%-ature  of  this  arc.  we  must  evolve  the  cylindrical  surface  cb  de,  and  from  it  con- 
Blruct  the  diagram,  fiq:.  121.  Draw  e  h  equal  to  c  </ of  fig.  123  ;  e  d  equal  to  the  lensrth  of  the  arc 
cb  or  d  e.  and  at  right  angles  10  c b  ;  divide  e b  into  10  equal  parts,  and  from  the  points  of  divi.sion 
draw  the  ordinates  1/.  2  xr,  3  h,  &c.,  parallel  to  erf ;  from  b  set  oft"  10  inches  for  the  length  of  the 
share  along  tlie  line  b  r,  which  will  fall  i  inch  beyond  the  division  7.  and  at  this  distance  draw  the 
dotted  line  parallel  to  7m:  upon  thi.s-set  off  a  distance  7  7n  of  2i  inches;  ami  through  the 
three  points,  d,  m.  b.  describe  an  arc  of  a  circle,  Avhose  radius  ^vill  be  found  equal  to  the  circum- 
ference of  the  cylinder  of  which  n  b  c.  fis.  123.  is  a  quadrant.  The  circular  arc  thus  found  is  now 
to  be  transferred  to  the  cylindrical  surface  c  b  d  e.  The  transfer  may  be  performed  by  drawing 
the  arc  on  paper,  and  the  paper  then  laid  over  the  cylindrical  surface  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
points  b,  7)1,  d,  shall  be  brought  to  coincide  with  the  points  b,  m,  d  of  the  cylindrical  surface  ;  when 
the  remaining  points/,  s-,  A,  ?',  or  any  number  more,  may  be  marked  on  the  cylindrical  quadrant 
by  pricking  through  the  paper  with  a  pointed  instrument  at  short  intervals  along  the  arc  ;  or,  the 
length  of  the  ordinates  1  f,  2  g.  3  h  of  fig.  12-J.  may  be  transferred  to  the  corresponding  parallels 
of  fig.  123,  when  the  lengths  of  the  ordinates  will  cut  the  parallels  in  the  points^',  c,  ^,  iScc.  In  ei- 
ther case,  the  curve  can  uow  be  traced  through  the  points  b.  p,  n,  m,  is.c..  on  the  cylindrical  surface. 
Through  the  points  b,  p.  n,  m.  &c..  draw  the  dotted  lines  J f.  g  g',  h  li' .  &;c.,  parallel  \.o  c  d  ox  b  e, 
and  from  the  center  a  draw  the  radii  a f.  a  g'.  a  h'.  &c. ;  the  unequal  divisions  of  the  arc  cb  will 
thus  show  the  proportional  angles  of  ascent  of  the  slice  along  the  line  of  transit  now  found,  b,  p.  H, 
&.C.,  for  each  division  of  the  length  ;  while  the  degree  of  flexure  in  the  curve  or  line  of  transit  re- 
mains uniform  by  the  same,  from  any  one  point,  to  any  other  equidi.stant  points. 

(615.)  To  convert  the  prism  thus  prepared  and  lined  oft' into  that  of  the  twisted  wedge,  we  have 
only  to  cut  away  that  portion  of  it  contained  within  the  boundaries  n,  b,  c  d.  x,  preserving  the  ter- 
xaiual  edges  a  b,  a  x.  and  d  x:  and  the  prism  will  thus  be  resolved  into  a  form  represented  by  a 
portion  a  b  d  x  e  of  fig.  12.i.  also  in  isomctrical  perspective.  Of  this  figure,  a  b  d  xia  the  true  theo- 
retical surface  of  the  mould  board,  from  the  edge  a  b  of  the  share  to  the  zero-line  d  x ;  a  b  e  x  is 
the  sole  ;  the  curve  b  p  n  m  I,  &c..  is  th-J  line  of  transit  of  the  slice  ;  and  the  triangles  1'  /"  1,  2'  jg  2, 
3'  h  3,  4'  i  4,  &:c.,  are  the  vertical  planes  supposed  to  cut  the  .solid  thus  reduced  in  tlie  divisions  1, 
2,  3,  4,  &c.,  to  the  bight  of  the  line  of  transit,  as  in  the  analytical  sections  of  the  mould  boards. 

(616.)  The  surface  nosv  completed  can  only  raise  the  slice  to  the  perpendicular  position  ;  and  to 
complete  the  operation,  we  have  to  carrv^the  twisted  wedge  back  till  it  shall  place  the  slice  at  the 
angle  of  4.5^.  To  do  this  we  have  to  extend  the  original  prism,  or  suppose  it  to  have  been  at  first 
sufficiently  eloncrated  toward  d  d',  fisr.  125.  and  to  superimpo.se  upon  its  flat  side  the  portion  d  d' 
u  X,  or  a  d  It  of  fig.  126.  The  part  d  d'  11  x  is  now  to  be  worked  oft'  into  a  part  of  a  new  cylindri- 
cal surface,  whose  radius  is  y  rf  or  y  n,  fig.  126,  and  upon  this  surface  the  line  d  11,  fig.  125,  is  to  be 
drawn  a  tangent  to  the  curve  bd  ?i\.  d.  A  continuation  of  the  divisions  of  3  inches  is  to  be  made 
upon  the  line  d  d',  and  the  parallels  a'  q',  b'  /,  and  n  d',  continued  on  the  cj-lindrical  surfaces. 
Whatever  portion  of  the  superimposed  piece  n  d'  n  may  be  found  to  fall  within  the  small  arc  a  t. 
fig.  126,  is  to  be  cut  away,  forming  a  small  portion  of  an  interior  cylinder  concentric  to  the  point 
j^rwhich  being  done,  the  remaining  portions  of  the  superimposed  piece  are  to  be  cut  away  to  the 
dotted  lines  d  x,  ay  b  z.  u  n'.  of  fig.  125,  or.  what  is  the  same  thing,  to  the  lines  d  a.  a'  n.  b'  t.  and 
u  t,  of  fig.  126,  forming  tangents  to  the  curve  a  t,  and  which  will  complete  the  surface  of  the 
twisted  wedge  through  its  entire  length,  and  to  the  bight  of  the  line  of  transit,  producing  what  I 
conceive  to  be  the  true  theorclicnl  xiirf/ice  of  the  mould-board. 

(617.)  Fig.  126  exhibits  distinctly,  in  the  quadrant  o  b  d.  the  inequality  of  the  angles  of  ascent 
for  the  slice,  where  the  radii  <7  p'.  n  n' ,  a  m' .  &c..  represent  the  ascents  to  the  corresponding  di- 
visions of  lensrth  in  the  transit  of  the  slice  through  the  curve  b  d  n.  which  represents  the  peri- 
phery of  the  cylindrical  surfaces  at  the  line  of  transit.  The  parts  of  the  figure  lying  above  that 
line  represent  those  that  must  be  superimposed  above  the  quadrantal  portion  of  the  cylinder,  to 
complete  the  upper  regions  of  the  mould-board;  these  parts  acting  merely  as  a  preventive  against 
the  overfall  of  soil  mto  the  waste  of  the  plow,  are  of  less  importance  as  to  form,  than  those  just  de- 
ecribed,  but  are  quite  necessary  in  the  practice  of  plowin^r.  The  parallelogram  ;/  d  exhibits  the 
relation  in  which  the  furrow-slice  stands  to  this  form  of  mould-board,  when  the  slice  has  been 
raised  to  the  perpendicular,  and  y  a  in  its  ultimate  position. 

(618.)  Although  I  hold  this  to  be  a  true  theoretical  form,  it  is  not  in  this  state  fit  to  be  employed 
as  a  practical  mould-board  ;  but  the  steps  to  render  it  so  are  very  simple.  The  broad  shovel- 
mouth  ab,  fiar.  125,  would  meet  with  obstructions  too  numerous  to  admit  for  a  moment  of  its  adop- 
tion in  practice  ;  but  we  have  only  to  remove  the  right  hand  portion  of  the  edge  a  b,  in  the  direc- 
tion b  q.  making  the  breadth,  q  m,  6i  or  7  inches  broad  ;  that  portion  also  contained  7'  r  3  is  to  be 
cut  away,  leaving  m  r  about  4  inches  broad  ;  b  q  r  m  will  then  represent  the  share  :  the  mould- 
board  being  thus  of  the  prolonged  form  in  the  fore-part.  And  though  this  form  has  no  peculiar 
advantage  over  the  truncated,  in  respect  to  working,  it  is  better  adapted  to  admit  of  the  body  be- 
ing constructed  of  malleable  iron,  a  practice  which,  though  more  expensive,  is  certainly  the  most 
preferable,  by  rea.sou  of  its  greater  durability,  and  being  less  liable  to  fracture  through  the  eftijct 
of  shock.s,  when  stones  or  other  obstructions  are  encountered. 

(619.)  Besides  the  removal  of  these  parts  of  the  theoretical  mould-board,  other  slight  modifica- 
tions are  admissible.  When  the  parts  have  been  cut  away  as  described,  the  edge  b  q  of  the  share 
will  be  found  too  thick  for  a  cutting  edge.  If  brought  lo  a  proper  thickness,  by  removing  the  parts 
below,  making  the  edge  to  coincide  with  the  curved  surface  ;  the  share  .so  prepared  would  have  the 
character  tliat  belongs  to  the  cresting  plows.  The  lower  edge  of  the  mould-board  from  r  to  2  would 
be  also  rather  high,  and  would  present  unnecessary  resistance  to  the  lower  side  of  the  slice  ;  both 
parts  therefore,  require  to  be  reduced.  The  surface  of  the  feather  i  y  is  to  be  sloped  down  till 
it  become  straight  between  the  points  b  and  q,q  not  being  more  than  I  inch  above  the  plane  o'  j"e 
Bole,  as  at  the  dotted  lines  nz  in  fig.  126.  The  lower  edge  of  the  mould-board  is  al.<o  to  be  rounded 
off",  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  along  the  lower  edge  from  ^  to  o  in  fig.  128.  To  prevent  the  abra- 
eion  of  the  edge  of  the  slice  in  passing  over  the  mould-board,  it  will  also  be  expedient  to  make 
'523) 


284 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


126,  fall  in,  from  below  the  line  of  transmit  upward  as  shown  by  the 


the  lines  from  d  to  m.  in  fig 
dotted  linos  at  d\  a'.  //,  11. 

(620.)  Other  modifications  may,  if  required  by  peculiar  taste  or  otherwise,  be  given  to  this 
form  of  mould  board.  If  after  tlvc  points  bptim.  &c.  have  been  determined  tipon  the  cylin- 
drical surface,  fiir.  12:?,  or  12.'),  and,  in  cutting  away  the  jiarts  above  ab  in  the  latter  fi^'ure, 
instead  of  reduciiiff  the  surfac-e  to  the  straight  lines  8' />,  f'  u.  7'  in,  tScc.  we  leave  the  surfuee 
slightly  convex  ujion  all  these  lines,  a  surface  will  be  produced  as  represented  by  the  dotted 
sectional  lines  of  fisr.  126,  or  128.  and  by  becoming  slightly  either  recurved  above  the  line  of 
transit,  as  in  fis.  128,  or  with  continued  "convexity,  as  in  fig.  118,  Plate  XI.,  the  .surface  so  pro- 
duced would  deliver  the  slice  witliout  risk  of  injury  to  the  edge ;  which,  though  not  of  vital 
importance,  is  jilways  an  object  in  the  estimation  of  the  plowman  who  performs  his  work  with 
taste.  The  same  modification  w  ould  also,  in  the  opinion  of  many  agricultural  machine  makers, 
render  the  mould-board  niorc  elKcacious  in  the  working  of  stiti"  clay  soils, 

(621.)  Fig.  127,  Plate  XII..  repres«'nts  an  elevation  of  the  new  mould  board,  as  now  constructed 
by  me.  and  fig.  128  the  analytical  sections  of  the  same,  taken  in  the  same  maimer  as  described 
for  those  precedinL',  and  having  the  same  letters  of  reference.  In  the  present  case,  the  sec- 
tional lines  are  all  .-traight  to  the  bight  of  the  line  of  transit;  above  that  line  and  before  the  zero 
they  are  slightly  concave,  though,  as  has  been  shown,  this  is  not  imperative:  but,  behind  the 
zero,  they  are  convex  from  a  little  below  the  line  of  transit,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  portions 
of  the  lines.  The  paralleloi-'ram  k  1/,  being  a  section  of  the  slice  when  in  the  vertical  position, 
will  be  seen  to  toincide  exactly  with  the  zero-line,  as  it  will  do  through  the  whole  pas.sage  of 
the  slice.  The  l<;tters  and  numerals  in  these  two  figures  have  the  same  reference  as  in  the  other 
figures  of  the  mould -board, 

(622,;  Judeing  from  the  trials  that  have  been  made  of  this  mould-board,  and  from  the  vtii- 
form  liriffh/eninsr  of  Us  xinface  after  a  few  hours'  work,  it  promises  to  possess  a  very  uni- 
form resistance  over  its  whole  surface,  which  is  a  principal  object  to  be  aimed  al  in  the  ibrin- 
ation  of  ibis  member  of  the  plow, 

(62:j,)  IVte  Moiil<l-ho<ird  Pnltern. —  The  instructions  just  given  refer  solely  to  the  formation 
of  the  theoretical  surface  of  the  mould-board,  including  that  of  the  share  ;  but,  in  the  construc- 
tion of  a  pottcrn  from  which  mould-boards  are  to  be  cast,  the  process  is  somewhat  diSerent, 
tlionch  based  on  the  principles  above  laid  down, 

(624,)  In  proceeding  with  this,  therefore,  the  quadrant  of  the  cylinder,  upon  which  the  whole 
problem  is  grounded,  may  or  may  not  be  prepared.  If  it  is  to  be  employed,  then  the  first  pro- 
cess is  exactly  as  before  described  in  reference  to  the  quadrant  fig.  123.  Plate  XII.,  which  must 
be  formed  and  lined  as  there  de.scribed  ;  but  the  same  process  may  be  pursued  from  lines  alone, 
without  the  intervention  of  the  .solid,  and  in  the  follo^^■ing  manner:  Having  described  the  quad- 
rant of  a  circle,  as  a  he.  fig.  123.  of  10  inches  radius,  con.struct  the  diagram  fig.  124,  as  before  di- 
rected, the  entire  length  eh  being  30  inches,  divided  into  equal  parts  of  3  inches  each.  The  arc 
h  d  \s  then  to  be  drawn  through  the  points  />/>  «  m,  which  points,  instead  of  being  a  transfer,  as 
before  described,  from  the  quadrant,  may  here  be  drawn  at  once  with  a  beam-compass  touching 
the  three  leading  points  h  m  d.  as  before,  which  will  intersect  all  the  divisions,  converting  them 
into  ordiuates  1  f.  2  "-,  3  /(,  &c,  to  the  curve  h  d.  The  lengths  of  these  ordinates,  fnmi  the  base-line 
ef>,  are  now  to  be  carefully  transferred  to  the  quadrant  of  the  circle  b  d  of  fig,  126,  and  set  off  ia 
the  circumference  thereof";  thus  the  point  //  in  fiir.  126  corresponds  to  tlic  termination  b  of  the  base- 
line in  fig.  124.  The  first  ordinate  ir  p  is  to  be  set  off  on  tjie  quadrant  from  b  to  p,  the  second  or- 
dinate 8  «  is  ,set  ott'  from  b  to  n.  the  third  7  m  from  b  to  m,  and  so  on  throu;  h  the  entire  quadrant 
of  the  circle.  The  radii  a  h,  a  p.  a  n.  &c,  being  now  drawn,  will  furnish  the  successive  angles  of 
elevation,  with  the  sole-plane,  for  each  division  of  the  length  throughout  the  quadrant, 

(62.'i,)  In  applying  these  to  the  mould-board,  i".  is  to  be  ob,served  that  the  first  three  radii  belong 
to  the  share,  if  it  is  a  [noloni-'ed  mould-board,  or  the  first  five  if  it  is  truncated.  The  quadrant,  fig. 
126,  with  its  radii,  being  thus  completely  dr;iwn  out  at  full  size  upon  a  board,  produce  the  line  ba 
to  y,  and  on  y  as  a  center,  with  a  radiu.s  of  7  inches,  describe  the  arc  n  t,  and  concentric  to  it  the 
arc  d  n.  Atan  angle  of  4.")"  draw  /  u  a  tangent  to  the  arc  a  t,  and  the  point  0/  intersection  of  this 
taneent  with  the  arc  will  fix  the  extreme  point 

u  of  the  mould-board  at  the  bight  of  the  line  of  '^'?  ^^• 

transit ;  which  point  will  bo  19  inches  from  the 
land  side  plane  b  ^.  and  12  inches  above  the 
plane  of  the  sole,  or  base-line  >/  b.  From  d,  lay 
off  divisions  of  equal  parts  on  the  arc  d  n.  each 
equal  to  4J  inches — the  diagonal  of  a  square  of 
3  inches — which  completes  the  lines  for  the  fab- 
rication of  the  pattern, 

(626.)  The  next  sti'p  in  the  operation  is  that 
of  building  a  block  out  of  which  the  pattern  is 
to  be  shaped.  Provide  a  ilealboard  of  3J  feet 
or  thereby  in  length,  with  a  breadth  of  10  inches; 
have  it  dressed  of  uniform  thickness,  and  at  least 
one  edge  and  end  straight  and  right  angled,  as 
seen  at  aic,  in  the  annexed  fig.  129,  and  a  b, 
fig,  126,  Plate  XII,,  forming  a  basement  to  the 
block,  a  being  the  right  angle,  and  the  continu- 
ation of  the  board  being  bid  from  view  under 
the  superimposed  block.     Let  the  edge  ffc  of  ® 

the  board  be  marked  off  in  eqiial  divisions  of  3  ^hj.  buildikg  of  the  block  for  the  mould- 
inches,  agreeing  exactly  with  those  of  the  dia-  board  pattern'. 

gram,  fig,  124,  marking  the  divisions  witli  letters 

or  numerals  corresponding  to  the  radii  of  the  quadrant,  fig.  126,  the  end  a  6  of  the  board  corre- 
(524) 


THE   PLOW.  285 


spending  to  the  radius  7n  of  tlie  quadrant,  and  to  the  ordinate  7  m  of  the  diagram.  Provide  also  a 
suit-stock  or  bevel  of  the  form  represented  by  d  ef,  the  stock  d  e  being  a  straiurht  bar  with  a  head 
piece  at  e,  fixed  at  right  angles  to  the  stock,  and  into  this  the  blade  af  is  to  be  jointed,  in  such  a 
manner  that  when  the  blade  and  stock  are  set  parallel  to  each  other,  they  shall  just  receive  the 
thickness  of  the  basement  board  betwixt  them,  the  length  of  the  blade  being  equal  to  the  breadth 
of  the  slice.  Five  or  more  pieces  of  well  seasoned,  clean,  .3inch  Memel  or  yellow-pine  deal  are 
now  to  be  prepared,  each  about  30  inches  in  length,  and  from  6  to  4  inches  in  breadth.  Set  the 
bevel  to  the  angle  bam,  fig.  126,  and,  appl3'ing  it  at  the  end  of  the  board,  as  in  tig.  129,  it  will 
point  out  the  position  in  which  the  first  block  g  h  mu.st  be  placed  on  the  board  in  order  that  it 
may  fill  the  lines  of  the  pattern.  The  farther  end  of  the  block,  being  set  in  like  manner  to  fall 
within  the  lines,  it  is  to  be  firmly  attached  to  the  board  with  screw-nails.  The  second  block  ki 
is  to  be  joined  to  the  first  by  the  ordinary  method  of  gluing,  being  set  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
first  to  fill  the  lines  of  the  pattern  at  both  ends,  and  this  requires  its  being  set  obliquely  to  the  first. 
The  tliird  block  I  m  \s  set  in  like  manner,  and  so  on  with  no  and  pq.  The  setting  of  the  different 
blocks  will  be  much  facilitated  by  having  the  ends  gil  np  cut  off  to  the  plane  of  the  land-side — 
that  is,  to  coincide  vertically  with  the  land-side  edge  of  the  board,  and  by  keeping  in  view  that 
the  terminal  line  cq  lies  at  an  angle  4.5"^. 

(627.)  The  block  being  thus  prepared,  the  process  of  working  it  off\s  plain  and  easily  performed 
in  this  way.  Having  set  the  bevel  at  the  angle  b  a  m,  fig.  126,  which  answers  to  the  end  a  b  of 
the  block,  the  bevel  is  applied  as  in  the  figure,  and  the  surplus  wood  is  cut  away  to  a  short  dis- 
tance within  the  end  «  6  of  the  board,  until  the  blade  of  the  bevel  lies  evenly  upon  the  surface, 
and  the  kneed  head-piece  touching  the  edge  of  the  board.  Set  the  bevel  now  at  the  angle  b  al, 
and,  applying  it  at  the  first  divi.«ion  on  the  edge  of  the  board,  cut  away  the  surplus  wood  with  a 
gouge  or  other  tool,  in  a  line  parallel  to  the  end  of  the  board,  or  at  risrht  angles  to  its  edge  until  the 
edge  of  the  blade  af  lie  evenly  on  the  surface,  and  the  head  of  the  stock  touch  the  edge  of  the 
board  as  before.  Repeating  this  operation  at  each  successive  division  with  the  bevel,  setting  it 
to  the  corresponding  angle  up  to  the  vertical  or  zero-line,  and  we  have  a  .series  of  leading  lines  or 
draughts,  each  occupying  its  troe  position  in  the  surface  of  the  mould-board  to  the  hight  of  the  line 
of  transit.  By  continuing  these  lines,  each  in  the  direction  already  given  it,  until  thej'  terminate 
in  the  breast,  or  in  the  upper  edge  of  the  pattern,  we  have  a  corresponding  series  of  points  now 
determined,  in  the  breast  and  upper  edge  ;  and  by  removing  the  surplus  wood  still  remaining  in 
the  spaces  between  the  lines,  and  reducing  the  surface  to  coincide  with  them,  we  have  the  fin- 
ished surface  from  the  neck  of  the  share  up  to  the  zero. 

(628.)  To  complete  the  after  portion  of  the  pattern,  we  have  to  form  a  temporary'  bevel  with  a 
curved  blade,  adapted  to  the  small  arc  a  t,  fig.  126,  which  blade  is  prolonged  in  a  tangent  tusA 
the  angle  of  4.5^.  With  the  guidance  of  this  bevel,  its  stock  being  still  applied  to  the  board,  as  in 
fig.  129.  cut  away  all  the  wood  that  occurs  to  interrupt  it  behind  the  zero,  until  it  applies  every 
where  behind  that  line  without  obstruction.  At  the  third  division  beyond  the  zero,  the  pattern 
may  be  cut  off  in  a  right  vertical,  though  this  is  not  imperative,  as  the  mould-board  may  be  made 
considerably  longer,  and  even  a  little  .shorter,  without  at  all  aflbcting  its  operation.  At  whatever 
distance  in  lengtli  its  terminal  edge  maj'  be  fixed,  that  portion  of  the  line  of  transit  which  lies  be- 
tween the  zero  and  the  terminus  must  leave  the  original  curve  h  in  J,  fig.  123,  at  a  tangent,  and  it 
will  reach  the  terminus  as  such,  or  it  will  gradually  fall  into  a  reentering  curve,  according  as  tlie 
terminus  is  fixed  nearer  to  or  farther  from  the  zero-line ;  the  terminus  of  the  line  of  transit  being 
alvvays  19  inches  distant  from  the  land-side  plane.  That  portion  of  the  surface  which  now  re- 
mains unfinished  between  the  arcs  a  t  and  d  it,  fig.  126.  is  to  he  worked  off  in  tangent.s,  applied 
vertically  to  the  arc  a  t.  and  terminating  in  that  part  of  the  line  of  transit  that  lies  between  d  and 
u.  Such  portions  of  the  interior  cjlindrical  surface  as  may  have  been  formed  under  the  applica- 
tion of  the  temporary  bevel  to  the  arc  a  t,  are  now  to  be  also  cut  away  bj-  a  line  paissing  through 
the  junction  of  the  tangents  t  a',  t  b',  t  u,  with  the  cylindrical  arc  a  t,  forming  a  curved  termination 
in  the  lower  part  behind — as  seen  in  fig.  127 — which  completes  the  surfiice  as  proposed. 
.  (629.)  The  modifications,  formerly  pointed  out,  paragraphs  (61S.)  (619,)  and  (620,)  may  now  be 
made  upon  the  lower  and  the  upper  parts  of  the  pattern.  The  breast-curve  and  the  form  of  the 
upper  edge  will  now  have  assumed  their  proper  curvature  ;  and  there  only  remains  to  have  the 
whole  pattern  reduced  to  its  due  thicknesses.  This,  in  the  fore  part,  is  usually  about  \  inch,  in- 
creasing backward  below  to  about  1  inch,  and  the  whole  becoming  gradually  thinner  toward  the 
top  edge,  where  it  may  be  3-16  inch.  The  perpendicular  hight  behind  is  usually  about  12  inches, 
and  at  the  fore  part  14  inches. 

(630.)  Of  THE  Draught  of  Plows. — From  the  complicated  structure  of  the  plow,  and  the  ob- 
lique direction  in  which  circumstances  oblige  us  to  apply  the  draught  to  the  implement,  some 
misconceptions  ha%'e  arisen  as  to  the  true  nature  and  direction  in  which  the  draught  may  be  ap- 
plied. The  great  improver  of  the  plow  has  fallen  into  this  error,  and  has,  in  some  measure,  been 
followed  T)y  others.*  He  as.serts  "  that  were  a  rope  attached  to  the  point  of  the  share,  and  the 
plow  drawn  forward  on  a  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  it  would  infallibly  sink  at  the 
point."  Were  this  reallj'  the  case,  it  would  prove  that  the  center  of  resistance  of  the  plow  in  the 
furrow  must  be  somewhere  below  the  level  of  the  sole,  which  is  impossible.  As  the  center  of 
gravity  of  any  body,  suspended  from  a  poiht  at,  or  anywhere  near,  the  surface  of  that  body,  will 
always  be  found  in  a  continuation  of  the  suspending  line,  supposing  it  to  be  a  flexible  cord,  so,  in 
like  manner,  the  c?n'er  of  resistance  of  the  plow  will  be  always  found  in  the  direction  of  the  line 
of  draught.  Now  if,  with  a  horizontal  line  of  draught  from  the  point  of  the  .share,  it  were  found 
that  the  point  of  the  share  had  a  tendency  to  sink  deeper  into  the  soil,  it  would  be  a  clear  proof 
that  the  plow  was  accommodating  itself  to  the  general  law,  and  that  the  center  of  resistance  is  be- 
low the  line  of  the  sole.  The  fallacy  of  this  conclusion  is  so  palpable  that  it  would  be  an  act  of 
supererogation  to  refute  it  by  demonstration,  more  especially  as  it  never  can  be  of  any  utility  in  a 
practical  point  of  view.     I  have  thought  it  necessary,  however,  to  advert  to  it,  as  it  appears  to  have 


SmalfB  Treatise  on  Plows. 
(525) 


286 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


aided  in  tbrowinp  a  niyrtery  over  the  mode  of  applying  die  Uiit  or  angle  of  draught,  which  in 
itself  is  a  sutBcieullv  siiiijilc  |ir«»bk'm. 

(631.)  Tlic  rcawiiilni;  liiUicrio  ail<>[itoJ  on  Uiis  branch  of  the  theory  of  the  plow  seems  to  be 
grounded  on  the  two  foliowlDg  duta  :  the  hiffkf,  on  au  average,  of  a  horse's  shoulder,  or  that  poiot 
in  bis  collar  where  the  yoke  is  applied  ;  and  the  lenp(h  of  the  draught-chains  that  will  give  him 
ample  freedom  to  walk.  It  falls  out  fortunaielv,  too.  that  the  angle  of  ok-vation  thus  produced 
cro.s8C8  the  plane  of  the  collar  as  it  lies  on  the  shoulders  of  the  horse  when  in  draught,  nea.-ly  at 
right  angles.  It  is  my  purpose,  however,  in  this  section  to  show  that  (keeping  out  of  view  some 
practical  difliculties;  the  plow  may  be  drawn  at  aiiy  angle,  from  the  horizontal  up  to  a  little  st>ort 
of  90  ,  and  that  it  would  recjuire  less  and  less  force  to  draw  it  as  the  direction  of  the  line  of  draught 
approached  the  horizontal  line.  It  would,  in  all  ca.-ses,  be  required  that  the  point  of  tlic  beam,  or 
rather  the  draught  bolt,  should  be  exactly  in  the  straiu'ht  Hue  from  the  center  of  resistance  to  the 
point  where  the  motive  force  would  be  applied.  II  this  force  could  be  applied  in  Uie  horizontal 
direction,  we  should  have  the  plow  drawn  by  the  minimum  of  force.  This  position,  however,  is 
impracticable,  as  the  line  of  draught  would,  in  such  a  case,  pass  through  the  solid  land  of  the  fur- 
row about  to  be  raised  ;  but  it  is  williin  the  limits  of  practicability  to  draw  the  plow  at  an  angle 
of  10-,  and,  as  will  be  demonstrated,  the  motive  force  reijuired  at  this  angle  would  be  1  stone  or 
14  lbs.  less  than  is  required  by  drawing  at  the  angle  of  -20  ,  which  may  be  held  as  the  average  in 
the  ordinary  practice  of  plowing.  A  i)low  drawn  at  this  low  angle,  namely  12-.  would  have  its 
beam  (if  of  the  ordinary  lengtli)  so  low  that  the  draught-bolt  would  be  only  10  inches  above  the 
base-line  :  and  this  is  not  an  impracticable  bight,  though  the  traces  might  be  required  inconveni- 
ently long.  On  the  same  principle,  the  angle  of  draught  might  be  elevated  to  60-^  or  70-,  provided 
a  motive  power  could  be  apjjlied  at  sucli  high  angles.  In  this,  as  before,  the  beam  and  draught- 
bolt  would  have  to  fall  into  the  line  of  draught  as  emanating  from  the  center  of  resistance.  The 
whole  plow,  also,  under  this  supposition,  would  require  an  almost  indefinite  increase  of  weieht; 
and  the  motive  force  rctjuired  to  draw  the  plow  at  au  angle  of  CO-  would  be  nearly  twice  that 
required  in  the  horizontal  direction,  or  1  16-18  times  thai  of  the  present  practice.  exclasK-e  of 
what  might  arise  from  increased  weight.  We  may  therefore  conclude  that  to  draw  the  plow 
at  any  angle  higher  than  the  present  practice  is  impracticable,  and,  though  rendered  practica- 
ble, would  still  be  highly  inexpedient,  by  reason  of  the  disadvantage  of  increased  force  bein^ 
thus  rendered  necessary;  unless  we  can  suppose  that  the  application  of  steam  or  other  inani- 
mate power  might  require  it.  Neither  would  it  be  very  expedient  to  adopt  a  lower  angle, 
since  it  involves  a  greater  length  of  trace  chains,  which,  at  best,  would  be  rather  cumbrous; 
and  it  would  produce  a  saving  of  force  of  only  one  stone  on  tlie  draught  of  a  pair  of  horses. 
Yet  it  is  worthy  of  being  borne  in  mind  that,  in  all  ca-ses,  tliere  is  some  saving  of  labor  to  the 
horses,  whenever  they  are,  by  any  means,  allowed  to  draw  by  a  chain  of  increased  length, 
provided  the  draught-bolt  of  the  plow  is  brought  into  the  line  of  draught,  and  the  dranght- 
chains  are  not  of  such  undue  weight  as  to  produce  a  sensible  curvature  ;  in  other  words,  to 
insare  the  change  of  angle  at  the  horse's  shoulder,  due  to  the  increased  length  of  the  draught- 
chain. 

(632.)  In  illustration  of  tliese  changes  in  the  direction  of  the  draught,  fis:.  130,  Plate  XIII.  will 
render  the  subject  more  intelligible.  Let«  repn'sent  the  body  of  a  plow,  h  the  point  of  the  beam, 
and  c  the  center  of  resistance  of  the  plow,  wliich  may  be  assumed  at  a  hieht  of  2  inches  above 
the  plane  of  the  sole  d  e,  though  it  is  liable  to  cliauire  within  short  limiu.  The  average  length  of 
the  draught  chains  being  10  feet,  including  draught-bars,  hooks,  and  all  that  inter\-enes  between 
the  draught-bolt  of  the  plow  and  the  horse's  shoulders;  let  that  distance  be  set  off  in  the  direction 
bf,  and  the  average  bight  of  the  horse's  shoulders  where  the  chains  are  attached,  being  4  feet  2 
inches,  let  the  point  /be  fixed  at  the  bight  above  the  base-line  d  c.  Draw  the  line  f  c.  which  is 
the  direction  of  the  line  of  draught  acting  upon  the  center  of  resistance  c;  and  if  the  plow  is  in 
proper  temper  it  will  coincide  also  with  the  draught-bolt  of  the  beam  ;  e  c  f  being  the  angle  of 
draught,  and  equal  to  CO^.  It  will  be  ea.sily  perceived,  that,  with  the  same  horses  and  the  same 
length  of  yoke,  the  angle  ec/is  invariable;  and  if  the  plow  has  a  tendency  to  dip  at  the  point  of 
tilt!  share  under  this  arrangement,  it  indicates  that  the  draught-bolt  b  is  too  kis'h  in  the  bridle. 
Shifting  the  bolt  one  or  more  holes  downward  will  bring  the  iilow  to  strim  evenly  upon  its  sole. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  plow  has  a  tendency  to  ri.se  at  the  point  of  the  share,  the  indication  from 
tills  is,  that  the  draught-bolt  b  is  too  loir,  and  the  rectification  must  be  made  by  raising  it  cme  or 
more  holes  in  tlie  bridle.  Suppose,  again,  that  a  pair  of  taller  horses  were  yoked  in  the  plow,  the 
draught  chaiu.s,  depth  of  furrow,  and  soil — and,  by  consequence,  the  point  of  resistance  c — remain- 
ing the  same,  we  should  then  have  the  point  f  raised  suppose  to/';  by  drawing  tlie  line/'c,  we 
have  c  c /' as  the  angle  of  draft,  which  will  now  be  22^;  and' in  this  new  arrangement,  the 
draught-boll  is  found  to  be  below  the  line  of  draught/'  c;  and  if  the  draught-chains  were  anplied 
at  b,  in  the  direction  f'  b,  the  plow  would  have  a  tendency  to  rise  at  the  point  of  the  share,  by  the 
action  of  that  law  offerees  which  obliges  the  line  of  drauciit  to  coincide  with  the  line  which  passes 
through  the  center  of  resistance  ;  hence  the  draught-bolt  b  would  be  found  to  rise  to  h'.  which 
would  raise  the  point  of  the  share  out  of  its  proper  direction.  To  rectify  this,  then,  the  draueht- 
boll  must  be  raised  in  the  bridle  by  a  space  equal  to  b  b',  causing  it  to  coincide  with  the  true  liBC 
of  draught,  which  would  airain  bring  the  plow  to  swim  evenly  on  its  sole. 

(633.)  lU^^arding  the  relative  forces  re(iuired  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  plow,  when 
drawn  at  ditlVrent  angles  of  draught,  we  have  first  to  consider  the  nature  of  the  form  ot  those  parta 
through  which  the  motive  force  is  brought  to  bear  upon  the  plow.  It  has  been  shown  that  the 
tendency  of  tlie  motive  force  acts  in  a  direct  line  from  the  shoulder  of  the  animal  of  draught  to  the 
center  of  resistance ;  and  referring  again  to  fig.  130,  Plate  XIII..  were  it  not  for  considerations  of 
convenience,  a  straight  bar  or  beam  lying  in  the  direction  c  h,  and  attached  firmly  to  the  plow's 
body  anywhere  between  c  andg,  would  answer  all  the  nurpo.ses  of  draught,  perhaps,  V>otter  than 
the  present  beam.  But  llie  drautrht  not  being  the  end  in  view,  but  men-ly  the  means  by  which 
that  end  is  accomplish'^d,  the  former  is  made  to  subserve  the  latter  ;  and  as  the  beam,  if  placed  in 
the  direction  c  b,  would  obstruct  the  proper  working  of  the  plow,  we  are  constrained  to  resort  to 
(526) 


THE   PLOW, 


887 


another  indirect  action  to  arrive  at  the  desired  effect.  Tliis  indirect  action  is  accomplished  through 
the  medium  of  a  system  of  rigid  angular  frame  work,  consisting  of  the  beam  and  the  body  of  the 
plow,  or  those  parts  of  them  comprehended  between  the  points  h,  h,  c,  the  beam  being  so  connect- 
ed to  the  body  a  h,  as  to  form  a  rigid  mass.  The  effect  of  the  motive  force  apphed  to  this  rigid 
system  of  parts  at  the  point  b,  and  in  the  direction  bf,  produces  the  same  result  as  if  c  6  were  firmly 
connected  by  a  bar  in  the  position  of  the  line  c  b,  or  as  if  that  bar  alone  were  employed,  as  in  the 
case  before  supposed,  and  to  the  exclusion  of  the  beam  b  h. 

(634.)  Having  thus  endeavored  to  illustrate  the  causes  of  the  oblique  action  of  the  plow,  show- 
ing that  the  obliquity  is  a  concomitant  following  the  considerations  of  convenience  and  fitness  in 
working  the  implement,  I  proceed  to  show  the  relative  measui-e  of  the  effects  of  the  oblique  action. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  force  of  draught  required  to  impel  the  plow,  when  exerted  in  the  direc- 
tion b  f,  may  be  taken  at  an  average  of  24  stones,  or  336  lbs.  Analyzing  this  force  by  means  of 
the  parallelogram  of  forces,  if  we  make  the  line  b  fio  represent  336  lbs.,  the  motive  force  ;  and 
complete  the  parallelogram  6  ifk,  we  have  the  force  b  f  held  in  equilibrium  by  the  two  forces 
i  b  and  k  b  ;  the  first  acting  in  the  horizoidal  direction  to  draw  the  plow  forward,  the  .second  act- 
ing vcrticaJli/,  to  prevent  the  point  of  the  beam  from  sinking  ,  which  it  would  do  were  a  horizon- 
tal force  only  applied  to  the  point  of  the  beam.  The  relation  of  these  forces  i  b  and  k  b  to  the  ob- 
lique force  will  be  as  the  length  of  the  lines  i  b  and  k  b  to  the  line  b  J]  or  the  line  ?'  b  will  repre- 
sent 322  lbs.,  while  the  oblique  force  is  336  lbs.,  and  the  force  k  b  95  lbs.  This  last  force  is  repre- 
sented as  lifting  the  beam  vertically  by  suspension,  but  the  same  result  would  follow  if  the  beam 
were  supported  by  a  wheel  under  the  point  b  ;  the  wheel  would  then  bear  up  the  beam  with  the 
same  Ibrce  as  that  by  which  it  was  supposed  to  be  suspended,  95  lbs.  But  to  carrv  out  the  sup- 
position, let  the  draught  now  found  be  applied  horizontally  from  the  point  c.  As  the  plow  would 
then  have  no  tendency  either  to  dip  or  rise,  the  force  k  b  vanishes,  leaving  only  the  direct  hori- 
zontal force  i  b ;  hence,  were  it  possible  to  apply  the  draught  in  a  horizontal  direction  from  the 
point  of  resistance,  the  resistance  of  the  plow  would  be  322  lbs.  instead  of  336  lbs. 

(635.)  But  to  return  to  the  previous  position  of  the  draught,  wherein,  still  supposing  it  to  be  in 
the  horizontal  direction,  and  thereby  requiring  that  the  point  of  the  beam  have  a  support  to  pre- 
vent its  sinking  too  low.  This  support  may  be  supposed  either  a  foot,  as  seen  in  many  both  an- 
cient and  modem  plows,  or  in  the  shape  of  a  wheel  or  wheels,  so  much  employed  in  many  of  the 
English  plows.  We  see  at  once,  under  this  consideration,  the  office  that  a  wheel  performs  in  the 
action  of  a  plow.  It  has  been  shown,  that  whether  the  plov\'  be  drawn  in  the  ordinary  direction 
of  draught  h  f  in  which  one  oblique  propelling  force  only  is  exerted,  or  with  two  antagonist 
forces,  b  i,  in  the  horizontal  direction,  and  the  upholding  force,  b  k,  in  the  vertical,  we  find  that 
in  the  latter,  the  difference  in  favor  of  the  motive  force  is  only  1-24  of  the  usual  resistance  ;  but  the 
upholding  force  is  equal  to  2-7,  while  none  of  these  variations  has  produced  any  chan"-e  in  the 
absolute  resistance  of  the  plow.  The  impelling  force  is  theoreticallj-  less  in  the  latter  case  ;  but 
since  the  wheel  has  to  carry  a  load  of  95  lbs.,  we  have  to  consider  the  effect  of  this  load  upon  a 
small  wheel,  arising  from  friction  and  the  resi-stance  it  will  encounter  by  sinking  less  or  more  into 
the  subsoil.  I  have  a.scertained,  from  experiment,  that  the  difference  offeree  required  to  draw  a 
wheel  of  12  inches  diameter,  loaded  as  above  described,  and  again  when  unloaded,  over  a  tol- 
erably firm  soil,  is  equal  to  22  lbs.,  a  quantity  exceeding  1^  times  the  amount  of  .saving  that  would 
accrue  by  adopting  this  supposed  horizontal  draught  with  a  wheel.  Having  thus  found  the 
amount  of  draught  at  two  extremities  of  a  scale,  the  one,  being  the  oblique  draught,  in  common 
use  at  an  angle  of  20-",  the  other  deduced  from  this,  through  the  medium  of  the  established 
principles  of  oblique  forces,  and  the  latter  producing  a  saving  of  only  1-24  of  the  motive  force 
while  it  is  encumbered  with  an  additional  resistance  arising  from  the  support  or  wheel-  it 
necessarily  follows  that,  at  all  intermediate  angles  of  draught,  or  at  any  angle  whatever,  where  the 
principle  of  the  parallelogram  of  forces  finds  place — and  it  will  find  place  in  all  cases  where 
wheels  yielding-  any  support  are  applied  to  the  plow  under  the  beam — there  must  necessa- 
rily be  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  resistance  to  the  motive  force. 

(636.)  This  being  a  question  of  some  importance,  the  diagram,  fig.  131,  will  render  it  more 

Fig.  131. 


THE  DRAUGHT  OF  WHEEL-PLOWS. 

evident  Let  a  be  the  point  of  resistance  of  a  plow's  body,  b  the  point  of  the  beam,  c  the  posi- 
tion ot  the  horse's  shoulder,  and  a  d  the  horizontal  line  ;  then  will  c  a  d  be  the  angle  of  draught 
equal  to  20  .     Let  the  circle  e  represent  a  wheel  placed  under  the  beam,  which  is  supported  by 


288  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FAKM WINTER. 

a  stem  or  Bhflcrs,  hero  repregentcd  by  ihe  line  e  b.  In  this  poititioii  ihe  puini  of  tlic  bcnin.  wliicli  is 
also  tlic  |)')iiit  of  drmight,  lies  in  the  line  of  draiiu'lil :  the  wheel,  therelnre,  honrs  no  load,  bui  is 
simply  in  |>liic'i',  and  has  no  effect  on  the  draught;  the  motive  force.  tliorcCore. '•oniiiiucs  lobe 
336  lbs.  .Suppose  now  tht."  point  of  the  beam  to  be  rai.-ed  to  :^.  so  that  the  line  of  drauijhi  :r  c  may 
be  horizontal  ;  and  since  the  line  of  draught  lies  now  out  of  the  original  line  a  li  r.  ami  has  as- 
fiuiiicd  that  of  (/  c  (■ — ^  beini;  now  8U|iported  on  llic  produced  stem  c  i»  of  the  wheel — draw  c  t 
perpendicular  to  a  c,  and  coniplcti-  the  parallelop-am  nick;  the  side  a  i  will  siill  rejiresent  the 
oriifinal  motive  force  of  :):)ti  lbs.,  but,  by  the  change  of  direction  of  the  line  of  drauuhi.  the  re- 
quired force  will  now  be  representeil  by  the  diai;onal  a  g  oi  the  paralleloi;rani.  cipial  to  about 
aoi  lbs.;  and  i?  r  is  a  continuation  of  iliis  force  in  a  horizontal  direction.  The  draught  is  ihcro- 
fore  increased  by  l.'i  lbs.  Complete  also  the  parallelogram  «  /  g  in.  and  nsthc  iliiigonal  a  ir — the 
line  ol  draught  last  found — is  equal  to  iTA  lbs.,  the  side  /  i.'  of  the  paralleloLTani  will  repres<>nl  the 
venical  |)ressure  of  the  beam  upon  the  wheel  c,  e(|ual  to  about  VIOO  lbs.,  which,  Irom  c.xperimcntB 
(635),  may  be  valued  at  40  lbs.  of  additional  resistance,  making  the  wlmlc  resistance  lo  the  mo- 
tive force  391  lb.s.,  and  being  a  total  increase  arisiiiL;  Jivm  Ihe  in/rmiiir/ion  of  a  uIiitI  in  llii* 
posilioH  of  M  lbs.  Having  here  derived  a  ma.ximum — no  iloubt  an  extreme  case — and  the  usual 
angle  of  C'O-  as  the  minimum,  we  can  predicate  that,  at  any  angle  iuiciniediaie  \o  I  n  d  and  /  a  p, 
the  resistance  can  never  be  reduced  to  the  minimum  of  336  lbs.  Hence  it  follows,  as  a  corollary. 
that  whri/s  pltifi'd  nnilcr  Ihr  beam  can  never  les.sen  the  resistance  of  the  plow  ;  bui.  on  the  con- 
trary, must,  in  all  ca.ses.  increase  the  resistance  to  the  motive  lnrci-  more  or  Ics.h.  accoriling  to  the 
degree  of  pressure  that  is  brought  upon  the  wheel,  and  this  will  he  proportional  to  the  sine  of  the 
angle  in  the  resultant  a  g  o{  the  line  of  draught. 

(637.)  The  application  of  a  wheel  in  Ihe  heel  of  a  plow,  doi's  not  come  under  the  Panic  mode 
of  reasoning  as  that  under  the  beam,  the  former  becoming  a  part  of  the  body,  from  w  liich  all  the 
natural  resistance  flows;  but  in  viewing  it  as  a  part  of  that  body  only,  we  can  arrive  at  certain 
conclusions  which  are  quite  compatible  with  careful  experiments. 

(631?.)  The  breadth  of  the  whole  rubbing  surface  in  tlic  body  of  a  plow,  wlien  turning  a  fur- 
row, is  on  an  average  about  17^  inches,  and  supposing  that  surface  to  bo  pressed  nearly  c<)uaJ 
in  all  parts,  we  shall  have  the  sole-shoe,  which  is  about  '.ij  inches  broad,  occupying  1-7  part 
of  the  surface ;  and  taking  the  entire  average  resistance  of  the  |)low's  body,  as  iK-lbre.  at  330 
lbs.,  we  have  1-7  of  this,  equal  to  48  lbs.,  as  the  greatest  amount  of  resistance  produced  by  the 
sole  of  the  plow.  But  this  is  under  the  supiiosition  that  the  resistance  arises  from  a  uiuform 
degree  of  friction  spread  over  the  whole  i-ubbing  surface  of  the  boily :  while  we  have  seen,  on 
the  contrary,  that  the  coulter,  when  acting  alone,  presents  a  rcsisi'ancc  e<|ual  to  the  entire  (ilow. 
It  is  only  reasonable,  therefore,  in  absence  of  farther  c.xpcrinierils.  to  conclude  that  the  fore  parts 
of  the  body — the  couller  and  share — yield  a  Inrsre  pmporlion  of  Ihr  rrsisltmce  irhrn  lurning  Ihe 
fiirrow-slice  ;  but.  since  we  cannot  appreciate  this  with  any  degree  of  exactness,  let  the  sole  nave 
Its  full  share  of  the  resi.siance  before  stated,  namely,  48  lbs.  If  a  wheel  is  applied  at  or  near  tha 
heel  of  the  plow,  it  can  only  bear  up  the  hind  part  of  the  sole.  an<l  prevent  its  ordinary  friction, 
which,  at  the  very  utmost,  cannot  be  more  than  i  of  the  entire  friction  due  to  the  entire  sole.  A 
wheel,  therefore,  placed  hero,  and  acting  umier  every  favoring  circumstance,  even  to  the  sup- 
posed extinction  of  its  own  friction,  could  not  reduce  the  resisiance  bj-  more  than  -21  lbs.,  being 
the  half-of  that  due  to  the  entire  sole,  or  it  is  1-14  of  the  entire  resistance.  Hut  wecannot  imagine 
awheel  so  placed,  to  continue  any  length  of  time,  without  becoming  clogged  in  all  directions, 
thereby  greatly  increasing  its  own  friction ;  and  when  it  is  coiisidercil  that  the  necessarily  small 
portion,  of  any  wheel  that  can  be  so  ap[)lie<l.  will  sink  into  the  sub.'^oil.  lo  an  extent  that  will  still 
brin^'  the  sole  of  the  plow  into  contact  with  the  sole  ol  the  furiow.  It  will  thus  be  f<nin<i  that  the 
amount  of  reduction  of  the  general  resistance  will  be  very  much  abridged,  certainly  not  less  than 
onehalf.  which  reduces  the  whole  saving  of  f'rauglu  to  a  quantity  not  exceeding  I'J  lbs.,  tind  even 
this  will  be  always  doubtful,  from  the  dilliculiy  of  keeping  such  w  heels  in  good  working  condi- 
tion. This  viewof  a  wheel  placed  at  the  heel  has  been  conlirmed  by  actual  cxperimcnis,  care- 
fully conducted,  whercjn  Palmer's  patent  plow  with  a  wheel  in  the  heel  (as  patented  many  years 
ago),  but  in  this  case  it  was  applied  on  the  best  principles,  gave  iu/hrnlions  of  increased  resist- 
ance from  Ihe  vse  of  Ihe  nhed.  as  compared  irilk  Ihe  same  plojr  when  Ihe  wheel  rras  revtored  ; 
the  dlllcrence  having  been  1  J  stone  in  favor  of  no  wheel.  I  licsiiaie  not.  therefore,  to  .'■ay  that  in 
no  ca.se  can  wheels  be  of  service  towanl  reducing  the  resistance  of  the  plow,  whether  they. be 
placed  boloro  or  behind."  or  in  both  positions,  and  the  chances  are  numerous  that  they  shall  act  in- 
juriously. That  the  use  of  wheels  may,  under  certain  circumsiances.  bring  the  im[)lement  wiihin 
the  management  of  less  skillful  hands  iban  is  required  for  the  swing  plow,  must  be  admitted  ;  but, 
at  the  same  time,  there  may  be  a  iiuestion  whether,  even  wiili  that  advantage  the  jiractice  is  com- 
mendab'e.  1  should  be  wanting  in  candor  if.  for  myself,  1  answered  otherwise  than  in  the  nega- 
tive—.1.  S.) 


*  The  wheel  under  the  beam,  for  general  use,  is  thought  by  many  not  commendable ;   but  the  shell 
rbecl  in  the  land-side  is  an  improvement,  as  itdiminiahes  or  reduces  the  rcalstanco  matorially. 

VVii.irix«ov. 


(528; 


The  I'.oiik  ot  Lhc  t'alin. 


Fig.  111. 


PlateXI. 


OP    MOULD    BOARDS. 


The-  East  Lothiuri 


Fid.  112. 


FUj.  113 


Fiq.  114. 


Fig.  115. 


The  Br-rwickshire.. 


Fui  116. 


Fn,.  117. 


The  Lanarkshwe- 


Fw.  118. 


c 

r^ 

^\ 

h 

^ 

^ 

•■— 

^  \ 

<^ 

\ 

•^ 

d 

^ 

\ 

^^ 

1 

\ 

" 

5 

^ 

& 

4 

l-J  S  G  ^  0 

i     ,    ,     I    ,    ,     I    .    .     I    .=i=fc 


2  Feet. 


Vabhshedhy  Gteekv  ScMf.Elratli.New^rk. 


VARIOUS  MODES  OF  PLOWING  RIDGES.  289 


24.    THE   VARIOUS  MODES  OF   PLOWING   RIDGES. 

■...."  Your  plowshare,    .... 
Drawn  by  one  pair,  obedient  to  the  voice, 
And  double  rein,  held  by  the  plowman's  hand. 
Moves  right  along,  or  winds  as  he  directs." 

Graham. 

(639.)  Your  knowledge  of  soils  will  become  more  accurate  after  you 
have  seen  them  plowed ;  for  as  long  as  a  crop,  or  the  remains  of  one,  cov- 
ers soils,  their  external  characters  cannot  be  fully  exposed  to  ^•iew. 

(640.)  On  observing  a  plow  at  work,  you  might  imagine  that  the  laying 
over  of  a  fiirrow-slice  is  a  very  simple  process  ;  but  it  is  really  not  so  sim- 
ple as  it  appears.  You  have  already  seen,  in  the  construction  of  the  plow, 
that  the  flirrow-slice  is  laid  over  by  a  machine  of  very  complicated  struc- 
ture, though  simple  in  its  mechanical  action  on  the  soil ;  and  you  may 
learn,  by  a  single  trial,  that  the  plow  is  not  in  reality  so  very  easily  guided 
as  it  appears  to  be  in  the  hands  of  an  expert  plowman.  You  might  also 
imagine  that,  as  the  plow  can  do  nothing  else  but  lay  over  a  furrow-slice, 
the  forms  of  plowing  do  not  admit  of  much  variety ;  but  a  short  course 
of  observation  will  convince  you  that  there  are  many  modes  of  flowing 
land. 

(641.)  The  several  modes  of  plo^^-ing  land  have  received  characteristic 
appellations,  and  these  are — gathering-up  ;  crown- and-furrow  plowing  : 
casting  or  yoking  or  coupling  ridges  ;  casting  ridges  with  gore  furrows  ; 
cleaving  down  ridges  ;  cleaving  do\\Ti  ridges  with  or  without  gore  furrows  ; 
plowing  two-out-and-two-in ;  plowing  in  breaks ;  cross-fulTO^^•ing ;  angle 
plowing,  ribbing,  and  drilling;  and  the  preparative  operation  to  all  plow- 
ing is  termed  feering  or  striking  the  ridges. 

(642.)  These  various  modes  of  ploA\'ing  are  contiived  to  suit  the  nature 
of  the  soil  and  the  season  of  the  year.  Heavy  land  requires  more  cautious 
plowing  than  light,  because  of  its  being  more  easily  injured  by  rain  ;  and 
greater  caution  is  required  to  plow  all  sorts  of  land  in  mnter  than  in  sum- 
mer. The  precautions  here  spoken  of  allude  to  the  facilities  given  to  sur- 
face water  to  flow  away.  The  different  seasons,  no  doubt,  demand  their 
respective  kinds  of  plowing ;  but  some  of  the  modes  are  common  to  all 
seasons  and  soils.  Attention  to  all  the  methods  will  alone  enable  you  to 
understand  which  kind  is  most  suitable  to  particular  circumstances  of  soil, 
and  particular  states  of  season.  To  give  you  an  idea  of  all  the  modes, 
from  the"  simplest  to  the  most  complicated,  let  the  ground  be  supposed  to 
be  even  in  reference  to  the  state  of  its  surface. 

(643.)  The  supposed  flat  ground,  after  being  subjected  to  the  plow,  is 
left  in  the  form  of  ridges  or  of  drills,  each  ridge  occupying  land  of  equal 
area,  determined  by  similar  lengths  and  breadths.  The  ridges  are  usually 
made  N.  and  S.,  that  the  crop  may  enjoy  the  light  and  heat  of  the  solar 
rays  in  an  equal  degree  throughout  the  day ;  but  they  should,  neverthe- 
less, traverse  the  slope  of  the  ground,  whatever  its  aspect  may  be  ;  and  this 
is  done  that  the  surface  water  mav  flow  easily  away. 

(644.)  Ridges  are  made  of  the  different  breadths  of  10,  12,  15,  16,  and 
18  feet,  in  different  parts  of  the  countiy.  These  vaiious  breadths  are  oc- 
casioned partly  by  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  partly  by  local  custom.  ^V  ilb 
regard  to  the  soil,  heavy  land  is  formed  into  narrow  ridges,  to   allow  the 

(577) 19 


29J  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


rain  to  flow  (juickly  into  the  open  furrows.  Hence,  in  many  parts  of  Eng- 
land, the  ricljres  are  only  10  and  12  feet  in  width,  and  in  some  localities 
they  are  in  ridglets  of  5  or  6  feet.  In  Scotland,  even  on  the  strongest  land, 
the  ridges  are  seldom  less  than  15  feet ;  in  some  localities  they  are  from 
16  to  .'JG  feet,  and  in  light  soils  a  not  unusual  width  is  18  feet.  In  Ber- 
wickshire and  Roxburghshire,  the  ridges  have  for  a  long  period  been  15 
feet  on  all  classes  of  soils,  being  considered  the  most  convenient  width  for 
the  ordinary  manual  and  implemental  operations.  In  other  parts  of  the 
country',  16  and  18  feet  are  more  common.  More  than  half  a  century  ago, 
ridges  were  made  very  broad — that  is,  from  24  to  36  feet — hiffh  on  the  top 
or  crowni,  and  crooked  like  the  letter  S,  from  the  mistaken  notion  that  the 
crook  always  presented  some  part  of  the  ridge  in  a  right  position  to  the 
sun — a  form  which,  although  it  did,  would  remove  other  parts  as  far  away 
from  the  sun's  influence.  In  the  Carse  of  Gowrie,  such  broad,  crooked 
ridges  still  exist ;  but  the  usual  practice  throughout  the  country  is  to  have 
ridges  of  moderate  breadth,  straight,  and  looking  to  noon-day.  In  many 
parts  of  Ireland  the  land  is  not  put  into  ridges  at  all,  being  done  up  with 
the  spade  into  narrow  stripes  called  lazy-beds,  separated  by  deep,  nan-ow 
trenches.  Where  the  plow  is  used,  however,  ridges  are  always  formed, 
though  naiTow,  but  usually  of  12  feet.  For  the  sake  of  uniformity  of  de- 
scription, let  it  be  understood,  when  I  speak  of  a  ridge,  that  an  area  of  15 
feet  of  width  is  meant. 

(645.)  The  first  process  in  ridging  up  land  fiom  the  flat  surface  is  called 
Jeering  or  strihing  the  ridges.  This  is  done  by  planting  3  or  more  of  such 
poles,  giaduated  into  feet  and  half-feet,  as  were  recommended  for  setting 
off  the  lines  offence  (446),  and  which  are  used  both  for  directing  the  plow 
employed  to  fecr  in  straight  lines,  and  for  measuring  off  the  breadth  of  the 
ridges  into  which  the  land  is  to  be  made  up,  from  one  side  of  the  field  to 
the  other. 

(646.)  Land  is  feered  for  ridging  in  this  way  :  Let  a  b,  fig.  132,  repre- 
sent the  S.  and  E.  fences  of  a  field,  of  which  let  x  be  the  hcad-ridge  or 
head-land,  of  the  same  width  as  that  of  the  ridges,  namely  15  feet.  To 
mark  off  its  width  distinctly,  let  the  plow  pass  in  the  direction  of  re,  with 
the  fuiTow-slice  lying  toward  x.  Do  the  same  along  the  other  head-land, 
at  the  opposite  end  of  the  field.  Then  take  a  pole  and  measure  off  the 
width  of  a  quarter  of  a  ridge,  viz.  3  feet  9  inches,  from  the  ditch  lip  a  to  c, 
and  plant  a  pole  at  c.  With  another  pole  set  off  the  same  distance  from 
the  ditch  a  to  d,  and  jilant  it  there.  Then  measure  the  same  distance  from 
the  ditch  at  e  to  y^  and  at  f  look  if  d  has  been  placed  in  the  line  of  f  c ; 
if  not,  shift  the  poles  a  little  until  they  are  all  in  a  line.  Make  a  mark  on 
the  ground  with  the  foot,  or  set  up  the  plow-staff,  at  f.  Then  plant  a  pole 
at  g  in  the  line  of  f  d  c.  Before  starting  to  feer,  the  plowman  measures 
off  Ij^ridges — namely,  18  feet  9  inches — from  /"to  k,  and  plants  a  pole  at 
k.  He  then  starts  with  the  plow  from  y  to  d,  where  he  stops  with  the  pole 
standing  between  the  horses'  heads,  or  else  pushed  over  by  the  tying  of 
the  horses.  He  then,  with  it,  measures  off,  at  right  angles  to  yc,  a  line 
equal  to  the  breadth  of  \\  ridges,  18  feet  9  inches,  toward  t  until  he  comes 
to  the  line  of  k  I,  where  he  plants  the  pole.  In  like  manner  he  proceeds 
from  d  to  g,  where  he  again  stops,  and  measures  off  1^  ridges,  18  feet  9 
',nches  breadth,  from  g  toward  ?'  at  a  point  in  the  line  of  /.•  7,  and  plants  the 
pole  there.  He  then  proceeds  toward  the  other  head-ridge  to  the  last  pole 
c  from  g,  and  measures  off  11  ridges,  18  feet  9  inches,  from  c  to  7,  and 
plants  the  pole  at  7.  From  7  he  looks  toward  k  to  see  if  the  intermediate 
poles  are  in  the  line  771:  ;  if  not,  he  shifi:s  them  to  their  proper  points  as  he 
returns  to  the  head-ridge  x  along  the  furrow  he  had  made  in  the  line  fc. 

(578) 


VARIOUS  MODES   OF  PLOWING  RIDGES. 


291 


On  coming  down  cf  he  obviates  any  deviation  from  the  straight  line  that 
the  plow  may  have  made.  In  the  line  oi  f  c  the  fuiTOW-slices  of  the  feer- 
ing  have  been  omitted,  to  show  you  the  setting  of  the  poles.  It  is  of  much 
importance  to  the  correct  feering  of  the  whole  field  to  have  those  first  two 

Fig.  132. 

00  y  P  y  I  y  7»       p 


"my^^^^^c^^^^x^^^^^^^^^^^^^. 


MODE  OF  FEERING  RIDGES. 


feerings,  f  c  and  h  I,  drawn  correctly ;  and,  to  attain  this  end,  it  is  proper 
to  employ  two  persons  in  the  doing  of  it — namely,  the  plowman  and  the 
farm-steward,  or  farmer  himself.  It  is  obvious  that  an  error  committed  at 
the  first  feei'ings  will  be  transmitted  thi-oughout  the  whole  field.  A  very 
steady  plowman  and  a  very  steady  pair  of  horses,  both  accustomed  to  feer, 
should  only  be  intrusted  with  the  feering  of  land.  Horses  accustomed  to 
feer  will  walk  up  of  their  own  accord  to  the  pole  standing  before  them. 
In  like  manner  the  plowman  proceeds  to  feer  the  line  k  I,  and  so  also  the 
line  op  ;  but  in  all  the  feerings  after  the  first,  from  f  to  k,  the  poles,  of 
course,  are  set  off  to  the  exact  breadth  of  the  ridge  determined  on — in  this 
case  15  feet,  such  as  from  s  to  t,  u  to  Vy  p  to  w,  in  the  direction  of  the  ar- 
rows. And  the  reason  for  setting  off"  c  Z  at  so  much  a  greater  distance  than 
I p  or  pw  is,  that  the  ^  ridge  a  h  may  be  plowed  up  first  and  without  de- 
lay, and  that  the  rest  of  the  ridges  may  be  plowed  by  half-ridges.  The 
half-ridge  a  h  is,  however,  plowed  in  a  different  manner  from  the  rest ;  it 
is  plowed  by  going  round  the  feering  f  c  until  the  open  furrow  comes  to 
a  e  on  the  one  side  and  to  h  i  on  the  other.  Then  h  i  constitutes  the  feer- 
ing, along  with  k  I,  for  plowing  the  2  half-ridges  z  i  and  z  ky  which,  when 
done,  the  open  furrow  is  left  in  the  line  z  y,  corresponding  to  the  open 
furrow  left  in  the  line  e  a,  and  between  which  is  embraced  and  finished  the 
full  ridge  of  15  feet  e  z.  The  half-ridges  z  k  and  z  o  are  plowed  at  the 
same  time  by  another  pair  of  horses,  and  the  open  furrow  z  y  is  left  be- 
tween them,  and  the  full  ridge  zk  z  is  then  completed.  In  like  manner 
the  half-ridges  z  o  and  z  r  are  afterward   plowed  by  the  same  horses,  and 

(579) 


292 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


the  open  furrow  z  y  is  left  between  tbem,  and  the  full  ridge  z  o  z  \&  then 
completed.  And  so  on  with  every  other  feering  in  the  field.  Had  the 
feering  Inien  set  off  the  breadth  of  a  half-ridge — that  is,  1\  feet — in  the  line 
of  i  h,  from  a  to  //  and  from  c  to  /,  this  half-ridge  could  only  have  been 
plowed  by  all  the  furrow-slices  being  turaed  over  toward  /t  /,  and  the  plow 
returning  back  empty,  thus  losing  half  its  time. 

(647.)  As  a  means  of  secuinng  perfect  accuracy  in  measuring  off  the 
breadths  of  ridges  at  right  angles  to  the  feerings,  lines  at  right  angles  to 
J'c  should  be  set  off  across  the  field,  from  the  cross-table  and  poles  set  at 
d  and  a,  in  the  direction  of  d  t  and  s^  v,  and  a  fuiTow  made  by  the  plow  in 
each  of  these  lines,  before  the  breadths  of  the  feerings  are  measured  along 
them.  Most  people  do  not  take  the  trouble  of  doing  this,  and  a  very  care- 
ful plowman  renders  it  a  precaution  of  not  absolute  necessity,  but  every 
proficient  farmer  will  always  do  it,  even  at  the  saciifice  of  a  little  time  and 
some  trouble,  as  a  means  of  securing  accuracy  of  work. 

(648.)  As  the  plow  completes  each  feering,  the  furrow-.slices  appear  laid 
over  as  at  i?i  and  n.  While  one  plowman  proceeds  in  this  manner  to  feer 
each  ridge  across  the  field,  the  other  plowmen  commence  the  plowing  of 
the  land  into  ridges ;  and,  to  afford  a  number  of  jilowmen  space  for  begin- 
ning their  work  at  the  same  time,  the  feering-plowman  should  be  set  to 
his  work  at  least  half  a  day  in  advance  of  the  rest,  or  more  if  the  number 
of  plows  is  gi-eat  or  the  ridges  to  be  feered  long.  In  commencing  to  plow 
the  ridges,  each  jilownian  takes  two  feerings,  and  begins  by  laying  the  fur- 
row-slices of  the  feerings  together,  such  as  >n  and  n,  to  form  the  crowns  of 
the  future  ridges.  In  this  way  one  plowman  lays  together  the  furrow- 
slices  of  fc  and  k  I,  while  another  is  doing  the  same  with  those  o£  o  j?  and 
r  w.  I  have  already  described  how  the  ^  ridge  a  h  is  plowed,  and  stated 
that  the  rest  of  the  ridges  are  plowed  in  ^  ridges.  The  advantage  of  plow- 
ing by  \  ridges  is,  that  the  open  fuiTows  are  thereby  left  exactly  equi-dis- 
tant  from  the  crowns  ;  whereas,  were  the  ridges  plowed  by  going  round 
and  round  the  crown  of  each  ridge,  one  ridge  might  be  made  by  one  plow- 
man a  little  broader  or  narrower  than  the  one  on  each  side  of  it — that  is, 
broader  or  narrower  than  the  detemiinate  breadth  of  15  feet. 

(649.)  A  ridge,  a  a,  fig.  13.3,  consists  of  a  crown  h,  two  flanks  c,  two  fur- 
row-brows d,  and  two  open  furrows  a  a.  An  open  furrow  is  finished  at 
the  bottom  by  two  mould  or  hint-end  furrows.     (Fig.  134.) 

(650.)  After  laying  the  feering  funow-slices  to  make  the  crowns  of  the 
ridges,  such  as  at  f  c,  k  I,  op,  and  ?■  w,  fig.  132,  the  plan  to  plow  up  ridges 
from  the  flat  ground  is  to  turn  the  horses  toward  you  on  the  head-ridges, 
until  all  the  furrow-slices  between  each  feering  are  laid  over  until  you 
reach  the  lines  y  z,  which  then  become  the  open  furrows.     This  method 

Fig.  133. 


OAlHtKlSO   UP     FKOM    IHfc    H.AT. 


>f  plowing  is  ca.\\ed  gather ing  up,  or  gathering  up  from  the  flat,  the  dispo- 
lition  of  whose  furrows  is  shown  in  fig.  133,  where  a  a  a   embrace   two 

(530J 


VARIOUS   MODES   OF  PLOWING  RIDGES. 


293 


whole  ridges,  on  the  right  sides  of  which  all  the  furrows  lie  one  way,  from 
a  to  h,  reading  from   the  right  to  the  left ;  and  on  the  left  sides  of  which 
all  the  furrow-slices  lie  in  the  opposite  direction,  from  a  to  h,  reading  fro 
the  left   to  the  right ;   and  both  sets  of  furrow-slices   meet  in  the  crowi 
hhh.     The  open  furrows  aaa  are  finished  off  with  the  mould  or  hint-eu 
furrows,  the  method  of  making  which  is  described  in  the  next  figure. 

(651.)  The  viouhl  or  Mnt-cnd  fun'ow  is  made  in  this  way  :  When  th. 
last  2  furrow-sHces  of  the  ridges  a  a,  fig.  134,  are  laid  over,  the  bottom  ol 
the  open  furrow  is  as  wide  as  represented  by  the  dotted  line  c,  extending 

Fig.  134. 


AN   OPEN    FL■Klll_l\^•    \VrrH    M'lCr.l)    OR    HIST-KND    FU  RUOW-SI.IC  KS. 

from  a  to  a.  The  plow  goes  along  this  wide  space,  and  first  lays  over  a 
triangular  furrow-slice  h  on  one  side,  and  another  of  the  same,  h,  on  the 
other  side,  up  against  and  covering  the  lower  ends  of  the  last  fuiTOw-slices 
a  a,  and  by  which  operation  the  ground  is  hollowed  out  in  the  shape  rep- 
resented at  c  by  the  sole  of  the  plow.  The  dotted  line  d  shows  the  level 
of  the  ground  in  its  former  state,  before  it  was  begun  to  be  ridged  up,  and 
the  furrow-slices  a  a  show  the  elevation  attained  by  the  land  above  its  fer- 
mer  level  by  plowing. 

{Q52.)  A  ridge  that  has  been  plowed  the  reverse  to  gathering  up  from 
the  flat  is  said  to  be  split,  which  is  the  short  phrase  for  crovm-and-furrow 
plowing. 

(653^  This  kind  of  plowing  o^crown-and-furroio  can  easily  be  perfornied 
on  land  that  has  been  gathered  up  from  the  flat.  In  this  case,  no  feering 
is  required  to  be  purposely  made,  the  open  furrows  answering  that  pur- 
pose. Thus,  in  fig.  133,  let  the  furrow-brows  d  be  laid  over  to  meet  to- 
gether in  the  open  furrow  a,  and  it  will  be  found  that  they  will  just  meet, 
since  they  were  formerly  separated  in  the  same  spot ;  and  so  let  each  suc- 
cessive furrow-slice  be  reversed  from  the  position  it  was  laid  when  gath- 
ered up  from  the  flat,  and  as  represented  in  the  figure,  then  a  will  become 
the  crowns  of  the  ridges,  and  b  the  open-furrows.  In  this  mode,  as  well 
as  in  gathering  up,  the  ridges  are  plowed  by  two  half-ridges,  and  in  both 
cases  the  plowed  surface  of  the  ridges  is  preserved  in  a  flat  state  ;  there 
should  he  no  perceptible  curvature  of  the  gi'ound,  the  open  fun-ow  only 
forming  a  hollow  below  the  level  of  the  plowed  surface.  When  no  sur- 
face-water is  likely  to  remain  on  the  land,  which  is  the  case  with  light  soils, 
both  these  are  simple  modes  of  plowing  land  ;  and  they  form  an  excellent 
foundation  upon  which  to  make  di-ills  upon  stronger  soils  for  turnips. — 
They  are  both  much  practiced  in  plowing  land  for  barley  after  turnips. 

(654.)  But  when  two  plowings  are  intended  to  be  given  to  land  for  bar- 
ley after  turnips,  and  when  it  is  found  inconvenient  to  cross-furrow  the 
land — which  will  be  the  case  when  sheep  on  turnips  occupy  a  field  of  great 
length  in  proportion  to  its  breadth,  or  when  the  soil  or  season  is  too  weft 
to  run  the  risk  of  letting  the  land  He  any  time  in  a  cross-fuiTow — then  the 

(581) 


29  i 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


land  should  be  feered  so  as  to  allow  it  to  be  gathered  up  from  the  flat,  that 
the  rrown-aud-furruw  plowing  may  afterward  complete  the  ridges.  On 
looking  again  at  fig.  133,  where  the  ridges  are  represented  complete,  it  is 
obvious  that,  were  they  plowed  from  that  state  into  crown-and-furrow,  by 
making  the  open  furrows  a  a  a  the  future  crowns,  a  half-ridge  would  be 
left  at  each  side  of  the  field — a  mode  of  finishing  off  a  field  wliich  no  con- 
siderate farmer  adopts,  as  it  displays  great  carelessness  and  want  of  fore- 
thought in  forming  his  plans.  The  land  should,  therefore,  be  so  feered  at 
first  as.to  leave  a  half-ridge  next  the  ditch  when  gathered  up  fiom  the  flat, 
and  which  the  subsequent  crown-and-funow  plowing  will  convert  into  a 
whole  one.  Thus,  the  first  feering  should  be  made  at  e  o,  fig.  132,  and 
every  other  should  be  made  at  the  distance  of  the  width  of  a  ridge,  namely 
15  feet,  from  the  last  one,  as  at  ?/  c,  y  z,  y  z.  On  plowing  each  feering, 
the  open  funows  will  then  be  left  at  i  h,  kl,  op,  and  r  w.  These  open 
furrows  will  form  the  feelings  "for,  and  the  crowns  of,  the  future  ridges — 
which,  when  plowed,  the  half  ridge  from  i  to  e  will  have  to  be  plowed  by 
itself;  thereby,  no  doubt,  incurring  some  loss  of  time  in  laying  all  the  fur- 
row-slices toward  the  crown  7t  i,  and  retuniing  with  the  empty  plow ;  but 
that  loss  must  be  endured  to  get  the  ridges  finished  with  a  peifect  form 

(655.)  I  may  mention  here,  that  one  stretch  of  the  plow  \rith  a  furrow 
is  called  a  landing,  and  going  and  returning  with  a  furrow  each  way  is 
termed  a  bout. 

(656.)  Another  mode  of  plowing  land  from  the  flat  surface  is  casting  or 
yoking  or  coupling  the  ridges.  The  feering  for  this  mode  is  done  in  a  dif- 
ferent way  from  either  of  the  two  foregoing.  The  first  feering  is  opened 
out  in  the  line  oi  c  a,  fig.  132,  close  to  the  ditch,  and  every  other  is  meas- 
ured off  of  the  width  of  two  ridges  from  the  last — that  is,  30  feet  asunder — 
as  at  y  c,  betwixt  k  1  and  op,  and  at  half  a  ridge  beyond  r  ic.  Casting  is 
begun  by  laying  the  furrow-slice  of  the  feerings  together,  and  then  laying 
the  first  furrow-slice  toward  e  a,  on  going  up.  and  toward  y  z,  betwixt  / 
and  jf,  on  coming  down  the  bout ;  and  so  on,  funow  after  furrow,  turning 
the  horses  on  the  head-ridges  always  toward  you,  until  the  open  furrow  is 
left  at  y  z,  betwixt  k  1  and  i  h.  The  effect  of  casting  is  to  lay  the  entire 
furrow-.slices  of  every  ridge  in  one  direction,  and  in  opposite  directions  on 
adjoining  ridges.  The  proper  disposition  of  the  furrow-slices  you  will  see 
in  perspective   in  fig.  135,  which  exhibits  three  entire  ridges,  two  of  them 


Fig.  135. 


CASTING,   yOKISG,  OR  COUPLING  RIDGES. 

cast  or  yoked  together ;  that  is,  the  furrow-slices  of  a  b  meet  those  of  c  J 
in  b,  which  forms  the  crown  of  the  double  ridge,  and  those  of  c  (Z  lie  in  the 
opposite  direction  from  c  b,  and  are  ready  to  meet  those  of  the  adjoining 
ridge  beyond  d  at  d,  and  they  leave  the  open  furrow  between  them  at  c  ; 
and  so  on,  an  open  furrow  between  every  two  ridges.  Ridges  lying  thus 
yoked  can  easily  be  recast,  by  reversing  the  furrow-slices  of  b  c  and  c  d, 
thereby  converting  the  open   furrow  c  into  a  cro^^'n  of  the  double  ridge, 

f582) 


VARIOUS  MODES  OF  PLOWING  RIDGES. 


295 


and  making  tlie  cvown  h  an  open  fuiTow.  Cast  ridges  keep  the  land  in  a 
level  state,  and  can  most  conveniently  be  adopted  on  dry  soils.  They 
form  a  good  foundation  for  drilling  upon,  or  they  make  a  good  seed-fur- 
row on  dry  land.  Lea  on  light  land,  and  the  seed-fuiTow  for  barley  on 
the  same  sort  of  soil,  are  always  plowed  in  this  fasliion.  This  is  an  eco- 
nomical mode  of  plowing  land  in  regard  to  time,  as  it  requires  but  few 
feerings  ;  the  furrow-slices  are  equal,  and  on  even  ground  ;  and  the  horses 
are  always  turned  inward,  that  is,  toward  you.  Casting  is  best  performed 
upon  the  ilat  surface,  as  then  the  uniform  state  of  both  ridges  can  be  best 
preserved  ;  and  should  the  land  be  desired  to  be  plowed  again,  it  can  be 
cast  the  reverse  way,  and  the  correct  form  of  the  ridges  still  preserved. 
In  this  method  of  casting,  no  open  furrow  is  more  bare  of  earth  than 
another. 

(657.)  Casting  ridges  is  as  suitable  plowing  for  strong  as  light  land,  pro- 
vided the  ndges  are  separated  by  a  gore-furrow.  A  gore-fuiTOw  is  a 
space  made  to  prevent  the  meeting  of  two  ridges,  and  as  a  substitute  for 
an  open  furrow  between  them.  Its  effect  is,  in  so  far  as  the  furrow-slices 
are  concerned,  like  crown-and-furrow  plowing,  but  the  difference  consists 
in  this,  that  it  turns  over  a  whole  ridge,  instead  of  a  half-i-idge  in  each 
feering.  It  can  only  be  formed  where  there  is  a  feering  or  an  open  fur- 
row.   The  method  of  making  a  gore-furrow  is  shown  in  fig.  136.    Suppose 

Fig.  136. 


A  GORE-FURIMW. 


that  it  is  proposed  to  make  one  in  a  feering  such  as  is  shown  by  k  I  and 
o  -p  in  fig.  132.  Let  the  dotted  furrow-slices  a  and  e,  and  the  dotted  line 
i  represent  an  open  furrow  such  as  in  fig.  136,  of  which  c  is  a  point  in  the 
middle.  Make  the  plow  pass  between  the  center  of  the  furrow-sole  c  and 
the  left-hand  dotted  fuiTow-slice  e,  and  throw  up  to  the  right  the  trian- 
gular-shaped mould-fuiTow-slice  b.  Then  turn  the  horses  sharp  round 
toward  you  on  the  head-ridge,  and  lay  the  dotted  furrow-slice  a  upon  b, 
which  will  then  become  the  furrow-slice  d,  as  seen  in  the  fig.  at  d.  Ao-ain 
turning  the  horses  sharp  round  on  the  head-ridge,  take  the  plow  lightly 
through  part  of  the  dotted  furrow-slice  e,  and  convert  it  into  the  triangular 
shaped  mould-furrow-slice  /\  the  upper  end  of  e  being  left  untouched  ;  but 
a  portion  of/  will  trickle  down  toward  /.  Turn  the  horses  from  you  this 
time  on  the  head-ridge,  and  bring  down  the  plow  behind  d,  and  lay  against 
it  the  ordinary  furrow-slice  g.  Turning  the  horses  again  from  you  on  the 
near  head-ridge,  lay  the  ordinary  furrow-slice  h,  by  destroying  the  remain- 
der of  the  dotted  furrow-slice  c  with  some  more  earth,  upon  the  triangular- 
shaped  furrow  /;  which,  when  done,  turn  the  horses  from  you  again  on  the 
farther  head-ridge  for  the  last  time,  and  come  down  the  open  furrow  ?,  rub- 
bing the  soil  up  with  the  mould-board  of  the  plow  from  i  against/  and  clear- 
ing out  of  the  furrow  any  loose  soil  that  may  have  fallen  into  it,  and  the  gore- 
fun-ow  is  completed.     The  dotted  line  i  shows  the  surface  of  the  foiTner 

(583) 


206  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

state  of  the  land.  A  goic-fuiTow  is  most  perfectly  formed  and  retained 
in  clay  soil,  for  one  in  tender  soil  is  apt  to  moulder  down  by  the  action  of 
the  air  into  the  open  furrow,  which  frustrates  the  purpose  of  making  it  a 
channel  for  running  water  ;  hut,  indeed,  on  light  soils,  gore-furrows  are  of 
little  use,  and,  of  cfturse,  seldom  farmed. 

(658.)  When  land  is  cast  with  a  gore-fuiTovv  upon  gathered  gi-ound,  it  is 
quite  coiTCct  to  say  that  the  open  funow  is  more  bare  of  eaith  than  the 
gore-furrow,  as  Professor  Low  intimates,  but  it  is  not  so  correct  to  say, 
that  "  this  is  an  impeifection  unavoidable  in  casting  a  ridge."*  Such  a 
remark  is  only  applicable  to  cast  ridges  after  they  have  been  gathered  up 
from  the  flat,  and  much  more  so  to  ridges  that  have  been  twice  galheied 
up  ;  but  the  imperfection  does  not  belong  to  casting  in  its  most  legitimate 
form,  that  is,  upon  the  flat  ground.  Land,  in  my  opinion,  should  never 
be  cast  upon  gathered  ridges,  to  remain  in  a  jiermanent  form,  but  only  for 
a  temporary  purpose  ;  as  in  the  process  of  fallowing,  for  the  sake  of  stir- 
ring the  soil  and  overcoming  weeds.  For,  observe  the  necessary  eflect  of 
casting  a  gathered  ridge.  Suppose  the  two  gathered  ridges  between  a  u  a, 
fig.  133,  were  desired  to  be  cast  together  toward  the  middle  open  fur- 
row a  ;  the  effect  would  be  to  reverse  the  ])Osition  of  the  furrows  from  a 
to  b,  on  either  side  of  a.  They  would  remain  as  flat  as  formerly  ;  but 
■what  would  be  the  effect  on  the  furrows  on  the  other  halves  of  the  ridges 
from  h  to  (11  They  would  be  gathered  twice,  so  that  the  double  ridge 
would  have  two  high  furrow-brows  by  two  gatherings,  and  two  low  flanks 
by  one  gathering.  It  would,  in  fact,  be  unequally  plowed,  and  the  open 
furrow  on  each  side  of  it  would,  of  course,  be  bared  of  earth,  having  been 
twice  gathered.  No  doubt,  such  a  distortion  might  be  partially  obviated 
by  making  the  furrow-slices  between  a  and  h  on  each  side  of  the  middle 
open  fuiTOw  a  deeper  and  larger  than  those  between  J>  and  </,  and  thus  en- 
deavor to  preserve  a  uniform  shape  to  the  double  ridge  ;  but  this  would 
be  done  by  the  sacrifice  of  sterling  plowing,  and  it  is  much  better  to  con- 
fine casting  within  its  own  sphere,  than  practice  it  in  circumstances  un- 
favorable to  the  land. 

(659.)  The  open  furrow  in  casting  does  not  necessarily  bare  the  earth 
more  than  a  gore-funow.  It  is  broader,  certainly,  fiom  the  circumstance 
of  its  funow-slices  being  laid  fiom  each  other  ;  but  its  fu now-sole  is  not 
actually  plowed  deeper  than  the  gore-furrow.  In  treating  of  casting,  im- 
mediately after  showing  how  ridges  may  be  gathered  up  once  and  twice, 
it  appears  to  me  that  Professor  Low  seems  to  intimate,  at  ])age  lf)2,  that 
land  so  gathered  up  may  be  cast,  and  preserve  its  form  ;  but  on  this  1 
would  obsei've  that  casting  is  almost  impracticable  after  twice  gathering; 
at  least  it  is  unadvisable,  because,  in  that  case,  the  effect  would  be  to  cleave 
down  the  side  h  a,  fig.  133,  of  the  lidge  fin  each  side  of  rt  ;  that  is,  to  throw 
them  down  again  to  the  level  of  the  ground  ;  while  it  would  gather  up 
the  other  two  sides  b  d  thrice,  thereby  either  making  the  two  sides  of  each 
ridge  of  unequal  hights,  or,  to  preserve  their  level,  making  the  furrow- 
slices  on  the  same  ridges  of  une(|ual  sizes — practices  both  undeserving  of 
commendation  under  any  circumstances.  Another  authcn*,  in  speaking  of 
casting  ridges  together,  and  showing  how  it  may  be  performed  by  plow- 
ing the  fun'ow-slices  of  two  adjoining  ridges  in  opposite  directions,  gives 
the  caution  that  "  the  intei-furrow,  which  lies  between  the  two  ridges, 
imavoidably  leaves  a  shoulder  or  hollow  place,  of  more  or  less  width,  ac- 
cording to  the  ex])crtness  of  the  plowman,  in  the  center  of  the  crown, 
which  defect  can  only  be  completely  relieved  by  replowing ;  "t  and  informs 

•  Low's  Elpmcntg  of  I'rHctical  Agriculture, 
t  British  Husbandry,  vol.  ii. 
(584) 


VARIOUS  MODES  OF  PLOWING  RIDGES. 


297 


us  that  the  defect  may  be  partly  prevented  by  using  two  plows  of  differ- 
ent mould-boards.  I  do  not  see  why  plowing  two  furrow-slices  into  the 
open  furrow  in  casting  should  be  moi'e  difficult  or  less  sterling  than  in  any 
other  mode  of  plowing.  A  good  plowman  will  leave  in  the  crown  of  the 
ridge,  in  either  case,  neither  a  shoulder  noi-^'hollow  place,  w'hich  ai-e  cer- 
tainly not  synonymous  terais,  as  they  seem  to  be  represented  here,  but  the 
opposite. 

(660.)  Nearly  allied  to  casting  is  a  species  of  plowing  called  tico-out- 
and-two-in,  which  can  be  executed  on  the  flat  ground,  and  requires  a  par- 
ticular mode  of  feering.  The  first  feering  should  be  measured  off  of  the 
breadth  of  two  ridges,  or  30  feet,  from  the  ditch  a  e,  fig.  132  ;  and  every 
subsequent  feering  should  be  measured  at  4  ridges  breadth,  or  60  feet 
from  the  last.     The  land  is  plowed  in  this  way.     Let  a  b,  fig.  137,  be  the 


Fig.  137. 


FEERING  FOR  PLOWING  T\VO-OUT-AND-TWO-IN. 


side  of  the  field,  and  let  c  rZ  be  the  first  feering  of  30  feet  from  a  h ;  an«l 
also,  let  efhe  the  next  feeling  of  60  feet.  After  returning  the  feering  fur- 
row-slices, begin  plowing  round  the  feering  c  d,  always  keeping  it  on  the 
right  hand,  and  turning  the  horses  from  you,  that  is,  oiiticard,  on  both  the 
head-ridges,  until  about  the  breadth  of  a  ridge  is  plowed  on  each  side  of  c  d. 
These  two  ridges  may  be  supposed  to  be  represented  by  c^  on  the  one  side, 
and  c  h  on  the  other  of  c  d.  AVliile  this  is  doing,  the  two  ridges  e  /  and  ek 
are  plowed,  in  like  manner,  toward  ef.  At  this  juncture,  open  furrows 
occur  at  h  h  and  i  i,  embracing  between  them  the  breadth  of  2  ridges,  or 
30  feet,  from  h  to  i.  Then  let  the  plowman  who  has  plowed  round  c  d, 
plow  h  and  i,  always  laying  the  fiiiTOW-slices  first  to  h  and  then  to  i,  and 
turning  his  horses  toward  him,  or  ?«ward,  on  both  head-ridges,  until  the 
ground  is  all  plowed  to  1 1,  which  becomes  the  permanent  open  furrow. 
The  next  open  furrow  \vill  be  at  ?fi  m,  60  feet  or  4  ridges  breadth  fi'om  II. 
But  as  yet  only  3  ridges  have  been  plowed  bet^vixt  I  and  a,  the  fourth 
ridge  g  a  being  plowed  along  with  the  head-ridges  m  a  and  b  m,  after  all 
the  ridges  of  the  field  have  been  plowed,  laying  its  fun-ow-slices  toward 
g  g,  and  making  the  open  furrow  at  a  b.  The  eftect  of  this  mode  of  plow- 
ing is  to  lay  all  the  furrow-slices  in  one  direction  from  a  to  c,  that  is,  across 
the  2  ridges  a  g  and  g  c,  and  to  lay  those  from  Z  to  c  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection, also  across  2  ridges  I  h  and  h  c,  and  both  double  ridges  meet- 
ing in  c  d,  which  becomes  the  c^o^vn  of  the  4  ridges  I  It,  h  c,  g  c,  and  a  g. 
In  like  manner  all  the  furrow-slices  over  the  ridges  I  i  and  i  e  on  the  one 
hand,  and   all  those  over  the  ridges  m  k  and  ^  e  on  the  other  hand,  meet 

{585) 


298 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


in  their  crown  nt  e  /.  In  plowing  by  this  mode,  every  plowman  takes  in 
afeerint?  of  4  ridges,  which  he  completes  before  he  goes  to  another.  The 
reason,  J  supjiose,  that  tliis  mode  of  plowing  has  received  the  appellation 
of  two-out-and-two-in  is,  that  2  ridges  are  plowed  toicard  the  fearing,  and 
the  other  'Ij'rum  the  open  fuiTow. 

(661.)   The  appearance  of  the  ground  on  being  plowed  two-out-and-two- 
in  is  seen  in  tig.  13!^,  where   the  space  fioiti  «  to  e  is  60  feet,  comprehend- 

Fi-  in*. 


^2^. 


ing  4  ridges,  between  the  opiMi  funows  a  and  r,  2  of  which  ridges,  a  h  and 
b  c,  have  their  furrow-slices  lying  one  way,  toward  the  right,  and  the  other 
2,  e  d  and  d  c,  with  theirs  lyinir  toward  the  left  in  the  opposite  way,  both 
meeting  at  c.  which  is  the  crown  of  the  whole  break  or  division  of  4  ridges, 

(662.)  This  method  of  plowing  places  the  land  in  large  flat  spaces,  and 
as  it  dispenses  with  many  open  funows,  it  is  on  this  account  only  suitable 
for  light  soils,  in  which  it  may  be  practiced  for  seed-fuiTowing.  It  forms 
an  excellent  foundation  for  drilling  upon  for  turnips,  or  even  for  potatoes 
upon  gi'avelly  soils. 

(663.)  The  gore-funow,  described  in  fig.  136,  might  be  judiciously  ap- 
plied to  the  plowing  of  land  two-out-and-two-in  on  the  stronger  classes  of 
soils  ;  but  its  introduction  changes  the  character  of  the  ridges  altogether, 
inasmuch  as  the  crown  c  fig.  138,  where  the  furrow-slices  meet,  is  not  only 
converted  into  an  open  fuiTOw,  but  the  actual  cro\\-n  is  transferred  from  c 
to  b,  and  d,  where  the  furrow-slices  do  not  vieet  from  opposite  directions, 
but  lie  across  the  crowns  of  their  respective  double  ridges  in  the  same  di- 
rection. Exactly  in  a  similar  manner,  when  the  gore-furrow  is  introduced 
into  cast  ridges,  as  in  fig.  135,  the  crowns  h  and  d  are  converted  into  open 
fuiTows,  and  transferred  to  c,  whei'e  the  fuiTow-slices  lie  across  the  crowns 
in  the  same  direction  on  their  respective  ridges,  instead  of  meeting  there. 

(664.)  A  nearly  allied  plowing  to  the  last  is  that  o{ ploiving  in  brcaJcs  or 
divisions.  It  consists  of  making  feerings  at  indefinite  distances,  and  plow- 
ing large  divisions  of  land  without  open  furrows.  Some  farmers  plow  di- 
visions of  8  ridges  or  40  yards ;  but  such  a  distance  incurs  considerable 
loss  of  time  to  travel  from  fuiTow  to  furrow  at  the  landings.  Instead, 
therefore,  of  distances  of  a  given  number  of  ridges  being  chosen,  as  is  the 
case  in  the  last  mode  of  plowing,  two-out-and-two-in,  30  yards  are  substi- 
tuted, and  this  particular  breadth  answers  another  puipose  of  deviating 
from  the  sites  of  the  ordinary  ridges,  which  deviation  has  the  advantage 
of  loosenitig  any  hard  land  that  may  have  been  left  untouched  by  the 
plow  in  any  of  the  sorts  of  plowings  that  have  yet  been  presented  to  your 
notice.  Land  is  plowed  in  breaks  only  for  temporary  pui-poses,  such  as 
giving  it  a  tender  sui-face  fur  seed-furronnng,  or  drilling  up  immediately. 
You  might  easily  estimate  how  much  time  would  be  lost  in  plowing  land 
in  breaks,  were  the  feerings  made  at  a  greater  distance  than  80  yards,  by 
looking  at  fig.  137,  where  the  feerings  c  d  and  e  f  being  supposed  to  be 

(586) 


VARIOUS  MODES  OF  PLOWING  RIRGES. 


299 


60  yards  asunder,  the  plows  would  have  to  go  round  c  d  and  e/ until  they 
reached  h  and  i  respectively,  in  doing  which  they  would  have  to  travel  in 
a  progressively  increasing  distance  until  its  extreme  point  from  h  to  i 
reached  30  yards/or  every  furrow-slice  laid  over.  Thus  is  imposed  on  men 
and  horses  a  great  deal  of  traveling  for  the  little  work  actually  done. 

(665.)  Another  mode  of  plowing,  which  I  shall  now  describe,  is  twice- 
gathering-up.     Its  effect  may  be  seen  by  looking  at  fig.  139,  where  it  will 


Fig.  139. 


TWICE-GATHERING-UP . 


be  observed  that  the  fuiTOw-slices  rest  above  the  level  line  of  the  gi-ound. 
It  may  be  practiced  both  on  lea  and  red-land.     On  red-land   that  has   al- 
ready been  gathered  up  from  the  flat,  it  is  begun  by  making  feerings  in  the 
crowns  of  the  ridges,  as  at  b,  fig.  133.     The   furrow-slices  of  the  feerings 
are   laid  together,  and  the  ridges  plowed  by  ^  ridged,  in  the  manner  of 
gathering  up  from  the  flat.      The  -^  ridge  left  by  the  feerings  at  the  sides 
of  the  field  must  be  plowed  by  themselves,  even  at  the  risk  of  losing  time, 
because  it  would  not  do  to  feer  the  first  ridge  so  as  to  plow  the  ^  ridge  as 
directed  to  be  done  in  the  first-gathering-up,  in  fig.  132,  around  the  feer- 
ing  of  the  \  ridge  f  c,  because  the  furrows  betwixt  y  and  i,  if  plowed  in 
the  contrary  direction   to  what  they  were  before,  would  again  flatten  the 
ground,  whereas  the  furrow-slices  from  e  tOjf  and  from  z  to  i,  being  plowed 
in  the  same   direction  as  foi'merly,  the   ground  would  thereby  be  raised 
above  the  level  of  i  f,  and  disfigure  the  plowing  of  the  whole  ridge  z  e. 
Gathering  up  from  the  flat  preserves  the  flatness  of  the  ground ;  and  the 
second  gathering  up  would  also  preserve  the  land  in  a  flat  state,  though 
more  elevated,  were  there  depth  enough  of  soil,  and  the  furrow-slices  pre- 
served of  their  proper  form,  as  we  have  seen  in  (653),  but  a  roundness  is 
usually  given  to  the  ridge  in  all  cases  of  gathering  up  furrow-slices  toward 
the  crowns,  both  by  the  harrowing  down  of  the  precipitous  furrow-brows 
and  the  unequal  size  of  the  furrow-slices,  from  want  of  soil  at  the  fun'ow- 
brows  and  open  furrows.     In  gathering  up  lea  the  second  time,  no  feering 
is  required.     The  plow  goes  down  a  little  to  the  left  of  the   crown  of 
the  ridge,  and  lays    over  upon    the    crown   a    thin   and  narrow  furrow- 
slice  upon  its  back,  as  a,  fig.  139,  to  sei-ve  as  a  cushion  upon  which  to 
rest  the  adjoining  furrow-slices.     The  horses  are  then  turned  sharp  round 
from  you,  and  the  furrow-slice  h  is  laid   over  so    as  to  rest  at  the  proper 
angle  of  45°  upon  a.     Turning  the  horses  again  sharp  round  from  you, 
the  fiin'ow-slice  c  is  also  laid  over  at  the  same  angle  to  rest  on  a,  but  nei- 
ther c  nor  h  should  approach  each  other  so  nearly  as  to  cover  a,  but  leave 
a  space  of  about  3  or  4  inches  between  them.     The  object  of  leaving  this 
small  space  is  to  form  a  receptacle  for  the  seed-corn,  which,  were  c  and  b 
made  to  meet  a  sharp  angle,  would  slide  down,  and  leave  the  best  part  of 
the  ridge  bare  of  seed.      The  crown  of  the  rest  of  the  ridges  is  treated  in 
the  same  manner,  where  in  fact  is  constituted  its  feering,  and  the  ridges 

(587) 


300 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


are  plowed  in  \  ridges  to  the  open  furrows  d,  which  are  finisliod  with 
mould-furrows,  but  the  plowiiipr  of  these  is  attended  with  some  difficulty, 
in  order  to  prevent  their  jrradually  muulderiui^  down  into  the  bottom  of 
the  open  furrows.  Twicc-gHtlu-ring-up  is  only  practiced  in  strong  land, 
and  its  object  is  to  lift  the  mould  above  the  cold  and  wet  subsoil.  On  dry 
land,  no  such  expedient  is  required.  In  fig.  I'M  the  dotted  line  e  is  meant 
to  represent  the  former  configuration  of  the  ground,  and  now  it  may  be 
seen  that  the  open  fuirow  at  d  is  deeper  than  it  was  with  once  gather- 
ing-up. 

(G66.)  The  mode  of  plowing  exactly  opposite  to  twice-gathering-up  is 
that  of  clcftrlnff  or  thruwitii:;  down  land.  The  open  fuiTows  of  twice-gath- 
ered-up  land  constitute  deep  feerings,  which  are  filled  up  with  furrow- 
slices  obtained  from  the  mould-furrows  and  furrow-brows  of  each  adjoin- 
ing ridge  ;  and,  in  order  to  fill  them  fully  up,  the  ])low  should  take  as  deep 
a  hold  of  the  furrow-brow  as  it  can  obtain.  The  furrow-slices  are  plowed 
exactly  the  reverse  of  those  of  the  twice-gathered-up  ridges,  and  they  are 
also  plowed  in  ^  ridges.  The  effect  of  cleaving  down  is  to  bring  the 
ground  again  to  the  level  above  which  it  had  been  raised  by  means  of  the 
twice-gathering-up.  The  open  furrows  are  left  at  the  crowns,  as  at  a,  fig. 
139,  the  mould-furrows  of  which  are  seldom  stirred,  as  cleaving  down  is 
usually  practiced  to  prepare  the  land  for  cross-plowing  in  the  spring.  But 
when  heavy  land  is  cleaved  down  in  winter,  it  is  always  so  with  gore-fur- 
rows ;  and  these,  with  open-furrows,  afford  convenient  channels,  at  every 
half-ridge,  for  the  water  to  flow  off  to  the  ditches.  Since  twice-gathering- 
up   is  only  practiced  on  strong  land,   and  cleaving  dowTi  only  succeeds 


Fig.  140. 


CLEAVING  DOWN  WITHOUT  GORK-FUKROWS. 


twice-gathering-up,  it  follows  that  cleaving  down  is  only  practiced  on 
heavy  land.  The  effect  produced  by  cleaving  down  ground  may  be  seen 
in  fig.  140,  which  represents  it  without  gore-furrows  h  and  mould-furrows 
c ;  but,  in  fig.  141,  the   gore-furrows   are  shown  at  a,  and  the   open  and 

Fi".  141. 


mould-furrows  at  h.     The  dotted  line  A,  in  fig.  140,  represents  the  surface 
of  the  former  state  of  the  ground,  as  does  the  dotted  line  c,  in  fig.  141. — 

(588) 


VARIOUS   MODES   OF   PLOWING  RIDGES.  301 

Below  a  and  b,  fig.  140,  are  shown  the  former  open  furrows  by  the  dotted 
line,  as  also  does  the  dotted  line  below  a,  in  fig.  141.  In  both  figures,  the 
ground  upon  which  the  furrow-slices,  rest  is  made  somewhat  rounded,  to 
show  the  effect  of  twice-gathering  it  up.  In  the  strict  sense,  a  ridge  can 
only  be  cleaved  after  it  has  been  twice  plowed.  It  is,  as  I  think,  scarcely 
correct  to  say  that  a  ridge  is  cleaved  after  one  gathering  from  the  flat,  for 
it  is  then  plowed  crown-and-furrow.  With  a  strong  furrow,  a  ridge  thai 
had  been  twice-gathered-up  can  be  made  flat  by  one  cleaving. 

(667.)  What  is  called  cross-plowhtg,  or  the  cross-farrow,  derives  its  name 
fi-om  plomng  right  across  the  furrow-slices  as  they  lie  in  ridges,  in  what- 
ever form  those  ridges  may  have  been  formerly  plowed.  Its  object  is  to 
cut  the  existing  fuiTow-slices  into  small  pieces,  so  that  the  land  may  be 
more  easily  pulverized  and  prepared  for  the  future  crops.  It  is  usually 
executed  in  the  spring,  and  should  never  be  attempted  in  winter,  unless 
the  weather  continue  so  long  dry  and  fresh  as  to  allow  the  land  to  be  again 
immediately  plowed  into  ridges  in  any  of  the  safe  forms  of  plowing  I  have 
described.  Rain,  or  snow  melting  on  land  lying  in  the  cross-fuiTow,  is  at 
once  absorbed  and  retained  in  it,  and  in  a  short  time  renders  it  sour.  But, 
even  if  cross-furrowing  were  executed  in  a  proper  manner  in  winter,  and 
the  land  thereafter  safely  put  into  ridges,  the  land  would  become  so  con- 
solidated during  winter  ijthat  it  would  have  to  be  again  cross-furrowed  in 
the  spring  before  it  could  be  rendered  friable.  The  object  of  cross-fun-ow- 
ing being  to  pulverize  land,  it  is  practiced  on  every  species  of  soil,  and  ex- 
actly in  the  same  manner.  It  is  plowed  in  divisions,  the  feerings  being 
made  at  30  yards  asunder,  and  these  are  plowed  in  the  same  manner  as 
two-out-and-two-in,  by  first  going  round  the  feering,  turning  the  horses 
constantly  from  you,  until  about  \  of  the  division  is  plowed,  and  then  turn- 
ing them  toward  you,  still  laying  the  fun'ow-slices  over  toward  the  feer- 
ings, until  your  arrival  at  the  open  fun'ow.  In  cross-plowing,  however, 
the  open  ftuTOW  is  never  left  open,  but  is  again  closed  by  2  or  3  of  the  last 
furrow-slices  being  returned,  and  all  marks  of  it  obliterated  by  the  plow 
shoveling  the  loose  soil  into  the  fun'ows  with  the  mould-board,  which  is 
purposely  laid  over  on  its  side,  and  retained  in  that  position  by  a  firm  hold 
of  the  large  stilt.  The  obliteration  of  the  open  fiiiTows  is  necessary  to  fill 
up  the  hollows  that  would  otherwise  be  left  by  them  across  the  ridges  afi;er 
they  were  formed. 

(668.)  Another  mode  of  plowing,  having  a  similar  object  to  cross-fuirow- 
ing — namely,  of  dividing  fun-ow-slices  into  pieces — is  what  is  called  angle- 
flowing  or  angle-furrowing  ;  and  it  is  so  named  because  the  feerings  in 
which  it  is  plowed  are  made  in  a  diagonal  or  angular  direction  across  the 
field.  This  mode  is  also  plowed  in  divisions  of  30  yards  each,  and  in  ex- 
actly the  same  manner  as  cross-plowing,  and  with  the  same  precautions  as 
to  the  season  in  which  it  is  executed,  and  the  closing  of  the  open  fiirrows. 
It  is  never  practiced  but  after  cross-plowing,  and  not  always  then,  but  on 
strong  land,  or  unless  the  cross-plowing  has  failed  to  produce  its  desired 
effect  of  comminuting  and  Stirling  up  the  soil.  It  is  chiefly  practiced  in 
bare  fallowing,  and  is  therefore  mostly  confined  to  strong  land. 

(669.)  I  have  mentioned  a  mode  of  plowing  called  ribbing  (641).  In 
its  best  form  it  is  usually  performed  in  spring  with  the  small  plow,  when 
it  will  more  appropi'iately  fall  to  be  described  than  in  this  place  ;  but 
there  is  a  species  of  plowing  practiced  in  some  parts  of  the  country  in  au- 
tumn or  winter  which  bears  the  name  of  ribbing.  I  notice  it  because  it 
is  practiced  in  some  parts,  not  with  the  view  of  recommending  but  of  rep- 
robating it.  It  is,  I  believe,  called  raftering  in  England  ;  and  is  practiced 
on  stubble  land,  and  consists  of  laying  a  furi'ow-slice  on  its  back   upon  as 

(589) 


302 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


much  of  the  firm  soil  as  it  can  cover,  as  seen  in  fig.  142,  where  a  are  the 
fiirrow-slices  laid  over  upon  the  firm  soil  h,  and  c  the  plow-tracks.  The 
figure  represents  it  more  compact,  clean,  and  regular,  than  it  is  usually 

Fig.  142. 


RIB-FLOWING  STUBBLE  LAND. 


found  in  practice.  It  is  sometimes  plowed  so  as  the  fun-ow-slice  shall  lap 
and  hang  over  the  piece  of  firm  soil  upon  which  it  rests,  and  the  plow- 
tracks  are  often  very  crooked.  The  land  lies  in  this  state  all  winter,  and 
is  dry  enough  ;  but  the  greatest  proportion  of  the  soil  remaining  unplowed 
is  none  the  better  for  this  treatment.  It  has  the  advantage  of  being  done 
in  a  short  time,  and  without  care,  as  it  is  generally  done  in  a  diagonal  di- 
rection across  the  ridges,  and  without  any  sort  of  feering.  It  is  chiefly 
practiced  on  land  in  a  very  foul  state,  with  the  view  of  destroying  the 
weeds,  from  its  being  believed  that  the  under  surface  of  the  furrow-slice, 
where  the  roots  of  the  weeds  are  most  abundant,  is  thus  more  exposed  to 
the  action  of  frost  than  in  any  other  position  ;  and  this  opinion  is  no  doubt 
correct ;  but,  if  the  plowed  portion  of  the  gi'ound  is  in  this  manner  more 
exposed  to  the  aii",  it  is  evident  that  the  unplowed  part  cannot  be  exposed 
at  all,  and,  as  the  largest  proportion  of  the  land  is  left  unplowed,  any  ad- 
vantage attending  such  a  mode  of  plowing  must  be  gieatly  counterbal- 
anced by  its  disadvantages.  It  is  practiced  in  all  sorts  of  soils.  Its  prac- 
tice in  Scotland  is  confined  to  the  north  of  the  Frith  of  Forth,  and  even 
there  it  is  now  abandoned  on  the  large  farms,  though  it  may  still  be  seen 
in  the  fields  of  the  smaller  tenants.  When  a  field  is  so  plowed,  it  has 
somewhat  the  appearance  of  having  been  drilled. 

(670.)   The  drilling  of  land  being  confined  to  summer,  I  shall  defer  any 
remarks  on  that  mode  of  plowing  until  its  proper  season  amves. 


25.    DRAINING. 


"  In  grounds,  by  art  laid  dry,  the  aqueous  bane, 
That  marred  the  wholecome  herlis,  is  turned  to  use  ; 
And  drains,  while  drawing;  noxious  moisture  otf, 
Serve  also  to  diffuse  a  due  supply." 

Graham. 


(671.)  It  is  barely  possible  that  the  farm  on  which  you  learn  your  pro- 
fession, or  the  one  you  may  occupy  on  your  own  account,  may  not  require 
draining.  Nevertheless,  you  should  be  made  well  acquainted  with  this 
essential  and  indispensable  practice  in  husbandry.     But  the  probability  is 

(r,90) 


DRAINING.  303 


that,  on  whatever  farm  you  may  pass  your  life,  some  part  of  it  at  least,  if 
not  the  whole,  will  require  draining  of  one  sort  or  another.* 

(672.)  Draining  may  be  defined  the  art  of  rendering  land  not  only  so 
free  of  moisture  as  that  no  superfluous  water  shall  remain  in  it,  but  that 
no  water  shall  remain  in  it  so  long  as  to  injure  or  even  retard  the  healthy 
growth  of  plants  required  for  the  use  of  man  and  beast. 

(673.)  On  considering  this  definition,  you  may  reasonably  inquire  why 
water  in  the  soil  should  injure  the  growth  of  useful  plants,  since  botanical 
physiologists  tell  us  that  the  greatest  bulk  of  the  food  of  plants  consists  of, 
or  at  least  is  conveyed  to  them  by  water.  In  what  way  injury  should 
arise,  is  certainly  not  veiy  obvious ;  but  observation  has  proved  that  stag 


[*  We  have  too  frequently  and  too  distinctly  dwelt  upon  the  importance  of  divesting  land, 
whether  intended  for  the  plow  or  for  grass,  of  all  superfluous  moisture,  to  make  it  necessary  to 
say  more  on  that  point.  In  England,  where  the  prodigious  rental  of  laud,  and  the  value  of  its 
products  as  food  for  man  and  beast,  instigate  the  farmer  to  search  for  and  put  in  practice  every 
possible  mode  of  augmenting  his  crops,  it  is  to  the  condition  of  the  soil  with  respect  to  any  redund- 
ant moisture  that  he  gives  his  first  attention,  as  we  are  assured,  when  examining  with  a  view  to 
rent  or  purchase. 

There  the  conviction  of  the  importance  and  the  profits  of  draining,  not  merely  as  the  baais  of 
permanent  improvement,  but  as  a  source  of  immediate  remuneration  for  outlay  of  capital  and 
labor,  is  universal ;  and  one  of  the  greatest  obstacles  at  this  time  to  the  yet  farther  progress  of  ag- 
ricultural improvement  and  prosperity  in  England  is,  on  all  hands,  admitted  to  consist  in  the  diflB 
culty  of  adjusting  between  landlord  and  tenant  the  proportion  to  be  borne  by  each  respectively 
of  the  expenses  of  draining  the  land,  which  all  admit  to  be  indispensable  to  the  realization  of  the 
profits  to  which  the  industry  and  skill  of  the  tenant' entitle  him.  The  landlord  refuses  to  grant  a 
long  lease,  being  eager  to  get  the  higher  rent  which  a  higher  state  of  improvement  and  product- 
iveness may  enable  him  to  exact,  while  the  tenant  justly  demands  a  longer  lease  to  warrant  him 
in  the  expenditures,  especially  the  draining,  by  which,  and  his  own  skillful  management,  that 
higher  improvement  and  greater  productiveness  are  to  be  achieved. 

In  our  country,  the  same  obstacle  to  plans  of  improvement,  which  require  time  to  carry  them 
out  and  to  reap  their  profits,  does  not  exist,  because  here  almost  every  man  owns  the  fee  simple 
of  the  land  he  cultivates;  but  here  again  there  are  two  yet,  perhaps,  more  formidable  obstacles  to 
every  plan  of  well-arranged,  permanent  improvement,  involving  heavy  outlay  in  the  beginning. 
These  are — want  of  capital,  and  the  facility  of  procuring  cheap  land  in  the  Far  West.  To  these, 
also,  may  be  added  a  want  of  enterprise  and  a  want  of  knowledge.  Our  young  men  are  not  edu- 
cated in  the  principles  of  their  profession,  as  they  are  for  all  other  professions.  Hence,  for  exam- 
ple, in  this  very  process  of  draining,  some  knowledge  of  geology  and  of  the  plain  rules  and  laws 
of  engineering  and  hydraulics  is  needed,  to  caiTy  it  forward  upon  any  extended  scale.  But  how 
many  of  our  young  men,  except  at  the  military  schools  (and  these  at  the  farmer's  expense),  are 
taught  even  the  simplest  elements  of  these  sciences  ?  Scarcely  enough  geology  do  they  know  to 
distinguish  gravel  from  sand,  and  either  from  clay,  and  not  enough  of  mechanics,  hydraulics  or 
engineering,  to  know  how  to  make  or  to  use  a  common  water-level,  to  ascertain  by  what  line 
water  may  be  made  to  flow.  If  then,  the  reader  become  impatient  at  seeing  so  much  on  one 
subject,  and  especially  on  perceiving  that  the  execution  of  the  plans  laid  down  by  the  author 
would  be  expensive  beyond  the  means  of  American  farmers,  there  are  yet  some  considerations  to 
reconcile  every  reasonable  mind.  First — He  should  consider  that  this  is  but  one  chapter  of,  literal 
]y,  a  great  Book  of  the  Farm,  so  voluminous  and  comprehensive  as  necessarilj'  to  embrace  many 
things  not  adapted  to  all  farmers  and  all  localities  ;  and,  secondly,  that  as  this  work  is  designed 
to  be  studied  as  well  as  read,  and  to  serve  as  well  for  the  young  man  in  his  school  as  for  the  prac- 
tical man  in  the  field,  it  is  but  fit  that  the  prijiciples  as  well  as  the  modus  operajidi  of  all  agri- 
cultural processes  should  be  carefully  explained  ;  and  we  may  add,  after  attentive  perusal,  that 
in  respect  of  draining,  both  theory  and  practice  seem  here  to  be  so  fully  described  and  carefully 
illustrated  as  to  leave  little  or  nothing  to  be  added  in  the  way  of  notes. 

A  long  and  very  valuable  essay  appears  in  the  last  number  of  the  English  Farmer's  Magazine, 
on  draining  as  practiced  in  Aberdeenshire  ;  but  we  see  in  it  nothing  that  is  tiot  embraced  in,  if  not 
actually  taken  from,  the  work  in  hand,  except  some  results  of  particular  experiments,  and  to  illus- 
trate the  profits  of  the  operation.  Well  aware  are  we  that  they  are  only  our  wealthy  farmers,  such 
(591) 


304  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

nant  water,  whether  on  the  surface  or  under  the  ground,  does  injure  the 
growth  of  all  the  useful  plants.  It  perhaps  altogether  prevents  or  checks 
perspiration  and  introsusception  ;  or  it  may  neutralize  the  chemical  de- 
composition of  substances  wliich  largely  supply  the  food  of  plants.  Be  it 
as  it  may,  experience  a.ssures  us  that  draining  will  prevent  all  these  bad 
effects.  You  may  conceive  it  quite  ])ossible  for  an  obvious  excess  of  wa- 
ter to  injure  useful  plants  ;  because  you  may  have  obsei-ved  that  excess 
of  water  is  usually  indicated  by  the  presence,  in  number  and  luxuiiance, 
of  subaquatic  plants,  such  as  rushes  (Juncus  acutijlunis  and./,  ejf'usus),  Sec, 
which  only  flourish  where  water  is  too  abundant  for  other  plants  ;  and 
you  may  even  conceive  that  damp,  dark-looking  spots  in  the  soil  may  con- 


as  have  generally  acquired  fortunes  by  other  pursuits  or  by  inheritance,  who  can  afford  such  out 
lays — such  outlays,  however,  it  may  be  added,  as  will  pay  well  when  ihcy  are  made  under  ju- 
dicious circumstances  as  to  locality  and  markets.  How  many  thousands  of  acres  are  there,  for  in- 
stance, along  the  river  and  creek  shores  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  in  Maryland  and  Virginia,  enjoy- 
ing the  advantages  of  a />r<7c</caZ  contiguity  to  the  best  Atlantic  market.",  which  now  produce 
nothing  but  coarse  grass  and  malaria,  which  might,  if  their  owners  had  the  energy,  the  skill  and 
the  capital  to  drain  them,  produce  crops  equal  to  such  as  have  been  produced  on  the  Nansemond 
(Charles  county,  Md.)  estate  of  B.  O.  Tayloe,  Esq. — where,  during  the  past  season,  under  the 
management  of  Mr.  James  K.  Nash,  a  crop  of  2,000  barrels  of  com  has  been  made  and  housed  ; 
and  where,  on  tico  acres,  125  bushels  of  good  merchantable  corn  were  raised,  and  that  after  a  fair 
crop  of  tobacco  the  preceding  year,  and  without  any  unusual  application  of  manure — being  62J 
bushels;  which,  at  the  present  price,  75  cents,  is  S46  87 J  an  acre. 

Need  we  ask  whether  such  crops,  or  say  60  bushels  to  the  acre — at  70  cents  a  bushel.  $42 — 
would  not  well  remunerate  a  heavy  outlay  for  draining  ?  And  do  not  such  crops  and  such  man- 
agement better  deserve  the  honors  bestowed  by  Agricultural  Societies  and  Institutes,  than  mere 
isolated  cnscs  of  extraordinary  crops,  produced  at  enormous  expense,  and  by  the  iitful  efforts  to 
which  the  most  indolent  may  sometimes  be  stimulated,  in  the  hope  of  winning  a  V.  or  an  X.  ? — 
But  again  the  question  recurs,  how  is  the  capital  to  bo  had  by  those  who  arc  without  money,  and 
whose  lands  might  be  thus  drained  ? — for  the  tendency  of  ail  our  legislation  that  in  any  way  inter- 
feres with  or  acts  upon  the  use  and  value  of  labor  and  capital,  owing  to  the  want  of  spirit  and 
knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  agriculturists,  has  a  tendency  to  drive  capital  as  well  as  enterjtrise 
into  our  large  cities,  and  into  channels  for  the  benefit  of  particular  and  well-handed  c/axsen  ! 

Suppose  a  field  of  say  ten  acres  (and  how  many  there  are  wlio  own  such)  to  be  drained  so  that 
it  would  produce  even  forty  bushels  of  com  to  the  acre — these,  at  GO  cents,  would  give  $24,  the 
interest  on  S400  at  6  per  cent. ;  leaving  the  land  worth  intrinsically  more  than  SlOO  an  acre,  and 
two  crops  would  more  than  pay  the  cost.  Yet  there  arc  thousands  on  thousands  of  acres  in 
Maryland  and  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  that  might  be  thus  drained  and  rendered  tlius  prodnc- 
live  at  an  expense  of  S50  on  acre  ! 

But  unfortunately  if,  perchance,  a  hard-working  farmer,  toiling  through  the  j'car,  and  conduct- 
ing his  household  and  all  other  affairs  with  the  severest  economy,  contrives  to  have  a  small  sur- 
plus beyond  his  outgoings  at  the  end  of  the  year — even  he,  instead  of  investing  it  in  dr.iining,  his 
land — in  erecting  more  and  better  buildings — in  providing  himself  with  all  necessary  implomcnts, 
and  otherwise  improving  his  little  estate  in  appearance  and  fruitfulncss — even  he,  as  such  a  farmer 
confessed  to  us  last  summer  in  the  State  of  New-York,  sends  or  goes  with  it  to  the  grenJ,  aU-ab- 
sorbins  Commercial  Emporium,  to  lend  it  out  at  7  per  ceiit.  on  bond  and  morti^af^e.  Hence  it 
is  that  while  no  one  knows  how  much  of  the  State  is  mortgaged,  and  while  every  manufacturing 
village  wears  the  aspect  of  youth  and  healthfulness,  and  larger  cities  grow  into  enormous  magni- 
tude— the  country,  at  Ica.st  along  the  great  thoroughfares,  as  far  as  one  can  see,  sinks  lower  and 
lower  in  its  average  products,  and  puts  on  the  appearance  of  premature  decay  and  consumption. 
All  this  would  be  rectified  if  the  education  of  the  rising  generation  were  such  as  it  should  be,  be- 
cause then  we  should  rear  up  a  race  of  men  who  wonld  understand,  as,  far  as  the  Government  is 
concerned,  what  is  due  to  their  numbers  and  the  products  of  their  industry ;  and  Agriculture 
would  preside  where  she  ought,  at  the  head  instead  of  at  the  tail  of  all  Caliini;t  councils  for  the 
general  welfare. 

Looking  carefully  through  this  chapter  of  the  Book  of  the  Farm,  on  draining — the  mode  of 
conducting  it — the  principles  by  which  it  is  to  be  guided — the  implements  employed,  and  the  out- 
(592) 


DRAINING.  305 


tain  as  much  water  as  to  injure  plants,  though  in  a  less  deo-ree  •  but 
you  cannot  at  once  imagine  why  land  apparently  dry  should  require 
di-aining.  Land,  however,  though  it  does  not  contain  such  a  superabund- 
ance of  water  as  to  obstruct  arable  culture,  may  nevertheless,  by  its  in- 
herent wetness,  prevent  or  retard  the  luxuriant  growth  of  useful  plants,  as 
much  as  decidedly  wet  land.  The  truth  is,  that  deficiency  of  crops  on  ap- 
parently dry  land  is  frequently  attributed  to  unskillful  husbandry,  when  it 
.  really  arises  from  the  baleful  influence  of  concealed  stagnant  water;  and 
the  want  of  skill  is  shown,  not  so  much  in  the  management  of  the  arable 
culture  of  the  land  as  in  neglecting  to  remove  the  true  cause  of  the  defi- 
ciency of  the  crop,  namely,  the  concealed  stagnant  water.  Indeed,  my 
opinion  is — and  its   conviction  has  been  forced  upon  me  by  dint  of  lono- 

lay,  under  ordinarj'  circumstances,  as  compared  with  the  results  in  the  account  of  profit  and  loss 

we  see  nothing  that  can  be  added,  except  some  suggestions  as  to  draining,  in  a  mode  and  with 
materials  more  within  the  reach  of  ordinary  American  farmers,  and  which  appears  not  to  be 
touched  upon  in  this  book.  At  this  there  should  be  the  less  surprise  when  we  consider  that  wood, 
or  young  timber— the  material  to  which  we  refer — is  so  scarce  and  dear  in  England  as  almost  to 
place  it  out  of  question. 

In  the  Eastern  States,  and  along  the  high  lands  stretching  far  away  south,  stone  is  at  hand  in 
abundance ;  and  in  New-York,  and  so  through  the  States  east  of  the  Hudson,  the  practice  of 
draining  is  on  the  increase,  and  we  believe  with  universal  satisfaction  as  to  the  advantages ;  but 
in  a  large  portion  of  intervale  and  alluvial  country  south  of  the  Hudson,  with  which  we  are  better 
acquainted,  there  is  not  stone  enough  in  some  districts  to  make  the  foundation  of  a  chimney.  The 
situation  and  circumstances  are  numerous,  however,  where  farmers  are  invited  by  every  consid- 
eration to  drain,  with  %cood  (if  nothing  better),  which  many  of  them  have  at  command.  We  be- 
lieve we  have  somewhere  before  adverted  to  the  instance  of  a  Mr.  Summers,  near  Nottingham, 
Maryland,  who,  without  example  or  instruction,  has  reclaimed  and  brought  under  the  plow  spots 
of  land  which  had  before  been  worthless,  and  which  now  yield  heavy  crops ;  and  which,  more- 
over, give  to  his  fields  an  air  of  good  management,  proclaiming  that  their  proprietor  has  a  mind 
to  think,  as  well  as  a  hand  to  execute — a  consideration  which  ought  to  weigh  with  every  farmer 
of  proper  spirit,  and  which  it  behooves  every  community  to  commend  more  fervently  than  thej- 
now  commend  only,  or  first  and  far  above  all  others,  those  who  are  most  successful  in  fields  of  hu- 
man destruction. 

For  those  who  may  be  inclined — and  there  ought  to  be  thousands — to  drain  the  boggy  spots  on 
their  farms  by  this  method,  which  is  within  the  reach  of  almost  every  one,  the  following  observa- 
tions may  prove  useful ;  and  the  reader  will  indulge  us  in  this  short  addition  to  a  long  note,  when 
we  announce  that  we  shall  make  no  other  upon  this  branch  of  the  Book  of  the  Farm. 

"  The  wood  used  for  this  purpose  consists  of  the  thinnings  of  plantations,  i.  e.  the  small  trees 
commonly  converted  into  paling.  Larch  is  preferable,  on  account  of  its  greater  durability  ;  but 
Scotch  fir.  being  the  cheapest  and  mo.st  abundant  kind  in  this  quarter,  is  generally  used.  The 
drains  to  be  filled  with  wood  are  usually  thirty-two  inches  in  depth,  eighteen  inches  wide  at  the 
top,  and  about  six  inches  at  the  bottom.  It  is  essential  to  the  eSiciency  and  durability  of  wooden 
drains,  that  the  sides  be  formed  with  a  proper  and  regular  slope  from  top  to  bottom.  The  small 
trees — or  '■  spars,"  as  they  are  designated — are  prepared  for  being  put  into  the  drain  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  A  portion  of  the  butt  or  thick  end  of  each  is  sawn  off  for  placing  transversely  in  the 
drain,  about  six  inches  above  the  bottom ;  the  breadth  of  the  drain  at  this  part  may  be  assumed 
at  nine  inches,  in  which  case  the  length  of  the  cross-bars  will  require  to  be  about  fifteen  inches 
so  as  to  have  three  inches  resting  on  each  side.  They  are  generally  about  four  inches  in  diame- 
ter, and  are  placed  in  the  drains  at  intervals  of  four  feet  apart ;  they  are  forced  firmly  into  their 
proper  position  by  a  few  blows  of  a  heavy  mallet,  the  workman  taking  care  that  they  are  all  in 
the  same  plane  or  level.  Any  earth  loosened  from  the  sides  in  striking  down  the  bars  is,  of  course, 
thrown  out  as  the  work  is  proceeded  with.  After  the  butt-ends  of  the  trees  (which  are  divested 
of  their  branches  in  the  wood)  are  severed,  and  placed  transversely  in  the  drains  in  the  manner 
just  described,  the  remainder  of  them  are  laid  longitudinally  above  the  bars,  three  being  com- 
monly placed  side  by  side,  and  covered  with  the  branches  and  twigs,  or  with  turf,  heath,  &c.,  pre- 
vious to  putting  in  the  earth  cast  out  in  opening  the  drains.  It  is  obvious  that  this  method  of 
draining  can  be  adopted  with  advantage  only  in  situations  where  timber  is  convenient  and  cheap, 
and  when  the  subsoil  is  sufficiently  cohesive  to  afford  a  proper  support  to  the  transverse  bars  of 
wood;  hence  it  is  inadmissible  in  the  case  of  boggj'  lands.  The  putting  in  of  the  wood  is  accom- 
plished in  a  very  expeditious  manner  :  two  persons  saw  off  the  butts,  and  another  places  them  in  . 
their  proper  position  in  the  drain,  after  which  the  longitudinal  spars  are  laid  on  as  clo.sely  as  pos- 
sible, with  the  top  and  butt-ends  alternately  in  the  same  direction,  so  as  to  make  them  fit  the  bet- 
(393) 30 


306  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

and  extensive  obsei"vation  of  the  state  of  the  agricultural  soil  over  a  large 
portion  of  the  country — that  this  is  the  true  cause  of  most  of  the  had  funn- 
ing to  be  seen,  and  that  not  one  farm  is  to  be  found  throughout  the  king- 
dom that  would  «o^  he  much  the  better  for  draining.  Entertaining  this 
opinion,  you  will  not  be  surprised  at  my  urging  upon  you  to  practice 
draining,  and  of  lingeiing  at  some  length  on  the  subject,  that  I  may 
exhibit  to  you  the  various  modes  of  doing  it,  according  to  the  peculiar  cir- 
cumstances in  which  your  farm  may  be  placed. 

(G74.)  To  the  experienced  eye,  there  is  little  difficulty  in  ascertaining 
the  particular  paits  of  fields  which  are  more  affected  than  others  by  su- 
perfluous water.  They  may  be  detected  under  whatever  kind  of  crop  the 
tield  may  bear  at  the  time;  for  the   peculiar  state   of  the  crop   in  those 

ter.  There  is  thus  formed  beneath  the  wood  a  channel  for  the  passage  of  water,  of  aboat  six 
inches  in  width  and  the  same  in  depth. 

"  Tlie  cost  of  tliis  mode  of  draining  obviously  depends  much  on  the  price  of  the  ^vood  employed. 
In  most  parts  of  this  county  the  spars  used  for  the  purpose  are  obtainable  at  from  Is.  to  Is.  6d.  per 
dozen ;  and  it  requires  four  dozen,  averaging  twenty  feet  in  length,  to  do  a  hundred  yards  of  drain. 
Drains  thus  constructed  have  been  known  to  last  for  a  verj-  long  period  ;  on  one  farm  the  writer 
has  been  assured  that  drains  formed  of  wood  in  the  manner  just  described  have  been  in  perfect 
operation  for  more  than  tlurty  years." 

In  a  recent  conversation  with  Mr.  Hall,  a  clear-headed,  practical  farmer,  near  Lebanon,  N.  Y., 
he  remarked  that  the  practice  of  draining  was  extending  with  himself  and  neighbors,  and,  where 
well  executed,  was  attended  with  double  the  amount  of  produce  previously  obtained.  %Ve  are 
indebted  to  a  valued  correspondent  (one  of  his  young  and  promising  pupils)  for  the  following  note 
on  the  system  of  draining  pursued  by  Mr.  Wilki.sso.s.  of  Dutchess  county,  N.  Y. — one  of  those 
farmers  whom  we  are  pleased  to  name  as  among  those  who  bring  their  minda  to  reason  and  re- 
flect on  tlie  principles  involved  in  all  their  agricultural  proceedings. 

From  a  Corrtfpondcnt. 

Dutchess  Agbicttlturai.  iNSTmrrE,  Aug.  29, 1846. 

Dear  Sir :  Havint;  compared  the  system  of  under-draining  practiced  by  Mr.  Wilkinson,  on  the  Institute 
Farm,  with  that  recommended  in  "  Stephens's  Book  of  the  Farm,''  and  also  with  that  of  many  farmers  of 
this  State— and  being  thoroughly  convinced  that  his  system  is  much  better  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the 
farmers  of  this  country  generally,  on  account  of  the  convenience  of  construction,  cheapness,  utility,  &c. — I 
have  been  induced  to  eivc  you  this  article  for  publiciaion  in  your  Journal.  The  course  he  pursues  is  as 
follows  :  In  the  first  place,  in  laying  out  the  ditches,  he  is  careful  to  avoid  too  great  a  descent,  that  the  force 
of  the  water  running  in  the  ditch  may  not  wash  the  sides  or  bottom  of  it,  and  thus  carry  the  sediment  to 
some  Bore  level  portion,  where  it  may  collect,  and  obstnict  the  water,  and  render  the  work  valueless. — 
After  the  ditch  is  staked  out,  he  jilows  with  a  common  plow  the  width  required  and  two  furrows  in  depth, 
shoveling  out  the  loose  earth  each  plowing.  Then  a  pair  of  strong  oxen  are  attached  to  a  one-handled  sub- 
soil plow,  tandem,  in  single  yokes,  by  which  the  ditch  is  plowed  to  the  depth  required,  which  is  varied  ac- 
cording to  circumstances ;  but  the  usual  depth  is  from  2i  to  3  feet,  about  20  inches  wide  at  the  top,  and  1 
foot  at  the  bottom.  lie  then  commences  the  filling  operation,  by  drawing  small  stones  from  where  they 
have  been  previously  heaped  for  the  occasion,  or  the  scattering  small  stones  from  the  adjacent  lots.  The 
stones  are  drawn  by  oxen  on  a  low,  four-wheeled  vehicle,  which  he  calls  a  truck,  or  lumber<ar,  which  is 
about  20  inches  high — being  a  convenient  hight  fiir  a  man  to  stand  beside  it  on  the  bank  of  the  ditch,  and 
take  the  stones  from  the  car  and  pass  them  to  a  man  in  the  ditch,  who  places  them  by  first  paving  the  bot- 
tom with  those  of  a  medium  size,  by  setting  them  on  the  small  end  as  closely  as  is  convenient,  selecting  the 
flat  ones,  or  flags,  and  placing  them  next  to  the  bank,  to  prevent  it  from  caving.  The  largest  are  next  used 
and  throwi.  in  promiscuously,  taking  gi-cat  care  not  to  throw  them  against  the  sides  of  the  ditch.  The 
stone-work  is  then  completed  by  leveling  with  the  smallest  ones  that  can  be  procured,  not  filling  it  nearer 
than  1  foot  from  the  surface,  that  the  ground  may  be  plowed  and  subsoilcd  as  well  over  the  ditches  as  else- 
where. Before  filling  in  the  earth,  the  stones  are  covered  with  pine  shavings  very  lightly,  which  he  obuina 
from  the  sash-factory  for  tlie  cartage. 

The  advantage  in  the  use  of  shavings  over  straw,  which  is  generally  used,  is  that  the  straw  entices  the 
ground-moles  into  the  ditch ;  they  burrow  in  the  stones,  and  dig  through  to  the  surface,  which  forms  a 
passage  for  surface-water  directly  among  the  stones,  and  will  carry  with  it  quantities  of  fine  mould  ;  thui, 
by  frequent  rains,  the  whole  work  is  rendered  valueless. 

The  filling  in  of  the  earth  is  done  with  a  side-hill  plow,  the  team  traveling  up  and  down  on  the  bank  of 
earth,  jtlowing  a  furrow  into  the  ditch— which,  Mr.  W.  says,  faciliutes  the  work  300  per  cent  over  the  old 
process  of  shoveling  it  in. 

Where  the  stones  arc  convenient  foi  filling,  and  taking  the  average  of  soil  for  digging,  he  thinks  his  ditches 
of  the  above  dimensions,  completed,  cost  about  35  cents  per  rod  of  16|  feet 
(594) 


DRAINING.  307 


parts,  when  compared  with  the  others,  assists  in  determining  the  point. 
There  is  a  want  of  vigor  in  the  plants  ;  their  color  is  not  of  a  healthy  hue ; 
their  parts  do  not  become  sufficiently  developed  ;  the  plants  are  evidently 
retarded  in  theii-  progress  to  maturity  ;  and  the  soil  upon  which  they  grow 
feels  inelastic,  or  saddened  under  the  tread  of  the  foot.  There  is  no  mis- 
taking these  symptoms  when  once  observed.  They  are  exhibited  more 
obviously  by  the  grain  and  gi-een  crops,  than  by  the  sown  grasses.  In  old 
T)asture,  the  coarse,  hard,  uninviting  appearance  of  the  herbage  is  quite  a 
sufficient  indication  of  the  moistened  state  of  the  soil. 

(675.)  But  there  appearances  of  moistened  land,  which  you  may  easily 
observe  without  any  pre-sdous  tuition  ;  and  these  are  most  apparent  in  soil 
after  it  has  been  plowed,  and  more  apparent  still  in  spring,  in  the  month 
of  March,  when  the  winds  become  dry  and  keen.  Then  you  may  observe, 
m  a  dry  day,  large  patches  or  stripes,  or  belts  of  black  or  dark-brown  col- 
ored soil,  in  the  face  or  near  the  top  of  an  acclivity,  while  the  rest  of  the 
field  seems  quite  dry,  of  a  light  brown  color  ;  or  only  small  spots  may  be 
observable  here  and  there  ;  or  the  flat  and  hollow  parts  of  the  field  may 
be  nearly  covered  with  dark-colored  soil.  You  cannot  mistake  these  broad 
hints  of  the  lurking  water  below ;  but,  in  a  few  weeks,  they  may  all  have 
disappeared,  or  be  reduced  very  much  in  extent,  if  the  weather  continues 
dry,  or  have  become  more  extended  in  rainy  weather.  In  the  case  of 
their  disappearance  in  dry  weather,  you  may  conclude  that  any  wetness 
of  the  soil  which  passes  off  as  the  summer  advances,  can  do  no  harm  to 
cultivated  plants,  and  that  the  land,  in  such  cases,  does  not  require  to  he 
drained.  Such  a  conclusion  would  be  very  eiToneous  :  because  it  is  on 
account  of  the  water  remaining  in  the  soil  all  vinter  that  the  crops  receive 
injury  in  summer.  The  amount  of  wetness  which  you  saw  pass  away  first 
in  spring  and  then  in  summer,  would  have  done  no  injury  to  the  crops,  fox- 
it  would  be  all  absorbed,  and  probably  more,  in  the  wants  of  vegetation ; 
but  the  wetness  remaining  in  and  occupying  the  pores  of  the  soil  and  of 
the  subsoil  all  winter,  render  the  soil  so  cold,  that  most  of  the  summer's 
heat  is  required  to  evaporate  the  superfluous  moisture  out  of  it,  and,  in 
this  very  process  of  drying  by  evaporation,  the  heat  is  dissipated  that 
should  be  employed  in  nourishing  the  crops  all  summer.  No  doubt,  when 
the  soil  and  subsoil  are  put  into  such  a  state  as  that  the  water  that  falls 
upon  the  soil  from  the  heavens  during  the  winter,  on  being  conveyed 
quickly  away  in  drains,  does  take  away  some  of  the  heat  from  the  soil, 
but  it  cannot  render  it  cold  or  sour.  In  such  circumstances,  the  natural 
heat  of  the  weather  in  spring  and  summer  would  have  nothing  to  do  but 
to  push  forward  the  growth  of  the  crops  to  early  maturity,  lo  fill  them 
more  fully,  and  make  them  of  finer  quality.  You  thus  see  how  concealed 
water  injures  the  soil  in  which  it  is  retained,  and  you  may  easily  conceive 
how  it  may  injure  the  drier  soil  around  it,  by  its  imbibing  the  water  m 
contact,  by  capillary  attraction.  You  thus  also  see  the  kind  of  ground 
that  di-aining  effects  in  soil  so  situated.  Did  the  symptoms  of  wet  in 
spring  rerfiain  as  obvious  to  your  senses  throughout  the  summer,  you 
would  have  no  doubt  of  the  land  requiring  draining  ;  but  you  may  now 
admit  that  you  may  be  deceived  by  land  showing  even  favorable  symp- 
toms of  drouth.  For  all  that  you  yet  know  to  the  contrary,  water  may  be 
lurking  under  what  you  imagine  to  be  dry  soil.  Yes,  and  it  does  lurk  to 
a  very  great  extent  in  this  country,  and  will  continue  to  lurk  in  humid 
localities  and  impervious  subsoils,  until  a  vent  is  given  to  its  egress. 

(676.)  The  phenomenon  of  the  dark  spots  on  fields  can  be  satisfactorily 
explained.  Where  the  surface  of  the  land  is  at  all  permeable  to  water, 
and  where  it  rests   on  beds   of  different  depths,  of  various   lengths  and 

(595) 


'.308  Tui:  HOOK  of  the  farm— winter. 

breadths,  and  of  diH'ureiit  consistence,  the  water  Bupnlied  from  rain  or 
snow  is  iiitiMTupti'd  in  its  jirog^ress  by  the  retentive  beds,  and  l>ecome8  ac- 
cumulated in  llieni  in  laif^er  or  smaller  quantities,  according  to  their  form 
and  capacity ;  and,  at  leng^th,  the  supei-fluous  ])ortion  is  poured  from  the 
surcharged  strata,  and  bursts  over  retentive  beds  througli  the  surface-soil 
in  the  fjrm  of  land-springs,  at  a  somewhat  lower  level.  Such  springs  are 
either  concentrated  in  one  place  or  diffused  over  a  large  extent  of  surface, 
according  as  their  outlet  happens  to  be  extensive  or  confined,  and  deep 
draining  is  generally  required  to  remove  these  ;  for  which  purpose,  deep 
drains  are  cut  througii  alternate  Iwds  of  retentive  and  permeable  matter, 
and  penetiate  into  the  very  seats  of  the  springs.  It  may  happen,  how- 
ever, that  the  surfa«'e  is  as  retentive  as  the  subsoil,  in  which  case  the  water, 
not  penetrating  farther  than  the  suiface-soil,  has  a  free  enough  passage 
l)etween  the  impervious  subsoil  and  the  loose  soil  ;  this  state  of  soil  re- 
quires mere  surface-draining.  Where  the  upjier  soil  is  pervious,  and  the 
subsoil  uniformly  and  extensively  retentive,  water  accumulates  on  the  sub- 
soil, to  the  injury  of  plants  growing  on  the  suiface-soil ;  and  to  remove 
water  from  such  a  situation,  in>t  deep  but  numerous  drains  are  required 
to  give  sufficient  opportunities  for  it  to  pass  away,  and  such  drains  are 
usually  formed  in  the  furrows.  Where  the  soil  and  subsoil  are  both  po- 
rous, the  water  passes  quickly  through  them,  and  no  draining  is  required 
to  assist  it  in  flowing  away,  as  the  entire  subsoil  constitutes  a  universal 
drain.  In  this  state  of  soil,  water  is  only  held  in  it  by  capillary  attraction, 
and  what  is  not  so  supported  sinks  down  through  the  porous  subsoil  by  its 
OUT!  gravity.  Capillary  attraction  is  quite  capable  of  supporting  and 
bringing  as  much  water  through  a  permeable  soil  and  subsoil,  from  rain 
above  and  soui'ces  of  water  from  below,  as  is  useful  to  vegetation,  except- 
ing, perhaps,  under  the  extraordinaiy  occurrence  of  excessive  drouth  ;  and 
of  all  the  sources  from  which  the  soil  derires  its  supplies  of  water,  that 
from  springs  is  the  coldest,  most  injurious  to  useful  plants,  and  most  per- 
manent in  its  effects ;  and  hence  it  is  that  the  abstraction  of  water  from 
the  soil  by  draining  does  not  necessarily  interfere  with  it  as  a  supporter 
of  plants,  as  a  meliorator  of  the  soil,  as  a  menstruum  for  the  food,  as  a 
regulator  of  temperature  to  plants. 

(677.)  These  states  of  water  in  the  soil  and  subsoil  indicate  that  a 
knowledge  of  geology  might  confer  a  more  perfect  understanding  of  the 
principles  of  draining;  and,  fortunately,  practice  in  this  department  of  ru- 
ral economy  has  always  been  consistent  with  the  facts  of  geology.  But  a 
geological  drainer  is  a  character  who  has  not  yet  made  his  appearance  in 
the  world  ;  because  no  practical  drainer  or  scientific  geologist  has  yet  ex- 
plored that  department  of  geology  which  is  most  useful  to  Agriculture,  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  assist  the  art  of  draining.  Most  of  our  arable  soils 
are  contained  within  the  newest  rock  formations,  the  intricate  relations  of 
which  present  almost  insurmountable  obstacles  to  such  a  knowledge  of 
them  as  to  be  useful  in  draining.  The  intricacy  of  their  relations  render 
the  operations  of  draining  inicertain  ;  and  this  uncertainty,  I  fear,  must 
continue  to  exist,  until  the  relations  of  the  alluvial  rocks  are  discovered 
to  be  as  unvarying  as  those  of  the  more  indurated.  Perhaps  a  certainty 
in  the  matter  is  unattainable,  because  the  members  of  the  alluvial  forma- 
tion may  not  present  a  strictly  relative  position  to  one  another.  Until  the 
fact,  therefore,  is  ascertained  one  way  or  the  other,  draining  must  be  con- 
ducted, in  a  great  measure,  by  trial  or  experiment  ;  and  in  all  undertakings 
on  trial,  error  must  be  expected  to  ensue,  and  unnecessary  expense  incur- 
red. An  unfortunate  circumstance,  arising  from  this  uncertainty,  is  the 
comparative  uselessness  of  the  experience  acquired  in  previous  operations 

(536; 


DRAINING.  309 


to  guide  the  drainer  himself  and  others,  to  the  means  of  securing  more  cer- 
tain results  in  their  future  efforts  at  draining.  No  drainer  can  affirm  that 
the  number  and  depth,  and  even  the  direction,  of  the  drains  which  h 
chooses  to  adopt,  are  the  best  suited  for  drying  the  field  he  wishes  to  drain 
nor  can  he  maintain  that  exactly  similar  arrangements  will  produce  ex 
actly  similar  effects  in  the  adjoining  or  in  any  other  field,  at  a  greater  oi 
shorter  distance.  Every  experienced  drainer  will  coincide  with  the  just- 
ness of  these  remarks,  and  deplore  the  uncertain  nature  of  his  operations  ; 
but,  nevertheless,  the  satisfactory  consolation  is,  that  as  long  as  he  finds 
draining,  even  as  it  is  pursued,  do  good,  so  long  he  will  continue  to  pi'ac- 
tice  it.  Were  geologists  to  make  themselves  acquainted  with  the  prac- 
tical details  of  draining,  and  then  study  that  branch  of  geology  which 
would  be  of  greatest  service  to  draining,  it  is  reasonable  to  hope  that  they 
would  confer  lasting  obligations  on  the  drainer,  not  only  by  directing  him 
to  a  well-grounded  certainty  in  his  object,  but  by  showing  him  how  to 
execute  his  art  with  greater  simplicity.  Were  they  also  to  direct  particu- 
lar attention  to  the  relation  that  subsists,  if  any,  between  the  suiface  of 
the  earth's  crust  and  the  strata  immediately  subjacent,  their  investigations 
might  supply  valuable  materials  for  a  correct  nomenclature  and  classifica- 
tion of  soils. 

(678.)  You  thus  perceive  that  a  bare  recital  of  the  various  modes  of 
draining  is  not  alone  sufficient  to  make  you  an  accomplished  drainer  ;  for 
you  should  know  the  principles  as  well  as  the  practice  of  the  art.  The 
principles  can  enly  be  acquired  by  a  knowledge  of  geology,  in  as  far  as  it 
has  investigated  the  structure  of  the  alluvial  rocks,  which  are  within  your 
reach  everywhere,  and  entii'ely  within  your  power  on  your  own  farm  to 
investigate.  This  knowledge,  even  as  it  is  yet  known,  is  requisite  ;  for 
any  difficulty  in  draining  is  found  not  so  much  in  constructing  a  drain — 
most  field-laborers  can  do  that — as  in  knowing  ivhcre  to  construct  it  ;  and 
a  coiTect  knowledge  of  whether  the  wetness  in  the  land  arises  from  natural 
springs  or  from  stagnant  water  under  the  surface  of  the  soil,  can  alone  di- 
rect you  to  open  the  kind  of  drain  required.  So  generally  is  the  practical 
pait  of  the  operation  diffused,  that  every  manager  of  land  conceives  he 
knows  the  whole  subject  of  draining  so  correctly,  that  he  will  commence 
his  operations  with  the  utmost  confidence  of  success  ;  and  this  confidence 
has  caused  much  money  to  be  expended  in  draining,  that  has  in  great  part 
been  ill  directed ;  not  but  that  its  expenditure  has  done  good,  but  that  it 
has  not  done  neai'ly  all  the  good  that  the  means  employed  might  have  ef- 
fected. Much  money  has  thus  been  expended  in  many  places  in  making 
a  few  scattered  deep  drains,  where  a  greater  number  of  smaller  ones  would 
have  answered  the  purpose  much  better.  A  degree  of  success,  however, 
has  attended  every  attempt  at  draining,  and  it  is  this  circumstance,  more 
than  any  other,  that  has  beguiled  many  into  a  belief  that  they  are  accom- 
plished drainers  ;  for  no  one,  unfit  to  direct  the  operation  in  a  proper  man 
ner,  would  have  attempted  it  at  all,  unless  he  had  actually  experienced  in 
jury  from  wet  land  ;  or  have  attempted  it  again,  unless  his  attempts  had 
partially,  at  least,  I'emoved  the  injury ;  though  the  results  have  not  been 
very  successful.  Were  the  efforts  of  ignorance  in  draining  confined  to  the 
squandering  of  money,  they  might  be  compensated  for  by  superior  roan 
agement  in  the  other  operations  of  the  farm  ;  but,  unfortunately,  the  sink- 
ing of  valuable  capital  in  injudicious  draining  cripples  the  means  of  the 
farmer,  and  at  the  same  time  prevents  his  reaping  all  the  advantages  de- 
rivable fi-om  draining  itself.  Were  draining  an  operation  that  could  be 
executed  at  httle  cost  and  trouble,  it  would  be  of  less  importance  to  urge 
its  prosecution  in  the  most  effectual  way  ;  but  as  it  is  an  expensive  opera- 

(597) 


310  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

tion,  when  conducted  in  the  most  economical  manner,  much  consideration 
should  be  given  to  the  matter  in  all  its  bearings,  before  attempting  to 
break  uj)  ground  for  draining  to  any  great  extent.  An  examination  of  the 
earth's  crust,  upon  which  you  are  to  operate,  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
direct  your  plans  aright.  Contemplate  well,  in  the  first  place,  the  facts 
which  such  an  examination  unfolds  to  your  view,  and  endeavor  by  their 
nature  to  acquire  wisdom  to  expend  your  money  with  prudence  as  well  as 
skill.  Examinations  of  the  soil  and  subsoil  will  tell  you  what  kinds  re- 
quire deep  draining,  and  what  kinds  may  be  treated  with  eijual  suc- 
cess under  a  different  nnangement.  Inattention  to  such  distinctions  as 
these  has  hitherto  caused  the  inordinate  application  of  one  general  prin- 
ciple, which,  as  applicable  to  a  particular  system,  must  receive  the  as- 
sent of  every  drainer  who  feels  the  importance  of  the  art,  but  which, 
nevertheless,  is  inapplicable  to  every  case — I  mean  the  system  of  deep 
draining. 

(679.)  You  may  have  observed,  from  what  has  been  said,  that  there  is 
more  than  one  species  of  draining  ;  there  is  one  which  draws  off'  large 
bodies  of  water,  collected  from  the  discharge  of  springs  in  isolated  portions 
of  ground  ;  and  this  is  called  deep  or  under-diainuig,  because  it  intercepts 
the  passage  of  water  at  a  considerable  depth  under  the  sui-face  of  the 
gi'ound  ;  and  there  is  another  kind  which  absorbs,  by  means  of  numerous 
channels,  the  superabundant  water  spread  over  extensive  pieces  of  gi-ound 
under  the  surface,  and  has  been  called  surface-draining.  This  latter  kind 
of  draining  subdivides  itself  into  two  varieties,  the  one  consisting  of  small 
open  channels  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  various  directions 
for  the  ready  use  of  water  flowing  upon  the  land,  and  this  is  literally 
surface-draining.  The  other  is  effected  by  means  of  small  drains  con- 
stnicted  at  small  depths  in  the  gi'ound,  at  short  distances  from  one  another, 
and  into  which  the  water  as  it  falls  upon  the  surface  finds  its  way  by  its 
own  gravity  through  the  loose  soil,  and  by  which  it  is  discharged  into  a 
convenient  receptacle.  But  for  those  two  species  of  surface-drains,  the 
water  that  falls  from  above  would  remain  stagnant  upon  the  retentive  sub- 
soil at  the  bottom  of  the  plow-furrow.  The  former  kind  of  surface-drain- 
ing is  called  ^flw-cutting,  so  named  from  its  resemblance  to  "  a  mark  or 
crack  left  in  the  soil  by  a  stroke  or  pressure  ;  "*  the  latter  kind  derives  its 
name  either  from  the  locality  which  it  occupies,  or  the  aiTangement  of  its 
lines.  From  its  local  position,  it  has  been  caWed  fu rrow-d rain ing  when  it 
occupies  the  open  furrows  of  the  ridges  of  a  field,  though  it  is  not  neces- 
sary that  such  drains  should  always  <K"Cupy  the  furrows.  It  has  also  been 
called  frequent-draining,  from  the  circumstance  of  the  water  finding  fre- 
quent opportunities  of  escape  ;  but  this  name,  though  the  original  one,  is 
objectionable,  inasmuch  as  the  word  may  imply  that  the  field  requires 
draining  fre(iuently,  which  it  certainly  will  not.  From  the  anangement 
of  its  lincH,  it  has  also  been  ilenonmialcd  para/lel-draining,  on  account  of 
the  usual  parallel  position  of  the  drains  to  one  another  ;  and  yet  it  is  not 
absolutely  necessary  to  success  that  they  shall  be  parallel  to  one  another. 
As  by  this  kind  of  draining  the  land  is  thoroughly  or  effectually  drained, 
it  has  been  most  appropriately  called  thorough-draining  ;  and  this  term,  as 
a  nomenclature,  has  the  advantage  of  not  committing  the  drainer  to  the 
adoption  of  any  particular  form  or  position  of  drain,  but  only  to  that  form 
or  position  which  rendeis  land  thoroughly  diy.  There  are  various  other 
modes  of  draining,  such  as  wedge-draining,  plug-draining,  mole-draining, 
each  of  which  will  receive  consideration  in  due  coui-se. 


See  Jamieson'a  Scottish  Dktionary.    Goto. 
(598) 


DRAINING.  311 


(680.)  The  most  superficial  mode  of  draining  is  that  effected  by  open 
ditches  and  gaic-ctits,  into  whicli  the  surface-water  flows,  and  is  carried  off 
to  a  distance  to  some  river  or  lake.  This  mode  of  draining  does  not  pro- 
fess to  interfere  with  any  water  that  exists  under  the  surface  of  the  gi-ound, 
farther  than  what  percolates  through  the  plowed  fuiTow-slices,  and  makes 
its  way  into  the  open  fuiTows  of  the  ridges.  For  the  purpose  of  facilitat- 
ing the  descent  of  water  into  the  open  furrows,  the  ridges  are  kept  in  a 
bold,  rounded  form  ;  and  that  the  open  furrows  may  be  suitable  channels 
fur  water,  they  are  carefully  water-furrowed,  that  is,  cleared  out  with  the 
plow  after  the  land  has  been  otherwise  finished  off  with  a  crop.  The  gaw- 
cuts,  small  channels  cut  with  the  spade,  are  carefully  made  through  every 
natural  hollow  of  the  ground,  however  slight  each  one  may  be,  and  the 
water-fuiTows  cleared  into  them  at  the  points  of  intersection.  The  gaw- 
cuts  are  continued  along  the  lowest  head-ridge  furrow,  and  cut  across  the 
hollowest  parts  of  the  head-ridge  into  the  adjacent  open  ditch.  The  recip- 
ient ditch  forms  an  important  component  part  of  this  system  of  draining, 
by  conveying  away  the  collected  waters  of  the  field  of  which  it  forms  the 
boundary,  and  for  that  purpose  is  made  as  much  as  4  or  5  feet  in  depth, 
with  a  proportional  width.  It  is  immediately  connected  with  a  larger  open 
ditch,  which  discharges  the  accumulated  waters  from  a  number  of  recipi- 
ent ditches  into  the  river  or  lake,  or  other  receptacle  which  is  taken  ad- 
vantage of  for  the  purpose.  The  large  ditch  is  from  6  to  10  feet  in  depth, 
with  a  proporti(mal  width,  and,  when  conveying  a  full  body  of  water  in 
vdnter,  appears  like  a  small  canal.  It  is  evident,  from  this  description,  that 
this  is  a  system  of  pure  57/r/rtc<'-drainage,  and  is  only  applicable  to  soils 
that  retain  water  for  a  long  time  on  the  surface,  that  is,  on  very  tenacious 
clays  ;  and,  accordingly,  it  is  extensively  practiced  in  such  districts  as  the 
Carse  of  Gowrie,  where  it  has  been  so  for  a  very  long  period.  The  large 
ditches  there  are  called  pows,  which  literally  mean  mires.  The  plowmen 
of  the  Carse  are  accustomed  to  the  spade,  and  are  yearly  employed,  in  the 
proper  season,  in  scouring  out  the  smaller  ditches,  the  larger  ones  being 
only  scoured  occasionally.  Whenever  a  heavy  fall  of  rain  occurs  in  win- 
ter or  spi-ing,  they  are  employed  in  clearing  out  the  gaws,  and  directing 
the  water  as  fast  as  possible  off  the  land  along  the  furrows.  This  opera- 
tion is  a  necessary  precaution  in  wet  weather  upon  strong  clay  land,  but 
it  constitutes  a  very  imperfect  system  of  draining,  and  sacrifices  a  large 
extent  of  good  surface-soil.  It  would  be  better,  I  think,  if  the  Carse  farm- 
ers were  generally  to  try  the  effect  of  covered  drains,  which  would  absorb 
and  can-y  away  surplus  water  equally  well  as  open  ones,  and  save  much 
time  in  scouring  ditches,  besides  putting  the  soil  into  a  fitter  state  to  be 
worked  at  any  season  than  it  can  be  done  under  the  present  system. 

(681.)  The  drains  which  our  forefathers  made  in  loamy  soils,  resting  on 
a  retentive  bottom,  were  placed  upon  the  subsoil  immediately  under  the 
upper  soil,  where  that  was  deeper  than  the  plow-furrow  ;  but  as  the  ara- 
ble portion  of  the  soil,  when  it  is  quite  of  a  different  nature  from  the  sub- 
soil, is  never  very  thick,  the  drains  were  necessarily  placed  at  a  small 
depth ;  and,  the  cut  being  so,  experience  would  soon  teach  drainers  the 
impropriety  of  placing  the  materials  which  are  used  to  fill  a  drain  within 
reach  of  the  plow,  which  consisted  of  very  few  stones,  often  not  exceeding 
three,  and  those  not  of  large  size — one  being  placed  on  each  side  of  the 
cut,  and  another  above  them,  forming  a  sort  of  conduit.  These  conduits 
being  not  far  from  the  surface,  of  small  area,  and  not  very  numerous  in 
any  one  place,  a  small  addition  of  water  would  cairy,  and  the  moles  would 
force  a  little  earth  into  them,  sufficient  to  obstruct  the  flow  of  water  in 
them ;  and,  of  course,  any  drain  in  that  state  would  produce  the  very  mi?» 

(599) 


312  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

chief  it  was  intended  to  remedy.  Such  paltry  drains  have  evidently  been 
formed  on  the  notion  that  a  simple  conduit,  placed  between  a  porous  soil 
and  retentive  subsoil,  is  sufficient  to  render  the  soil  permanently  dry — a 
notion  the  fallacy  of  which  the  drainere  of  the  present  day  are  well  aware. 
I  have  met  with  several  such  drains  in  the  course  of  my  draining  opera- 
tions, and  they  were  completely  choked  up  ;  but  on  being  opened,  by  the 
cutting  of  the  new  drains,  clear  water  flowed  out  of  them  for  a  considera- 
ble time.  They  were  all  beyond  the  reach  of  the  plow,  in  the  manner  in 
which  the  land  had  been  plowed  from  time  immemorial ;  but  the  plowing 
had  consisted  of  a  mere  skimming  of  4  inches  of  the  soil,  and  on  this  ac- 
count the  black  mould  immediately  under  the  plow-track  had  been  com 
pressed  by  the  sole  of  the  ])low  into  a  thin,  shity  crust,  under  which  the 
fine  black  virgin  mould  remained  untouched,  while  the  plowed  surface  had 
become  an  effete  powder  by  constant  cropping. 

(6S2.)  Compared  with  this  tnfling  method,  the  system  of  under  or  deep- 
draining,  being  the  deepest  method  of  any,  is  super-excellent.  It  is  tech- 
nically called  Elkington's  method,  because  it  was  first  pi'oposed  and  prac- 
ticed by  Mr.  Joseph  Elkington,  Princethoi-p,  a  farmer  in  Warwickshire, 
so  long  ago  as  1764.  It  is  related  that  he  discovered  the  mode  of  drain- 
ing, which  has  since  borae  his  name,  by  accident.  His  fields  being  very 
wet,  and  rotting  many  of  his  sheep,  he  dug  a  trench  4  or  5  feet  deep,  with 
the  view  of  discovering  the  cause  of  the  wetness.  While  he  was  deliber- 
ating what  was  to  be  done,  a  servant  passed  by  chance  with  an  iron  crow- 
bar for  fixing  sheep-hurdles  w-ith  in  the  ground.  Having  a  suspicion  that 
the  drain  was  not  deep  enough,  and  desirous  to  know  the  nature  of  the 
materials  under  it,  he  forced  the  bar  4  feet  below  the  bottom  of  the  trench, 
and,  on  pulling  it  out,  to  his  astonishment,  a  gieat  quantity  of  water  welled 
up  through  the  hole  it  made,  and  ran  along  the  drain.  He  was  led  to  in- 
fer from  this  that  large  bodies  of  water  are  pent  up  in  the  bowels  of  the 
earth,  and  are  constantly  injuring  the  surface  soil,  but  which  may  be  let 
off  by  tapping  with  an  auger  or  rod.  This  discoveiy  produced  a  great 
sensation  at  the  time,  and,  in  fact,  introduced  a  complete  revolution  in^this 
country  in  the  art  of  draining.  It  sei-ved  to  establish  draining  on  conect 
principles.  It  was  as  much  more  effective  a  method  than  the  old  system, 
in  changing  the  quality  of  the  soil,  as  blood-letting  from  a  vein  by  the  lan- 
cet affects  the  constitution  in  a  gi-eater  degree  than  the  topical  application 
of  leeches.  But  this  method  soon  underwent  modifications  in  practice. — 
Casting  a  drain  and  tapping  with  an  auger  to  catch  the  spnng  or  bed  of 
water,  as  in  the  principle  of  Artesian  wells,  was  the  original  plan  ;  but 
when  it  was  found  that  water  did  not  in  every  case  follow  the  auger,  as  it 
would  not  when  disseminated  through  a  mass  of  earth,  and  not  subjected 
to  altitudinal  pressure,  a  modification  of  the  plan  was  inevitable.  It  was 
then  attempted  to  run  deep  trenches  through  the  lowest  part  of  the  damp 
soil  to  the  highest  point  where  the  sup})ly  of  water  was  supposed  to  be,  or 
where  it  made  its  appearance,  and  lead  it  away  as  it  collected  by  percola- 
tion through  the  soil  and  subsoil.  In  order  to  embrace  the  whole  damp 
soil  of  any  locality  in  the  drainage,  lateral  branches  were  projected  on  both 
sides  of  the  main  branch,  as  far  as  the  apparent  dampness  extended  ;  and, 
not  to  omit  the  smallest  extent  of  the  damp  soil,  tributary  branches  were 
sent  off  to  short  distances  from  the  lateral  ones.  The  different  branches 
were  made  of  different  sizes,  according  to  the  quantity  of  water  which  each 
was  supposed  to  have  to  convey  away.  This  plan  of  drains,  when  project- 
ed on  the  surface,  looks  like  the  trunk  and  branches  of  a  tree  in  winter  de- 
prived of  its  leaves,  and  it  might  therefore  be  called  the  ramified  or  den- 
dritic form.     This  is  the  plan  that  has  been  very  extensively  pursued  since 

(600) 


DRAINING.  313 


Elkington's  time  until  about  1S24,  since  which  another  system  has  obtained 
the  preference.  Many  thousands  of  acres  of  land  had  been  drained  by  that 
method  up  to  that  time,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  country  has  derived 
much  benefit  from  the  system.  I  may  mention  the  fact,  as  an  incentive  to 
iaiportant  discoveries,  and  as  an  instance  of  disinterestedness,  that  Elking- 
ton  willingly  communicated  all  his  practice  to  the  late  Mr.  John  Johnstone, 
the  eminent  drainer,  at  the  request  of  the  Board  of  Agi-icultvire,  through 
whose  influence  the  British  Parliainent  voted  him  a  reward  of  d£  1,000.* 

(683.)  It  will  much  facilitate  your  conception  of  this  system  of  draining, 
if  we  consider,  in  the  first  place,  the  source  from  toldcli  the  loater  that  mars 
the  cultivated  soil  is  derived.  When  water  is  evaporated  by  heat  from  the 
sea  and  land,  and  conveyed  in  vapor  into  an  elevated  part  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  there  retained  in  an  invisible  form  by  the  agency  of  electricity, 
it  remains  in  that  state  until  a  change  takes  place  in  the  electric  equilibri- 
um, when  the  vapor  becomes  visible  in  the  form  of  clouds,  which,  then  be- 
coming independent  bodies,  become  at  the  same  time  subject  to  the  laws 
of  physical  attraction.  Being  attracted  by  the  mountains,  which  are  the 
highest  features  of  the  terrestrial  portion  of  the  globe,  they  come  into  con- 
tact with  them,  give  out  part  of  their  caLoric  to  them,  and,  ultimately  dis- 
solving, descend  upon  them  in  the  shape  of  fog,  or  rain,  or  snow.  Hence, 
as  you  have  already  seen  (324),  rain  falls  much  more  plentifully  upon  the 
mountains  than  the  plains.  The  rain,  as  it  falls  upon  the  mountains,  is  ab- 
sorbed at  once  by  the  soil  which  covers  them,  and,  when  it  cannot  contain 
any  more,  the  surplus  water  flows  away,  and  forms  streams  and  rivers. — 
The  portion  of  water  retained  by  the  mountain  soil  undergoes  a  very  dif- 
ferent fate.  It  is  conveyed  by  its  own  gravity  chiefly,  and  partly  by  their 
capillary  attraction,  among  the  mineral  strata  of  which  the  mountain  mass 
is  composed,  and  continues  to  seek  its  way  through  them  until,  reaching  a 
point  beyond  which  it  meets  with  no  resistance,  it  comes  forth  to  the  day 
in  the  shape  of  a  strong  spring  or  springs,  or,  diffused  over  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  mineral  mass,  it  spreads  over  a  large  extent  of  ground.  These 
different  destinations  of  the  same  water  are  occasioned  by  a  difference  in 
the  nature  and  positions  of  the  geological  formations  of  the  mountain  mass. 
For  example,  if  the  whole  rising  gi'ound,  from  its  base  to  the  summit,  is 
spread  over  with  a  saddle-shaped  covering  of  tenacious  clay,  the  water  will 
slide  down  its  face,  under  the  vegetable  coating  of  the  surface,  as  far  as 
the  clay  descends,  which  may  be  to  the  plain  below.  This  vegetable  cov- 
ering will  be  pemianent  gi-ass,  if  the  elevation  of  the  gi'ound  is  not  great ; 
or  it  will  be  heath  and  mosses,  if  the  elevation  exceed  such  a  hight  as  that 
the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  air  around  it  does  not  exceed  40°  Fah- 
renheit ;  or  it  may  be  mould  capable  of  supporting  cultivated  crops.  Thus, 
in  fig,  143,  a  is  the  clay  over  the  hill;  if  rain  fall  on  a,  it  will  descend  on 

Fig.  143. 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  SPRINGS  ON  A  UNIFORM  TENACIOUS  SURFACE. 


*  See  Sinclair'g  Code  of  Agriculture,  notes. 
(601) 


314 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


the  one  side  to  d  and  on  the  other  to  f,  and,  if  the  temperature  of  this  re- 
gion is  under  40^,  d  ef  will  form  the  region  of  heatli  and  mosses.  The 
water  will  still  pass  from  d  to  c,  which  is  the  region  of  permanent  pasture, 
and  it  will  continue  to  flow  to  the  plains,  tf»  /  under  c  b,  and  to  k  nnilevf  g. 
The  vegetable  mould  may  be  traced  from  b  by  c,  d,  e  and  J",  to  g.  Should 
the  subsoil  between  the  mould  b  and  the  clay  /  be  also  retentive,  tlien  the 
water  will  appear  at  the  surface  at  c,  and  affect  all  the  space  from  c  to  b  ; 
but,  should  the  subsoil  from  k  to  g  be  porous,  then  the  water  will  continue 
to  flow  from  y  upon  the  clay  /i,  and  not  afi'ect  the  surface-mould  ^g. 

(684.)  Should  the  mountain,  however,  consist  oi  concentric  layers  nf  dif- 
ferent rucks  arranged  mantle-shaped  around  it,  then  tlie  water  will  de- 
scend between  the  lines  of  junction  of  the  rocks  ;  and  should  the  masses 
or  beds  of  rock  be  of  different  extents,  and  thickness,  and  consistence, 
which  is  probable,  then  the  water  will  either  appear  at  the  surface  of  the 
gi'ound  as  a  spring,  from  the  subjacent  rock  of  a  close  texture,  or  it  will 
descend  yet  lower,  and  be  absorbed  by  the  subjacent  rock  of  a  porous  tex- 
ture. In  this  manner,  the  harder  rocks  cause  the  springs  to  appear  at  a 
high  elevation,  while  the  porous  ones  convey  the  water  to  a  lower  level, 
until  it  meets  with  a  resisting  substance  to  cause  it  to  come  to  the  day.  In 
any  case  the  farmer  cannot  do  anything  until  the  water  indicates  its  pres- 
ence on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  either  at  a  high  or  low  elevation  ;  and 
then  he  should  take  measures  accordingly  to  remove  it, 

(685.)   To  illustrate  the  cases  now  alluded  to,  suppose  fig.  144  to  repre- 

Fig.  144. 


'^^r^.;v^:. 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  SPRINGS  ON  A  VARIED  SURFACE. 

sent  a  hill  composed  of  different  rocks  of  different  consistence.  Suppose 
the  nucleus  rock  a  to  be  of  close  texture,  when  the  rain  falls  upon  the 
summit  of  the  hill,  which  is  supposed  not  to  be  covered  with  impervious 
clay  as  in  the  case  above,  but  with  vegetable  mould,  the  rain  will  not  be 
absorbed  by  a,  but  will  pass  down  by  gravity  between  a  and  b,  another 
kind  of  rock  of  close  texture.  When  the  rain  falls  in  greater  quantity 
than  will  pass  between  these  rocks,  it  will  overflow  the  upper  edge  of  b  and 
pass  over  its  surface  down  to  c,  but  as  c  is  a  continuation  of  the  nucleus 
impervious  rock  a,  a  large  spring  will  flow  down  the  side  of  the  hill  from 
c  and  render  the  ground  quite  wet  to  d,  where  meeting  another  large  stra- 
tum of  impervious  rock,  it  will  burst  out  to-day  a  large  spring  at  d,  which 
will  be  powerful  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  on  the 
mountain.     On  flowing  do^vn  b,  part  of  the  water  will  be  intercepted  by 

(602; 


DRAINING.  315 


the  rocks  j  and  g,  both  of  which  being  porous,  will  absorb  and  retain  it 
unlil  surcharged.  The  surplus  water  meeting  with  the  impei-vious  rock  e, 
will  be  partly  thrust  out  to-day  along  the  black  line  d  h  on  the  one  hand, 
and  d  i  on  the  other,  when  the  whole  line  k  i  will  present  a  long  dark 
line  of  wet  oozing  out  of  the  soil,  with  the  spring  d  in  the  center,  and 
which  darkness  and  dampness  will  extend  down  the  inclined  ground  as 
far  as  the  upper  line  Ic  I  of  that  porous  stratum  of  rock.  Pait  of  the  water 
absorbed  by  the  porous  rocks  /"and  g  will  be  conveyed  under  the  imper- 
vious rock  e,  and  come  out  at  their  lowest  extremities,  following  the  curved 
dotted  lines  h  d  and  d  i,  and  continue  to  flow  on  until  it  reaches  the  low- 
est extremity  of  e  in  the  dotted  line  k  I,  where  it  will  be  absorbed  by  the 
porous  rock  m. 

(686.)  By  such  an  aiTangement  of  rocky  strata  on  the  side  of  a  moun 
tain  range,  will  be  exhibited  specimens  of  both  wetness  and  dryness  of 
soils.  The  summit  a  will  be  wet,  and  so  will  the  surface  of  h,  but  the  sur- 
faces ofyand  g  will  be  dry.  Again,  the  surface  of  e  will  also  be  wet,  but 
less  so  than  that  of  b,  because  part  of  the  water  is  conveyed  by  f  and  g 
under  e  to  the  dry  stratum  k  I,  which  being  probably  thicker,  and,  at  all 
events,  of  gi-eater  extent,  will  be  drier  than  either  f  or  g.  On  another 
side  of  the  side  of  the  hill  another  result  will  take  effect.  The  rain  falling 
on  the  summit  a  will  descend  between  a  and  n,  as  far  as  the  lowest  ex- 
tremity of  n  along  the  dotted  line  o  jJ,  which  being  under  the  impervious 
rock  e,  the  water  will  continue  to  flow  out  of  sight  until  it  descends  to  k  I, 
where  it  will  be  absorbed  by  the  porous  rock  m,  and  thus  never  appear  at 
all  either  as  a  spring  or  a  line  of  dampness.  But  should  the  quantity  of 
rain  at  any  time  be  greater  than  what  will  pass  between  a  and  n,  it  will 
overflow  n  and  be  absorbed  in  its  descent  by  the  porous  rock  f,  which, 
after  becoming  surcharged,  will  let  loose  the  superfluous  water  in  the  line 
h  r,  upon  the  continuation  of  the  rock  n,  part  of  which  will  come  to-day 
along  the  line  A  o  of  the  impei'vious  rock  e,  and  part  conveyed  down  by  o 
p  to  the  porous  rock  k  I,  where  it  will  be  absorbed.  Thus,  on  this  side  of 
the  hill,  as  long  as  little  rain  falls,  none  but  its  summit  will  be  wet,  and  all 
the  rest  will  be  dry,  though  the  surfaces  of  y  and  k  will  always  be  drier 
than  those  of  n  or  e  ;  but  after  heavy  rains  dampness  will  show  itself 
along  the  line  h  r,  will  extend  itself  even  to  the  line  of  k  I,  should  the  rain 
continue  to  fall  some  time. 

(687.)  The  line  s  by  the  summit  a  to  iJ  is  the  mould  line  pervious  to 
moisture,  and  which  is  here  represented  as  is  frequently  exhibited  in  na- 
ture, namely,  a  thickness  of  soil  on  the  southern  side  of  the  hill  as  from  a 
to  i,  and  a  thickness  of  soil  on  the  northern  basis,  as  from  r  to  *;  but  a 
thinness  of  soil  on  the  southern  face,  as  fi'om  a  to  r.  It  is  not  pretended 
that  this  figure  is  a  truly  geological  portrait  of  any  mountain.  Perhaps 
no  such  aiTangement  of  strata  actually  exists  in  any  single  hill,  but  such 
overlying  and  disconnected  but  conterminous  strata  do  occur  over  extend- 
ed districts  of  hilly  country  which  produce  springs  much  in  the  way  just 
described.  Similar  courses  of  water  occur  in  less  elevated  districts,  though 
it  I'emains  more  hidden  under  the  deeper  alluvial  rocks. 

(688.)  Now  let  us  apply  Elkington's  method  of  draining  to  these  two 
cases  of  wetness,  and  which  are  of  ordinary  occurrence.  The  hill  in  fig. 
143  being  supposed  to  be  covered  saddle-shaped  with  an  impervious  stra- 
tum of  clay,  no  water  can  descend  into  it,  but  will  flow  over  it :  a  is  the 
clay  stratum  ;  h  also  an  impervious  stratum,  but  not  so  much  so  as  a,  con- 
taining veins  of  sand  and  nodules  of  stones,  and  forming  a  very  common 
subsoil  of  this  country.  It  is  clear  that  the  whole  extent  of  ground  from 
e  to  b  will  be  wet  on  the  surface,  and  the  wetness  will  not  exhibit  itself 

(603) 


316  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

in  bands,  but  be  diffused  in  a  uniform  manner  over  the  whole  surface ;  but 
as  b,  in  this  case,  is  not  so  tenacious  as  a,  the  side  of  the  hill  fiom  c  ta  c 
will  always  be  wetter  than  the  flat  ground  fiom  c  to  i,  because  some  of  the 
water  will  l)e  absorbed  and  kept  out  of  sight  in  the  looser  clay  b.  The 
only  method  of  intercepting  the  large  body  of  water  in  its  descent  down 
d  is  to  cut  the  deep  drain  at  c,  not  only  sufficiently  large  to  contain  all  the 
water  that  may  be  supplied  from  above  c,  but  so  deep  as  to  catch  any 
oozing  of  water  from  a  toward  h.  ^Vhat  the  depth  of  this  drain  should 
be  it  is  not  easy  to  detennin6  without  farther  investigation,  and  to  enable 
that  investigation  to  be  made,  a  large  drain  should  lie  cut  on  the  flat  ground 
in  the  line  from  b  to  c,  which  will  also  answer  the  pui-pose  of  leading  away 
the  water  that  will  be  collected  by  the  transverse  drain  c.  Suppose  the 
subsoil  from  b  to  i  is  4  feet  thick,  then  this  leading  drain  should  be  made 
^  foot  deeper,  namely  4i  feet,  in  order  that  its  sole  may  be  placed  in  im- 
pervious matter  ;  and  in  this  case  the  drain  c,  of  the  depth  of  6  feet,  may 
suffice  to  keep  the  flat  ground  dry.  But  if  from  b  to  /  is  S  or  10  feet  in 
depth,  then  it  would  be  advisable  to  make  the  leading  drain  from  i  to  c  at 
least  6  feet  deep,  in  order  to  drain  a  large  extent  of  ground  on  each  side 
of  it,  and  the  drain  c  may  still  do  at  its  former  depth,  namely  6  feet. 
Should  the  bottom  of  the  leading  drain  get  softer  and  wetter  as  the  cut- 
ting descends,  its  depth  should  either  be  earned  down  to  the  solid  day  at 
i,  or  perhaps  it  would  be  well  to  try  auger  holes  in  the  bottom,  with  the 
view  of  ascertaining  whether  the  subjacent  water  might  not  rise  to  and 
flow  along  it.  The  expedient  of  boring  will  be  absolutely  necessary  if  the 
depth  from  b  to  i  decreases  as  the  distance  from  the  hill  increases,  for 
there  would  be  no  other  way  of  letting  off"  the  water  from  the  basin  of  the 
clay  from  i  to  c.  Should  the  flat  ground  be  of  considerable  extent,  or 
should  the  face  of  the  plain  undulate  considerably  from  right  to  left,  a 
leading  drain  will  be  required  in  every  hollow  ;  and  each  of  them  should 
be  made  deeper  or  shallower  according  as  the  subsoil  is  of  a  drawing  tex- 
ture or  otherwise,  Viearing  in  mind  that  the  sole  of  the  drain  should,  if  pos- 
sible, rest  upon  an  impervious  substance,  otherwise  the  water  will  escape 
through  the  pervious  matter,  and  do  mischief  at  a  lower  level.  The  sub- 
soil between  g  and  h  being  supposed  to  be  giavel  or  other  porous  sub- 
stance, it  is  clear  that  no  drain  is  required  aty  to  protect  the  soil  between 
f  and  g,  as  the  porous  subsoil  will  absorb  all  the  water  as  it  descends  from 

(689.)  As  to  the  wet  surface  of  the  hill  itself  c  d  e  f,\t  being  composed 
of  imper^'ious  clay,  must  be  dried  on  the  principle  of  surface-draining ; 
that  is,  if  the  ground  is  in  permanent  pasture  for  the  support  of  sheep,  a 
number  of  transverse  open  sheep  drains  should  be  made  across  the  face 
of  the  hill,  and  the  water  from  them  conveyed  in  open  ditches  into  the 
great  drain  c ;  or  if  the  ground  is  under  the  plow,  small  covered  drains 
will  answer  the  purpose  best ;  and  the  contents  of  these  can  be  emptied 
into  the  large  drain  r,  and  conveyed  down  the  large  leading  drain  to  b. 
Thus,  in  fig.  145,  a  b  is  the  main  drain  along  the  flat  ground  into  which 
the  large  drains  c  b  and  d  b  flow.  It  may  be  observed  here  that  when 
one  large  drain  enters  another,  the  line  of  junction  should  not  be  at  right 
angles,  but  with  an  acute  angle  in  the  line  of  the  flow  of  .water,  as  at  b. 
The  open  surface-drains  in  permanent  pasture  exhibit  the  form  as  repre- 
sented in  this  figure,  where  the  leaders  c  f?LX\(i  g  h  are  cut  with  a  greater 
or  less  slope  down  the  hill  according  to  the  steepness  of  the  acclivity,  and 
the  feeders  across  its  face  nearly  in  parallel  rows,  into  their  respective 
leaders.  In  this  way  the  water  is  entirely  intercepted  in  its  descent  down 
the  hill.     I  may  mention  that  where  small  drains  enter  larger,  they  should 

(604) 


DRAINING. 


317 


not  on)y  enter  with  an  inclination,  as  remarked  above,  but  where  they 
come  from  opposite  sides,  as  in  this  case,  they  should  enter  at  alternate 
distances,  as  seen  in  the  case  of  the  three  drains  above^  and  not  as  shown 


Fig.  145. 


A  PLAN  OF  SHEEP  DRAINS  ON  A  HILL  OF  IMPERVIOUS  SUBSOIL 

in  the  fourth  and  fifth  drains.  The  large  drain  c  h  d  may  either  be  left 
open  or  covered.  Should  it  form  the  line  of  separation  between  arable 
ground  and  permanent  pasture,  it  may  be  left  open,  and  serve  to  form  a 
fence  to  the  hill-pasture  ;  but  should  the  entire  rising  ground  be  under  the 
plow,  this,  as  also  the  main  drain  a  b,  and  all  the  small  drains,  should  be 
covered. 

(690.)  There  are  various  loays  of  maTcing  small  drains  in  grass.  One 
plan  is  to  turn  a  fuiTow-slice  down  the  hill  with  the  plow,  and  make  the 
furrow  afterward  smooth  and  regular  with  the  spade.  When  the  grass  is 
smooth  and  the  soil  pretty  deep,  this  is  an  economical  mode  of  making 
such  drains,  which  have  received  the  appellation  of  sheep  drains.  But 
where  the  grass  is  rough  and  strong,  and  swampy  places  numerous,  the 
plow  is  apt  to  choke  with  long  grass  accumulnting  between  the  coulter 
and  beam,  and  makes  very  rough  work,  and  the  horses  are  apt  to  over- 
strain themselves  in  the  swampy  ground.  The  lines  of  the  drains  should 
all  be  previously  marked  off  with  poles  before  the  plow  is  used. 

(691.)  A  better  though  more  expensive  plan,  is  to  form  them  altogether 
with   the   spade.     Let  a,  fig.  146,  be  a  cut  thrown  out  by  the  spade,  9 

Fig.  146. 


AN  OPEN  SHEEP  DRAIN  0.\  GRASS. 


inches  wide  at  bottom,  16  inches  of  a  slope  in  the  high  side,  and  10  on 
the  low,  with  a  width  of  20  inches  at  top  on  the  slope  of  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  A  large  turf  h  is  removed  by  the  spade,  is  laid  on  its  grassy  side 
downward,  on  the  lowest  lip  of  the  cut,  and  the  rest  of  the  earth  is  placed 
(605)  ^  ^ 


318  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

at  its  back  to  hold  it  up  in  a  firm  position,  the  shovelings  being  thrown 
over  the  top  to  finish  the  bank  in  a  neat  manner.  Such  a  drain  catchea 
all  the  water  that  descends  in  the  space  between  it  and  the  drain  above, 
and  leails  it  away  t-o  the  sub-main  drain,  such  as  e  f  or  g  h,  which  is  of 
similar  construction,  but  of  larger  dimensions,  running  up  and  down  the 
hill,  and  the  lower  end  of  which  finds  an  entrance  into  the  laige  main 
drain  at  the  margin  of  the  arable  land. 

(G92.)  Another  sort  of  sheep-drain  is  formed  as  represented  in  fig.  147. 
A  cut  is  made  G  inches  wide  at  bottom,  16  inches  deep,  and  18  inches 
wide  at  top.  The  upper  turf  a  is  taken  out  whole  across  the  cut,  as  deep 
as  the  spade  can  wield  it.     Two  men  will 

take  out  such  a  turf  better  than  one.     It  ^       ^'8-  i<7. 

is  laid  on  iss  grassy  face  upon  the  higher 
side   of  the  drain,  and  the   earth    pared 
away  from  the  other  side  with  the  spade, 
leaving  the  turf  of  a  trapezoidal   shape. 
While  one  man  is  doing  this,  the  other  is 
casting  out  with  a  narrow  spade  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cut  b.     The  earth  and  shovel-     n.w 
ing  should  be    spread    abroad    over    the      f^'/} 
gi-ass  ;   and  the  large  turf  a  then  replaced 
in  its  natural  position,  and  tramped  down, 
thereby  leaving  an  open  space  b  below  it       ^  covered  sheep  drai.v  in  grass. 
for  the  water  to  pass  along.     This  is  not 

so  permanent  a  form  of  sheep  drain  as  the  last,  nor  is  it  at  all  suitable  in 
pasture  where  cattle  graze,  as  they  would  inevitably  trample  down  the 
turf  to  the  bottom  of  the  drain.  It  is  also  a  temptation  for  moles  to  run 
along  ;  and  when  any  obstiiiction  is  occasioned  by  them  or  any  other  bur- 
rowing animal,  the  part  obsti-ucted  cannot  be  seen  until  the  water  over- 
flows the  lower  side  of  the  drain,  when  the  turfs  have  again  to  be  taken 
up,  and  the  obstruction  removed.  It  forms,  however,  a  neat  drain,  and 
possesses  the  advantage  of  retaining  the  surface  whole  where  sheep  alone 
are  grazed.  Figs.  146  and  147  are  drawn  on  a  scale  of -^^  inch  to  2  inches. 
(693.)  Having  described  the  various  modes  of  pure  *?///}/cc-draining, 
and  traced  the  ongin  of  springs,  immediately  connected  with  which  arises 
the  necessity  for  the  sheep  drains  just  described,  I  shall  now  proceed  to 
you  the  drcp,  or  Elkington's  method  of  draining,  which  is  peculiarly  well 
adapted  for  draining  isolated  hollow  sjiots  of  ground.  These  are  usually 
formed  by  water  standing  in  winter  on  an  impervious  clay  subsoil,  the 
water  being  either  entirely  derived  fi-om  rain — in  which  ca.se  the  pool  be- 
comes dry  in  summer — but  most  frequently  partly  from  rain,  and  partly 
from  springs  in  the  subjacent  strata  fed  from  a  higher  source.  Such  pools 
are  drained  either  by  boring  holes  through  the  imper\"ious  clay  into  a 
porous  stratum  below — should  such  a  sti'atum  exist — or  by  a  deep  drain, 
having  an  efflux  at  a  lower  level. 

(694.)  I  shall  give  you  an  account  of  the  successful  draining  of  such  a 
pool.  It  was  covered  with  water  in  winter  to  the  extent  of  about  2  acres, 
in  the  center  of  a  field  of  25  acres  ;  and  though  no  water  was  visible  in 
summer,  its  site  was  always  swampy.  It  obtained  the  name  of  the  "  Duck- 
mire,"  wild  ducks  being  in  the  habit  of  frequenting  it  every  season.  On 
taking  a  level  from  its  water,  it  was  found  that  a  drain  of  10  feet  in  depth 
would  be  required  to  carry  it  away  in  a  2^-feet-deep  drain  through  the 
pool.  The  outlet  was  on  the  top  of  a  clay-bank  about  150  yards  distant 
from  the  nearest  margin  of  the  pool,  rising  peqiendicularly  40  or  50  feet 
above  the  bed  of  a  small  river,  and  was  the  nearest  point  for  a  fall  from 

(60€) 


DRAINING.  319 


the  pool.  The  operations  were  performed  in  summer,  when  the  pool  was 
comparatively  dry.  The  deep  cut  of  10  feet  was  first  executed ;  and  to 
render  it  ever  after  secure,  a  conduit  of  9  inches  in  width  by  12  inches  in 
hight  was  built  and  covered  with  land-stones  obtained  from  the  field  by 
trench-plowing,  above  which  about  2  feet  of  stones  were  placed  and  cov- 
ered with  turf  before  the  earth  was  returned  into  the  deep  cut.  The  con- 
tinuation of  the  main  drain  was  carried  right  through  the  center  of  the 
pool,  where  it  could  only  be  formed  30  inches  deep,  in  order  to  preserve 
the  requisite  fall.  Another  drain,  of  3  feet  in  depth,  encircled  the  area 
of  the  pool  a  little  above  the  water-mark,  and  was  let  by  each  end  into 
the  main  drain.  Both  these  drains  were  made  9  inches  wide  at  bottom, 
to  contain  a  coupled  duct  of  4  inches  in  width  ;  and  filled  with  small  round 
stones,  admirably  adapted  for  the  purpose,  none  exceeding  the  size  of  a 
goose's  egg,  gathered  from  the  surface  of  the  field.  The  stones  were 
blinded  with  withered  wrack,  and  the  earth  returned  above  them,  first 
with  the  spade  and  then  with  the  plow.  The  pool  was  at  once  deter- 
mined to  be  drained  in  this  manner,  because  the  high  bank  of  clay  above 
the  river — and  which  formed  the  entire  subsoil  of  the  field — forbade  any 
attempt  at  boiing  to  a  porous  sti-atum  below. 

(695.)  But  a  difficulty  occurred  in  passing  the  drain  through  the  center 
of  the  pool,  which  was  not  foreseen.  A  complete  quicksand  was  met  with, 
the  bottom  of  which,  resting  on  the  clay,  was  much  below  that  of  the  deep 
cut.  To  have  effectually  drained  the  quicksand,  the  cut  should  have  been 
made  at  least  13  feet  in  depth ;  so  that  about  2  feet  deep  of  quicksand 
were  obliged  to  be  left  beneath  the  drain  ;  and  how  to  construct  a  lasting 
drain  upon  such  a  foundation,  was  a  puzzling  thing,  as  the  wet  sand 
thrown  out  by  the  spade  was  followed  by  larger  quantities  sliding  down 
from  each  side  of  the  drain,  and  filling  up  the  emptied  space. 

(696.)  It  is  here  worthy  of  remark,  that  I  committed  a  mistake  in  not 
ascertaining  the  existence  of  the  quicksand,  and  of  its  depth,  before  begin- 
ning to  cast  the  deep  main  drain  ;  for  I  had  only  thought  of  making  such 
an  outlet  as  would  enable  me  to  make  a  drain  of  such  a  depth  through  the 
center  of  the  pool  as  would  drain  it ;  whereas  I  ought  to  have  ascertained 
in  the  first  place,  the  nature  of  the  strata  under  the  pool,  which  would 
have  made  me  acquainted  with  the  depth  of  the  quicksand  ;  and  the  drain 
and  outlet  should  then  have  been  made  of  the  depth  to  deprive  the  quick- 
sand entirely  of  its  water.  However,  as  matters  were,  I  was  obliged  to 
do  the  best  to  form  a  drain  in  the  quicksand,  and  this  was  found  to  be  a 
rather  troublesome  operation.  Thick  tough  turfs  were  provided,  to  lay 
upon  the  sand  in  the  bottom  of  the  drain,  and  upon  these  were  laid  flat 
stones,  to  form  a  foundation  on  which  to  build  a  conduit  of  stones,  having 
an  opening  of  6  inches  in  width  and  6  or  7  inches  in  hight.  The  back  of 
the  conduit,  when  building,  was  completely  packed  with  turf,  to  prevent 
the  sand  finding  its  way  into  it  from  the  sides  of  the  drain ;  and  the  pack- 
ing was  continued  behind  the  few  small  rubble  stones  that  were  placed 
over  the  cover  of  the  conduit.  A  thick  covering  of  turf  was  then  laid  over 
the  stones,  so  that  the  whole  stones  of  the  drain  were  completely  encased 
in  turf,  before  the  earth  was  returned  upon  them.  The  filling  up  was  en- 
tirely executed  with  the  spade,  in  case  the  trampling  of  the  horses  should 
have  displaced  any  of  the  stones  ;  but  these  extraordinary  precautions 
were  only  used  as  far  as  the  quicksand  was  found  to  be  annoying.  After 
all  the  drains  were  finished,  a  large  quantity  of  water  flowed  out  of  the 
main  drain  during  the  succeeding  autumn  and  winter ;  but  by  spring  the 
land  was  quite  dry,  the  blue  unctuous  clay  forming  the  bottom  of  the  pool 
became  friable,  and  on  the   soil  and   subsoil  being  intermixed  by  deep 

(607) 


320  THE   BOOK   OF  THE   FAIIM WINTER. 

plowing,  the  new  and  fresh  soil,  with  projier  management,  ever  after  bore 
fine  luxuriant  crops. 

(607.)  A  12-acre  field  of  good,  deep  land  on  the  farm  of  Frenchlaw,  in 
Berwickshire,  was  rendered  swampy  l)y  springs  and  oozings  of  water  from 
the  suiTuunding  rising  ground  being  retained  upon  the  clay  subsoil.  A 
4-feet  drain  was  formed  all  round  the  base  of  tlie  rising  ground,  immedi- 
ately above  the  line  of  wet,  and  several  drains  of  3  feet  in  depth  were  run 
through  the  flat  part  of  the  field.  The  outlet  was  obliged  to  be  cut  through 
a  part  of  a  field  on  the  adjoining  farm  to  the  depth  of  13  feet,  conduited 
and  covered  over.  The  swampiness  of  the  ground  was  completely  re- 
moved, and  the  crops  ever  afi:er  were  excellent. 

(698.)  Another  application  of  Elkington's  system  may  be  successfully 
made  in  draining  the  springs  or  oozings  of  water  around  gravelly  eminences 
standing  isolated  in  single  Jields,  or  across  more  than  one  fuld,  vpon  a  bed 
of  clay  or  other  impervious  matter.  A  circumvallation  of  drain  around  the 
base  of  the  eminence,  begun  in  the  porous  and  carried  into  the  iniper>'iou8 
substance,  having  a  depth  of  perhaps  from  5  to  7  feet,  and  connected  with 
a  main  drain  along  the  lowest  quarter  of  the  field,  will  most  effectually  dry 
all  the  part  of  it  that  was  made  wet  by  the  springs  or  oozings. 

(699.)  Bogs  and  marshes  have  been  drained  with  great  effect  by  Elking- 
ton's method.  These  almost  always  rest  on  basin-shaped  hollows  in  clay ; 
and,  when  this  is  of  considerable  depth,  the  only  way  of  draining  them  is 
by  bringing  up  a  deep  cut  from  the  lowest  ground,  and  passing  it  through 
the  dam-like  barrier  of  clay.  But  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that  gravel 
or  sand  is  found  at  no  great  depth  below  the  clay  on  \yhich  bogs  rest ;  in 
which  case,  the  most  ready  and  economical  plan  is  to  bore  a  hole  or  holes 
in  the  first  instance  through  the  clay,  with  an  auger  5  inches  in  diameter; 
and,  after  the  water  has  almost  subsided,  to  finish  the  work  by  sinking 
wells  through  the  clay,  and  filling  them  up  with  small  stones  to  within  2 
feet  of  the  top. 

(700.)  I  have  never  seen  an  instance  of  the  draining  of  bog  by  boring  or 
by  wells  ;  but  the  late  Mr.  George  Stephens,  land-drainer,  instances  two 
or  three  cases  of  bogs  being  successfully  drained  in  Sweden  by  means  of 
bore-holes  and  wells  in  connection  with  drains  ;  and  the  late  Mr.  Johnstone 
adduces  many  as  successful  instances  in  this  country.* 

(701.)  I  have  seen  extensive  and  successful  effects  of  drying  bogs  in  Ire- 
land by  ordinary  drains,  especially  Carrick  Bog,  at  Castle  Rattan,  belong- 
ing to  Mr.  Featherstonehaugh,  in  the  county  of  Meath.  The  plan  consists 
of  dividing  the  bog  into  divisions  of  60  yards  in  breadth,  by  open  ditches 
of  4  feet  in  depth  and  4  feet  wide  at  top,  allowance  being  made  for  the 
sliding  in  of  the  sides  and  subsidence  by  drying,  and  which  movements 
have  the  effect  of  considerably  diminishing  the  size  of  the  drains  ;  and  these 
ditches  are  connected  by  parallel  drains  at  right  angles  3  feet  3  inches  in 
depth,  and  18  inches  in  width.  Fig.  148  is  a  plan  of  these  drains,  where 
a  are  the  large  ditches  and  b  the  small  drains.  The  ditch  a  at  the  bottom 
is  that  which  takes  away  all  the  water  to  some  large  ditch,  river,  or  lake. 
The  fall  in  the  ditches  and  drains  is  produced  by  the  natural  upheavins:  of 
the  moss  above  the  level  of  the  circumjacent  jrround,  and,  of  course,  this 
peculiarity  causes  all  the  drainage  of  the  boqr  to  flow  toward  the  land. 

(702.)  The  small  drains  h,  fig.  148,  are  made  in  this  manner:  A  ffartlen 
line  is  stretched  at  right  angles  across  the  division  from  the  large  open 
drain  a  to  a,  60  yards.  The  upper  rouffh  turf  is  rutted  in  a  peqiendicular 
direction  along  the  line  with  a  short  edging-iron.     The  line  is  then  shifted 

*  3ee  Stephens's  Practical  Irrigator  and  Dniinor.  edition  of  \9'M  :  and  Johnstone's  Systematic  TYeatiBO 
on  Drainina.  4to  edition  of  1834 — both  excellent  works  on  the  subject  of  deep  drainins. 
(608;  *^  " 


DRAINING. 


321 


18  inches,  the  width  of  the  top  of  the  drain,  and  another  rut  is  made  by 
the  edging-iron.     While  one  man  is  employed  at  this,  another  cuts  out  a 

Fig.  148. 


4.  PLAN  OF  DRAINS   FOR  BOGS  A3   PRACTICED  IN  IRKLA.VD. 

thick  turf  across  the  drain  with  the  broad-mouthed  shovel,  fig.  149  ;  and, 
if  any  inequalities  or  niggedness  are  observed  in  the  wet  turf,  he  makes 
them  smooth  and  square  with  a  stroke  or  two  with  the  back  of  the  shovel. 
The  drain  is  thus  left  for  two  months  to  allow  the  water  to  run  off,  the  moss 
to  subside,  and  the  turf  to  dry  and  harden. 

(703.)  At  the  end  of  that  time  the  long  edging-iron,  fig.  150,  is  employed 
to  cut  down  the  sides  of  the  drain  in  a  perpendicular  direction  2  feet  3 
inches  (see  fig.  153),  and  the  flat  shovel  is  also  again  employed  to  cut  the 
moss  into  square  turfs,  which  in  this  case  are  not  thrown  out  with  the 
shovel — as  on  account  of  their  wet  state  they  cannot  remain  on  its  clear, 
wet  face,  when  used  so  far  below  the  hand — but  are  seized  by  another 
man  with  the  small  graip,  fig.  151,  and  thrown  on  the  surface  to  dry.     The 

Fig.  149.  Fig.  150.  Fig.  151. 


THE  BROAD-MOUTHED  SHOVEL.  THE  LONG  EDGINO-IRON.  THE  SMALL  GRAIP. 

work  is  again  left  for  two  months   more,  to  allow  time  for  the  water  to 
drain  off,  and  the  turfs  to  dry  and  harden. 


(609) . 


.»1 


322 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


(704.)  In  tliese  four  months  the  moss  subsides  about  1  foot.  After  the 
two  spits  of  the  shovel,  the  longest  edging-iron  is  again  employed  to  cut 
down  the  last  spit,  which  is  done  by  leaving  a  shoulder  ce,  5  inches  broad, 
on  each  side  of  the  drain,  fig.  153.     The  scoop,  fig.  152,  is  then  employed 

Fig.  13J. 


THE  Boo  DKAtN  SCDOP. 


to  cut  under  the  last  narrow  spit,  which  \a  removed  ircrvn  its  position  by 
the  small  graip.  The  scoop  pares,  dresses  and  finishes  the  nanow  bottom 
of  the  drain,  with  a  few  strokes  with  its  back,  making  the  duct  d  1  foot 
deep. 

(705.)  The  filling  of  the  drain  is  performed  at  this  time,  and  it  is  done 
in  this  manner.  The  large  tui-f  Z»,  fig.  153,  which 
was  first  taken  out,  and  is  now  dry,  is  lifted  by 
the  hand  and  placed,  grass  side  undermost,  upon 
the  shoulders  e  e  of  the  drain,  and  tramped  firmly 
down  with  the  feet.  The  second  large  turf  a, 
which  is  not  so  dry  or  light  as  the  first,  is  lifted 
by  the  giaip  and  put  into  the  middle  of  the 
drain,  and  the  long,  naiTpw  stripes  of  turf  c  e 
separated  by  the  scoop  from  the  bottom,  along 
with  other  broken  pieces,  are  also  placed  by  the 
graip  along  both  sides  and  top  of  the  drain,  and 
all  the  sods  just  fill  up  the  subsided  drain. 

(706.)  Fig.  153  represents  the  drain  thus  fin- 
ished, which  is  well  suited  for  the  drying  of  bog, 
and  in  its  construction  possesses  the  advantage 
of  having  all  the  materials  for  filling  it  upon  tlie 
spot.  It  is  a  well-known  property  of  dried  moss 
that  it  resists  the  action  of  water  with  impunity, 
and  the  mode  just  described  of  making  drains 
affords  ample  time  for  the  drying  and  hardening 
of  the  turfs  cast  out  of  the  drains  ;  but  it  is  not 
requisite  for  the  efllciency  of  the  turfs  that  they 
be  dried,  as  they  answer  the  same  purpose  quite 
well  in  a  wet  state ;  but  the  time  allowed  for  the  subsidence  of  the  moss 
itself  is  a  great  advantage  to  the  drain,  such  materials  being  never  again 
disturbed  in  a  subsided  ])()g  drain.  A  bog  drain  requires  no  other  materi- 
als, such  as  wood  or  tiles,  to  fill  it,  there  being  no  material  so  appropriate 
or  more  durable  than  the  moss  itself,  the  sliglitest  subsidence  in  the  drain 
destroying  the  continuity  of  the  soles  and  tiles,  whether  uf  wood  or  clay, 
while  those  made  of  the  latter  substance  will  gravitate  in  the  moss  by  their 

(610) 


THE    SHOLLDEKED    BOO    DRAIN. 


DRAINING.  323 


own  weight.  To  expedite  the  subsidence  of  the  moss,  the  cutting  of  the 
drains  is  most  successfully  practiced  in  summer,  when  the  drouth  not  only 
dries  the  turfs,  but  gets  quit  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  water  by  evapo- 
ration.    The  scale  of  this  figure  is  1  to  2  inches,  or  ^  inch  to  1  foot. 

(707.)  These  are  all  the  cases,  as  I  conceive,  in  which  Elkington's  meth- 
od of  draining  can  be  applied,  and  even  in  them  all  it  will  not  be  attended 
with  certain  success,  certainly  not  with  equal  success.  I  have  frequently 
made  lines  of  drains  across  the  spouty  sloping  faces  of  fields,  to  the  depth 
of  even  6  feet,  and  never  less  than  4,  without  drying  more  than  the  breadth 
which  they  covered.  In  these  cases  I  considered  the  cost  of  making  them 
just  thrown  away ;  while  in  other  cases  4-feet  drains  have  completely  re- 
moved the  spouts,  though  the  subsoil  was  apparently  identically  the  same 
in  them  all.  It  is  possible  that  the  small  veins  of  sand  which  were  inter- 
sected by  the  cutting  might,  in  the  unsuccessful  cases,  dip  away  from  the 
drains,  and  the  water  in  them  had  perhaps  ceased  to  flow  in  the  same  di- 
rection after  their  bisection,  and  in  the  successful  cases  the  sand  veins  may 
have  dipped  with  even  a  more  favorable  inclination  for  dischai'ging  their 
contents  into  the  drains.  AVliatever  difference  of  distribution  there  might 
have  been  in  the  component  parts  of  the  sti-ata,  in  these  opposite  cases, 
there  is  little  doubt  that  it  was  not  sufficiently  great  to  be  indicated  on  the 
surface  of  the  gi'ound ;  and  it  is  questionable  that  even  the  most  minute 
investigation  of  apparently  similar  veins  of  sand,  in  similar  strata,  would 
acquaint  us  with  their  real  positions,  as  it  is  not  impossible  that  the  most 
trifling  difference  in  the  relative  positions  of  such  veias  may  produce  very 
different  effects  upon  the  course  of  the  water  in  the  subsoil. 

(708.)  It  is  now  necessary  to  describe  to  you  the  mode  to  be  adopted  in 
forming  drains  on  Elkington's  method.  Before  determining  on  the  direc- 
tion in  which  the  lines  of  drains  should  run  in  the  field  proposed  to  be 
drained,  it  has  been  recommended  to  sink  pits  here  and  there,  of  such  di- 
mensions as  to  allow  a  man  to  work  in  them  easily,  and  to  a  depth  which 
will  secure  the  exposure  of  the  subjacent  strata  and  the  greatest  flow  of 
water,  the  depth  var\4ng  perhaps  from  5  to  7  feet.  A  previous  examina- 
tion of  the  underground  is  certainly  requisite,  and  pits  will  certainly  ac^ 
quaint  you  with  the  arrangement  of  the  substrata  ;  and,  had  I  pitted  the 
bottom  of  the  pool,  the  drainage  of  which  I  have  described  above  (696), 
the  depth  of  the  quicksand  would  have  been  easily  ascertained,  and  the 
main  drain  made  commensurate  with  the  cii'cumstances  of  the  case.  But 
I  agree  with  the  late  Mr.  Wilson,  of  Cumledge,  Berwickshire,  that  the 
driving  of  lines  of  drains  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  field  is  the  most 
satisfactory  method  of  obtaining  an  enlarged  -sdew  of  the  disposition  of  the 
subjacent  sti-ata,  and,  of  course,  of  the  depth  to  which  the  drains  should  be 
sunk.*  Such  lines  of  drains  will  not  be  useless  ;  on  the  contrary  they  will 
form  the  outlets  of  the  system  of  drains  connected  with  each  of  them,  and 
for  that  purpose  they  should  be  made  in  the  lowest  parts  of  the  field. 

(709.)  Having  thus  ascertained  the  nature  of  the  undergi'ound,  the  lines 
of  the  drains  which  run  across  from  the  mains  should  be  marked  off.  This 
can  be  done  by  dra^ving  a  furrow-slice  along  each  line  ;  but  a  neater  plan, 
and  one  which  vrill  not  spend  the  time  of  horses  at  all,  is  to  set  them  off 
by  means  of  short  stakes  (Riven  into  the  ground,  or,  if  the  field  is  in  gi'ass, 
by  small  holes  made  in  the  ground  with  three  or  four  notches  of  the  spade, 
and  the  turf  turned  over  on  its  grassy  face  beside  each  hole. 

(710.)  It  is  very  desirable  that  the  stones  for  filling  the  drains  should  be 
laid  down  along  the  lines  in  the  order  the  drains  are  to  be  opened  up,  not 


*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  vii. 
(611) 


J24  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

only  on  account  of  having  them  at  hand  when  the  filling  process  is  to  com- 
mence, and  of  thereby,  perhaps,  saving  the  labor  of  throwing  out  the  earth 
diat  may  have  fallen  down  from  the  sides  of  the  drain,  when  waiting  for 
the  stones,  and  of  pi*ocuring  additional  stones  for  filling  up  the  spaces  thus 
enlarged,  but  of  saving  the  horses  much  trouble  in  backing  and  forwarding 
the  cart  on  the  ground  when  it  is  necessarily  much  confined  at  the  side  of 
an  opened  drain.  The  stones  should  be  laid  down  on  the  upper  or  higher 
side  of  the  ground,  if  there  be  one,  that  the  earth  from  the  drain  may  be 
thrown  upon  the  lower  side. 

(711.)  Suppose  that  it  has  been  determined  to  make  the  drains  6  feet 
deep.  For  this  depth  a  width  at  top  of  30  inches,  and  one  at  bottom  of  18 
inches,  will  be  quite  sufficient  for  the  puq)08e  of  drainage,  and  for  room 
to  men  to  work  in  easily.  This  ])articular,  in  regard  to  the  dimensions  of 
the  contents  of  a  drain,  should  always  be  kept  in  view  when  cutting  one  ; 
aa  even  a  small  unnecessary  addition  either  to  the  depth  or  width,  and  es- 
pecially to  both,  of  a  deep  drain,  makes  a  considerable  difference  in  the 
quantity  of  matter  to  be  thrown  out,  and,  of  course,  in  the  quantity  of  stones 
required  for  again  filliiig  up  the  excavated  space.  A  simple  calculation 
will  at  once  show  you  the  great  difference  there  is  in  the  contents  of  a 
drain  a  little  wider  and  narrower  than  another ;  and  the  difference  is  much 
greater  than  you  would  imagine  at  first  sight.  A  drain  of  the  above  di- 
mensions— namely,  of  6  feet  deep,  2i  feet  wide  at  top,  and  1^  feet  at  bot- 
tom— gives  an  area  by  a  vertical  section  of  22^  square  feet,  and,  in  a  rood 
of  6  yards  in  length,  a  capacity  of  405  cubic  feet ;  whereas  a  drain  of  6  feet 
Jeep,  3  feet  wide  at  top,  and  2  feet  wide  at  bottom,  as  recommended  in  a 
particular  instance  by  the  late  Mr.  Stephens,*  would  give  a  vertical  section 
of  36  square  feet,  and  a  capacity  of  644  cubic  feet,  creating  more  than  50 
per  cent,  of  additional  work.  And  you  should  bear  in  mind  that,  provided 
the  parts  of  a  drain  are  substantially  executed,  its  icidth,  beyond  that  which 
will  secure  efficacy,  cannot  render  it  more  eflficacious.  The  rule  for  the 
width  of  a  drain  is  very  well  determined  by  the  ease  with  which  men  are 
able  to  work  at  the  bottom ;  and,  indeed,  men  working  by  the  piece,  when 
their  work  is  me<isured  longitudinally,  will  always  prefer  naiTow  to  wide 
drains. 

(712.)  The  cutting  of  drains  should  always  be  contracted  for  at  so  much 
per  rood  of  6  yards.  The  size  of  drain  which  I  have  just  recommended 
(711)  may  be  cut  for  from  Is.  6d.  to  28.  per  rood,  according  to  the  hardness 
or  other  difficulties  of  removing  the  subsoil.  Where  clay  i3  very  hard  and 
dry,  or  very  spongy,  tough  and  wet,  or  where  many  boulders  interfere,  the 
larger  sum  is  not  too  much ;  but  where  the  subsoil  can  be  loosened  with 
ordinary  picking,  and  is  mixed  with  small  sand  veins  and  stones,  the  smallet 
sum  will  suffice.  In  such  a  contract,  it  should  always  be  understood  that 
the  first  portion  of  the  earth  in  the  refilling  shall  be  returned  into  the  drain 
by  the  contractor,  and  that  he  shall  provide  himself  with  all  the  tools  ne- 
cessary for  the  work. 

(713.)  The  first  operation  in  breaking  ground  is  to  stretch  the  garden 
line  for  setting  off  the  width  of  the  top  of  the  drain,  30  inches — the  drain 
being  begun  at  the  lowest  part  of  the  ground — and  each  division  thus  lined 
off  consists  of  about  4  roods,  or  24  yards.  Three  men  are  the  most  effi- 
cient number  for  carrying  on  the  most  expeditious  cutting  of  drains. — 
While  the  principal  workman  is  rutting  off  the  S(;cond  side  of  the  top  of 
the  drain  with  the  common  spade,  the  other  two  begin  to  dig  and  shovel 
out  the  mould-earth,  face  to  face,  throwing  it  upon  the  lower  and  opposite 

*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Ilisblnnil  and  AgricuIturRl  Society,  vol.  tu. 
(612) 


DRAINING. 


325 


side  from  the  stones.  The  first  spit  of  the  spade  most  hkely  removing  all 
the  mould,  the  first  man  commences  the  picking  of  the  subsoil  with  the 
foot-pick,  fig.  37 ;  or,  if  the  mould  is  too  deep  to  be  removed  by  one  spit, 
and  requires  no  picking,  the  first  man  digs  and  shovels  out  the  remainder 
of  it  by  himself  with  the  spade.  The  mould  is  thus  all  removed  from  the 
lined-off  break  or  division  of  the  drain.  When  the  picking  commences, 
one  man  uses  the  foot-pick,  working  backward  ;  another  follows  him  with 
his  back  with  a  spade,  and  digs  out  the  picked  earth  ;  while  the  contractor 
comes  forward  with  the  shovel,  fig.  38,  with  his  face  to  the  last  man,  and 
takes  up  all  the  loose  earth,  and  trims  the  sides  of  the  drain.  In  this  way 
the  first  spit  of  the  subsoil  is  removed.  Should  the  drain  prove  very  wet, 
and  danger  be  apprehended  of  the  sides  falling  in,  the  whole  division 
should  be  taken  out  to  the  bottom  without  stopping,  in  order  to  have  the 
stones  laid  in  it  as  quickly  as  possible.  Should  the  earth  have  a  tendency 
to  fall  in  before  the  bottom  is  reached,  short,  thick  planks  should  be  pro- 
vided, and  placed  against  the  loose  parts  of  both  sides  of  the  drain,  in  a 
perpendicular  or  horizontal  position,  according  to  the  form  of  the  loose 
earth,  and  there  kept  firm  by  short  stakes  acting  as  wedges  between  the 
planks  on  both  sides  of  the  drain,  as  represented  in  fig.  154,  where  a  a  ar« 

Fig.  154. 


THR  POSITION  OF  PLANKS  AND  WEDGES  TO  PREVENT  THE  SIDES  OF  DRAINS  FALLING  IN. 

the  sides  of  the  drain,  d  planks  placed  perpendicularly  against  them,  and 
kept  in  their  places  by  the  short  stake  or  wedge  c,  and  where  /are  planka 
placed  horizontally  and  kept  secure  by  the  wedges  e  e. 

(714.)  But  if  the  earth  in  the  drain  be  moderately  dry  and  firm,  another 
division  of  4  roods  may  be  lined  off  at  top,  and  the  subsoil  removed  as  lov» 
as  the  depth  of  the  former  division.  Before  proceeding,  however,  to  line 
off  a  third  division,  the  first  division  should  be  cleared  out  for  the  builder 
of  the  conduit.     The   object  of  this  plan   is  to  give  room  to  separate  tb<» 


326  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

digjrers  of  the  earth  from  the  builders  of  the  stones,  so  as  there  may  be  no 
interference  with  one  another's  work,  and  also  to  give  advantage  of  the 
half-thrown-out  earth  of  the  second  division  as  a  stage  upon  which  to  re- 
ceive the  larger  stones,  such  as  the  covers  of  the  conduit,  to  their  being 
easily  h  anded  to  the  builder,  as  he  proceeds  in  the  laying  of  the  conduit  in  the 
first  division.  On  throwing  out  the  earth  to  the  bottom  of  the  first  break, 
special  care  should  be  taken  to  clear  out  the  bottom  square  to  the  sides,  to 
make  its  surface  even,  and  to  preserve  the  fall  previously  determined  on. 

(715.)  When  a  division  of  the  drain  has  thus  been  completely  cleared 
out,  you  yourself,  or  the  farm-steward,  should  ascertain  that  the  dimen- 
sions and  fall  have  been  preserved  correct  as  contracted  for,  before  any 
of  the  stones  are  placed  in  the  bottom.  I  have  seen  it  recommended  that 
the  person  appointed  to  build  the  conduit  should  ascertain  if  these  par- 
ticulars have  been  attended  to  ;  but  it  is  always  an  invidious  task  for  one 
class  of  workmen  to  check  the  workmanship  of  another,  and  on  this  ac- 
count such  a  duty  should  always  be  performed  by  the  farmer  himself,  or 
by  any  other  authoiiaed  person. 

(716.)  Instead  of  measuring  the  dimensions  of  the  drain  with  a  tape-line 
or  foot-iiile,  which  are  both  inconvenient  for  the  purpose,  a  rod  of  the 
form  of  fig.  155  will  be  found  most  convenient,  most  ceitain, 
and  most  quickly  applied.     The  rod,  divided  into  feet  and  *^'b-  i^- 

inches,  is  put  down  to  ascertain  the  depth  of  the  drain,  and 
then  turned  partially  round  while  resting  on  its  end  on  the 
bottom  of  the  drain,  until  the  ends  of  its  arm  touch  the  earth 
on  both  sides.  If  the  arms  cannot  come  round  square  to  the 
sides  of  the  drain,  the  drain  is  narrower  than  intended;  and 
if  they  cannot  touch  both  sides,  it  is  wider  than  necessary. 
When  the  drain  is  made  narrower  than  intended,  you  may 
take  it  off  the  contractor's  hands,  for  the  men  having  been 
able  to  work  in  it  with  ease  to  themselves,  shows  that  the 
width  is  sufficient  ;  but  if  the  drain  is  wider  than  necessary, 
you  should  object  to  it  to  prevent  similar  enlargements  in 
other  places,  for  although  the  contract  may  have  been 
formed  by  the  longitudinal  measurement,  and  not  by  the 
cubical   contents,  the  larger  space  involves   you  in   greater  "  ~" 

expense  to  fill  up  with  stones.  thedrai.n-gauge, 

(717.)  All  deep  drains  should  be  furnished  with  built  con- 
duits, that  the  water  may  have  a  free  passage  in  all  circumstances,  and 
thereby  escape  being  choked  up,  and  save  the  consequent  expense  of  re- 
lifting  and  relaying  its  matenals.  The  relifting  of  a  drain  that  has  blown, 
that  is,  if  one  in  which  the  water  is  forced  to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  in 
consequence  of  a  deposition  of  mud  among  the  stones  preventing  its  flow 
under  ground,  is  a  dirty  and  disagreeable  business  for  workpeople,  and  an 
expensive  one  for  their  employer,  as  it  costs  at  least  9d.,  and  the  filling  in 
again  of  the  earth  Id.  more  per  rood  of  6  yards  ;*  besides,  additional 
stones  are  required  to  fill  the  enlarged  space  occasioned  by  the  unavoida- 
ble removal  of  wet  earth  along  with  the  stones. 

(718.)  The  building  of  the  conduit  should  be  contracted  for  in  a  separate 
ftem  from  the  cutting  of  the  drains.  If  both  are  undertaken  by  the  same 
party,  there  is  risk  of  the  two  sorts  of  work  being  so  carried  on  together, 
CO  suit  the  convenience  of  the  contractor  and  his  men,  as  to  deceive  even 
the  inspector ;  whereas,  if  each  sort  is  inspected  and  passed  before  another 
18  allowed  to  be  begun,  then  both  may  be  executed  in  a  satisfactory  man- 
ner.    The  building  of  the  conduit  will   cost  from  Id.  to  2d.  per  rood,  ac- 

*  Stephens's  Practical  Irrigator  aud  Drainer. 
(614) 


DRAINING.  327 


cording  to  the  adaptation  of  the  stones  for  the  purpose.*  Flat  handy 
Btones  can  be  built  firmly  and  quickly,  whereas  round  shaped  ones  will 
require  dressing  with  the  hammer  to  bring  them  into  proper  shape,  and 
much  pinning  to  give  them  stability.  The  stones  are  furnished  to  the 
builder,  and  a  laborer  is  also  usually  provided  for  him,  to  supply  the 
stones  as  he  requires  them.  But  circumstances  may  occur  in  which  it 
will  be  more  convenient  for  you  to  contract  with  the  builder  to  quarry  the 
stones,  supply  himself  with  a  laborer  and  build  the  conduit,  and  you  to 
undertake  only  the  carriage  of  the  stones.  A  dry-stone  builder  of  dykes 
is  a  better  hand  at  building  conduits  for  drains  than  a  common  mason,  as 
he  does  not  depend  upon  mortar  for  giving  steadiness  to  his  work. 

(719.)  Should  the  ground  be  firm,  and  the  drain  made  in  summer,  and 
the  length  of  any  particular  drain  not  very  great,  the  conduit  is  most  uni- 
formly built  when  begun  at  the  top  and  finished  at  the  bottom  of  the  line 
of  drain;  but  in  ground  liable  to  fall  down  in  the  sides,  or  in  winter,  when 
the  weather  cannot  be  depended  upon  for  two  days  together,  or  when  the 
drain  extends  to  many  roods  in  length,  the  safest  plan  is  to  build  the  con 
duit  immediately  after  the  earth  is  taken  out  to  the  bottom. 

(720.)  A  very  convenient  article  in  the  building  of  conduits  in  a  deep 
drain  is  a  plank  of  5  inches  in  breadth,  and  of  from  6  to  9  feet  in  length, 
to  put  down  in  the  middle  of  the  bottom  of  the  drain,  to  afford  a  dry  and 
firm  footing  to  the  builder,  and  to  answer  the  pui'pose,  at  the  same  time, 
of  a  gauge  of  the  breadth  of  the  conduit,  a  space  of  ^  inch  on  each  side 
of  the  plank  giving  a  bi'eadth  of  6  inches  to  the  conduit.  This  plank  can 
be  easily  removed  by  two  short  rope-ends,  one  attached  near  each  end  to 
an  iron  staple. 

(721.)  Suppose  the  plank  set  down  at  the  mouth  of  the  drain  in  the 
middle  of  the  cut,  the  dyker  begins  by  leaving  a  conduit  at  the  mouth  of 
6  inches  wide,  having  6  inches  of  breadth  of  building  on  each  side  of  it, 
and  6  inches  high,  and  using  the  plank  as  his  foot-board.  When  the 
building  of  these  dimensions  is  finished  to  the  length  of  the  plank,  this  is 
carried  or  pushed  by  the  ropes  another  length  upon  the  drain,  and  so 
on,  length  after  length,  until  the  whole  space  of  drain,  when  cleared  out 
to  the  bottom,  is  built  upon.  The  stones  are  handed  down  from  the  sur- 
face to  the  dyker  by  the  laborer,  who,  in  this  case,  may  be  a  female  field- 
worker,  until  the  building  is  finished.  The  plank  is  then  removed  out  of 
the  way,  the  dyker  clears  the  bottom  of  the  conduit  of  all  loose  earth, 
stones,  and  other  matter,  with  a  hand-draw-hoe  5  inches  wide  in  the  face. 
Immediately  after  this,  he  lays  the  flat  covers,  which  extend  at  least  3 
inches  on  each  side  over  the  conduit,  they  being  from  2  to  3  inches  in 
thickness  ;  and  they  He  ready  for  him  on  the  half  cast  out  division  of  the 
drain,  from  which  they  are  handed  to  him  as  he  works  backward.  The 
open  space  left  between  the  meetings  of  the  covers,  which  will  not  proba- 
bly have  square  ends,  should  be  covered  \vith  flat  stones,  and  the  space 
from  the  ends  of  the  covers  and  flat  stones  to  each  side  of  the  drain  should 
be  filled  up  and  neatly  packed  with  small  stones.  In  this  way  the  dyker 
proceeds  to  finish  the  conduit  in  every  division  of  drain.  To  keep  the 
finished  conduit  clear  of  all  impediments,  the  dyker  makes  a  firm  wisp  of 
wheat  or  oat  straw  large  enough  to  fill  the  bore  of  the  conduit  ;  and  which, 
while  permitting  the  water  to  pass  through,  depi'ives  it  of  all  earthy  impurities. 

(722.)  Before  the  conduit  is  entirely  finished,  the  drainers  throw  out  the 
earth  of  the  adjoining  division  of  the  drain  to  the  bottom,  and  the  conduit 
is  then  built  upon  it  in  the  same  manner  as  the  one  just  described.  Should 
the  laborer  have  any  spare  time  from  supplying  the  builder  with  materials, 

*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  vii. 
(615) 


328  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

he  throws  in  stones  promiscuously  upon  the  covers,  until  they  reach  a  hight 
of  2  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  dram,  where  they  are  leveled  to  a  plain 
surface.  They  have  been  recommeiideil  to  reach  the  hight  of  4  feet,  and 
when  the  drain  is  filled  with  rubble  stones  entirely,  this  hight  is  desirable, 
to  give  the  water  plenty  of  room  to  find  its  way  into  it ;  but  with  a  con- 
duit such  as  in  fig.  156,  more  than  2  feet  seems  an  unnecessary  supply  of 
stones,  unless  in  places  where  water  is  more  than  usually  abundant.  It 
has  also  been  recommended  to  break  this  upper  covering  of  stones  as 
small  as  road-metal  ;•  but  in  deep  draining,  such  as  this,  there  seems  no  good 
reason  for  the  adoj)tion  of  such  a  practice,  while  it  enhances  the  cost  very 
considerably.  Ordinary  land  stones  or  quarry  rubbish  are  quite  suitable 
for  the  purpose,  and  should  any  of  the  stones  be  unusually  laige,  they  can 
be  broken  smaller  with  a  sledge-hammer.  This  the  dyker  might  be  em- 
ployed in  occasionally,  as  he  will  break  stones  much  more  easily  than  a 
laborer,  and  the  work  might  be  included  in  the  contract  with  him.  Should 
the  stones  be  brought  as  they  are  required,  the  process  of  filling  would  be 
greatly  expedited  were  they  emptied  at  once  out  of  the  cart  into  the  drain. 
This  could  be  done  by  backing  the  cart  to  the  edge  of  the  drain,  and  let- 
ting the  shafts  or  movable  body  of  the  cart  rise  so  gently  as  to  pour  out 
the  stones  by  degrees.  To  save  the  edge  of  the  drain,  and  break  the  fall 
of  the  stones,  a  strong,  broad  board  should  be  laid  along  the  side  of  the 
drain,  with  its  edge  projecting  so  far  as  to  cause  the  stones  to  fall  down 
into  the  middle  of  it.  A  short  log  of  wood  placed  in  front  of  the  board 
will  prevent  the  wheels  of  the  cart  coming  farther  back  than  itself  I  am 
aware  that  this  mode  of  filling  drains  has  been  objected  to  by  a  compe- 
tent authority  in  these  matters,  the  late  Mr.  Stephens,  as  being  a  danger- 
ous practice  for  the  safety  of  the  drain,  especially  as  stones  carry  much 
earth  along  with  them.t  But  in  the  case  of  deep  and  conduited  drains  I 
am  sure  no  danger  can  arise  from  its  adoption ;  because  I  have  pursued 
the  plan  myself  to  a  large  extent  with  perfect  impunity,  and  can  vouch  for 
its  expedition  and  economy,  and  also  for  its  safeness.  To  prevent  the 
stones  doing  injury  to  thin  covers,  tliey  should  not  be  allowed  to  fall 
direct  upon  them,  but  upon  the  end  of  the  stones  previously  throicn  in,  from 
which  position  numbers  will  roll  down  of  themselves  upon  the  covers  with- 
out force,  and  the  remainder  can  be  leveled  down  with  the  hand  before 
the  next  cart-load  is  emptied.  There  is  a  very  considerable  saving  in  the 
expense  of  filling  drains  in  this  way,  provided  it  be  done  in  the  cautious 
manner  just  described,  compared  with  the  usual  plan  of  laying  down  the 
stones  when  the  drain  is  ready  to  receive  them,  and  then  throwing  them 
singly  in  by  the  hand.  Were  it  convenient  to  lay  the  stones  down  before 
the  drain  was  begun  to  be  cut,  the  plan  would  be  inapplicable.  As  to  the 
stones  having  earth  among  them,  as  much  care  can  be  taken  to  avoid  that 
when  they  are  each  thrown  or  shoveled  into  the  cart,  as  when  put  into  the  drain. 
(723.)  The  leveled  surface  of  the  stones  should  be  covered  with  some 
dry  material  before  the  earth  is  put  over  them.  The  best  substance  for 
the  purpose  is  undoubtedly  turf,  but  it  is  expensive  to  prepare  and  carry 
from  a  distance  ;  but,  should  the  field  be  in  grass  when  it  is  drained,  the 
turf  over  the  drain  could  be  laid  aside  at  hand  by  the  drainers,  anti  used 
for  covering  the  stones.  Other  materials  answer  well  enough,  such  as 
withered  wrack,  dried  leaves,  coarse  grass,  broken  moss,  tanners'  refuse 
bark,  or  straw;  but  I  much  dislike  to  see  good  straw  wasted  for  such  a 
purpose,  when  manure  is  usually  too  scanty  upon  a  farm.  The  object  of 
placing  anything  upon  the  stones  is  to  prevent  the  loose  earth  finding  its 

*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  AKricultural  .Society,  toI.  vii. 
t  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agrictilturc,  vol.  iii ,  note. 
(616) 


DRAINING. 


329 


way  among  them  ;  and,  altliough  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  any  of  the 
substances  lecommended  will  continue  long  undecomposed,  they,  however, 
]iieseive  their  consistence  until  the  earth  above  them  becomes  so  consoli- 
(hited  as  to  ictain  its  firmness  ever  afterward.  You  will  learn,  in  the  course 
()!"  this  article,  how  stones  themselves  are  prepared  to  answer  the  purpose 
of  a  covering  to  those  below  them. 

(724.)  vVfter  the  drain  has  been  sufficiently  filled  with  stones,  the  earth 
whicli  vvHh  taken  out  of  it  should  be  returned  as  quickly  as  possible,  in  case 
rain  I'all  and  wash  the  earth  down  its  sides  among  the  stones.  The  filling 
in  of  the  first  earth  of  a  deep  drain  is  usually  included  in  the  contract  made 
with  the  drainer,  and  done  with  the  spade,  because  no  horse  can  assist  in 
that  operation  until  the  earth  has  been  put  in  to  such  a  hight  as  to  enable 
him  to  walk  upon  it  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  ground.  The  men  may 
either  put  in  all  the  earth  with  the  spade,  or  they  may  put  in  so  much  as 
to  allow  the  plow  to  do  the  remainder,  but  in  both  cases  a  little  is  left 
elevated  immediately  over  the  drain,  to  subside  to  the  usual  level  of  the 
ground.  There  will  be  much  less  earth  left  over  the  filling  than  you  would 
imagine  from  the  quantity  thrown  out  at  first,  and  the  space  occupied  by 
the  stones  ;  and  it  soon  consolidates  in  a  drain,  especially  in  rainy  weather. 

(725.)  The  section  of  such  a  drain  as  I  have  been  describing  is  seen  in 
fig.  156,  where  a  is  the  opening  of  the  conduit  6  inches  square,  built  with 

Fig.  15C. 


THE  DEEP  CONDUITED  DRAIN,  WITH  WELL  AND  AUGER  BORE. 

dry  masonry,  and  covered  with  a  flat  stone  at  least  2  inches  thick ;  and 
above  it  is  a  stratum  of  loose  round  stones  b,  16  or  18  inches  in  thickness. 
The  covering  above  the  stones  is  c,  and  the  earth  returned  into  the  drain 
is  d,  with  the  portion  e  raised  a  few  inches  above  the  ordinary  level  of  the 
ground.  The  mouths  of  such  conduits,  when  forming  outlets,  should  be 
protected  against  the  inroads  of  vermin  by  close  iron  gratings. 

(726.)  Should  water  be  supposed  or  known  to  exist  in  quantity  below 
the  reach  of  even  a  6-feet  drain,  means  should  be  used  to  render  the  drain 
available  for  its  abstraction,  and  these  means  are,  sinking  wells  and  boring 
(tiir) 


330  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

holes  into  the  substrata.  A  well  is  made  as  represented  by  a  part  of  fig. 
156,  where  a  pit  g  of  the  requisite  depth  is  cast  out  on  the  lower  side  of 
the  drain  a,  if  the  ground  is  not  level.  A  circular  or  square  opening,  of  3 
feet  in  diameter,  or  3  feet  in  the  side,  will  suffice  for  a  man  to  work  down 
several  feet  by  the  side  of  the  open  drain  d  ;  and,  when  the  stratum  which 
supplies  the  water  is  reached,  the  well  should  l)e  filled  with  small  stones 
to  about  the  bight  of  those  in  the  drain,  as  at  f,  and  the  whole  area  of  the 
drain  and  well  should  be  covered  with  drj'  substances  from  f  to  c,  and  the 
earth  is  filled  in  again  above  all,  as  at  g.  In  making  such  wells,  a  small 
scarcement  of  solid  ground,  on  a  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  building  of 
the  conduit  a,  should  be  presen'ed,  so  that  the  building  may  have  a  firm 
foundation  to  stand  upon,  and  run  no  risk  of  being  shaken  by  the  opera 
tions  connected  with  making  the  well.  I  fear  this  precaution  is  less  at- 
tended to  in  the  making  of  drain  wells  than  it  deserves.  Such  a  well 
should  be  sunk  wherever  water  has  been  ascertained  t»)  be  in  quantify  at  a 
lower  depth  than  the  drain. 

(727.)  Or  the  auger  may  be  used  instead  of  the  well  for  the  same  pur- 
pose, by  boring  through  a  retentive  stratum  into  a  porous,  whereby  con- 
fined water  may  be  brought  up  into  the  bottom  of  the  drain,  by  altitudinal 
pressure,  and  escape ;  or  free  water  may  pass  down  through  the  bore  and 
be  absorbed  by  the  porous  stratum  below.  In  the  first  case,  the  retreat 
of  the  water  has  to  be  discovered  in  making  the  passage  for  it  to  pass 
away  ;  in  the  second,  it  is  got  rid  of  by  a  simple  bore.  In  boring  for  wa- 
ter at  the  bottom  of  a  drain,  the  bore  should  be  made  at  one  side  leather 
than  in  the  middle  of  the  bottom,  because  any  sediment  in  the  water  might 
enter  the  bore  at  the  latter  place  and  choke  it,  when  the  water  happened 
to  come  up  with  a  small  force.  In  preparation  of  the  bore,  let  a  cut  i  k, 
fig.  156,  be  made  down  the  side  of  the  drain,  and,  inserting  the  auger  at 
k,  let  the  bore  be  made  down  through  the  solid  ground,  in  the  direction 
of  b  h,  as  far  as  necessary- — the  orifice  of  the  bore  being  made  at  a  little 
higher  level  than  the  bottom  of  the  drain,  and  an  opening  left  in  the  build- 
ing there,  to  permit  the  water  from  the  bore  to  flow  easily  into  and  join 
the  water  of  the  drain. 

(728.)  As  horing-irons  may  be  as  useful  to  you  for  finding  water  for 
fields,  or  for  draining  a  bog,  or  for  ascertaining  the  de])tli  and  contents  of 
a  moss,  as  for  ordinary  draining,  it  is  proper  to  give  a  description  of  them. 
The  auger,  a,  fig.  157,  is  from  2-^  to  3^  inches  in  diameter,  and  about  16 
inches  in  length  in  the  shell,  the  sides  of  which  are  brought  pretty  close 
together;  and  it  is  used  for  excavating  the  earth  through  which  it  passes, 
and  bringing  it  up.  When  more  indurated  substances  than  earth  arc  met 
with,  such  as  hardened  gravel  or  thin,  soft  rock,  a  punch  h  is  used  instead, 
to  penetrate  into  and  make  an  opening  for  the  auger.  When  rock  inter- 
venes, then  the  chisel  or  jumper  c  must  be  used  to  cut  through  it ;  and  its 
face  should  be  of  greater  In-eadth  than  the  diameter  of  the  auger  used. — 
There  are  rods  of  iron  d,  each  3  feet  long,  1  inch  square  iron,  unless  at  the 
joints,  where  tlfey  are  1^  inch  and  round,  with  a  male  screw  at  one  end, 
and  a  female  at  the  other,  for  screwing  into  either  of  the  instruments,  or 
into  one  another,  to  allow  them  to  descend  as  far  as  requisite.  The  short 
iron  key  e  is  used  for  screwine:  and  unscrewing  the  rods  and  instrumenta 
when  required.  A  cross-handle  of  wood  f,  having  a  piece  of  rod  attached 
to  it,  with  a  screw  to  fasten  it  to  the  top  of  the  uppemiost  rod,  is  used  for 
the  purpose  of  wrenching  round  the  rods  and  auger,  when  the  latter  only 
is  used,  or  for  lifting  up  and  letting  fall  the  rods  and  jumper  or  punch, 
when  they  are  used.  The  long  iron  key  g  is  used  to  support  the  rods  and 
instruments  as  they  are  let  down  and  taken  up,  while  the  rods  are  screwed 

(618) 


DRAINING. 


33] 


on  or  off  with  the  short  key  e.     Three  men   are  as  many  as  can  conveni 
ently  work  at  the  operation  of  boring  drains. 

Fig.  157. 


M 


THE  INSTRUMENTS  FOR  BORING  THE  SUBSTRATA  OF  DEEP  DRAINS 

(729.)  As  I  have  never  witnessed  the  use  of  the  auger  in  draining,  I  will 
give  a  description  of  the  manner  of  using  it  from  a  competent  authority. 
"  Two  men,"  says  Mr.  Johnstone,  "  stand  above,  one  on  each  side  of  tl>e 
drain,  who  turn  the  auger  round  by  means  of  the  wooden  handle ;  and, 
when  the  auger  is  full  of  earth,  they  draw  it  out,  and  the  man  in  the  hot 
torn  of  the  drain  clears  out  the  earth,  assists  in  pulling  it  out,  and  directing 
it  into  the  hole.  The  workmen  should  be  cautious,  in  boring,  not  to  go 
deeper  at  a  time,  without  drawing,  than  the  exact  depth  that  will  fill  the 
shell  of  the  auger;  otherwise  the  earth  through  which  it  is  boring,  after 
the  shell  is  full,  makes  it  more  difficult  to  pull  out.  For  this  purpose,  the 
exact  length  of  the  auger  should  be  regulai'ly  marked  on  the  rods  from  the 
bottom  upward.  Two  flat  boards,  with  a  hole  cut  into  the  side  of  one  of 
them,  and  laid  alongside  of  one  another  over  the  drain,  in  time  of  boring, 
are  very  useful  for  directing  the  rods  in  going  down  perpendicularly,  for 
keeping  them  steady  in  boring,  and  for  the  men  standing  on  when  perform- 
ing the  operation."* 

(730.)  The  principles  of  Elkington's  mode  of  draining  seem  to  depend 
on  these  three  alleged  facts.  1.  That  water  from  springs  is  the  principal 
cause  of  the  wetness  of  land,  which,  if  not  removed,  nothing  effectual  in 
draining  can  be  accomplished.  2.  That  the  bearings  of  springs  to  one  an- 
other must  be  ascertained  before  it  can  be  determined  where  the  lines  of 
drains  should  be  opened ;  and  by  the  bearings  of  springs  is  meant  that  line 
which  would  pass  thi'ough  the  seats  of  true  springs  in  any  given  locality. 
Springs  ai'e  characterized  as  true  which  continue  to  flow  and  retain  their 
places  at  all  seasons  ;  and  temporary  springs  consist  of  bursts  of  water, 
occasioned  either  by  heavy  rains  causing  it  to  appear  to  the  day  sooner  or 
at  a  higher  level  than  permanent  springs,  or  by  tme  springs  leaking  water, 
and  causing  it  to  appear  to  day  at  a  lower  level  than  themselves  ;  and,  if 
such  springs  are  weak,  their  leakage  may  be  mistaken  for  themselves.  It 
is  evident  that,  if  drains  are  formed  through  these  hursts  of  water,  no  effect- 


*  Johnstone  on  Elkington's  Mode  of  Draming. 
(<319) 


332  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

ual  draining-  takes  place,  and  which  can  only  he  accomplished  by  the  drain 
passing  tlirongh  the  line  of  true  springs.  3.  That  tapping  the  spring  with 
the  auger  is  a  necessary  expedient,  when  the  drain  cannot  he  cut  deep 
enough  to  intercept  it.*  From  these  tliree  avemients  it  would  appear  that 
the  seats  of  true  springs  are  neither  at  the  top  nor  in  the  l)a.<e  of  a  rising 
ground,  hut  that  temporary  springs  may  be  at  both  ;  and,  of  course,  the 
more  extensive  tlie  hight,  the  more  numerous  will  be  the  springs,  whether 
true  or  temporary.  In  the  case  of  true  spiings  in  the  side  of  rising  ground, 
a  system  of  branched  drains  will  be  required  to  remove  them  ;  but,  in  the 
case  of  their  being  situated  near  tlie  base,  their  leakage  will  originate  bogs 
or  swampy  grounds  ;  and  hence  Elkington's  mode  of  draining  is  only 
adapted  to  these  peculiarities.  It  has  been  very  extensively  and,  I  must 
add,  successfully  practiced  in  Scotland,  for  the  removal  of  both  these 
sources  of  annoyance  to  land.  The  system  would  have  ample  scope  in 
Ireland,  where  bog  land  still  exists  to  an  incredible  extent  ;  and  in  Eng- 
land also,  where  the  regularity  of  alluvial  deposits  in  many  of  the  western 
and  southern  counties  might  give  employment  to  the  auger,  to  great  ad- 
Tantage,  in  removing  the  largest  proportion  of  the  water  which  is  doing 
injury  ;  but  in  Scotland  the  system  of  tapping  is  inapplicable  in  inegular 
superficial  deposits,  though  it  might  be  tried  in  the  few  bogs  which  rest  on 
regular  strata. 

(731.)  In  so  far  as  the  soil  of  Scotland  is  affected  with  water,  there  is 
no  doubt  that  it  is  not  now  most  injured  hy  springs.  Wliat  injury  it  suf- 
fered in  that  way  has  long  been  removed,  by  the  extensive  application  of 
Elkington's  mode  of  draining ;  and  as  in  the  pursuance  of  that  system  ex- 
perience soon  indicated  that  injury  was  sustained  by  the  land  from  other 
water  than  that  issuing  from  springs,  a  modification  was  introduced  into 
the  system,  which,  not  being  in  accordance  with  its  principles,  can  excite 
no  surprise  that  it  failed  in  many  instances  ;  and  the  misguided  failures 
had  the  effect  of  bringing  disrepute  upon  otherwise  an  excellent  and  effi- 
cient mode  of  draining.  The  modification  I  allude  to,  which  brought  ob- 
loquy upon  Elkington's  system,  was  the  cutting  of  deep  drains  in  every 
direction,  irrespective  of  the  arrangement  of  the  subjacent  strata,  and  the 
filling  them  nearly  full  of  stones  of  any  size  and  in  any  order.  Much  ex- 
pense was  in  the  first  instance  incuned  by  this  practice,  and  when  its  ef- 
fects were  not  commensurate  with  the  outlay,  disappointment  was  the  re- 
sult, and  blame  was  imputed  to  the  system,  instead  of  to  the  mode  of 
practicing  it. 

(732.)  The  chief  injury  now  sustained  by  the  soil  of  Scotland  arises 
from  the  stagnation  oj  rain-water  upon  an  impervious  subsoil.  Most  of 
the  soil  of  that  country  consists  of  loam,  of  different  consistence,  resting 
on  clayey  subsoil  sufficiently  tenacious  to  retain  water,  the  arable  part  of 
which  is  of  unequal  depth  ;  where  it  is  shallowest,  it  is  itself  injured  by 
the  stagnant  water  immediately  below  it ;  and  where  it  is  deepest,  the 
plants  upon  it  are  injured  by  chilly  exhalations. 

(733.)  The  injury  done  by  stagnant  water  to  arable  soil  may  be  es- 
timated by  these  effects.  While  hidden  water  remains,  manure,  whether 
putrescent  or  caustic,  imparts  no  fertility  to  the  soil  ;  the  plow,  the  har- 
row, and  even  the  roller,  cannot  pulverize  it  into  fine  mould  ;  new  grass 
from  it  contains  little  nutriment  for  live-stock  ;  when  old,  the  finer  sorts 
disappear,  and  ai'e  succeeded  by  coarse  sub-aquatic  plants.  The  stock 
never  receive  a  hearty  meal  of  grass,  hay,  or  straw,  from  land  in  that 
state ;  they  are  always  hungry  and  dissatisfied,  and  of  course  in  low  con- 

*  Johnstone  on  Elkington's  Mode  of  Draining. 

(620) 


DRAINING.  333 


dition.  Trees  acquire  a  hard  bark  and  stiffened  branches,  and  became  a 
prey  to  parasitic  plants.  The  roads  in  the  neighborhood  are  constantly 
soft,  and  apt  to  become   rutted ;    while   ditches   and  furrows   are  either 

Slashy,  or  like  a  wet  sponge,  ready  to  absorb  water.  The  air  always  feels 
amp  and  chilly,  and,  from  early  autumn  to  late  in  spring,  the  hoar-frost 
meets  the  face  like  a  damp  cloth.  In  winter  the  slightest  frost  encrusts 
every  furrow  and  plant  with  ice,  not  strong  enough  to  bear  one's  weight, 
but  just  weak  enough  to  give  way  at  every  step,  while  snow  lies  long 
lurking  behind  the  sun  in  comers  and  crevices  ;  and  in  summer  muske- 
toes,  gi-een-flies,  midges,  gnats,  and  gadflies,  torment  the  cattle,  and  the 
plowman  and  his  horses,  from  morning  to  night ;  while,  in  autumn,  the 
sheep  get  scalded  heads,  and  are  eaten  up  by  maggots,  during  the  hot 
blinks  of  sunshine.  These  are  no  exaggerated  statements,  but  such  as  I 
have  witnessed  in  every  similar  situation  ;  and  they  may  be  observed  in 
every  county  in  Scotland,  in  hill,  valley,  and  plain.* 

(734.)  The  only  plan  of  draining  fitted  to  remove  the  wetness  which 
produces  this  state  of  things,  is  the  one  which  allows  stagnant  water  to 
now  easily  away  through  moderately  deep  and  numerous  drains  ;  for  deep 
drains  cannot  take  away  stagnant  water  from  impervious  subsoil  at  the 
distances  they  are  usually  made.  This  constitutes  the  second  mode  of 
surface-draining  alluded  to  in  a  former  paragraph,  (679),  and  which  has 
now  generally  obtained  the  appellation  of  thorovgh-draining ;  and  the 
treatment  of  which  must  now  receive  your  attention. 

(735.)  What  should  be  the  exact  size  of  these  shallow  and  numerous 
drains,  is  not  easily  determined.  It  would  be  one  step  toward  the  settle- 
ment of  this  point  were  the  minimum  size  determined,  which  I  shall  en- 
deavor to  do.  A  drain  is  not  a  mere  ditch  for  conveying  away  water  ; 
were  it  only  this,  its  size  would  be  easily  determined  by  calculation,  or 
experiment,  of  the  quantity  of  water  it  would  have  to  convey  in  a  given 
time.  But  the  principal  function  of  a  drain  is  to  draw  water  toward  it 
from  every  direction  ;  and  its  secondary  purpose  is  to  convey  it  away 
when  collected  ;  though  both  properties  are  required  to  be  present,  to  the 
drain  performing  its  entire  functions.  These  being  its  functions,  it  is  ob- 
vious that  the  greater  the  area  its  sides  can  present  to  the  matter  out  of 
which  it  draws  water,  it  should  prove  the  more  efficacious,  and  it  is  also 
obvious  that  this  efficiency  is  not  so  much  dependent  upon  the  breadth  as 
upon  the  depth  of  the  drain,  so  that,  other  things  being  equal,  the  deeper 
a  drain  is,  it  should  prove  the  more  efficient.  Now,  what  are  the  circum- 
stances that  necessarily  regulate  the  depth  of  drains  1  In  the  first  place,  the 
culture  of  the  ground  affects  it ;  for  were  land  never  plowed,  but  in  per- 
petual pasture,  no  more  earth  than  would  support  the  pasture  grasses 
would  be  required  over  a  drain,  and  this  need  not,  perhaps,  exceed  3 
inches  in  depth.  The  plow,  however,  requires  more  room ;  for  the  or- 
dinary depth  of  a  furrow-slice  is  seldom  less  than  7  inches,  and,  in  cross- 
furrowing,  8  inches  are  reached,  and  2  inches  more  than  that,  or  10  inches 
in  all,  may  suffice  for  ordinary  plowing  ;  but  in  some  instances,  land  is 
plowed  with  4  horses  instead  of  2,  in  which  case  the  furrow  will  reach  12 
inches  in  depth,  so  that  14  inches  of  depth  will  be  required  to  place  the 
materials  of  the  drain  beyond  the  danger  of  an  extraordinary  furrow.  But 
fai'ther  still,  subsoil  and  trench  plowing  are  sometimes  practiced,  and  these 
penetrate  to  16  inches  below  the  surface,  so  that  18  inches  of  earth  at  least, 
you  thus  see,  will  require  to  be  left  on  the  top  of  a  drain,  to  place  its  ma- 


*  See  a  paper  by  me  on  this  Bubject  in  vol.  vL  of  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture. 
(621) 


334  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  TARM WINTER. 


terials  beyond  the  dangers  arising  from  plowing.  This  depth  having  been 
thus  determined  by  reference  to  practice,  it  should  not  be  regarded  as  a 
source  from  which  a  supply  of  moisture  is  afforded  to  the  drain  by  its 
drawing  power,  the  water  only  jiassing  through  it  by  absorption  ;  for  it  is 
certain  that  plowed  land  will  absorb  moisture,  whether  there  be  any  drain 
below  it  or  not.  The  drawing  portion  of  the  drain  must,  therefore,  lie 
entirely  below  18  inches  from  the  surface.  Now  it  will  be  requisite  to 
make  the  drain  below  this  as  deep  as  will  afford  a  sufficient  area  for  draw- 
ing powei-s  of  the  lowest  degree  among  subsoils.  And  what  data  do  we 
possess  to  determine  this  critical  point  ?  In  the  first  place,  it  is  evident 
that  a  subsoil  of  porous  materials  will  exhaust  all  its  water  in  a  shorter 
time  than  one  of  an  opposite  nature.  Judging  from  obsenation,  I  should 
say,  that  1  inch  thick  of  porous  materials  will  discharge  as  much  water  in 
a  given  time,  as  6  inches  of  a  tilly,  or  any  number  of  inches  of  a  truly  te- 
nacious subsoil.  What  conclusions,  then,  ought  we  to  draw  from  these 
data  ?  Certainly  these,  that  no  depth,  beyond  the  upper  IS  inches,  farther 
than  what  is  required  for  the  materials  of  the  drain,  will  draw  water  from 
a  truly  tenacious  subsoil,  and  that  it  is  therefore  unnecessary  to  go  any 
deeper  in  such  a  subsoil ;  that  it  is  also  unnecessaiy  to  go  any  deeper  in 
a  subsoil  of  porous  materials,  because  a  small  depth  in  it  will  draw  freely; 
and  that  it  is  only  requisite  to  go  deeper  in  the  intermediate  kinds  of  sub- 
soil. Still  you  have  to  inquire  what  should  be  the  specific  depths  in  each 
of  these  cases  ]  In  the  case  of  really  tenacious  subsoil,  the  size  of  the  duct 
for  the  water  depends  on  the  quantity  to  pass  through  it,  but,  giving  the  larg- 
est allowance  of  6  inches  with  a  sole  beneath  and  covering  above,  1  foot 
seems  ample  depth  for  these  materials  to  occupy,  so  that  a  drain  of  2i  feet 
seems  sufficient  for  the  circumstances  attending  such  a  subsoil,  that  is,  its 
minimum  depth,  which,  in  such  a  case,  may  also  be  held  to  be  a  maxi- 
mum. In  the  case  of  a  porous  subsoil,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the 
preser\'ation  of  its  loose  materials  in  their  proper  position,  to  have  a  lining 
of  artificial  materials  as  far  as  these  extend  ;  and  as  such  a  lining  can 
hardly  be  constnicted  of  sufficient  strength  of  less  depth  than  1  foot,  it  fol- 
lows that  2^  feet  is  the  minimum  depth  also  in  such  a  subsoil  ;  but  there 
is  this  difference  betwixt  this  subsoil  and  the  tenacious  one,  that  the  porous 
may  be  made  as  deep  as  you  please,  provided  you  apply  sufficient  mate- 
rials for  the  support  of  the  loose  materials.  With  regard  to  tilly  subsoils, 
since  1  foot  is  requisite  for  the  safety  of  the  filling  matenals,  it  does  not 
seem  an  overstretch  of  liberality  to  give  6  inches  more  for  extension  of 
the  drawing  surface,  so  that  the  minimum  depth  in  this  case  seems  to  be 
3  feet,  and  as  much  more  as  the  peculiar  state  of  the  subsoil  in  regard  to 
tenacity  and  porosity  will  warrant  you  to  go.  There  is  another  way  of 
arriving  at  the  same  conclusions,  and  it  is  this. 

(736.)  It  must  be  admitted  by  all  drainers,  that  the  part  of  the  drain 
which  is  intended  to  draw  water  under  the  earth  should  be  occupied  with 
such  loose  materials  as  will  easily  permit  the  water  to  pass  through  them. 
It  is  therefore  consonant  with  reason  to  give  a  large  area  to  the  sides  of 
a  drain  in  a  subsoil  that  draws  water  rather  slowly,  and  by  consequence  a 
smaller  area  to  one  in  materials  that  draw  freely,  while  a  drain  in  pure 
clay  will  act  chiefly  as  a  channel  to  convey  away  the  water  that  is  permit- 
ted to  percolate  into  it  through  the  superincumbent  materials.  Keeping 
these  important  distinctions  in  subsoils  in  view,  you  shall  soon  learn  what 
use  may  be  made  of  them  in  the  construction  of  efficient  drains.  I  guard 
myself  by  saying  rfficU-nt  drains;  for  drains  can  be  ill  made,  although 
planned  on  the  most  coirect  principles  ;  and  to  guard  myself  against  far- 
ther misconception,  you  should  bear  in  mind,  that  the  depths  which  I  have 

(622) 


DRAINING.  335 


just  specified  are  the  muiimum  depths  which  are  considered  suitable  foi 
the  respective  circumstances  of  the  drains. 

(737.)  Viewing  drains  as  mere  channels  for  the  conveyance  of  water,  it 
is  obvious  that  the  quicker  they  promote  its  emission,  without  injui'ing 
themselves  or  the  land,  they  act  the  more  characteristically ;  and  it  is  also 
evident  that  an  open  duct  will  give  a  freer  passage  to  water  than  a  mass 
of  loose  stones,  however  large  or  small  they  may  be  used.  These  obvious 
points  being  conceded,  it  follows  as  a  corollary  that  a  drain  will  act  the 
better  of  being  provided  with  a  duct,  along  with  porous  material.  View- 
ing drains  as  drawers  or  gravitators  of  water,  it  is  also  clear  that  the  more 
porous  the  materials,  and  the  gi-eater  the  quantity  used,  they  will  allow  the 
water  an  easier  passage  through  them.  So,  it  is  also  requisite  on  this  ac- 
count to  have  a  duct  for  the  water  to  pass  quickly  away.  I  wish  you  to 
pay  particular  attention  to  this  mode  of  reasoning  in  support  of  the  use  of 
ducts,  as  I  conceive  that  very  erroneous  opinions  prevail  among  farmers 
regarding  their  utility  ;  but  I  believe  such  opinions  are  prompted  more  on 
account  of  the  cost  incuiTed  by  the  use  of  ducts,  than  from  any  valid  objec- 
tion that  can  be  urged  against  their  efficacy. 

(73S.)  There  are  various  substances  which  may  be  employed  as  ducts  : 
1st,  dry  stones,  built  as  you  have  seen  at  a,  in  fig.  156  ;  2d,  a  coupling  of 
flat  stones  set  up  against  each  other  as  a  triallgle,  or  in  a  more  rude  way 
two  round  stones,  set  one  on  each  side  of  the  drain,  ^vith  a  flat  one,  or  a 
large  round  one,  to  cover  them ;  3d,  tiles  made  for  the  purpose.  One  or 
all  of  these  forms  of  ducts  answer  the  pui-pose  well,  and  should  be  selected 
according  to  the  facility  of  obtaining  the  materials  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed. 

(739.)  I  must  now  direct  your  serious  attention  to  another  consideration 
in  the  construction  of  di'ains.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that,  over  whatever 
kind  of  substance  water  flows,  it  has  the  power  of  abrading  it ;  for,  besides 
earthy  matter,  it  will  in  time  wear  down  by  friction  the  hardest  rock.  This 
it  is  enabled  to  do,  not  only  by  its  own  physical  properties,  but  by  the  as- 
sistance afforded  it  by  the  foreign  matters  which  it  almost  always  holds, 
both  in  solution  and  suspension,  so  that  both  physically  and  chemically  it 
has  the  power  to  produce  destructive  effects.  It  seems,  however,  to  be  a 
very  prevalent  opinion  among  farmers,  that  hard  clay  can  for  any  length 
of  time  withstand  the  action  of  water  in  a  drain.  They  judge  of  the  hard- 
ness of  the  clay  from  the  state  it  is  in  when  laid  bare  to  the  sight  on  the 
drain  being  opened,  imagining  that  it  will  remain  in  the  same  state,  but 
seeming  to  forget  that  water  can  both  soften  and  scrub  against  substances. 
Were  clay,  indeed,  always  to  retain  the  hardness  it  at  first  exhibits,  it 
would  require  no  protection  from  the  abrading  action  of  water ;  but,  when 
it  is  known  that  it  cannot  possibly  remain  so,  the  safest  practice  is  to  afford 
it  protection  by  a  covering,  which  may  be  fashioned  to  suit  the  purpose, 
such  as  a  flat  stone  or  tile,  both  of  which  obtain  the  name  of  drain-soles. — 
If  water  can  affect  even  the  hardest  clay,  it  will,  of  course,  have  a  much 
greater  effect  upon  softer  earth.  The  effects  usually  produced  by  water 
on  clay  subsoils  are,  that  the  lower  stratum  of  stones  and  the  tiles  become 
imbedded  in  it  to  a  considerable  depth,  as  has  been  found  to  be  the  case 
when  drains  that  have  bloicn  have  been  reopened,  and  as  in  the  first  sets 
of  tile-drains  made  in  Ayrshire.  In  somewhat  softer  subsoils,  the  sandy 
particles  are  cairied  along  with  the  water,  and  deposited  in  heaps  in  the 
cui-ves  and  joinings  of  drains;  and,  where  the  subsoil  happens  to  be  more 
sandy  than  clayey,  the  foundation  which  supports  the  building  or  tile  gives 
way,  and  the  matter  thus  displaced  forms  obstructions  at  parts  which  ren- 
der the  drain  above  them  almost  useless.     Water  also  cames  sand  down 


336  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

the  Bides  of  the  drain,  and,  where  there  is  no  duct,  deposits  it  among  the 
lowest  stratum  of  stones.  You  thus  see  that  various  risks  of  derangement 
occur  in  a  drain,  where  there  are  no  soles  to  protect  its  bottom.  On  this 
account,  I  am  a  strenuous  advocate  for  drain-soles  in  all  ca.se8 ;  and,  even 
where  they  may  really  prove  of  little  use,  I  would  rather  use  too  many 
than  too  few  precautions  in  draining,  because,  even  in  the  most  favorable 
circumstances,  we  cannot  tell  what  change  may  take  place  beyond  our 
view  of  the  interior  of  a  drain,  which  we  are  never  again  permitted,  and 
which  we  have  no  desire,  to  see. 

(740.)  Porous  materials,  which  are  the  next  things  he  requires  for  filling 
drains,  are  few  at  the  command  of  the  farmer  on  Jiis  farm,  consisting  only, 
Ist,  Of  small  stones  gathered  from  the  surface  of  the  land  by  the  hand  ; 
2d,  Small  stones  so  prepared  in  a  (juarry  by  the  use  of  the  hammer ;  and, 
3d,  Gravel,  obtained  either  from  the  bed  of  a  river,  the  sea-beach,  or  a 
gravelly  knoll. 

(741.)  Before  beginning  to  break  ground  for  thorough  draining,  it  should 
be  considered  what  quantity  of  water  the  drains  will  have  to  convey  ;  and, 
as  the  water  in  the  soil  is  entirely  derived  from  the  rain  that  falls  and  is 
absorbed  by  the  soil,  its  quantity  depends  upon  the  climate  of  the  locality 
in  which  the  drains  are  desired  to  be  made.  Such  an  investigation  is  un- 
necessary in  commencing  Blkington's  mode,  as  the  springs  show  at  once 
the  quantity  of  water  to  be  conveyed  away.  In  pursuance  of  the  investi- 
gation, it  is  well  knowTi  that  more  rain  falls  on  the  W.  than  the  E.  coast 
of  this  country  in  the  ratio  5:3;  so  that,  under  the  same  circumstances  of 
soil,  nearly  double  the  number  or  capacity  of  drains  will  be  required  to 
keep  the  soil  in  the  same  state  of  dryness  in  the  western  as  in  the  eastern 
coast.  With  a  view  to  ascertain  the  quantity,  it  has  been,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, "  ascertained  that  the  water  which  flows  from  a  drain  is  consider- 
ably less  at  any  one  time  than  what  formerly  ran  on  the  surface  ;"  and  this 
is  an  expected  result,  for  evaporation  and  vegetation  together  must  dissi- 
pate much  of  the  water  that  falls  on  the  ground  before  it  sinks  into  the  soil. 

(742.)  In  order,  however,  to  obtain  accurate  data  on  this  subject,  Mr. 
James  Carmichael,  Raploch  Farm,  Stirlingshire,  one  of  the  midland  coun- 
ties, and  therefore  experiencing  about  the  average  fall  of  rain  in  Scotland, 
ascertained  that,  in  a  "  length  of  200  yards,  and  the  distance  from  drain  to 
diain  18  feet,  the  square  feet  of  surface  receiving  rain-water  for  each  drain 
amounts  to  10,800 ;  this,  at  2  inches  of  rain  in  24  hours,  will  give  1,800 
cubic  feet  of  rain-water,  and  taking  the  sectional  area  of  the  smallest  tile 
of  2^  by  3  inches  at  7.5  inches,  and  the  water  moving  in  this  aperture  at 
the  rate  of  1  mile  per  hour,  the  number  of  cubic  feet  discharged  by  the 
drain  in  24  hours  will  be  6,600,  or  nearly  four  times  as  much  as  is  neces- 
sary to  carry  off  so  gi'eat  a  fall  of  rain  as  2  inches  in  24  hours ;"  and  this 
besides  what  would  be  carried  off  by  evaporation  and  absorbed  by  vegeta- 
tion. Mr.  Stirling,  of  Glenbervie,  also  in  Stirlingshire,  has  given  similai 
testimony  of  his  experience  in  regard  to  the  capability  of  drains  to  let  off 
water.  "  I  have  only  three  sets  of  drains,"  he  says,  "  in  which  I  know  the 
exact  fall  in  the  mains  near  the  mouths  and  the  area  drained.  The  land 
is  mostly  stilTclay,  having  in  some  places  a  fall  of  1  in  6,  and  for  50  yards 
from  the  mouths  of  the  mains  only  1  in  140;  is  drained  at  15  feet;  the 
main-tiles  are  2-J  by  2)^  inches,  and  the  rain  which  falls  on  5  superficial 
roods  is  discharged  at  each  mouth.  I  find  the  tiles  nearly  -j  full  after  very 
heavy  rain  ;  therefore  that  size  of  tile  would,  with  the  same  declivity,  pass 
the  rain  which  falls  on  nearly  2  acres;  and,  if  the  fall  in  the  side  drains 
were  less,  the  water  would  never  stand  so  high  in  the  mains."* 

•  Prize  Kesays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Socinty,  vol.  xii. 
(824) 


DRAINING.  337 


(743.)  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  calculations  are  founded  on 
data  obtained  from  strong  clay  soil,  from  which,  it  may  reasonably  be  sup- 
posed, much  of  the  rain  that  fell  had  run  oft',  and,  consequently,  that  by  a 
porous  soil  much  more  rain  will  be  absorbed ;  but,  although  this  is  doubt- 
less the  case,  it  is  obvious  that  a  small  orifice  will  be  c[uite  sufficient  to 
carry  oft'  much  more  water  than  can  possibly  fall  from  the  heavens  in  these 
latitudes  in  any  given  time ;  and  that  in  ordinary  rain  the  drains  will  be 
little  more  than  wetted.  Still  the  drainage  should  he  made  to  carry  off  the 
greatest  quantlttj  that  falls,  although  it  should  occur  only  once  in  a  lifetime. 
(744.)  Having  thus  calculated"  the  probably  greatest  quantity  of  rain 
that  may  fall  in  the  locality  of  j^our  fai'm,  the  next  step  is  to  drain  each 
field  in  succession.  It  may  seem  too  indiscriminate  an  instruction  to  rec- 
ommend the  draining  of  every  field ;  for  it  is  possible  that  some  of  the 
fields  in  your  farm  may  be  so  dry  as  not  to  require  entire  drainage,  but  it 
is  scarcely  possible  but  that  every  field  will  require  draining  to  a  certain 
degree  in  some  part  of  it.  Be  that  as  it  may — in  pursuing  a  system  of 
drainage,  every  field  should  be  thoroughly  examined  in  regard  to  its  state 
of  wetness  throughout  the  year,  for  that  land  is  in  a  bad  state  which  is 
soaking  in  winter,  though  it  should  be  burnt  up  in  summer ;  but  the  truth 
is,  burning  land  I'equires  draining  as  well  as  soaked  land,  because  drains 
will  supply  moisture  to  burning  land  in  summer,  while  it  will  render  soaked 
land  dry  in  winter.  Should  your  farm  be  pretty  level,  it  matters  not  at 
what  side  you  commence  operations  ;  but  should  it  have  a  decided  inclina- 
tion one  way,  the  lowest  portion  should  first  be  drained  ;  and,  if  it  inclines 
in  more  than  one  direction,  then  each  plane  of  inclination  should  have  a 
system  of  drains  for  itself.  It  deserves  consideration,  however,  in  choos- 
ing the  fields  for  draining,  that  as  drains  are  more  conveniently  made  at 
one  member  of  the  rotation  of  crops  than  another,  it  may  happen  that  the 
field  ready  in  this  respect  for  drainage  is  not  the  one  situate  at  the  lowest 
part  of  the  farm  ;  in  which  case  care  must  be  taken  to  give  the  water  from 
the  drained  field  such  an  outlet  as  will  not  make  the  ground  below  it  wet- 
ter, and  this  may  be  effected  either  by  clearing  a  ditch  along  the  side  of 
the  lower  field,  or  by  forming  a  new  ditch,  or  by  leading  the  water  to  a 
ditch,  drain  or  rivulet  at  some  distance. 

(745.)  The  field  having  thus  been  fixed  upon,  the  first  consideration  is 
the  position  of  those  drains  that  receive  the  Avater  from  the  drains  that  are 
immediately  supplied  from  the  soil ;  and  these  are  called  inain  drains. — 
In  every  case  they  should  be  provided  with  a  duct,  and  the  ducts  may  be 
formed  either  of  stone  or  of  tile — of  stone  when  that  material  is  abundant 
on  the  farm,  or  can  be  obtained  at  a  short  distance — of  tile  where  stone 
cannot  be  easily  procured  ;  but,  if  tiles  cannot  be  found  at  hand,  they 
should  be  procured  from  a  distance  rather  than  not  be  obtained  at  all  where 
stones  are  scarce. 

(746.)  Ducts  of  stone  may  be  formed  in  various  ways — the  strongest  of 
which  are  built  with  masonrv  and  covered  with  strong  flat  stones,  as  in 
fig.  156. 

(747.)  Two  flat  stones,  placed  against  each  other  at  the  bottom  of  the 
drain,  with  another  covering,  both,  as  at  a,  fig.  158,  form  an  equilateral 
duct  of  6  inches  in  the  side,  resting  on  its  apex.  It  should  be  held  down 
in  its  position  by  small  stones  b,  gathered  from  the  land,  or  broken  for  the 
purpose,  to  a  hight  of  18  inches  ;  then  covered  with  turf  or  other  dry  sub- 
stance c,  and  the  eai'th  d  returned  above  them.  Where  stones  are  found 
in  sufficient  quantity  for  such  a  drain,  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  subsoil 
will  consist  of  clay,  intermixed  with  small  stones  and  veins  of  sand,  which, 
requiring  a  large  area  of  drawing  surface,  will  fix  the  depth  of  the  drain 
(673) aa 


338 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


at  3  feet.  In  making  this  form  of  duct,  the  drain  will  require  to  be  18 
inches  wide  at  top,  to  allow  the  drainer  room  to  work  while  standing-  on 
the  narrow  triangular  space  at  the  bottom.  Placing  the  apex  of  the  tri- 
angle undermost  gives  the  water  power  to  sweep  away  any  sediment  along 
the  nanow  bottom ;  but  it  possesses  the  disadvantage  of  permitting  the 
water  to  descend  by  its  own  gravity,  between  the  joining  of  the  stones,  to 
the  subsoil,  which  runs  the  risk  of  being  softened  into  a  pulp,  or  of  its 
sandy  portion  being  carried  away  ;  and  it  is  possible  for  a  stone  to  get 
jammed  in  the  narrow  gutter  and  form  a  damming. 

(748.)  Another  form  of  duct,  which  I   prefer  to  this,  and  which   is  also 
constructed  of  stone,  may  be  seen  beside  it  in  fig.  159,  where  a  is  the  duct 


Fig.  158. 


Fig.  159. 


THE  TRIA.SGULAR  STO.SE  DUCT. 


THE  COUPLED  STOMK  DtTCT. 


consisting  of  a  sole  lying  on  the  gi'ound,  supporting  2  stones  meeting  at 
the  top,  forming  an  equilateral  triangle  of  6  inches  a  side.  This  form  en- 
courages a  deposition  of  sediment  to  a  greater  degree  than  the  fonner,  but 
it  prevents,  to  any  dangerous  extent,  the  descent  of  the  water  under  the 
sole.  Having  a  flat  bottom,  the  drain  can  easily  be  cast  out  with  a  width 
at  top  of  only  15  inches  to  a  dejith  of  3  feet.  The  slanting  stones  of  the 
duct  are  held  in  their  position  by  selected  stones  being  placed  on  each 
side,  which  act  as  wedges  between  them  and  the  eaith ;  and  the  whole 
structure  is  retained  in  its  place  by  18  inches  of  small  stones  above  them 
b,  covered  with  turf  c,  and  the  earth  d  returned  above  them. 

(749.)  A  more  perfect  duct  than  either  of  the.se  is  made  by  a  tile  and 
sole.  In  all  main  drains,  formed  of  whatever  materials,  capable  of  con- 
veying a  considerable  body  of  water,  a  sole  is  absolutely  requisite  to  pro- 
tect the  ground  from  being  washed  away  by  the  water,  and  a  more  effect- 
ual protection  cannot  be  given  to  it  than  by  tile  and  sole.  A  main-tile, 
which  the  tiles  in  main  drains  are  called,  of  4  inches  wide  and  5  inches 
high,  will  contain  a  large  body  of  water  ;  but  should  1  such  tile  be  consid- 
ered insufficient  for  the  pui-pose,  2  may  be  placed  side  by  side,  as  repre- 
sented by  a  and  h  in  fig.  IGO.  Should  a  still  larger  space  be  required,  1 
or  2  soles  may  be  placed  above  these  tiles,  and  other  tiles  set  on  them,  as 
a  and  b  are.  Or  should  a  still  dcejier  and  heavier  body  of  water  be  re- 
quired to  pass  through  a  main  drain,  1  or  2  tiles  can  be  inverted  on  the 
ground  on  their  circular  top,  as  a,  fig.  161,  bearing  each  a  sole  c  upon  its 
open  side,  and  this  again  surmounted  by  another  tile  b  in  its  proper  posi- 
tion.    In  such  an  an'angement,  there  is  some  difficulty  in  making  the  uu- 

(674) 


DRAINING. 


339 


dermost  tile  a  steady  on  its  top ;  for  which  purpose,  the  earth  is  taken  out 
of  a  rounded  form,  and  the  tile  carefully  laid  and  wedged  round  with  stones 
or  earth ;  but  there  is  greater  difficulty  in  making  the  uppennost  tile  h 

Fig.  160. 


Fig.  161. 


THE  DOUBLE  TILED  MAIN  DRAIN. 


~  WW  \  WW  a™ 
THE  INVERTED  DOUBLE  TILED  MAIN  DRAIN 


Stand  in  that  position  \vathout  a  sole,  as  is  recommended  by  some  wTiters 
on  draining,  because  the  least  displacement  of  either  tile  will  cause  the 
upper  one  to  slip  off  the  edge  of  the  under,  and  fall  into  it.  In  the  nar- 
rowest of  these  cases  of  main  drains  with  tiles,  the  drains  can  be  easily  cut 
at  15  inches  wide  at  top  to  the  depth  of  3  feet.  Small  stones  should  be 
put  above  the  tiles,  if  at  all  procurable,  to  the  hight  of  18  inches  above  the 
bottom  ;  if  not  procurable,  gravel  \s^S\.  answer  the  same  purpose ;  and,  if 
both  are  beyond  reach,  they  should  be  enveloped  with  thin,  tough  turf,  as 
shown  afterward. 

(750.)  Having  thus  determined  on  the  construction  of  main  drains,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances  in  which  the  water  is  to  be  conveyed  away,  the 
next  thing  is  to  fix  the  place  they  should  occupy  in  the  field.  As  they  are 
intended  to  caiTy  away  accumulations  of  water  beyond  what  they  can  them- 
selves draw,  they  should  occupy  the  lowest  parts  of  a  field,  whether  along 
the  bottom  of  a  declivity,  the  end,  or  the  middle  of  a  field.  If  the  field  is 
so  flat  as  to  have  very  little  fall,  the  water  may  be  drawn  toward  the  main 
drains  by  making  them  deeper  than  the  other  drains,  and  as  deep  as  the 
fall  of  the  outlet  will  allow.  If  the  field  have  a  uniform  declivity  one  way, 
one  main  drain  at  the  bottom  will  answer  every  purpose  ;  but,  should  it 
have  an  undulating  surface,  every  hollow  of  any  extent,  and  every  deep 
hollow  of  however  limited  extent,  should  be  furnished  with  a  main  drain. 
No  main  drain  should  be  put  nearer  than  5  yards  to  any  tree  or  hedge, 
that  may  possibly  push  its  roots  toward  it;  but  although  the  ditch  of  a 
hedge,  whose  roots  lie  in  the  opposite  direction,  merely  I'eceive  the  sur- 
face-water from  the  field  at  the  lowest  end,  it  should  not  be  converted  into 
a  main  drain,  that  should  be  cut  out  of  the  solid  ground,  and  not  be  nearer 
than  3  yards  to  the  ditch  lip  ;  and  the  old  ditch  should  be  occupied  by  a 
small  drain,  and  filled  up  with  earth  from  the  head-ridge. 

(751.)  As  main-drains  thus  occupy  the  lowest  parts  of  fields,  the  fall  in 
them  cannot  be  so  great  as  in  other  parts  of  the  field,  though  it  should  be 
kept  quite  sufficient  for  drainage.  In  the  case  of  a  level  field,  the  fall  may 
entirely  depend  on  cutting  them  deeper  at  the  lowest  end  than  at  other 
places  ;  but,  when  the  fall  is  small,  the  duct  should  be  larger  than  when  it 
IS  considerable,  because  the  same  body  of  water  will  require  a  longer  time 

(675) 


340  THE  ROOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

to  flow  away.  Should  the  fall  vary  in  tho  course  of  the  drain,  the  least 
rapid  parts  should  be  ])rovidod  witli  the  largest  sized  tiles  ;  and,  in  any 
case,  1  would  recommend  an  increase  of  fall  on  the  lust  few  yards  toward 
the  outlet,  to  expedite  the  egress  of  the  water,  and  promote  an  accelerated 
speed  along  the  whole  length  of  the  drain  ;  hut,  where  the  fall  is  rapid 
enough  throughout,  there  is  the  less  necessity  for  an  increase  of  accelera- 
tion at  the  termination.  It  is  surprising  what  a  small  descent  is  required 
for  the  flow  of  wafer  in  a  well-constructed  duct.  "  People  frequently  com- 
plain," says  Mr.  Smith,  "  that  they  camiot  find  a  suflicient  fall,  or  Icrel,  as 
they  sometimes  term  it,  to  carry  off"  the  water  from  their  drains.  There 
are  few  situations  where  a  suflicient  fall  cannot  be  found,  if  due  pains  are 
exercised.  It  has  been  found  in  practice;  that  a  water-course  30  feet  wide 
and  6  feet  deep,  giving  a  transverse  sectional  area  of  ISO  square  feet,  will 
discharge  300  cubic  yards  of  water  per  minute,  and  will  flow  at  the  rate 
of  1  mile  per  hour  with  a  fall  of  no  more  than  6  inches  per  mile."*  On 
the  principle  of  the  acceleration  of  water  from  drains,  main  drains,  where 
practicable,  should  be  G  inches  deeper  than  those  which  fall  into  them  ; 
and  the  greater  depth  has  the  additional  advantage  of  keeping  the  drains 
clear  of  sand,  mud,  or  other  substances  which  might  lodge,  and  not  only 
impede  but  dam  back  the  water  in  the  drains.  Should  it  so  happen,  from 
the  nature  of  tho  ground,  that  the  fall  in  the  main  drains  is  too  rapid  for 
the  safety  of  the  materials  which  construct  them,  it  is  easy  to  cut'  such  a 
length  of  the  proper  fall  as  the  extent  of  the  gi-ound  will  admit — -cutting 
length  after  length,  and  joining  every  two  lengths  by  an  inclined  plane. — 
The  inclined  planes  could  be  furnished  with  ducts  like. the  rest  of  the  drain, 
or,  what  is  better,  in  order  to  break  the  force  of  the  water,  like  steps  of 
stairs,  of  brick  or  stone  masonry,  built  diy.  Fig.  1G2  will  illusti-ate  this 
method  at  once,  where  ah  i''epresents  the  line  of  the  lowest  fall  that  can 
be  obtained  for  a  main  drain  in  a  field  ;  but  which,  you  \v\\\  observe,  is 
very  considerable,  and  much  more  so  than  a  main  drain  should  have  which 
has  to  convey,  at  any  time,  a  considerable  quantity  of  water.  To  lessen 
the  fall,  let  the  drain  be  cut  in  the  form  represented  by  the  devious  line 
c  h,  which  consists  of,  first,  a  level  part  at  the  highest  end  c  d  ;  then  of  an 
inclined  plane,  de  ;  again  of  a  level  part,  e  f;  again  of  an  inclined  ])lane, 
yg  ;  and,  lastly,  of  a  less  level  part  g  //,  to  allow  the  water  to  flow  rapi<lly 
away  at  the  outlet;  and  this  part  may  be  parallel  willi  rliu  inclinatinn  of 
the  ground. 

(752.)  The  inclined  parts  maybe  filled  with  materials  in  difterent  ways. 
One  way  is  with  tiles,  as  seen  from  k  to  /,  where  it  is  obvious  that,  as  drain- 
tiles  are  formed  square  at  the  ends,  those  in  the  inclined  plane  /.;  /  cannot 
conjoin  with  those  on  the  level  above  and  below,  and  must,  therefore,  be 
broken  so  as  to  fit  the  others  at  k  and  /.  In  constructing  tiles  in  this  way, 
it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  inclined  plane  be  protected  with  soles, 
firmly  secured  from  sliding  down,  at  the  lowest  end  at  I,  by  having  there 
a  strong  stone  abutting  against  the  lowermost  sole  ;  or  a  better  jilan  would 
be  to  line  the  inclined  ])lane  with  troughs  of  hewn  stone,  which  will  last 
for  ever. 

(7.')3.)  Instead  of  tiles,  or  hewn  troughs,  stones  may  form  a  conduit  upon 
the  inclined  ])lane  ;  aiid  ducts  of  this  material,  in  such  a  situation,  and  built 
dry  with  selected  stones,  would  certainly  be  jireferable  to  tiles,  even  al- 
though they  could  be  obtained  of  the  jjeculiar  form  required. 

(754.)  Or  the  inclined  jilane  could  be  condiiited  with  brick,  as  repre- 
sented from  ?•  to  .y.     The  bricks  could  be  built  dry  as  well  as  stones,  and 


Smith's  Remarks  on  Thorough  Draining. 
(676) 


DRAINING. 


34J 


could  form  either  a  smooth,  indined  sole  like  tile-soles,  or  a  series  of  steps, 
as  represented  in  the  figure,  where  they  are  set  two  a  side  lengthways  on 
bed  to  form  the  bottom,  as  at  o  ;  set  on  end  upon  these  for  the  sides  of  the 


Fig.  162. 


% 


mA 


THE  DIFFERENT  FORMS  OF  CONDUITS  IN   THE  INCLINED   PLAINS  OF  DRAINS. 

conduit,  as  at  r  ;  and  set  lengthways  across  the  conduit  upon  the  upright 
ones,  for  the  cover,  as  at  p.  Tiles  on  the  level  above  connect  themselves 
easily  with  the  bricks,  as  from  n ;  as  also  on  the  level  below,  as  at  t. — 
Should  a  considerable  run  of  water  be  expected  at  times,  the  step  form  is 
preferable  to  the  smooth,  in  order  to  break  the  fall  and  impede  the  velo- 
city of  the  water;  especially  toward  the  lower  extremity  of  the  drain,  where 
it  may  acquire  too  much  momentum  vnthout  a  preventive  check  of  this 
kind.  Although  much  water  is  expected  to  flow  through  the  drain,  it 
would  not  be  prudent  to  build  the  steps  with  lime-mortar,  as  it  is  too  easily- 
removed,  and  would  not  prevent  the  water  finding  its  way  to  the  founda- 
tion ;  but,  in  every  case,  it  is  proper  to  build  the  duct  on  the  inclined 
planes,  with  selected  materials  skillfully  put  together. 

(755.)  After  having  fixed  the  position  of  the  main  drains,  and  detenuined 
their  levels  and  depths  as  here  described,  the  next  thing  is  the  laying  off 
of  the  small  drains,  which  are  so  placed,  or  should  be  so  constructed,  as 
to  have  an  easy  descent  toward  the  main  drains  into  which  they  individu- 
ally discharge  their  waters.  They  are  usually  cut  in  parallel  lines  down 
the  declination  of  the  ground  ;  not  that  all  the  drains  of  the  same  field 
should  be  parallel  to  one  another,  but  only  those  in  the  same  plane,  what- 

(677) 


342 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


ever  number  of  different  planes  the  field  may  consist  of.  In  a  field  of  one 
plane,  there  can  be  no  difficulty  in  setting  oft'  the  small  drains,  as  they 
should  all  be  parallel  and  all  terminate  in  the  same  main  drain,  whether 
tlie  field   is  nearly  level   or  has   a  descent.     Thus,  in   fig.  1C3,  a   are  the 


PARALLEL  DRAINS  IN  THE  SAME  PLANE  OF  INCLINATION  OF  THE  GROUND. 

fences  of  the  field ;  d  d  \s  the  main  drain,  whether  the  field  is  a  level  or 
inclined  toward  d  ;  and  *  is  its  outlet.  In  this  case,  all  the  drains  c  run 
parallel  to  one  another,  from  the  one  end  hh,  which  may  be  the  upper,  to 
the  other  end  d  d,  which  may  be  the  lower  end  ;  and  which  convey  all  the 
water  by  the  outlet  s. 

Fig.  164. 


DRAINS    IMPROPERLY  .MADE   PARALLEL  IRRESPECTIVE  OF  THE  SLOPE  OF  THE  OROUND. 

(756.)  But  when  the  field  has  an  undulating  surface,  though  the  same 
principle  of  parallelism  is  maintained,  a  different  arrangement  is  followed 

(678) 


DRAINING.  343 

in  regard  to  it,  I  have  already  intimated  in  a  former  paragraph  (750)  that 
where  an  undulating  surface  occurs  in  a  field,  a  main  drain  is  carried  up 
the  hollowest  part  of  it,  and  the  small  drains  are  brought  in  parallels  down 
the  inclination  to  it  This  very  favorable  arrangement  for  the  speedy  rid- 
dance of  water,  after  it  has  reached  the  drain,  is  not  frequently  enough  at- 
tended to.  Thus,  the  common  practice  is  to  run  the  small  drains  b  c  d  e  b, 
in  fitr.  164,  parallel  to  one  another,  throughout  the  whole  field,  although 
its  undulating  surface,  as  supposed  to  be  represented  by  the  curved  line 
b  c  eb,  would  cause  the  so  arranged  parallelism  of  the  drains  at  c  and  e  to 
run  along  the  sides  of  the  rising  ground,  where,  if  any  vein  of  sand  occur, 
it  may  escape  being  cut  by  the  drain  running  parallel  along  its  hne  either 
above  or  below  it,  instead  of  being  divided  across  its  dip  ;  and  even  were 
the  sand-vein  severed  along  its  length,  it  would  be  apt  to  slip  down  from 
the  higher  side,  and  render  the  drain  along  it  inoperative. 

(757.)   Such  drains  should  be  cut,  as  in  fig.  165,  up  and  down  the  inclined 
surface  b  b,  toward  the  main  drain,  which  would  occupy  the  line  along  the 

Fig.  165. 


PARALLEL  DRAINS  IN  ACCORDANCE  WITH  THE  SLOPE  OF  THE  GROUND. 

points  of  junction  of  the  drains  b  b.  This  specific  plan  is  just  as  easily 
executed  as  the  other  more  indiscriminate  one  of  making  the  direction  of 
every  drain  of  every  field  alike. 

(758.)  The  next  step  is  to  fix  the  depth  of  drain  most  suitable  for  drain- 
ing the  particular  field ;  and  this  can  only  be  done  by  having  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  nature  of  its  subsoil.  I  have  already  given  reasons  for 
fixing  the  minimum  depth  of  drains  in  the  different  kinds  of  subsoil,  in  par- 
agraph (735) ;  but,  as  the  reasoning  given  there  only  establishes  the  prin- 
ciple, it  is  not  sufficient  to  determine  the  most  proper  depth  for  every  pe- 
culiarity of  circumstances  ;  for  this  must  be  determined  by  the  nature  of 
the  subsoil  which  guides  the  whole  affair.  If  the  field  present  an  uniform 
surface,  but  inclining,  let  at  least  2  exploratory  drains  be  cut  from  the  bot- 
tom to  the  top  of  the  field,  if  its  extent  does  not  exceed  10  acres,  and  as 
many  more  as  it  is  proportionally  larger  ;  and  if  the  subsoil  of  both  is  found 
at  once  tilly,  that  is,  drawing  a  little  water,  let  the  cut  be  made  3  feet  deep 
without  hesitation.  On  proceeding  up  the  rising  ground,  the  depth  may 
be  increased  to  4  feet,  to  ascertain  if  that  depth  will  not  draw  a  great  deal 
more  water  than  the  other.  Should  the  subsoil  prove  of  porous  materials, 
2i  feet — the  minimum — may  suffice  ;  though,  on  going  up  the  rising 
ground,  it  may  be  increased  to  3  feet,  to  see  the  effect ;  but  should  it,  on 
the  other  hand,  prove  a  pure  tenacious  clay,  2  feet  will  suffice  at  first,  in- 
creasing the  depth  in  the  rising  ground   to  21  and  even  3  feet ;  for  it  may 

(679) 


344  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

turn  out  that  the  stratum  under  the  tenacious  clay  is  porous.  Where  the 
surface  is  in  small  undulations,  the  drain  sliould  be  cut  right  through  both 
the  flat  and  rising  parts.  In  very  flat  ground,  any  considerable  variation 
of  depth  is  impracticable,  and  only  allowable  to  preserve  the  fall.  From 
such  experimental  drains  data  should  be  obtained  to  fix  the  proper  dimen- 
sions of  the  other  drains. 

(7.59.)  If  you  find  the  substratum  pretty  much  alike  in  all  the  experi- 
mental drains,  you  may  reasonably  conclude  that  the  subsoil  of  the  whole 
field  is  nearly  alike,  and  that  all  the  drains  should  be  of  the  same  depth  ; 
but,  should  the  subsoil  prove  of  different  natures  in  diflerent  parts,  then 
the  drain  should  be  made  of  the  depth  best  suited  to  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
soil. A  con-ect  judgment,  however,  of  the  true  nature  of  the  subsoil,  can- 
not be  formed  immediately  on  opening  a  cut ;  time  must  be  given  to  the 
water  in  the  adjoining  ridges  lo  find  its  way  to  the  drain,  which,  when  it 
has  reached,  will  satisfactorily  show  the  place  which  supplies  the  most 
water;  and,  if  one  set  of  men  open  all  the  cuts,  by  the  time  the  last  one 
has  been  finished,  the  first  will  probably  have  exhibited  its  powers  of  draw- 
ing ;  for  it  is  a  fact  that  drains  do  not  exhibit  their  powers  until  some  hours 
after  they  have  been  opened.  When  you  are  satisfied  that  the  drains  have 
drawn  in  dry  weather  as  much  water  as  they  can,  you  will  be  able  to  see 
whether  or  not  the  shallowest  parts  have  drawn  as  much  as  the  deepest ; 
and  you  should  then  determine  on  cutting  the  remainder  to  the  depth  which 
has  operated  most  effectually.  If  rainy  weather  ensue  during  the  experi- 
ment, still  you  can  observe  the  comparative  effects  of  the  drains,  and  abide 
by  the  results.  Never  mind  though  parts  of  the  sides  of  the  cuts  fall  down 
during  dry  or  wet  weather ;  they  need  not  be  regretted,  as  they  afi'ord  ex- 
cellent indications  of  the  nature  of  the  subsoil,  the  true  structure  of  which 
being  left  by  the  fall  in  a  much  better  state  for  examination  than  where  cut 
by  the  spade ;  and  you  may  then  observe  whether  most  water  is  coming 
out  of  the  highest  or  lowest  part  of  the  subsoil.  It  is  essential  for  the  du- 
rability of  drains  to  bear  in  mind  that  they  should  always  stand,  if  practi- 
cable, upon  impervious  matter,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  water  from  the 
drain  by  any  other  channel  than  the  duct. 

(760.)  You  should  be  made  aware  that  this  is  not  the  usual  method 
adopted  by  farmers  for  ascertaining  the  depth  to  which  drains  should  be 
cut.  The  common  practice  is,  knowing  that  the  field  stands  on  tilly  bot- 
tom, the  drains  are  made  of  a  predetermined  dejith,  and  the  contract  with 
the  laborers  is  made  on  that  understanding,  be  the  guess  true  or  false,  as 
it  may  happen.  Now,  the  considerate  plan  which  I  have  recommended 
incurs  no  additional  expense,  a.s  all  the  experimental  drains  will  serve  their 
purpose  afterward  as  well  as  the  others ;  and,  even  although  they  should 
cost  more  than  the  same  extent  of  other  drains,  the  satisfaction  aflbrded  to 
the  mind  of  having  ascertained  the  true  state  of  the  subsoil  more  than 
compensates  f«)r  any  trifling  addition  of  expense  which  may  have  been  in- 
curred ;  and  be  it  remembered  that  any  extra  expense  consists  of  only 
scouring  out  the  earth  (if  any)  that  may  have  fallen  down,  and  of  supj>ly- 
ing  more  materials  to  fill  up  the  chasms  thereby  occasioned.  But  tlie  as- 
certainment of  the  most  proper  depths  for  drains  in  any  sort  of  subsoil  is 
a  much  more  important  matter  than  many  farmers  seem,  to  judge  from 
their  practice,  to  be  aware  of;  for  by  neglecting  to  descend  only  ^  a  foot, 
nay,  perhaps  3  inches  more,  many  of  the  benefits  of  draining  may  be  un- 
attained.  I  quite  agree  with  the  late  Mr.  Stepliens  on  this  subject,  when 
he  states  that  "land  may  be  filled  full  of  small  drains,  so  that  the  surface 
shall  appear  to  be  diy  ;  but  the  land  thus  attempted  to  be  drained  will 
never  produce  a  crop,  either  in  quality  or  quantity,  equal  to  land  that  has 

(680; 


DRAINING.  345 


been  vcrfccthj  Jraiiied,"*  where  a  different  kind  of  draining  should  have 
been  resorted  to. 

(761.)  A  very  important  particular  in  tlie  art  of  thorough  draining  now 
claims  your  attention,  which  is  the  determining  the  distance  that  should  be 
left  between  the  drains.  It  is  evident  that  this  point  can  only  be  satisfac- 
torily determined  after  the  depths  of  the  drains  have  been  fixed  upon,  as 
drains  in  a  porous  substratum,  which  draws  water  from  a  long  distance, 
need  not,  of  course,  be  placed  so  close  together  as  where  the  substratum 
yields  water  in  small  quantities ,  and  as  drains  may  be  of  different  depths 
in  the  same  field,  according  to  the  draining  powers  of  the  substratum,  so 
they  should  be  placed  at  different  distances  in  the  same  field.  It  is  the 
common  practice  to  fix  on  the  open  fuiTows,  between  the  ridges,  for  the 
sites  of  drains,  because  the  hollow  of  the  open  furrow  saves  a  little  cutting, 
though  such  saving  is  a  trifling  consideration  compared  to  the  advantage 
of  executing  the  drains  in  the  best  manner.  For  my  part,  I  can  see  no 
greater  claim  for  a  drain  in  the  furrow  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  ridge, 
especially  as  most  of  the  water  should  be  received  from  the  subsoil  rather 
than  the  surface,  except  in  pure  clay-soils ;  and  it  is,  of  course,  as  easy  to 
make  tliem  in  any  other  part  of  the  ridge  as  in  the  open  furrow.  •  These 
observations  of  Mr.  Smith  on  this  subject  court  remark.  "  When  the  ridges 
of  the  field,"  says  he,  "  have  been  formerly  much  raised,  it  suits  very  well 
to  run  a  drain  up  every  furrow,  which  saves  some  depth  of  cutting.  The 
feering  being  thereafter  made  over  the  drains,  the  hollow  is  filled  up,  and 
the  general  surface  ultimately  becomes  level."  This  is  all  very  well  for 
the  purpose  of  leveling  the  ground,  but  mark  what  follows !  "  When  the 
field  is  again  ridged,"  he  continues,  "  the  drains  may  be  kept  in  the  crowns 
or  middle  of  the  ridges  ;  but,  if  it  be  intended  to  work  the  field  so  as  to 
akernate  the  crowns  and  furrows,  then  the  ridges  should  be  of  a  breadth 
equal  to  double  the  distance  from  drain  to  drain  ;  and  by  setting  oil  the  fur- 
rows in  the  middle,  betwixt  two  drains,  the  crowns  will  be  in  the  same 
position  ;  so  that  when  the  furrows  take  the  places  of  the  crowns,  they  will 
still  be  in  the  middle  betwixt  two  drains,  which  will  prevent  the  risk  of 
surface-water  getting  access  to  the  drain  from  the  water-fuxTows  by  any 
direct  opening."t  No  doubt,  it  is  easy  to  transpose  fuiTOws  into  croAvns, 
and  vice  versa  ;  but  how  would  the  transposition  be  effected  in  these  cir- 
cumstances, since  the  drains  were  made  in  each  former  furrow,  and  it  is 
proposed  to  make  the  crowns  of  the  ridges  between  the  drains,  the  trans- 
position of  the  crowns  could  only  be  effected  by  adopting  the  unfarmerlike 
plan  of  leaving,  in  a  finished  field,  a  half  of  the  breadth  of  the  ridge  adopt- 
ed at  each  side  ;  and,  rather  than  practice  such  slovenliness,  would  it  not 
be  better  to  cut  the  drains  in  the  middle  of  the  ridges,  and  preserve  each 
ridge  unbroken  % 

(762.)  With  regard  to  distances  between  drains,  in  a  partially  impervi- 
ous subsoil,  15  feet  are  as  great  a  distance  as  a  3-feet  drain  can  be  expect- 
ed to  draw;  and,  in  some  cases,  I  have  no  doubt  that  a  4-feet  one  will  be 
required.  In  more  porous  matter,  a  3-feet  drain  will  probably  draw  20 
feet,  with  as  great  if  not  greater  effect ;  and  in  the  case  of  a  mouldy,  deep 
soil,  resting  on  an  impervious  subsoil — which  is  not  an  uncommon  combi- 
nation of  soils  in  the  turnip-districts  of  this  country — a  drain  passing  through 
the  mould,  and  resting  perhaps  3  or  4  inches  in  the  impervious  clay — 
which  may  altogether  make  it  4  feet  deep — will  draw,  I  have  no  doubt,  a 
distance  of  30  feet.  More  than  30  feet  distant,  I  would  feel  exceeding  re- 
luctance to  recommend  drains  being  made,  unless  the  circumstances  were 


»  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  ili.         t  Smith's  Remarks  on  Thorough  Draining,  •Ith  edition. 
(681) 


346 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM—WINTER. 


remarkably  eiiigiilar,  when,  of  course,  a  special  thing  must  be  done  for  a 
special  case,  such  as  an  entirely  porous  subsoil  containing  somewhat  indu- 
rated portions,  when  a  drain  through  each  of  these,  at  whatever  distance, 
will  suffice  to  keep  the  whole  dry. 

(763.)  The  distance  at  which  ordinary  drains  in  tilly  subsoils  will  not 
di'EW  is  not  left  to  conjecture,  but  has  partially  been  determined  by  exper- 
iment. Conceiving  that  a  drain  in  every  funow,  in  a  tilly  subsoil,  is  at- 
tended with  more  expense  than  any  anticipated  increase  of  produce  from 
the  soil  would,  warrant,  a  farmer  in  East  Lothian  put  a  drain  in  every 
fourth  funow  ;  and  that  they  might,  as  he  conceived,  have  a  chance  of 
drawing  at  that  distance,  he  caused  them  to  be  cut  4  feet  deep.  A  figure 
will  best  illustrate  the  results,  where  the   black  lines  a,  fig.  166,  are  the 

Fig.  166. 


a  d 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  TOO  GREAT  A  DISTANCE  BETWIXT  DRAINS. 

di'ains  between  every  fourth  fuiTow,  and  the  dotted  lines  represent  the  in- 
termediate undrained  funows  ;  and  where  it  is  evident,  at  the  first  glance, 
that  the  drains  a  have  to  dry  2  ridges  on  each  side  he  and  de,  of  which 
we  should  expect  that  the  2  ridges  h  and  d,  being  nearest  to  a,  should  be 
more  dried,  in  the  same  time,  than  the  2  farthest  ridges  c  and  e,  and  the 
result  agrees  with  expectation ;  but  still,  had  the  subsoil  been  of  an  en- 
tirely porous  nature,  both  ridges  might  have  been  sufficiently  dried  by  a. 
Trusting  to  similar  contingency,  it  is  not  an  unusual  expectation,  enter- 
tained by  many  farmers,  that  a  drain  will  sufficiently  dry  2  ridges  on  each 
side,  or  at  least  1  ridge  on  each  side,  without  ascertaining  the  exact  nature 
of  the  subsoil.  But  mark  the  results  of  this  particular  experiment,  which 
was  conducted  with  the  usual  expectations.  The  2  ridges  h  and  d,  nearest 
to  a,  actually  produced  9  bushels  of  corn  more  per  acre  than  the  2  more 
distant  ridges  c  and  e.  This  is  a  great  diflerence  of  jiroduce  from  adjoin- 
ing grounds  under  the  same  treatment,  and  yet  it  does  not  .show  the  entire 
advantage  that  may  be  obtained  by  drained  over  undrained  land,  because 
it  is  possible  that  the  drain  a  also  partially  drained  the  distant  ridges  c  and 
€/  and  this  being  possible,  together  with  the  circumstance  that  none  of  the 
ridges  had  a  drain  on  each  side,  it  cannot  be  maintained  that  either  the 
absolute  or  the  comparative  drying  power  of  these  4 -feet  drains  was  ex- 
actly ascertained  by  this  experiment.*     It  may  be  conceived,  however,  that 


*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  viii. 
(683) 


DRAINING.  347 


if  the  drains  had  been  put  into  every  other,  instead  of  every  fourth,  furrow, 
that  the  produce  of  all  the  ridges  would  have  been  alike,  inasmuch  as  ev- 
ery ridge  would  then  have  been  placed  in  the  same  relative  position  to  a 
drain ;  and  the  conjecture  seems  so  reasonable  that  most  farmers,  from 
what  I  observe  of  their  practice,  act  upon  this  plan  as  from  a  settled  opin- 
ion. But  such  a  conjecture,  not  having  been  founded  upon  experience, 
cannot  have  the  force  of  an  opinion,  especially  when  opposed  to  the  great 
probability  that,  ccstcris  paribus,  land  must  be  more  effectually  drained  by 
a  drain  in  every  furrow  than  at  greater  distances ;  as  it  is  not  supposable 
that  the  open  fuiTows  of  b  and  d  can  be  so  thoroughly  drained  as  the  fur- 
row a,  which  contains  the  drain  itself;  because  it  is  obvious  that  the  one 
side  of  a  ridge  should  be  less  effectually  drained  than  the  other,  which,  if 
of  a  retentive  subsoil,  may  not  be  affected  at  all.  All,  then,  that  has  been 
demonstrated  by  this  experiment  is  this,  and  the  proof  I  consider  is  impor 
tant,  that  a  drain — a  deep  one  though  it  be — will  draw  water  more  effect- 
ually across  one  than  across  two  ridges  ;  and  it  should  be  useful  to  you  as 
a  guide  against  imitating  the  practice  of  those  who  seem  to  believe  that  a 
drain  cannot  have  too  much  to  do. 

(764.)  While  taking  this  view  of  the  subject,  I  cannot  agree  in  the  ad- 
vice which  Mr.  Smith  gives  when  he  says,  "  In  cases  where  time  or  capi- 
tal are  wanting  to  complete  the  drainage  at  once,  each  alternate  drain  may 
be  executed  in  the  first  instance,  and  the  remainder  can  be  done  in  the 
next  time  the  field  is  to  be  broken  up."*  I  would  much  rather  use  the 
words  of  Mr.  Stirling,  of  Glenbervie,  where  he  says  that  "  I  think  it  a  great 
error  to  make  the  half  the  number  of  drains  required  at  first,  with  the 
intention  of  putting  one  between  each  at  a  future  period.  Let  what  is 
drained  be  done  as  thoroughly  as  the  farmer's  exchequer  will  allow  ;  the 
farm  will  be  gone  over  in  as  short  a  time,  and  rnuch  more  profitably." — 
The  reason  which  Mr.  Stirling  gives  for  holding  this  opinion  is  a  true  and 
practical  one — namely,  because  "  a  tid  (or  proper  condition  of  the  ground 
for  harrowing)  cannot  be  taken  advantage  of  on  the  drained  funow  until 
the  other  is  dry,  and  the  benefit  of  an  extended  period  for  performing  the 
various  operations  of  the  farm  is  thus  lost."t  Eveiy  farmer  who  has  stud- 
ied the  influence  Avhich  soil  possesses  over  crops  will  be  ready  to  allow 
that  wet  soil  does  much  more  injury  to  the  dry  soil  in  its  neighborhood 
than  dry  soil  does  good  to  the  wet.  I  would,  under  every  circumstance 
of  season  and  soil,  pi-efer  having  the  half  of  my  farm  thoroughly  drained, 
than  the  whole  of  it  only  half  drained. 

(765.)  At  whatever  distances  drains  are  placed,  they  should  run  nearly 
at  right  angles  to  the  main  drains.  Excepting  in  confined  hollows,  ha\ing 
steep  ascents  on  both  sides,  the  drains  should  run  parallel  with  the  ridges, 
and  always  parallel  with  themselves,  in  the  drainage  of  the  same  plane  of 
the  field.  Drains  should  be  carried  through  the  whole  length  of  the  field, 
irrespective  of  the  wet  or  dry  appearances  of  parts  of  it ;  because  uniform 
and  complete  dryness  is  the  object  aimed  at  by  draining,  and  portions  of 
land  that  seem  dry  at  one  time  may  be  injuriously  wet  at  others,  and  these 
may  seem  dry  on  the  surface  when  the  subsoil  may  be  in  a  state  of  injuri- 
ous wetness. 

(766.)  Regarding  the  direction  lohich  the  drains  should  run  in  reference 
to  the  inclination  of  the  ground,  so  as  to  diy  the  land  most  effectually,  much 
diversity  of  opinion  at  one  time  existed  ;  but  I  believe  most  farmers  are 
now  of  the  opinion  that  it  should  follow  the  inclination  of  the  ground. — 
The  late  Mr.  Stephens  maintained,  and  as  I  think  erroneously,  that  as  it 

*  Smith's  Remarks  on  Thorough  Draining,  4th  edirion. 
t  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highlandand  Asricultural  Society,  vol.  xii. 
(683) 


348 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


is  evidont  that  water  within  the  earth,  or  on  the  surface,  seeks  a  level 
where  the  fall  throu'jfh  the  porous  sulisoil  is  greatest ;  therefore  a  drain 
made  across  the  slope  i»r  declivity  of  a  field,  or  any  ])ieco  of  land,  will  un- 
doubtedly intercept  more  water  than  when  it  is  carried  straight  up  the 
bank  or  rising  ground  ;  and  this  principle,  he  says,  holds  good  in  every 
case,  whether  "the  drain  be  made  to  receive  surface  or  subteiraneous  wa- 
ter." I  confess  I  cannot  arrive  at  the  conclusion  from  the  premises.  He 
reiterates  the  same  opinion  more  generally,  and  apparently  more  j)racti- 
cally,  in  these  words  :  "  Drains  winding  across  the  slope  or  declivity  of  a 
field,  whatever  their  number  or  depth  may  be,  their  efl'ect  upon  tenacious 
or  impervious  substrata  will  1)e  much  greater  than  if  they  were  made 
straight  up  and  down  the  slope  ;  and  when  the  soil  is  mixed  with  thin 
strata  of  fine  sand,  which  is  the  case  in  nine  times  out  of  ten,  the  efl'ect  will 
be  increased  in  proportion  ;  and,  accordingly,  a  much  less  number  will  an- 
swer the  purpose,  the  expense  will  be  gieatly  lessened,  and  the  land  and 
occupier  much  more  benefited  in  every  respect."*  Mr.  Smith  opposes 
this  opinion,  and,  what  is  remarkable,  uses  the  same  illustration  to  refute 
it,  in  regard  to  the  property  of  water  and  the  structure  of  the  substratum, 
as  Mr.  Stephens  did  in  support  of  his  views.  "  Drains,"  says  he,  "  drawn 
across  a  steep,  cut  the  strata  or  layers  of  subsoil  transversely  ;  and,  as  the 
stratification  generally  lies  in  sheets  at  an  angle  to  the  surface  (see  fig.  169), 
the  water  passing  in  or  between  the  strata,  immediately  below  the  bottom 
of  one  drain,  nearly  comes  to  the  surface  before  reaching  the  next  lower 
drain.  But,  as  water  seeks  the  lowest  level  in  all  directions,  if  the  strata 
be  cut  longitudinally  by  a  drain  directed  down  the  steeps,  the  bottom  of 
which  cuts  each  stratum  to  the  same  distance  from  the  surface,  the  water 
will  flow  into  the  drain  at  the  intersecting  point  of  each  sheet  or  layer,  on 
a  level  with  the  bottoiji  of  the  drain,  leaving  one  uniform  depth  of  diy 
soil."t  Without  taking  any  other  element  at  present  into  the  argument 
than  the  sinfjle  proposition  in  hydraulics  that  water  seeks  the  lowest  level 
in  all  directions,  adduced  by  Mr.  Stephens  himself,  I  shall  prove  the  accu- 


Fig.  167. 


^^ 


THB  COMPARATIVE  EFFICACY  OF  DKA1.N3  ACROSS  AND  ALONG  RIDGES  ON  A  DECLIVITY. 


racy  of  Mr.  Smith's  cotidusions  by  simply  refening  to  fig.  167,  which  rep- 
resents a  part  of  a  field  all  having  the  same,  and  that  a  steep  acclivity,  and 


Stephens's  Practical  Irrigator  and  Drainer. 
(684) 


\  Smilli's  Remarks  on  Thorough  DrainiDg. 


DRAINING. 


349 


which  is  laid  off  in  the  ridges  abed  ef,  up  and  down  the  slope ;  but  the 
3  ridges  a  b  c  have  drains  across  them,  and  the  other  3  ridges  have  drains 
parallel  with  them,  the  oblique  drains  being  made  at  the  same  distance 
from  each  other  as  the  up  and  down  ones,  whatever  that  distance  may  be. 
Nov/,  when  rain  falls  on  and  is  absorbed  by  the  ridges  abed  ef,  it  will 
naturally  make  its  way  to  the  lowest  level,  that  is,  to  the  bottom  of  the 
drains  ;  and,  as  the  ground  has  the  same  declivity,  the  water  will  descend 
according  to  the  circumstances  which  are  px-esented  to  it  by  the  positions 
of  the  respective  systems  of  drains.  On  the  ridges  d  ef,  having  the  drains 
parallel  to  them,  and  up  and  down  the  inclination  of  the  ground,  the  water 
will  take  a  diagonal  direction  toward  the  bottom  of  the  drains,  as  indicated 
by  the  deflected  arrows  at  k  ;  and  as  ground  has  seldom  only  one  plane 
of  declination,  such  as  straight  up  and  down,  but  more  commonly  two,  an- 
other in  the  dii'ection  either  from  a  toy  or  from  yto  a,  it  follows  that  the 
one  side,  that  is,  the  lower  side  of  a  ridge  thus  situated,  will  be  sooner 
drained  than  the  other;  but  both  sides  will  be  soon  drained,  as  maybe 
seen  in  fig.  168,  where  ab  are  vertical   sections  of  small  drains,   each  30 

Fiff.  168. 


THE  DESCENT  OF  WATER  FROM  A  RIDGE    INIL)  A  DRAIN  ON  EACH  SIDE. 

inches  deep  ;  c  1  foot  of  mould,  in  which  the  rain  is  absorbed  as  fast  as  it 
falls  upon  the  ridge,  15  feet  broad,  betwixt  a  and  b.  On  being  absorbed, 
the  rain,  seeking  the  lowest  level,  will  be  hastened  toward  the  drains  a 
and  b  in  the  direction  o'l  c  d  and  c  e — that  is,  by  a  fall  of  30  inches  in  about 
8  feet,  which  is  a  rapid  fall  of  rather  more  than  1  in  3,  and  which  rapid 
fall,  as  is  well  known,  will  clear  water  quickly,  and  in  the  clearance  of 
which  the  drains  have  only  each  to  draw  a  distance  of  half  a  ridge,  or  71 
feet.  Whereas  on  the  ridges  ab  c,  which  have  oblique  drains,  a,  I,  g,  fig. 
167,  the  water  will  have  to  run  in  the  direction  of  the  arrows  b  and  h,  in 
doing  which  it  will  have  to  traverse  the  entire  breadth  of  the  ground  be- 
twixt a  and  /  or  I  and  g,  that  is,  15  feet,  just  double  the  distance  the  other 
drains  have.  But  take  the  superficial  view  of  the  case,  and  suppose  that 
d,e,  f,  and  a,  I,  g,  are  not  drains,  but  open  furrows,  it  is  clear  that,  when 
rain  falls,  the  water  will  flow  toward  d,  e,  or  f,  as  indicated  by  the  arrows 
at  k — that  is,  71  feet  toward  each  furrow ;  whereas  the  water  that  falls  on 
ac,  I  m,  or  g  i,  will  have  to  run  across  the  entire  breadth  of  the  ridge  from 
a  to  I,  or  from  I  to  g,  that  is,  15  feet,  just  double  the  distance  of  the  other, 
before  it  can  reach  the  open  furrows.  Or  rather  take  the  more  profound 
case,  and  trace  the  progress  of  the  water  through  the  substrata.  Mr. 
Thomson,  Hangingside,  Linlithgowshire,  drained  150  acres  of  land  having 
an  inchnation  varying  from  1  in  10  to  1  in  30.  Portions  of  3  fields  had 
drains  put  into  them  in  1828,  1829  and  1830,  in  the  oblique  direction,  and, 
finding  them  unsuccessful,  he  put  them  in  the  direction  of  the  slope,  like 
the  rest  of  the  fields.  "  In  order,"  says  he,  "  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  these 
failures,  a  cut  was  made  in  the  field  first  referred  to,  entering  at  a  given 
point,  and  carrying  forward  a  level  to  a  considerable  depth,  when  it  was 
clearly  seen  that  the  substrata,  instead  of  taking  in  any  degree  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  surface,  lay  horizontally,  as  represented  in  fig.  169.  It  is  there- 
fore obvious,"   he  continues,   "  that  in  making  drains   across  a  sloping  sur- 


350  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

face,  unless  they  are  put  in  at  the  precise  point  where  the  substrata  crop 
out  (and  these  are  exceedingly  irregular  in  pjoint  of  thickness),  they  may 
in  a  great  measure  prove  nugatorj' ;  because,  although  one  drain  is  near 

rig.  169. 


THE  USUAL  POSITION  OF  SUBSTRATA  IN   REFERENCE  TO  THE  SURFACE  SOIL. 

another,  from  the  rise  of  the  ground,  none  of  them  may  reach  the  point 

sought ;  whereas,  in  carrying  a  drain  right  up  the  direction  of  a  slope,  it 
is  impossible  to  miss  the  extremity  of  every  substratum  passed  through."* 
And  although  a  drain  in  the  oblique  direction  should  cut  through  a  vein  of 
sand  as  at  /,  fig.  168,  and  thereby  carry  off  the  water  it  contains,  yet  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  the  drains  a  and  b  will  also  cut  through  the  said 
vein — which,  when  they  do,  what  is  there  to  prevent  the  water  in  the  vein 
running  toward  the  drains  a  and  b  on  each  side  of  the  ridge  toward  f  and 
g  1  These  observations  of  Mr.  Thomson  corroborate  Mr.  Smith's  views, 
in  which  I  entirely  concur. 

(767.)  In  all  cases  of  thorough  draining  there  should  a  small  drain  con- 
nect the  tops  of  the  drains  at  the  upper  end  of  the  field.  The  object  of 
this  drain  is,  in  the  first  instance,  to  dn,-  the  upper  head-ridge,  and  also  to 
protect  the  upper  ends  of  the  ridges  from  any  oozings  of  water  that  might 
come  from  the  fence  ditch,  or  from  any  rising  ground  beyond  that  end  of 
the  field.  If  the  fence  ditch  conveys  no  current  of  water,  and  the  hedge- 
roots  lie  away  fi-om  the  fiald,  and  there  are  no  hedge-row  trees  near  at 
hand,  this  drain  may  be  made  in  the  ditch  itself,  and  the  ends  of  the  fur- 
row-drains brought  across  the  head-ridge  to  it ;  but,  should  water  or  trees 
be  connected  n-ith  the  ditch,  the  drain  should  be  made  on  the  head-ridge 
not  nearer  than  3  yards  from  the  ditch  lip ;  and  it  should  be  of  the  same 
depth,  though  not  deeper  than  the  other  drains. 

(768.)  ^V^len  drains  have  a  course  along  very  long  ridges,  it  is  recom- 
mended to  run  a  sub-main  drain  in  an  oblique  direction  from  side  to  side, 
or  rather  only  across  all  the  lonsr  ridges  of  the  field,  as  represented  by  <•  e 
in  fig.  163.  The  length  of  any  drain,  it  is  maintained,  should  not  exceed 
200  yards,  without  a  sub-main  drain  to  assist  in  carrying  off  the  water ; 
and  the  reasons  assigned  by  Mr.  Carmichael  for  requiring  the  assistance 
of  such  a  drain  are,  "  because,  if  the  fall  is  considerable,  the  bottom  may 
be  endangered  by  the  velocity  and  volume  of  water  collected  during  con- 
tinued rain  ;  or  if  the  declivity  be  very  limited,  and  the  aperture  small,  the 
drain  is  in  dancjer  of  bursting  from  an  impeded  discharge  ;"  but  a  complete 
answer  to  thene  apprehensions  is  found  in  the  very  next  sentence,  namely, 
"  the  rule  is  to  apportion  the  area  of  all  drains  to  their  lene^h,  decli^^ty, 
and  distance  from  each  other."t  It  is  quite  time  what  Mr.  Smith  says  on 
the  subject,  that  "  some  people  are  still  prone  to  the  practice  of  throwing 
in  a  cross-drain,  or  to  branches  going  off  at  right  angles,  which  are  of  no 
farther  avail  in  dryine  the  land,  while  they  increase  the  lencfth  of  drain 
without  a  proportionate  increase  of  the  area  drained,"|  Should  the  want, 
however,  of  proper  sized  tiles,  in  any  particular  part  of  a  field,  where  the 
quantity  of  water  is  greater  than  over  the  ordinary  surface  of  the  farm. 


•  Prize  E«»iy»  of  the  Highlatx]  and  Airricultur«l  Society,  vol.  xiil.  t  Ibid,  toI.  xii. 

\  Smith'*  Remu-k*  on  Thorough  Draining 

{6S6) 


DRAINING.  351 


induce  you  to  incur  the  expense  of  a  sub-main  drain,  rather  than  run  the 
risk  of  injuring  the  land  by  the  dreaded  insufficiency  of  the  drains  below, 
it  should  be  directed  across  the  field  as  shown  by  e  in  fig.  163,  where,  if 
cut  of  the  same  depth  as  the  other  small  drains,  those  below  should  be  dis- 
joined from  it  by  a  naiTow  strip  of  gi-ound  in  the  line  of  e  to  e  ;  but  a 
much  better  plan  is  to  make  the  sub-main  6  inches  deeper  than  the  rest 
of  the  drains,  where  it  can  be  so  deepened,  and  it  will  intercept  the  water 
coming  from  the  ground  above,  while  the  drains  will  pass  continuously 
over  it.  In  such  a  case,  when  the  s'ub-main  e  falls  into  the  small  drain  h  d 
at  the  side  of  the  field  at  e,  that  pait  of  the  latter  below  e  io  s  should  be 
converted  into  a  sub-main,  which  should  be  larger  than  small  drains,  though 
sub-mains  need  not  be  so  capacious  as  main  drains  ;  but,  in  truth,  in  such 
an  arrangement  as  this,  sub-mains  become  mains,  inasmuch  as  they  convey 
as  great  a  quantity  of  water. 

(769.)  The  experimental  cuts  having  been  made,  you  become  acquainted 
with  the  nature  of  the  subsoil,  and  determine  upon  the  depth  of  the  drains  ; 
then  cutting  should  be  proceeded  with  forthwith,  and  this  part  of  the  work 
is  best  and  most  satisfactorily  done  by  contracting  with  an  experienced 
spadesman,  at  so  much  per  rood  of  6  yards.*  The  rates  of  cutting  are 
generally  well  understood  in  the  country.  Let  me  impress  upon  you,  in 
the  matter  of  making  a  contract,  the  great  satisfaction  you  will  feel  in  en- 
gaging stout,  active  and  skillful  men  ;  for  although  you  may  find  men  able 
to  work  a  hard  day's  work,  if  they  are  nevertheless  unskillful  and  inexpe- 
rienced, you  will  experience  many  difficulties.  Such  men  willingly  take 
on  work  at  low  rates  ;  but  you  will  find  it  conducive  to  your  interest  rather 
to  give  such  rates  as  yv\\\  enable  skillful  workmen  to  earn  good  wages,  than 
save  a  little  money  by  employing  rough,  bungling  hands ;  for  there  is 
no  comparison  between  the  advantages  derivable  from  good  and  bad 
work. 

(770.)  The  cutting  of  the  drains  is  commenced  by  that  of  the  main  drain 
which  terminates  at  the  outlet,  and  the  operation  is  commenced  at  the  out- 
let, or  lowest  part  of  the  field.  The  commencement  of  the  operation  is 
done  in  the  same  way  as  pointed  out  in  the  drains  of  the  Elkington  meth- 
od— namely,  by  stretching  the  garden-line,  and  rutting  off  the  breadth  at 
top  with  the  common  spade  by  the  principal  man  of  the  party.  A  second 
man  then  removes  the  top-mould  with  the  spade  ;  and  if  the  subsoil  is  of 
strong  clay,  or  tiles  alone  are  to  be  used  in  filling  the  drains,  he  lays  the 
mould  on  one  side  of  the  drain,  and  the  subsoil  on  the  other.  In  othei 
kinds  of  soils  and  subsoils,  and  where  stones  are  to  be  used  in  conjunction 
with  tiles,  the  separation  of  the  soils  is  not  necessary.  The  I'easons  for 
this  distinction  in  the  use  of  the  soils  will  be  given  a  little  farther  on.  The 
principal  man,  or  contractor,  follows,  and  shovels  off  all  the  mould,  work- 
ing with  his  face  to  the  first  man.  A  third  man — for  the  gang  or  set  of 
drainers  should  consist  of  3,  for  expeditious  and  clean  work — -loosens  the 
top  of  the  subsoil  with  the  tramp-pick,  fig.  37,  and  proceeds  backward  with 
the  picking,  while  the  other  men  are  removing  the  mould  along  the  break 
or  division  measured  off  by  the  line,  perhaps  60  or  70  yards.  The  second 
man  then  removes  the  loosened  subsoil  with  the  spade  in  fig.  170,  which 
is  nan-ower  than  the  common  spade,  being  6  inches  wide  at  the  point,  dig- 
ging with  his  back  to  the  face  of  the  picker — that  is,  working  backward ; 
and  the  leading  man  follows  \vith  a  narrow-pointed  shovel,  fig.  38,  called 

*  It  would  be  extremely  convenient  and  hiiihly  satisfactorj'  were  the  lineal  measure  of  the  rood,  in  which 
all  countrj'  work  is  estimated,  fixed  of  the  same  lenjth  throughout  the  kingdom,  as  the  great  diversities  ex- 
isting in  this  measure  are  truly  perplexing  I  cannot  see  the  utility  of  a  general  law  on  weights  and  meaa- 
ures,  if  such  anomalies  as  this,  and  many  others,  are  allowed  to  exist 


352 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


the  ditcher's  or  hedger's  shovel,  with  which  he  trims  the  sides  of  the  drain, 
and  shovels  out  the  loose  part  of  the  subsoil  left  by  the  digger. 

(771.)  Sliould  the  drain  be  very  wet,  owing  to  a  great  fall  of  ^'8-  ^'0. 
xain,  or  the  cut  draw  much  water  from  the  norosity  of  the  sub- 
Boil,  to  secure  a  proper  consistence  to  the  drain,  it  is  better  to 
leave  off  the  digging  at  this  stage  of  the  work,  and  proceed  to 
eet  off  another  length  of  line  at  the  top ;  and,  indeed,  in  such 
circumstances,  it  would  be  expedient  to  remove  the  top  of  the 
whole  length  of  the  particular  drain  in  hand,  to  allow  the  wa- 
ter time  to  run  off,  and  the  sides  of  the  drain  to  harden,  as  per- 
severance in  digging  to  the  bottom,  in  the  circumstances,  would 
be  attended  with  risk  of  the  sides  falling  in  to  a  considerable 
extent.  This  precaution  in  digging  drains  is  the  more  neces- 
sary to  be  adopted  in  digging  narrow  shallow  drains  than  deep 
ones,  as  planks  cannot  be  used  in  them  to  support  the  falling 
sides,  as  in  fig.  154,  because  the  men  could  not  find  room  in 
small  drains  to  work  helow  the  wedges  which  kecj)  up  the 
planks.  Should  the  ground  be  firm,  or  no  inconvenient  quan- 
tity of  water  be  present  in  the  drain,  the  digging,  of  course, 
may  properly  be  proceeded  with  to  the  bottom  at  once. 

(772.)  To  effect  this,  the  picking  is  renewed  at  the  lower  '^"'^  narrow 
part  of  the  drain,  and  another  spit  of  earth  thrown  out  with  a 
still  narrower  though  of  the  same  form  of  spade  as  in  the  last  figure,  being 
only  4  inches  wide  at  the  point.  The  leading  man  trims  do\\Ti  the  sides 
of  the  drain  with  this  spade,  and  pulls  out  the  remaining  loose  earth  to- 
ward hira  wifb  the  scoor   such  as  in  fig.  171 ;  or  throws  it  out  with  such  a 

Fig.  171. 


THE  EARTH  DUAIN  SCOOP. 


Bcoop  as  in  fig.  152  ;  and  thus  finishes  the  bottom  and  sides  in  a  neat,  even, 
clean,  square,  and  workmanlike  style. 

^  (773.)  What  with  the  experimental  cuts,  and  the.'^e  first  two  spits  of  dig- 
ging below  the  mould,  you  will  be  easily  able  to  determine  the  drawing 
property  of  the  subsoil,  and,  consequently,  the  depth  the  drain  should  go. 
If  the  subsoil  prove  tilly,  but  still  drawing  a  little  water  below  the  mould 
downward,  the  drain  i^liould  certainly  be  3  feet  deep,  and  15  inches  wide 
at  top;  if  of  intermixed  and  minute  veins  of  sand,  and  otherwise  of  good 
drawing  materials,  then  30  inches  of  depth  will  sufl^ce,  and  12  inches  of 
width  at  top  ;   if  of  quite  impervious  clay,  2  feet  deep   and  10  inches  of 

(688)   . 


DRAINING.  353 


width  at  top  will  be  found  sufficient.  It  is  right  to  cut  the  drain  a  little 
deeper  where  there  is  any  sudden  rise  of  the  surface,  and  a  little  shallower 
where  there  are  any  sudden  hollows,  than  to  follow  the  undulations  of  the 
ground  where  these  are  trifling.  As  to  the  distances  betwixt  the  drains 
in  the  first  case  of  a  tilly  but  drawing  bottom,  15  feet  asunder  is,  in  my 
opinion,  quite  wide  enough.  In  the  second  case  of  a  drawing  subsoil, 
drains  at  30  feet  asunder  will  effect  as  much  as  in  the  former  case.  And, 
as  to  pure  clays,  as  15  feet  is  too  wide  a  distance,  I  would  pi-efer  12  feet ; 
but,  to  suit  the  ridges,  there  should  be  a  drain  in  every  open  furrow,  what- 
ever distance  asunder  these  may  be. 

(774.)  In  filling  drains,  it  is  a  common  practice  with  farmers  to  put  in 
the  materials  as  tlie  drain  proceeds  in  the  digging — which,  I  conceive,  is 
an  objectionable  proceeding.  I  think  the  whole  length  of  the  particular 
drain  in  hand  should  be  entirely  cleared  out  to  the  specified  dimensions 
before  the  filling  commence  ;  because  it  is  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  that 
the  state  of  the  work  be  inspected,  in  accordance  with  the  specification, 
before  taking  it  off"  the  contractor's  hands ;  and  inspection  implies  meas- 
urement of  the  contents  in  depth  and  breadth,  and  the  fall  of  the  bottom — 
whether  it  be  regular  throughout,  where  the  slope  of  the  ground  is  regu- 
lar, or  sufficient,  where  the  general  fall  of  the  gi'ound  is  small;  or  whether 
the  fall  is  presei-ved  in  all  the  places  where  the  ground  is  irregular.  These 
are  not  trifling  considerations,  but  essential ;  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  the 
very  efficacy  of  a  drain  as  a  conductor  of  water  entirely  depends  upon 
them. 

(775.)  The  fall  of  the  ground  can  at  any  time  be  ascertained  by  the 
workmen  by  a  simple  contrivance.  As  the  bottom  of  the  drain  is  cleared 
out,  a  damming  of  4  to  6  inches  high  Avill  intercept  and  collect  the  water 
seeking  its  way  along  the  bottom,  and  by  this  it  can  be  seen  whether  the 
level  line  of  the  water  cuts  the  bottom  of  the  drain  as  far  up  as  it  should 
do  according  to  the  specified  fall ;  and  a  succession  of  such  dammings  will 
preserve  the  fall  all  the  way  up  the  drain.  When  the  weather  is  very  dry, 
and  a  sufficiency  of  water  wanting  in  the  drain  to  adopt  this  mode  of  test- 
ing the  fall,  a  few  buckets  of  water  thrown  in  will  detect  it,  and  of  course 
it  is  only  on  comparatively  level  ground  that  such  expedients  as  these  are 
at  all  required. 

(776.)  Another  reason  for  filling  drains  in  this  shallow  mode  of  draining, 
where  they  are  necessarily  numerous,  is  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  eiwT 
— and  not  from  the  lower  to  the  upper,  as  is  too  commonly  the  practice — 
that  the  bottom  of  the  drain  should  be  cleared  out  most  effectually  with  the 
scoop  before  the  materials  are  put  in,  and  this  is  best  and  most  easily  done 
down  the  natural  declivity  of  the  gi'ound;  and  besides,  in  doing  this  it  is 
at  once  seen  whether  the  fall  has  been  preserved,  by  the  following  of  the 
water  down  the  declivity.  In  deep  draining  the  case  is  otherwise,  because 
in  that  case  the  drains  being  few  in  number,  and  each  possessing  impor- 
tance, the  falls  should  be  previously  determined  by  leveling^  and  the 
amount  of  each  leveling  marked,  by  which  means  they  can  be' preserved 
as  the  filling  proceeds ;  and,  besides,  there  would  be  risk  of  a  de«p  drain, 
which  may  be  of  considerable  length,  and  take  a  long  time  to  throw  out, 
falling  in,  to  allow  it  to  remain  open  for  a  length  of  time. 

(777.)  Of  the  materials  for  filling  drams,  I  shall  first  notice  stones,  not 
only  because  they  have  hitherto  been  the  most  common  material,  but  have 
been  for  the  longest  time  employed  for  the  purpose.  Drain  stones  are 
usually  derived  from  two  sources  :  1.  From  the  surface  of  the  land  ;  and 
when  they  are  small  and  round,  not  exceeding  the  size  of  a  goose's  <d%g, 
no  other  material  is  equal  to  them  in  durability  for  the  purposes  of  a  drain ; 

(689) 33 


354 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


and,  2.  From  the  quarry,  where  they  must  be  broken  with  hammers,  like 
road-metal,  to  the  smallness  of  from  2^  to  4  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  a 
pernicious,  and,  indeed,  an  obviously  absurd  practice,  to  mix  promiscu- 
ously stones  of  different  sizes  in  a  drain,  as  such  can  never  assort  together, 
and  nothing  can  be  more  absurd  than  to  throw  in  a  stone  which  nearly  fills 
up  the  bottom  of  a  drain,  and  is  sure  to  make  a  dam  across  it  to  intercept 
water.  All  large  land-stones  should  be  broken  into  small  pieces,  and  any 
large,  angular  piece  should  not  be  put  near  the  bottom,  which  should  be 
kept  as  open  as  possible.  Stones  broken  in  the  quany  are  always  angu- 
lar, and  in  so  far  they  are  of  an  objectionable  shape ;  because  on  fitting 
together,  face  to  face,  they  can  become  a  more  compact  body  than  round 
stones  possibly  can.  No  doubt,  no  ordinary  pressure  u])on  a  body  of  earth 
18  inches  deep  could  squeeze  small,  broken  stones  together  so  as  entirely 
to  compress  the  spaces  between  them  ;  but  gravity,  continually  acting  on 
loose  bodies,  will  in  time  consolidate  small  stones  more  and  more ;  and 
heavy  labor  on  the  surface,  and  subsidence  of  water  through  the  earth, 
assist  by  their  action  to  produce  a  similar  result ;  and  we  all  know  that 
macadamization  makes  a  much  more  compact  road  than  the  old  fashioned 
large,  round  stones. 

(778.)  Stones  should  never  be  broken  at  the  side  of  the  drain.  I  quite 
agree  with  Mi-.  Stirling  when  he  says  that  "  I  prefer  breaking  stones  in  a 
bin.  It  is  more  easy  to  check  the  size,  and  it  is  done  cheaper,  as  other- 
wise each  heap  has  to  be  begun  on  the  sward,  and  many  of  the  stones  are 
forced  into  the  ground,  which  adds  to  the  difficulty  of  lifting  them.  There 
will  be  a  saving  in  carting  the  stones  large,  but  it  will  be  fully  balanced  by 
this  disadvantage.  I  would  deprecate  of  all  practice  that  of  breaking  the 
stones  in  the  field,  and  filling  by  the  chain.     This  may  be  contracted  for 

Fig.  172. 


THI  DRAIN  STONK  HARP  OR  SCRKEV. 


at  a  low  rate,  but  it  is  easy  to  guess  how  the  contractor  makes  wages."* 
But  although  I  would  greatly  prefer  small,  round  stones  to  angular  ones 


•  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  .Society,  vol.  xiL 
(690) 


DRAINING. 


355 


for  drains,  yet  as  the  places  that  afford  small,  round  stones  naturally  are 
very  limited  in  number,  and  draining,  if  confined  to  such  localities,  would 
be  as  limited,  it  is  far  better  to  take  any  sort  of  quan'ied  stones  than  leave 
land  undrained,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  almost  every  sort  of  stones  forms 
an  efficient  and  durable  dx'ain  if  employed  in  a  proper  manner. 

(779.)  As  I  am  acquainted  vv^ith  no  drainer  who  has  bestowed  so  much 
pains  in  the  breaking,  preparing,  and  putting  in  stones  into  drains  as  Mr. 
Roberton,  I  shall  describe  his  method  of  managing  quarried  stones  ;  and 
first  in  regard  to  the  implements  used  by  him  for  that  purpose.  1.  There 
is  a  portable  screen  or  harj)  for  riddling  and  depositing  the  stones,  as  seen 
in  fig.  172,  which  consists  of  "  a  wheelbarrow  a,  over  and  across  which  is 
suspended  a  screen  h,  having  the  bars  more  or  less  apart,  according  to  the 
description  of  materials  intended  to  be  used.  The  upper  end  is  hung  up- 
on two  posts  c  c  about  3  feet  above  the  barrow ;  the  lower  end  rests  upon 
the  opposite  side  of  the  barrow.  To  this  lower  end  is  affixed  a  spout  d, 
attached  about  10  inches  from  the  lower  extremity  of  which  is  a  board  e, 
by  means  of  two  arms  f.  Another  screen  g,  about  one-half  the  length, 
and  having  the  bars  about  half  an  inch  apart,  is  hung  parallel,  about  10 
inches  below  the  larger  one.  The  upper  end  of  g  is  fixed  by  means  of 
two  small  iron  bars  li  to  the  upper  end  of  the  larger  screen  ;  the  lower  end 
rests  upon  a  board  i  sloping  outward  upon  the  side  of  the  barrow  opposite 
to  that  on  which  the  spout  d  is  situate."  2.  A  movable  trough,  or,  as  it  is 
commonly  called,  a  tail-hoard,  a,  fig.  173,  is  attached  to  the  hind  part  of  a 

Fig.  173. 


THE  TAIL-BOARD  TROUGH  FOR  RECEIVING  THE  DRAIN  STONES  IN  THEIR  FALL. 

cart,  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  any  stones  that  may  drop  while  the  work  • 
men  are  shoveling  them  out  of  the  cart.  A  portion  of  the  hind  part  of  a 
cart  h  shows  the  manner  in  which  it  is  affixed  to  it.     3.  Fig.  174  is  a  smaW 

Fig.  174. 


THE  DRAIN  STONE  RAKE. 

iron  rahe,  used  by  the  workman  in  charge  of  the  screen,  "  for  the  purpos^* 

(691) 


356 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FAKM WINTER. 


Fig.  175. 


of  making  the  surface  of  the  larger  stones  of  a  uniform  hight  before  being 
covered  with  the  smaller."  4.  Fig.  175  is  called  a  "  beater,  Yfhich  is  a 
square  piece  of  wood  the  width  of  the  drain,  used  for 
beating  the  smaller  stones  into  the  interstices  of  the 
larger  ones,  and  thus  leveling  the  surface  of  the  drain."* 

(780.)  The  stones  are  put  in  in  this  manner:  The 
eaith  is  all  put  on  one  side  of  the  drain.  The  baiTow- 
Bcreen  is  placed  on  the  other,  so  as  the  board  e,  fig. 
172,  attached  to  the  lower  end  of  the  spout  d,  shall 
reach  the  opposite  side  of  the  drain  k.  The  cart,  with 
a  load  of  broken  stones  from  the  bin,  is  brought  to  the 
same  side  of  the  drain  as  the  barrow,  and  a  little  in 
advance,  and  there  the  tail-board  a,  fig.  173,  is  attached 
to  the  hinder  part  of  it.  The  carter  then  shovels  the 
stones  out  of  the  cart,  and  empties  them  over  the  top 
of  the  screen.  In  doing  this,  some  care  is  requisite ; 
for,  if  the  stones  are  thrown  over  the  screen  with  force, 
they  will  not  alight  sooner  than  half-way  down  the 
screen,  and  thus  its  screening  efficacy  will  be  impaired. 
The  proper  method  is  to  rest  the  shovel  on  the  top  of 
the  screen,  which  part  should  be  shod  with  plate-iron, 
and  merely  turn  it  over,  by  which  a  separation  of  the 
stones  is  at  once  effected — the  larger  ones,  rolling 
down,  strike  against  the  board  e,  fig.  172,  and  drop 
into  the  middle  of  the  drain,  without  disturbing  the 
earth  on  either  side.  The  smaller  ones,  at  the  same  time,  pass  through 
the  upper  screen  b,  and,  being  separated  from  the  rubbish  by  falling  on  the 
lower  screen  g,  roll  down  into  the  barrow  a,  while  the  rubbish  descends  to 
the  ground  on  the  side  of  the  barow  farthest  from  the  drain. 

(781.)   The  best  form  of  shovel  for  putting  the  stones  over  the  top  of  the 
screen  is  what  is  called  a  frying-pan  or  lime  shovel,  represented  by  fig.  176, 


THE  DRAIN  STONS 
BEATER. 


Fig.  176. 


THE  FRYING-PAN  OR  LIME-SHOVEI.. 


the  raised  back  of  which  keeps  the  stones  in  a  collected  form  until  they  aie 
turned  over  the  screen,  and  its  point  secures  an  easy  access  along  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cart  under  the  stones.  Such  shovels  are  much  in  use  for  spread- 
ing lime  and  shoveling  up  the  bottoms  of  dunghills  in  the  border  counties 
of  Scotland,  and  they  cost  3s.  lOd.  each  of  medium  size,  ready  for  use. 

(782.)  One  man  takes  charge  of  the  filling  of  the  drain.  His  duties  are 
to  move  the  baiTow  forward  along  its  side,  a.s  the  larger  stones  are  filled 
to  the  required  hight ;  to  level  them  with  the  rake,  fig.  174  ;  to  shovel  the 
smaller  stones  from  the  barrow,  spread  them  regularly  over  the  top  of  the 
larger,  and  beat  them  down  with  the  beater,  fig.  175,  so  as  to  form  a  close 
and  level  surface  through  which  no  earth  may  pass.  When  the  stones  are 
broken  in  the  quarry  so  as  to  pass  through  a  ring  4  inches  in  diameter,  a 
quarter  of  them  is  so  small,  or  should  be  made  so  small,  as  to  pass  through 


•  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vtL  xiv. 
(692) 


DRAINING, 


367 


the  wires  of  the  upper  screen  h,  fig.  172,  which  are  If  inches  apart ;  and 
they  then  will  be  found  sufficient  to  give  the  top  of  the  drain  a  covering  of 
2  or  3  inches  deep,  which,  being  beaten  closely  down,  requires  neither 
straw,  turf,  or  anything  else  fo  cover  them. 

(783.)  With  regard  to  covering  with  vegetable  substances,  Mr.  Roberton 
says,  with  much  probable  truth,  that  "  the  only  possible  use  of  a  covering 
of  straw  or  turf  is  to  prevent  any  of  the  earth,  when  thrown  back  into  the 
drain,  getting  down  among  the  stones ;  but  it  is  evident  that  such  a  cover- 
ing will  soon  decay,  and  then  it  becomes  really  injurious,  because,  being 
lighter  (and  finer)  than  the  soil,  it  will,  when  decomposed,  be  easily  earned 
down  by  any  water  that  may  fall  directly  upon  the  drain  ;  and,  if  the  sur- 
face of  the  stones  has  been  broken  so  small  as  to  prevent  the  drain  sustain- 
ing any  injury  in  this  way,  then  the  covering  itself  must  be  altogether  su- 
perfluous. But  farther,  it  will  be  found  that  the  effect  of  this  practice,  ir 
many  cases,  is  still  more  injurious.  When  drains  are  filled  in  the  usua' 
way,  whether  \vith  land  or  quarried  stones,  a  man,  or  sometimes  a  woman 
is  appointed  to  level  the  surface  and  put  on  the  straw  or  turf;  and  the  per- 
son appointed  to  this  duty  knows  that  his  master  expects  him  to  do  a  cer- 
tain number  of  roods  per  day,  and,  finding  the  stones  difficult  to  break,  he 
too  frequently  contents  himself  with  merely  leveling  the  surface,  and,  by 
means  of  the  covering,  the  fault  is  effectually  concealed.  By  the  method, 
however,  of  separating  the  small  stones  from  the  large,  the  whole  expense 
of  this  sort  of  breaking  is  saved,  and  a  covering  is  given  to  the  drain  on 
which  time  will  produce  no  change."*  I  have  often  grudged  fine  straw 
being  wasted  in  covering  drains,  when  less  valuable  materials  might  have 
been  collected  for  the  purpose,  such  as  dry  leaves,  dry  quickens,  tanner's 
refiise  bark  when  near  towns,  coarse  bog  hay,  broken  moss,  &c.  I  never 
would  suffer  a  particle  of  good  straw  to  be  wasted  in  covering  drains. 

(784.)  A  drain  completed  in  this  manner  with  stones  may  be  seen  in  fig. 
177.  The  dimensions  given  by  Mr.  Roberton  are  33  inches  deep,  7  inches 
wide  at  bottom,  and  9  inches  wide  at  the  bight  of 
the  stones,  which  is  15  inches  ;  and  within  these 
dimensions  15  cubic  feet  of  stones  will  fill  a  rood 
of  6  yards  of  drain.  Mr.  Stirling  has  30  inches  deep 
in  the  furrows,  5  inches  wide  at  bottom,  and  8  inches 
wide  at  15  inches  from  the  bottom ;  the  contents 
of  a  rood  of  6  yards  being  rather  more  than  12  cu- 
bic feet.  The  figure  here  represents  a  drain  36 
inches  deep,  9  inches  wide  at  bottom,  12  inches  at 
the  top  of  the  stones,  and  the  stones  18  inches  deep. 
These  dimensions  give  cubical  contents  of  23^  feet 
per  rood  of  6  yards ;  that  is,  about  half  as  many 
stones  more  than  the  drains  of  Mr.  Roberton,  and 
of  course  so  much  more  expensive.  I  own  I  am 
partial  to  the  breadth  of  the  common  spade  as  a 
gauge  for  the  width  of  the  bottom  of  a  drain  that  is 
to  be  filled  with  stones,  because  it  gives  plenty  of 

room  to  them  to  form  a  durable  stony  filter,  which  with  small  broken  stones 
7  inches  can  scarcely  do  so  well,  especially  when 

they  are  broken  to  4  inches  in  diameter.  I  am  quite  persuaded,  neverthe- 
less, that  the  permanency  of  a  drain  does  not  depend  so  much  on  the  quan- 
tity as  upon  the  manner  in  which   the  stones  are  put  into  it ;   and  I  am  as 


Fig.  177 


THE  SMALL  DRAI.V   FILLED 


well  persuaded  that  it  is  no  matter  what  description  of  materials  are  used, 


*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultuial  Society,  vol.  xiv. 
(693)  ' 


358  THE  DOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

provitled  there  is  always  left  an  open  and  large  enough  space  at  the  bot- 
tom to  contain  the  greatest  quantity  of  water  that  the  drain  can  possibly 
have  to  receive,  and  provided  also  that  the  opening  shall  be  protected  from 
any  earth  or  mud  getting  in  to  intercept  the  flow  of  water.  Yet  I  agree 
with  Mr.  Stirling  that  our  experience  is  not  sufficient  to  prove  what  is  the 
smallest  size  that  a  drain  might  be  to  be  j)crmancnt.  In  which  uncertainty 
it  should  be  of  sufficient  breadth  to  prevent  moles  pushing  across  it ;  and 
this  consideration  regarding  moles  acquires  greater  importance  the  more 
the  land  is  drained ;  for,  the  deeper  we  confine  water  vtidcr  the  ground, 
the  deeper  will  the  worms  b6  obliged  to  go  in  search  of  it,  and  of  course 
the  nearer  the  bottom  of  the  drains  will  the  moles  be  disposed  to  buiTow 
in  search  of  their  food.  Mr.  Stirling  proposes  only  to  make  the  bottom  of 
the  drain  5  inches,  but  then  he  directs  the  stones  to  be  broken  to  pass 
through  a  ring  of  2^  inches  diameter.  Such  diversity  of  opinion  on  the 
same  subject  shows  you  either  that  expei-ience  has  not  as  yet  proved  what 
capacity  of  drain  is  the  best,  or  that  it  is  immaterial  to  the  draining  of  land 
of  what  breadth  drains  are  made.  The  principle  I  maintain  in  the  making 
of  drains  is,  that,  being  permanent  works,  they  ought  to  be  made  in  the 
most  substantial  manner.  It  has  not  yet  been  ascertained  by  experiment 
what  dimensions,  in  given  ciiTumstances,  affi)rd  sufficient  permanency,  and 
until  that  point  has  been  settled  it  is  wisdom  rather  to  exceed  than  to  cur- 
tail the  dimensions ;  and,  although  in  the  mean  time  the  wisdom  may  be 
"  dear  bought,"  the  question  of  cost  is  a  secondary  one  to  efficiency  and 
permanency. 

(785.)  With  regard  to  the  quantity  of  stones  wscd  in  such  drains,  and  the 
time  required  for  putting  them  in,  Mr.  Roberton's  experience  is,  in  drains 
of  the  above  dimensions,  namely,  33  inches  deep,  7  inches  wide  at  bottom, 
15  inches  filled  with  stones,  and  9  inches  wide  at  the  top  of  the  stones — 
the  cubical  contents  being  15  feet  per  rood  of  G  yards — supposing  that  a 
set  of  carts,  driven  by  boys  or  women,  are  alile  to  keep  a  man  employed 
in  unloading  them,  and  another  man  taking  charge  of  the  screen-barrow, 
60  to  70  roods  can  be  filled  in  a  summer  day  of  10  hours  ;  but,  as  the  lin- 
eal length  depends  on  the  dimensions  of  the  drain,  the  work,  reduced  to 
cubical  contents,  gives  3^  cubic  yards  j)er  hour.  These  data  were  derived 
from  whole  pieces  of  work,  such  as  in  1840  Mr.  Roberton  contracted  for, 
for  the  execution  of  4,000  roods,  the  filling  to  commence  on  the  1st  July 
and  to  be  completed  on  the  12th  August.  There  were  2  sets  of  carts  and 
2  screens  employed,  and  the  contractors  had  some  stones  ready  and  part 
of  the  drains  half  executed  by  the  1st  July.  When  the  filling  commenced 
66  roods  were  finished  every  day — that  is,  as  it  haj)pened,  a  stretch  of  drain 
of  exactly  400  yards  ;  but,  as  the  weather  was  very  unfavorable  for  the 
work,  only  3,300  roods,  instead  of  4,000,  were  executed,  in  which  about 
2,000  cubic  yards  of  stones  were  bui-ied.  In  1839,  of  drains  of  28  inches 
deep,  10  to  12  inches  of  stones  in  depth,  and  about  10  cubic  feet  contents 
per  rood,  2,100  roods,  or  from  90  to  110  roods  jier  day,  were   filled,  with 

1  set  of  carts  and  1  screen,  from  1st  July  to  5th  August. 

(786.)  In  Mr.  Stirling's  case  of  the  drains  mentioned  above,  namely,  30 
inches  deep  in  the  furrow,  5  inches  wide  at  bottom,  and  8  inches  at  the  top 
of  the  stones — which  were  15  inches  deep,  and  their  cubical  contents  12.3 
feet  per  rood  of  6  yards,  the  stones  being  supposed  to  be  carted  1  mile — 

2  men  filled  60  caits  of  broken  stones  each  day,  allowing  for  loss  of  time 
in  backing  into  the  bin  of  stones  ;  a  man  emptied  a  cart-load  into  the  drain 
in  15  minutes,  and  was  ready  to  return  with  the  cart  in  2  minutes  more, 
the  horse  being  supposed  to  walk  at  the  rate  c}f  3  miles  per  hour.  In  this 
way,  a  chain  of  22  yards,  or  3.66  roods,  required  3  carts  of  stones. 

(694) 


DRAINING.  359 


(787.)  So  much  for  stone,  and  now  for  the  cost  of  tile-draining.  The 
dimensions  of  tile-drains  depend  entirely  on  the  mode  they  are  to  be  con- 
structed. If  no  soles  are  to  be  employed,  they  may  be  the  narrower  ;  and 
if  nothing  else  but  tile  and  sole  are  to  be  put  into  them  before  the  earth  is 
returned,  they  may  be  the  shallower.  If  the  same  rule  be  followed  in  re- 
gard to  them  as  with  stone-drains — that  is,  if  18  inches  of  earth  should  be 
retained  over  the  hard  materials,  to  give  liberty  to  deep  plowing — then  18 
inches,  added  to  the  tile  and  covering,  is  the  least  depth  that  a  tile-drain 
should  have ;  and  its  least  breadth  is  determined  by  the  breadth  of  sole 
that  is  used. 

(788.)  As  the  dimensions  of  these  drains  depend  on  the  use  of  soles,  the 
necessity  for  their  adoption  should  be  settled  at  once.  It  seems  to  be  the 
uniform  opinion  of  all  writers  on  tile-draining  that,  "  in  hard-bottomed 
land,  the  sole-tile  is  unnecessary  ;  but  why  unnecessary,  as  I  have  before 
observed,  no  one  has  proved  to  mi/  satisfaction.  Water  being  the  sub- 
stance to  whose  use  drains  are  appropriated,  I  may  mention,  in  regard  to 
the  quantity  that  may  sometimes  be  found  in  drains,  that  Mr.  Stirling  has 
found  that,  after  a  veiy  heavy  fall  of  rain,  tiles  of  2f  by  31  inches  are  filled 
with  water  nearly  ^  full  ;*  and  yet  writers  on  draining  wish  to  persuade 
you  that  such  a  body  of  water  will  not  at  all  affect  a  clay  subsoil  or  endan- 
ger the  stability  of  tiles.  I  advise  you  to  believe  no  such  assertions,  but 
take  for  granted  that  all  drains  having  an  earthy  bottom  of  whatever  na- 
ture, intended  to  be  occupied  by  tiles,  should  have  soles,  or  something 
equivalent — such  as  slates — under  the  tiles,  to  protect  the  earth  from  the 
destructive  effects  of  water.  Mr.  Geoi'ge  Bell,  Woodhouselees,  Dumfries- 
shire, has  used  Welsh  slates  instead  of  tile-soles,  and  found  them  equally 
efficacious  and  much  cheaper.^  Gray  slate  and  pavement  quarries,  such 
as  abound  in  Forfarshire,  \\'Ould  supply  an  abundance  of  excellent  materi- 
als for  the  soles  of  drains. 

(789.)  The  breadth  of  the  sole,  then,  determines  the  width  of  the  bottom 
of  the  drain  ;  and,  should  the  breadth  vary  in  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, the  width  must  in  practice  be  made  to  suit  the  sole,  but  it  is  probable 
that  soles  vs-ill  be  made  to  suit  the  proper  bi-eadth  of  drains,  when  that  has 
been  determined  by  experience.  But  as  that  point  has  not  yet  been  deter- 
mined by  experience,  and  soles  are  made  of  sizes  most  convenient  for  their 
manufacture,  the  drains  must  continue  to  be  made  of  the  dimensions  suited 
to  the  materials  by  which  they  are  to  be  filled,  until  a  better  order  of  things 
arrive.  I  perceive  that  the  breadth  of  soles  made  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Kilmarnock,  at  the  tile-kilns  belonging  to  the  Duke  of  Portland,  in  Ayr- 
shire, as  well  as  those  made  by  Mr.  Boyle,  tile-maker  in  Ayr,  is  7  inches  ; 
and  this  breadth  is  made  to  answer  tiles  varying  from  4  to  3  inches  in 
width,  inside  measure.  For  a  4-inch  tile,  a  naiTower  width  than  7  inches 
would  not  answer  ;  as  the  tile  is  ^  of  an  inch  thick,  only  \  of  an  inch  is  left 
beyond  each  side  of  the  tile  when  placed  on  the  sole,  which  is  as  little 
space  as  it  can  stand  on  securely.  For  the  smaller  sized  tile  of  3  inches, 
the  width  is  ample  ;  but  still  it  is  no  disadvantage  to  a  tile  to  have  plenty 
of  room  on  a  sole,  as  its  position  can  easily  be  fixed  by  wedging  in  stones 
on  each  side  against  the  walls  of  the  drain,  when  stones  are  used  above 
the  tiles  ;  or  it  leaves  sufficient  room  for  a  lapping  of  turf  over,  and  wedg- 
ing of  earth  on  each  side  of,  the  top  of  the  tile.  In  the  case  of  a  5-inch- 
vvide  drain  at  bottom,  the  smallest  size  of  tile,  2\  inches  wide  inside,  must 
be  used,  as  only  |^  of  an  inch  would  be  left  on  each  side  of  that  width  of 

*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  .-isricultural  Society,  vol.  xii.  t  Ibid.  vol.  siii. 

(695) 


360  THE  BOOK  OP  THE  FARM WINTER. 

tile.  I  am  aware  that  to  press  the  tile  into  the  drain,  made  tight  to  fit  it, 
without  a  tile-sole,  is  a  very  common  practice  among  drainers  ;  hut  the 
practice  of  pressing  hard  against  the  sides  of  the  drain  is,  in  my  opinion, 
objectionable,  inasmuch  as  it  is  not  the  hard  tile,  but  the  free  side  of  the 
drain,  that  draws  the  water  from  the  land ;  and  to  press  a  hard  sul)stance 
like  a  tile  against  the  earth  in  a  shnlloic  cut,  is  very  like  an  attempt  to 
curtail  the  extent  of  di-awing  surface.  The  inducement  to  use  such  expe- 
dients would  be  greatly  removed  were  soles  made  to  suit  each  description 
of  tile;  and,  what  would  be  still  better,  were  the  sizes  of  tiles  more  limit- 
ed in  their  range,  and  more  uniformly  alike  ;  fur,  as  at  present  made,  a 
great  diversity  of  sizes  exists  throughout  the  country,  in  the  area  of  verti- 
cal section  as  well  as  in  length,  so  that  the  prices  quoted  afford  no  true 
criterion  of  their  intrinsic  worth. 

(790.)  Soles  are  usually  made  flat,  but  Mr.  Boyle  makes  them  cur  red ; 
not  because  they  are  better  suited  for  the  purpose,  but  merely  because 
they  are  more  easily  dried  in  the  sheds  ;  but  a  curs-ed  sole  is  objectiona- 
ble, as  it  is  more  difficult  to  form  a  smooth  bed  for  it  to  lie  upon,  and  it  is 
more  apt  to  break  when  it  happens  not  to  be  firmly  laid  upon  its  bed  than 
a  flat  sole. 

(791.)  As  to  tiles,  their  perfect  form  is  thus  well  described  by  Mr.  Boyle : 
"All  tiles  should  be  a  fourth  higher  than  wide;  the  top  rather  quickly 
turned,  and  the  sides  nearly  perpendicular.  Tiles  which  are  made  to 
spread  out  at  the  lower  edge,  and  flat  on  the  top,  are  weak,  and  bad  for 
conveying  water.  Some  people  prefer  tiles  with  flanges  instead  of  soles  ; 
but,  if  placed  even  in  a  drain  with  a  considerably  hard  bottom,  the  mould- 
ering of  the  subsoil  by  the  currents  of  air  and  water  causes  them  to  sink 
and  get  deranged."*  Tiles  should  be  smooth  on  the  surface,  heavy,  firm, 
and  ring  like  cast-iron  when  struck  with  the  knuckle.  They  should  be  so 
strong  when  set  as  to  allow  a  man  not  only  to  stand,  but  to  leap  upon 
them  without  breaking.  The  introduction  of  machinery'  into  the  manufac- 
ture of  drain-tiles,  by  compressing  the  clay,  and  working  it  thoroughly  in 
a  pug-mill  to  prepare  it  for  being  compressed,  has  greatly  tended  to  in- 
crease the  strength  of  tiles.  I  have  seen  drain-tiles  so  rough,  spongy, 
crooked,  and  thin,  as  to  be  shivered  to  pieces  by  a  night's  frost  when  laid 
down  beside  the  drain.  The  use  of  machinery  has  caused  a  great  deal 
more  clay  to  be  put  into  them,  and  their  greater  substance  has  been  the 
cause  of  improvement  in  the  construction  of  kilns,  in  which  they  are  now 
burned  to  a  uniform  texture,  as  well  as  some  avoidance  of  breakage  in  the 
manufacture  ;  by  all  which,  of  course,  their  cost  is  lessened.  An  under- 
burnt  as  well  as  an  over-burnt  tile  is  bad,  the  former  being  spongy  and  ab- 
sorbing water,  and  ultimately  falling  down  ;  and  the  latter  is  so  brittle  as 
to  break  when  accidentally  struck  against  any  object. 

(792.)  The  Icngt/i  of  drain-tiles  varies  in  diflerent  parts  of  the  country. 
Mr.  Boyle's  are  13  inches;  the  Duke  of  Portland's,  in  Ayrshire,  and  Mr. 
Beart's,  Godmanchester,  Hertfordshire,  12  inches ;  and  those  from  the 
Marquis  of  Tweeddale's  machine,  14  inches,  when  burnt.  If  the  price  is 
the  same  per  1,000,  of  course  the  14-inch  tile  is  cheaper  than  the  12-inch, 
but  otherwise  the  12-inch  is  the  handiest  article  in  the  manufacture,  as  be- 
ing less  apt  to  waste  in  handling,  and  twist  when  in  the  kiln  ;  and  their 
number  is  much  more  easily  calculated  in  anv  given  length  of  drain.  The 
following  table  shows  the  numbers  of  tiles  required  for  an  imperial  acre 
of  the  different  lengths  made,  and  placed  at  the  stated  distances : 


Prize  Esuyi  of  the  Hlghlind  and  Ag^ricultnnJ  Society,  roL  xU. 
1696) 


DRAINING. 

361 

12  ill. 

13  in. 

14  in. 

15  in. 

Drains  at  12  feet  apart  require  3630 

3351 

3111 

2904  per  acre. 

,, 

15 

2904 

2681 

2489 

2323 

18 

2420 

2234 

2074 

1936 

21 

2074 

1914 

1777 

16.=>9 

24 

1815 

1675 

1556 

1452 

.. 

27 

1613 

1480 

1383 

1291 

.. 

30 

1452 

1340 

1245 

1162 

33 

1320 

1218 

1131 

1056 

., 

36 

1210 

1117 

1037 

968 

The  numbers  of  each  length  of  tile  required  at  intermediate  distances  can 
easily  be  calculated  from  these  data. 

(793.)  I  give  here  a  representation  of  a  well-formed  drain-tile,  and  how 
tiles  should  be  set  on  soles,  as  in  fig.  178,  where  a  and  b  are  two  12-inch 


Fig.  178. 


THE  DRAIN-TILES   PROPERLY  SET  UPON  TILE-SOLES. 

tiles,  of  the  correct  shape  described  in  paragraph  (791)  by  Mr.  Boyle. — 
They  are  represented  as  set  upon  the  sole-tiles  c  ;  and,  to  insui'e  a  contin- 
uation of  the  same  relation  between  tile  and  sole,  the  former  should  stand 
upon  part  of  two  of  the  latter,  making  the  joinings  of  the  tiles  intermediate 
with  those  of  the  soles,  the  latter  being  also  12  inches  in  length.  The 
drain-tiles  used  for  draining  the  estate  of  Netherby,  in  Cumberland,  be- 
longing to  Sir  James  Graham,  Bart.,  and  represented  in  vol.  vii.  p.  392  of 
the  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  are  more 
pointed  in  the  arch  than  these,  but,  on  that  account,  are  not  so  strong  in 
the  shoulder  to  bear  a  weight  upon  them.  It  is  the  practice  of  some  tile- 
drainers  to  put  a  \  sole  under  every  joining  of  2  tiles,  leaving  the  interme- 
diate space  of  the  bottom  without  any  sole,  imagining  that  this  will  insure 
sufficient  steadiness  to  tiles  on  what  they  call  hard  clay,  while  only  half 
the  number  of  soles  are  used ;  but  I  hope  I  have  said  enough  on  the  hard- 
ness of  clay  when  in  contact  with  water,  for  you  to  avoid  so  precarious  a 
practice. 

(794.)  There  is  a  mode  of  joining  tiles  in  drains  that  meet  one  another 
that  deserves  attention.  The  usual  practice  is  to  break  a  piece  off  the 
corner  of  1  or  2  main-drain  tiles,  where  the  tiles  of  the  common  drains 
should  be  connected  with  them.  In  breaking  off  corners,  thei'e  is  risk  of 
breaking  the  entire  tile ;  and,  no  doubt,  many  are  broken  when  subjected 
to  this  treatment.  Another  plan  is  to  set  2  main-drain  tiles  so  far  asunder 
as  the  inside  width  of  a  common-drain  tile,  and  the  opening  on  the  other 
side  of  the  tiles,  if  not  occupied  in  the  same  manner  by  the  tiles  of  another 
drain,  is  filled  up  with  pieces  of  broken  tiles  or  stones,  or  any  other  hard 
substance.  It  is  possible  that  the  broken  piece  of  tile,  so  placed,  may  be 
farther  broken  or  dislodged  by  the  returning  of  the  earth  and  the  action 
of  moles,  which  may  push  in  earth  at  that  part,  and  render  all  above  it 
useless.  This  is,  perhaps,  a  better  plan  than  running  the  risk  of  breaking 
a  number  of  tiles,  and,  after  all,  failing  in  making  the  opening  suitable  for 
the  reception  of  the  adjoining  drain-tiles.  Both  plans,  however,  are  highly 
objectionable,  and  should  never  be  resorted  to  where  tiles,  formed  for  the 
purpose  of  receiving  others  in  their  sides,  can  be  procured,  Mr.  Boyle, 
of  Ayr,  makes  main-drain  tiles  with  openings   on  purpose  to  receive  the 

(697) 


362 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


THE    JUNCTION    OF    A    COMMON    TIL! 
WITH  A  MAIN-DRAIN    ONE. 


shouldered  end  of  the  furrow-tiles  ,*  and  to  answer  a  similar  purpose  in 
particular  situations,  where   such  tiles   cannot  be  conveniently  joined,  he 
makes  i  and  \    lengths  of  main  and  furrow 
tiles,  which   may  be  so   arranged    in  regard  f's- 1'^- 

to  one  another's  position  as  to  conjoin  the 
openings  of  both  at  the  same  place.  Fig. 
179  represents  the  mode  of  joining  a  com- 
mon drain  with  a  main-drain  tile,  having  an 
opening  in  its  side.  The  common  tile  b  is 
not  inserted  entirely  into  the  main-drain  tile 
a,  but  only  placed  against  it,  with  a  small 
shoulder,  that  the  openings  of  both  tiles  may 
be  always  in  conjunction. 

(795.)  The  outlet  forms  the  end  of  the 
main  drain,  and  its  proper  place  deserves 
serious  consideration.  There  should  be  a 
decided  fall  from  the  outlet,  whether  it  is  affected  by  natural  or  artificial 
means.  If  it  be  very  small — and  I  have  already  stated  (751)  that  a  small 
fall  is  all  that  is  lequisite — that  is,  1  foot  in  150  feet,  or  3  feet  in  the  mile, 
as  indicated  by  the  spirit  level — the  open  ditch  into  which  the  main  drain 
issues  should  be  scoured  deep  en«ugh  for  the  purpose,  even  for  a  consid- 
erable distance ;  and  when  this  expedient  is  adopted,  it  will  be  requisite 
to  see  every  year  that  the  outlet  is  kept  open,  and  the  ditch  scoured  as 
often  as  necessary  for  the  purpose. 

(796.)  It  is  a  frequent  charge  of  neglect  against 
farmers,  that  they  allow  open  ditches  almost  to 
fill  up  before  they  are  again  scoured  out ;  and  a 
not  unfreiiuent  excuse  for  the  neglect  is,  that 
scouring  of  ditches  to  any  extent  incurs  consider- 
able labor  and  expense.  No  doubt  they  do,  and 
no  wonder,  since  so  much  work  has  to  be  done, 
when  It  is  done.  Were  the  ditches  scoured  out 
when  they  actually  required  it — nay,  every  year, 
if  that  is  found  necessary  for  the  welfare  of  stock, 
fences,  or  drains — so  little  expen.-<e  would  be  in- 
curred at  one  time  as  to  remove  every  complaint 
against  the  labrn-  as  a  burden  ;  but  much  better, 
in  every  case  where  it  can  be  done,  to  incur  the 
expense  at  once  of  converting  an  open  ditch  into 
a  covered  drain,  than  grudge  the  expense  of 
keeping  it  in  a  ])roper  state. 

(797.)  Should  the  fall  from  the  mouth  of  the 
main  drain  to  a  river  be  too  small,  and  there  be 
risk,  at  times,  of  the  overflowings  of  the  river 
sending  back-water  into  the  drain,  the  drain 
should  be  carried  down  as  far  by  the  side  of  the 
river  as  will  secure  a  sufficient  f^ill  for  the  outlet. 
Rather  be  at  the  expense  of  carrying  the  drain 
under  a  mill-crturse  or  rivulet,  than  permit  back- 
water to  enter  it. 

(798.)  A  spirit  level,  such   as  fig.  180,    1  have 
found  a  very  convenient  instrument  for  ascertaining  such  a  point,  and  gen- 
erally for  taking  levels  in  fields.     It  is  furnished  with  eye  sights  a  b,  and 


SPIUIT     I.KVKI.    SKT 
OBSERVATION. 


*  See  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xii.,  Plate  L,  for  figure  of  this  tile. 
(698) 


DRAINING.  363 


when  in  use  is  placed  into  a  framing  of  brass,  which  operates  as  a  spring 
to  adjust  it  to  the  level  position  J,  by  the  action  of  the  large-headed  brass 
screw  c.  A  stud  is  affixed  to  the  framing,  and  pushed  firmly  into  a  gimlet 
hole  in  the  top  of  the  short  rod  c,  which  is  pushed  or  driven  into  the  ground 
at  the  spot  whence  the  level  is  desired  to  be  ascertained.  I  need  scarcely 
mention  that  the  bight  of  the  eye-sight  from  the  ground  is  deducted  from 
the  bight  of  observation,  and  which  quantity  is  easily  obtained  by  having 
the  rod  marked  off"  in  inches  and  feet ;  but  I  may  mention  that  you  should 
use  this  instrument  in  all  cases  of  draining  on  level  ground,  even  where 
you  are  confident  that  you  know  the  fall  of  the  ground,  for  the  eye  is  a 
very  deceitful  monitor  for  informing  you  of  the  levelness  of  ground.  In 
one  case  of  my  own,  I  was  pretty  sure  by  the  eyfi  chat  the  outlet  to  a  di- 
vision of  drains  in  a  field  should  fall,  at  some  yards  off',  into  an  open  ditch, 
which  constantly  contained  spring  water.  The  contractor  of  the  drains 
was  of  the  same  opinion.  On  testing  with  the  spirit  level,  however,  we 
found  that  the  bottom  of  the  outlet  would  have  been  8  inches  below  the 
bottom  of  the  ditch  instead  of  above  it.  As,  in  this  particular  case,  it  would 
have  occasioned  a  cutting  of  200  yards  to  get  a  proper  fall  for  the  outlet  in 
another  direction,  I  caused  a  narrow  well  to  be  sunk  on  the  spot,  8  feet 
deep,  to  the  sti*atum  of  gravel  below,  and,  on  being  filled  with  stones,  the 
gravel  absorbed  all  the  water  from  the  drains.  Such  a  spirit  level,  well 
finished,  costs  l-5s.  When  not  in  use,  the  framing  is  concealed,  and  the 
spirit-tube  protected  by  a  movable  cover  ;  and  the  whole  instrument,  be- 
ing only  8  inches  in  length,  Ij  inches  deep,  and  1  inch  broad,  and  light 
withal,  can  be  easily  cari'ied  in  the  pocket,  while  its  rod  may  be  used  as  a 
staff. 

(799.)  It  may  happen  that,  through  the  undulatory  nature  of  the  gi'ound, 
more  than  one  outlet  will  be  required  to  clear  a  field  of  water,  that  is, 
one  division  of  drains  maybe  let  more  easily  out  in  one  place,  and  another 
division  more  easily  in  another.  In  such  a  case,  it  should  be  well  consid- 
ered whether  both  outlets  should  be  joined  together  or  carried  away  sep- 
arately, the  latter  being  the  less  objectionable  mode. 

(800.)  The  cutting  of  the  main  drain  should  be  entirely  finished  before 
the  tiles  are  laid  in  it ;  and  immediately  after  it  is  finished,  it  should  be 
measured  with  the  drain-gauge,  fig.  155,  to  ascertain  if  it  contains  the  spe- 
cified dimensions  and  fall. 

(801.)  While  the  earth  is  throwing  out  toward  the  narrowest  side  of 
the  head-ridge,  that  is,  next  the  fence,  the  carts  should  be  laying  down  the 
tiles  and  soles  along  the  open  side  next  the  field  ;  or  they  can  be  laid  down 
before  the  drain  is  begun  to  be  opened,  and  after  its  line  of  direction  has 
been  fixed.  To  be  certain  that  the  number  of  tiles  and  soles  are  laid 
down,  they  should  each  be  placed  end  to  end  respectively  along  the  whole 
line,  the  soles  nearest  the  drain  lying  against  the  tiles,  among  which,  of 
course,  broken  ones  are  not  counted,  though  a  sole  fractured  in  two  will 
lay  down  well  enough  in  a  good  bed  between  two  whole  ones.  The  tiles 
with  the  opening  in  the  side,  along  with  its  conjunctive  small  tile,  fig.  179, 
should  be  laid  down  at  the  distances  determined  on  for  the  small  drains  to 
enter  the  main  drain.  These  preliminary  arrangements  should  be  care- 
fully attended  to,  or  much  inconvenience  may  be  occasioned  in  carrying 
tiles  and  soles  to  and  fro  to  the  person  who  lays  them  in.  It  is  necessary 
beforehand  to  instruct  the  plowman  who  is  to  lay  them  down  out  of  the 
cart,  of  the  plan,  as  some  mistake  will  inevitably  ensue,  if  he  is  merely 
told  to  lay  down  the  tiles  and  soles  by  the  drain  ;  for  few  plowmen  reflect 
on  the  consequences  of  what  they  are  doing.  If,  by  inadvertence  to  these 
minutiae  of  practice,  more  or  fewer  tiles   or  soles  are  laid  down  than  re 

(699) 


364  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

quired,  part  of  the  yoking  of  a  pair  of  horses  lost  in  laying  ihem  down, 
and  part  of  another  is  also  lost  in  leadint^  them  away  to  another  place, 
while  the  unused  tiles  are  in  danfjer  of  being  broken  by  frequent  lifting, 
and  all  this  waste  of  time  arising  from  want  of  forethought. 

(802.)  The  ^^(TAOM  intrasted  with  the  laying  of  the  soles  and  tiles  into 
the  drains,  should  be  one  who  has  been  long  accustomed  to  that  kind  of 
work,  and  otherwise  a  good  workman,  possessing  judgment  and  common 
sense.  If  he  is  not  a  hired  sers-ant,  he  should  l)e  jiaid  by  day's  wages, 
that  he  may  have  no  temptation  to  execute  the  work  ill  ;  and  to  enable 
him  to  do  it  well  let  him  take  even  more  time  than  you  imagine  is  neces- 
sary, esj)ecial]y  at  first,  provided  he  executes  what  he  does  to  the  satisfac- 
tion of  his  employer.  You  will  soon  be  able  to  ascertain  how  much  work 
of  this  kind  a  man  should  do  in  a  day,  according  to  the  .circumstances  of 
the  ciise,  and  you  can  then  judge  whether  he  has  been  putting  off  his 
time,  and  admonish  and  encourage  him  accordingly. 

(803.)  This  person  should  remain  constantly  at  the  bottom  of  the  drains; 
and,  to  enable  him  to  do  so,  he  should  have  an  assistant,  to  hand  him  the 
materials  from  the  ground.  The  best  assistant  he  can  have,  in  my  opinion, 
is  a  female  field-worker.  Such  a  one  not  only  receives  cheaper  wages, 
but  is  dexterous  in  handling  light  materials,  and  quite  able  to  lift  tiles, 
soles,  and  turf  easily. 

(S04.)  Immediately  before  proceeding  to  lat/  t/tc  sole-tiles,  the  man 
should  remove  any  wet,  sludgy  matter  from  the  bottom  of  the  drain  with 
a  scoop,  fig.  171,  and  dry  earth  and  small  stones  can  be  removed  with  a 
narrow   draw-hoe,  as  in  fig.  181,  with  a  2-feet  handle   h,  and   mouth  a  3 

Fig.  181. 


1 


THE   NARROW   DRAW-HOE   FOR  DRAINS.  THE  TROWEL  FOR  DRAINS. 

inches  in  width,  cost  Is.  The  sole  is  firmly  laid  and  imbedded  a  little  into 
the  earth.  Should  it  ride  upon  any  point,  such  as  a  small  stone  or  hard 
lump  of  earth,  that  should  be  removed  ;  and  a  very  convenient  instrument 
for  the  purpose,  and  otherwise  making  the  bed  for  the  soles,  is  a  mason's 
narrow  trowel,  as  in  fig.  182,  7  inches  long  in  the  blade  a,  5  inches  in  the 
handle  c,  and  1^  inches  at  b,  and  if  of  cast-steel  will  cost  2s.,  of  common  Is. 
3d.  If  a  single  sole  has  been  determined  to  be  laid  on  the  groinid,  as  in 
fig.  178,  or  a  double  one  side  by  side,  as  in  fig.  160,  he  lays  them  accord 
ingly.  After  laying  3  soles  in  length,  he  'examines  to  see  if  they  are 
straight  in  the  face,  and  neither  rise  nor  fall  more  than  the  fall  of  the 
drain.  As  a  safe  guide  to  him,  in  cases  where  the  fall  is  not  decidedly 
cognizable  by  the  senses,  a  mason's  plumb-level,  such  as  fig.  183,  will  be 
found  a  convenient  instrument.  A  mark  at  which  the  plummet-line  d  J" 
will  subtend  an  angle  with  the  plumb-line  d  r,  equal  to  the  angle  of  the 
fall  of  the  drain,  should  be  made  on  the  top  of  the  opening  e,  which,  in 
this  case,  may  be  supposed  to  be  where  the  plumb /'at  present  hangs;  by 
which  arrangement  it  is  demonstrable  that  the  angle  e  a  f  is  always  equal 
to  the  angle  h  a  c,  which  is  the  angle  of  inclination  of  the  fall.  The 
breadth  of  the  sole  or  soles,  as  the  case  may  be,  .should  occupy  the  exact 
width  of  the  drain,  and  in  the  case  of  a  main  drain  the  soles  are  each  10 
inches  broad. 

(805.)  After  3  soles  are  thus  placed,  2  tiles  are  set  upon  them,  as  rep- 
resented in  fig.  178,  that  is,  the  tiles  a  and  b  are  so  placed   as  that  theii 

(700) 


DIIAINING. 


3t)6 


joinings  shall  meet  on  the  intermediate  spaces  bctivccn  the  joinings  of  the 
Bolea  c  ,  and  this  is  done  for  the  obvious  reason  that,  should  any  commo- 
tion disturb  one  of  the  soles,  neither  of  the   tiles,  partially  standing  upon 


THE  DRAINER  S  PLUMB-LEVEL. 


It,  should  be  disturbed.  In  ordinary  cases  of  water  in  a  main  drain,  a  tile 
of  4  inches  wide  and  5  inches  high  inside  is  a  good  size  :  and  from  this 
size  they  vary  to  5|  inches  in  width  and  61  inches  in  hight.  Although  the 
size  (»f  the  tile  varies,  that  of  the  main  drain  sole  is  always  the  same,  that 
is,  10  inches  wide  and  12  inches  long.  Taking  the  useful  tile  of  4  inches 
in  width  and  5  inches  in  hight,  its  thickness  being  ^  inch,  there  will  be  a 
space  left  in  each  side  of  2^  inches. 

(806.)  The  covering,  of  whatever  siibstance,  should  be  laid  in  a  row  or 
in  heaps  along  the  line  of  the  tiles.  Turf  is  the  best  covering,  and  it  is 
put  over  the  tiles  saddlewise.  If  the  turf  were  cut  12  inches  broad  and 
3  8  inches  in  length,  it  would  just  lap  over  the  size  of  tile  mentioned  above, 
and  rest  its  end  upon  the  sole  on  both  sides  ;  and,  if  it  be  from  2  to  21 
inches  in  thickness,  the  small  space  left  on  each  side  between  the  turf  and 
the  walls  of  the  drain  would  be  filled  up.  It  is  as  easy  to  cut  the  turfs 
of  the  exact  sizes  required  as  any  other,  by  rutting  off  the  swarded 
ground  in  regular  breadths ;  and  it  would  be  as  easy  to  cast  the  turfs  in 
regular  oblongs,  as  in  the  irregular  pieces  usually  raised  according  to  the 
whim  of  the  spadesman.  The  old  flauchter-spadc  of  Scotland  has  long 
been  used  to  cast  turf,  but  it  is  a  rude  instrument  at  best,  and  not  nearly 
so  good  as  the  common  spaile  for  a  neat  job.  When  cast,  the  turfs  should 
be  laid  one  above  another  in  neat  bundles  of  3  or  4  turfs,  which  can  be 
easily  taken  up,  and  placed  safely  into  the  cart,  and  not  thrown  singly  in, 
to  the  risk  of  their  being  torn,  broken,  or  put  out  of  shape  on  being 
doubled  up.  They  should  be  as  carefully  taken  out  of  the  cart,  in  the 
same  bundles  they  were  put  in,  and  if  not  used  immediately,  should  be 
put  in  large  bundles  to  keep  them  supple  and  moist ;  but  not  so  kept  a 
long  time,  in  case  of  their  heating  and  fermenting.  If  used  in  summer, 
in  very  dry  weather,  some  watei-  should  be  thrown  upon  them  to  keep 
them  moist,  but  water  in  winter  might  injui-e  their  texture  by  frost.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  they  are  used  immediately,  they  should  be  laid  down 
along  l)ie  outside  of  the  tiles,  not  in  a  single  row  like  them,  because  taking 
them  from  the  cart  and  lifting  them  up  again  js  apt  to  tear  them,  but  in 
the  small  bundles,  which  are  placed  as  far  asundor  as  the  space  the  turfs 
would  occupy  were  they  laid  singly  along  in  line.  Judging  from  the 
usual  treatment  which   it  receives,  turf  seems  to  be  very  little  valued,  be- 

1701) 


366  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

ing  crumpled  up,  thrown  down,  and  kicked  about,  until  it  becomes  much 
broken  and  bruised,  when  it  is  not  nearly  bo  fit  for  a  covering  fur  tile  as 
when  raised  from  the  ground.  1  need  scarcely  add  that  smooth  turf  is 
much  better  than  tufty  or  heathery  clods.  Good  turf  is  an  expensive  ar- 
ticle, and  not  to  be  obtained  everywhere.  A  man  will  ca.st  from  4  to  6 
cart-loads,  of  1  ton  each,  per  day,  according  to  the  smoothness  and  soft- 
ness of  the  ground.  Its  usual  thickness  is  about  3  inches,  when  1  square 
yard  will  weigh  about  54  lbs.,  and  of  course  1  ton  will  cover  about  40 
square  yards,  or  40  roods  of  6  yards  with  turis  of  1  fr)Ot  by  1^  feet.  In  the 
country  carriage  is  the  heaviest  charge  against  turf;  in  towns  it  is  charged 
from  8s.  to  20s.  a  ton,  and  8s.  per  square  yard  is  charged  for  casting,  cart- 
ing, and  laying  turf  for  greens  and  borders. 

(807.)  On  being  handed  to  him,  the  man  lays  the  turf,  grass  side  down, 
over  the  tiles  in  a  firm  manner,  taking  care  to  cause  the  joinings  of  the 
turf  to  meet  as  near  the  middle  of  the  tiles  as  practicable,  and  not  over 
the  joinings.  Were  the  turf  cut  of  the  same  breadth  as  that  of  the  tiles 
used,  the  covering  of  a  drain  would  proceed  not  only  rapidly,  but  neatly 
and  satisfactorily.  He  takes  care  not  to  displace  the  tiles  in  the  least 
when  the  turf  is  being  put  over;  and  to  secure  the  tiles  in  their  respective 
places,  he  puts  eaith  firmly  between  the  covering  and  the  sides  of  the 
drain  as  high  as  the  turf  over  the  tile.  This  earth  is  obtained  from  the 
soil  th-at  was  thrown  out ;  and  if  the  subsoil  is  a  strong  clay,  the  surface 
soil  is  the  best,  but  a  porous  subsoil  answers  the  purpose.  "When  all 
these  things  which  I  have  described  have  been  done,  the  drain  will  appear 
like  the  small  drain,  fig.  ISi,  where  the  sole  and  the  tile  set  upon  it,  the 
turf  wrapped  round  the  top  of  the  tile,  and  the  stuffing  of  earth  on  each 
side  of  the  tile  may  all  be  easily  obser\'ed. 

(808  ^  The  preparations  for  the  junction  with  the  small  drains  should 
be  made  luring  the  completion  of  the  main  drain,  for  if  the  main  tiles  arei 
taken  up  when  the  small  drains  are  forming,  in  order  to  accommodate  the 
small  tiles,  they  will  run  the  risk  of  being  displaced,  and  of  otherwise  dis- 
turbing the  current  of  water  when  it  is  to  run  in  it.  Whichever  plan  is 
adopted  for  letting  in  »fie  small  tiles,  and  be  it  ever  remembered  that  the 
tiles  with  the  open  side  are  the  best  for  the  puqiose,  the  man  should  never 
forget  to  make  the  openings  at  the  stated  distances  the  small  drains  should 
enter,  and  for  this  purpose  he  should  be  provided  with  a  6-feet  rod, 
marked  off  in  feet  and  inches,  to  measure  the  distances  as  near  as  he  can, 
in  regard  to  the  fitting  of  the  tiles.  The  covering  of  turf  should,  of  course, 
not  be  put  over  the  openings  left  for  the  small  tiles,  but  the  openings 
should  not  be  .left  wholly  unprotected  after  the  main  di'ain  is  finished,  in 
case  any  thing  should  thrust  earth  or  any  other  substance  into  the  tile- 
duct,  ^hat  might  close  up  or  otherwise  injure  the  drain.  A  bundle  of 
straw,  or  rather  a  turf,  until  the  small  drains  are  connected  with  them,  will 
be  sufficient  to  protect  the  openings  against  injury-  o^  this  kind. 

(809.)  The  rnonth  of  the  main  drain  at  its  outlet,  whether  in  a  ditch  or 
river,  should  be  protected  with  masonry,  and  dry  ma.-^onry  will  do.  The 
last  sole,  which  should  be  of  stone,  should  project  as  far  beyond  the  mouth 
as  to  throw  the  water  either  directly  upon  th«  bottom,  or  upon  masonry 
built  up  by  the  side  of  the  ditch.  The  masoniT  should  be  founded  below 
the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  and  built  in  a  perpendicular  recess  in  its  side, 
with  the  outer  face  sloping  in  a  line  with  the  slope  of  the  ditch.  The 
sloping  face  can  be  made  either  straight,  which  will  allow  the  water  to 
slip  down  into  the  ditch,  or  like  steps  of  a  stair,  over  which  the  water  will 
descend  with  broken  force.  It  would  be  proper  to  have  an  iron  grating 
on  the  end  of  the  outlet,  to  prevent  vermin  creeping  up  the  drain ;  not 

(702) 


DRAINING.  367 


that  they  can  injure  tiles  while  alive,  but  in  creeping  too  far  up,  they  may 
(lie,  and  cause  for  a  time  a  stagnation  of  water  above  them  in  the  drain. 

(810.)  If  the  ground  fall  uniformly  toward  the  main  drain  over  the 
whole  field,  the  small  drains  should  be  proceeded  with  immediately  after 
the  main  drain  is  finished  ;  but  should  any  hollow  ground  occur  in  the 
field  too  deep  for  its  waters  to  find  their  way  direct  to  the  main  drain,  then 
a  sub-main  drain  should  be  made  along  the  lowest  part  of  the  hollow,  to 
receive  all  the  drainage  of  the  ground  around  it,  in  order  to  transmit  it  to 
the  main  drain.  The  size  of  sub-main  drains  is  determined  by  the  extent 
of  drainage  they  have  to  effect,  and  should  they  have  as  much  to  do  as 
the  main,  they  should  have  the  same  capacity,  but  if  not,  they  should  have  less. 

(811.)  Sub-main  drains  are  made  in  all  respects  in  the  same  manner  as 
main  drains  ;  but  there  may  be  this  peculiarity  in  regard  to  them,  that 
they  will  most  probably  have  to  receive  small  drains  on  both  sides,  on  ac- 
count of  the  position  they  may  occupy  in  the  area  of  a  field,  when  they 
will  require  just  double  the  number  of  tiles  with  openings  in  the  side  than 
the  main.  In  order  to  avoid  the  interference  o5' sediment  from  opposite 
small  drains,  these  should  not  enter  the  sub-main  directly  opposite  to  each 
other,  nor  should  their  ends  enter  at  right  angles,  but  at  an  acute  angle. 

(812.)  The  sub-main  drain  should  be  as  far  below  the  small  drains  as 
the  main  itself,  when  it  receives  the  small  drains  directly,  and  for  the  same 
reasons ;  and  the  main  should  be  as  far  below  the  sub-main  as  the  latter  is 
below  the  small  drains.  The  simple  way  to  effect  both  these  purposes  is, 
to  make  the  main  drain  deeper  after  its  junction  with  the  sub-main. 

(813.)  There  is  nothing  now  to  prevent  yuu  proceeding  with  the  small 
drains.  In  a  field  having  a  uniform  surface,  there  is  no  difficulty  or  ir- 
regularity of  work  to  be  encountered  in  bringing  the  drains  directly  down 
the  inclined  ground  into  the  main  drain.  Where  sub-mains  are  employed 
in  particular  hollows,  the  gz'ound  comprehending  the  drainage  belonging 
to  each  hollow  shcmld  be  distinctly  mai'ked  off  from  the  rest,  that  no  con- 
fusion in  the  direction  of  the  other  small  drains  may  ensue  in  the  execu- 
tion of  the  work.  These  markings  should  be  made  in  the  water-shed  of 
the  ground,  from  which  the  fall  tends  toward  each  sub-main,  if  more  than 
one  is  required,  and  it  may  also  tend  toward  the  main  drain.  The  mark- 
ings can  be  made  with  pins  driven  in  the  lines  determined  by  the  water- 
shed. 

(814.)  In  commencing  the  small  drains  from  a  fence  on  one  side  of  the 
field,  supposing  that  the  ridges  are  15  feet  wide,  and  keeping  in  mind 
that,  if  the  soil  of  the  field  is  not  strong  clay,  the  drains  need  not  be 
formed  in  the  open  furrows,  it  is  requisite  to  measure  the  distance  of  the 
first  drain  from  the  fence,  whatever  that  fence  may  be,  at  16  feet.  This 
space  of  16  feet  gives  2  feet  for  the  fence-side,  14  feet  from  the  fence- 
side  to  the  drain,  and  one  foot  beyond  the  drain  for  the  open  fuiTOw  of 
the  15-feet  ridge.  Keeping  the  distance  of  every  other  drain  from  each 
other  at  the  breadth  of  one  ridge  of  15  feet,  or  at  any  other  multiple  of 
that  breadth,  it  is  clear  that  every  drain  will  fall  within  one  foot  of  an  open 
furrow.  If  the  subsoil  draws  slowly,  the  drains  should  not  exceed  15  feet 
asunder,  and  the  depth,  I  should  say,  not  less  than  2  feet. 

(815.)  I  know  it  is  a  common  impression  among  farmers,  that  if  a  sub- 
soil cannot  draw  water,  there  is  no  use  of  making  drains  in  it,  and  this 
opinion  I  conceive  to  be  quite  coiTect  in  regard  to  pure  clay  subsoils, 
which  cannot  draw  water  at  all.  But  the  view  I  take  of  the  matter  is  this, 
that  pure  clay  subsoils  are  very  limited  in  extent,  and  that  many  clays 
which  seem  quite  impervious  may  draw  water  notwithstanding.  Admit- 
ting that  the   subsoil  draws  water   at   all,  which  is  the  supposition  in  the 

(703) 


368 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


present  case,  it  is  clear  that  the  larger  the  area  is  extended  for  drawing 
It,  the  more  water  will  be  drawn  into  the  drain.  Now,  a  large  area  can 
only  be  secured  by  making  drains  deep  and  close  together;  and  in  the 
case  supposed  above,  it  appears  to  nie  tliat  3  feet  in  depth,  with  15  feel 
asunder,  will  not  give  a  greater  area  than  is  requisite  for  drawing  water 
out  of  such  ground.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  the  subsoil  is  free, 
and  discharges  water  as  freely,  so  large  an  area  is  not  required  to  dry  the 
subsoil,  and  drains  of  less  depth  and  at  greater  distance  will  answer  the 
same  purpose  as  in  the  other  case,  such  as  30  inches  in  depth  and  30  feet 
asunder.  You  must  endeavor  to  make  the  depths  and  distances  of  the 
small  drains  suit  the  nature  of  the  subsoil,  for  it  is  impossible  for  me  to 
lay  down  here  any  absolute  rule  in  a  matter  which  admits  of  such  diver- 
sity of  character. 

(816.)  Small  drains,  as  well  as  mains  and  sub-mains,  should  be  com- 
pletely cast  out,  gauged,  and  examined  for  the  fall,  before  being  attempted 
to  be  filled  up ;  and  the  materials  for  doing  so  should  be  laid  down  beside 
them,  as  well  as  in  the  case  of  mains.  The  tiles  for  small  drains  are 
smaller  than  for  mains  and  sub-mains,  being  3  inches  wide  and  4  inches 
high,  inside  measurement,  which  may  be  considered  a  large  tile  in  places 
where  those  of  2^  inches  wide  by  3^  inches  high  are  used  ;  but  so  small 
ones  are  not  made  everywhere.  There  is  this  consideration  in  regard  to 
the  size  of  tiles  which  should  be  kept  in  view,  that  a  substantial  tile  will 
have  the  chance  of  lasting  much  longer  than  a  slight  one,  and  the  proba- 
bility is,  that  the  larger  ones  are  the  more  substantial,  which,  however, 
may  not  actually  be  the  case,  but  it  is  proper  to  examine  whether  they  are 
neavy  and  firm,  before  you  purchase  your  tiles.  Be  guided  in  your  choice 
of  them  more  on  account  of  substantiality  than  cheapness,  which,  as  I  have 
said  before,  is  quite  of  secondary  consideration  when  brought  into  com- 
parison with  durability.  Soles  will  also  be  required  for  small  drains,  for 
don't  give  credence  to  the  absurd  assumption  that  clay  will  retain  its  hard- 
ness at  the  bottom  of  a  drain,  because  it  happened  to  be  hard  when  first 
laid  open  to  the  day.  Soles  for  small  drains  are  of  different  breadths,  be- 
ing 5  inches  at  one  place  and  7  inches  at  another  ;  the  former,  f)  inches,  I 
should  conceive,  too  na/row  for  most  purposes ;  for  take  even  the  narrow- 
est tiles  that  are  made,  2^  inches  inside — these  are  moulded  at  4  inch 
thick,  and  allownig  them  to  shrink  1  in  the  kiln,  their  thickness  will  be 
1^  inches ;  the  outside  breadth  of  the  tile  being  thus  4  inches,  leaves  only 
1-J-  inches  to  divide  between  the  two  sides  of  the  tile  on 
a  5-inch  sole,  or  just  -^  an  inch  on  each  side,  a  small 
enough  space,  certainly.  But  as  most  soles  for  small 
drains  are  made  of  the  same  breadth,  take  a  3-inch 
tile,  and  it  will  be  found  by  the  same  mode  of  calcula- 
tion that  only  1  inch  on  each  side  of  a  5-inch  sole  will 
be  left,  which  is  a  much  too  narrow  space  to  afl'ord  per- 
fect steadiness  to  the  tile.  I  would  prefer  the  7-inch 
soles  as  made  in  Ayrshire,  and,  of  course,  the  breadth 
of  the  bottom  of  the  drain  should  also  be  7  inches.  In 
other  respects,  the  filling  of  the  small  drains  is  con- 
ducted in  the  same  manner  as  the  mains  and  sub-mains, 
and  they  are  finished  as  represented  by  fig.  l'"^4. 

(817.)  While  casting  out  the  bottom  of  the  end  of 
each  small  drain,  care  should  be  taken  in  communicating  it  with  the  main 
or  sub-main  with  which  it  is  to  be  connected,  that  no  displacement  of  tiles 
takes  place  in  either  ;  and  when  the  bottom  is  cleared  out,  the  turf  or 
small  bundle  of  straw  left  in  the  openings  of  the  sides  of  the  tiles  is  re- 

'704) 


Fig.  184. 


THE  SMALL  TILr.-DRAl^ 


DRAINING.  369 


moved,  and  the  opening  examined,  and  any  extraneous  matter  that  may 
have  got  inio  the  tiles  removed.  The  places  for  the  entrance  of  the  small 
di-ain  tiles  having  been  prepared  while  constructing  the  main  and  sub- 
mains,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  of  effecting  the  junction  between  the 
respective  sorts  of  drains.  Thus  one  small  drain  after  another  is  hnished, 
until  the  field,  having  been  begun  at  one  side,  is  furnished  with  drains  by 
the  time  the  other  is  reached.  The  small  drain  connecting  the  tops  of 
all  the  small  drains  along  the  upper  end  of  the  field,  should  not  be  neg- 
lected.    (767.) 

(818.)  The  next  procedure  is  the  filling  up  of  tlie  drains  with  the  earth 
that  teas  tJtroicn  out  of  them,  which  is  returned  either  with  the  spade  or 
the  plow,  or  both.  When  drains  are  furnished  with  stones,  the  plow  may 
be  used  from  the  first,  giving  it  as  much  lajid  for  the  first  bout  or  two  as 
it  can  work  with.  If  the  earth  has  been  thrown  out  on  both  sides,  a  strong 
furrow  on  each  side  of  the  top  of  the  drain  will  fill  in  a  considerable 
quantity  of  the  earth  ;  but,  as  the  earth  is  generally  thrown  out  on  one 
side  of  the  drain,  and  the  plow  can  only  advance  the  earth  toward  the 
drain  while  going  in  one  direction,  that  is,  going  every  other  landing 
empty,  or  without  a  furrow,  a  more  expeditious  mode  of  leveling  the 
ground,  which,  in  the  considerable  labor  of  returning  the  earth  into  all  the 
small  drains  of  a  field,  is  a  matter  of  some  importance,  is  to  cleave  down 
the  mound  of  earth  thrown  out,  and  then  take  in  a  breadth  of  land  on 
both  sides  of  the  drain,  and  gather  it  up  twice  or  thrice  toward  the  middle 
of  the  drain,  which  will  constitute  a  prepared  feering,  after  which  the  har- 
rows will  make  the  ground  sufficiently  level.  This  species  of  woi'k,  how- 
ever, is  only  required  when  much  earth  has  been  thrown  out,  and  thrown 
a  distance  from  the  drain,  in  deep  draining  ;  but  in  thorough-draining, 
what  is  accomplished  by  the  plow  is  done  with  much  less  trouble.  When 
the  plow  alone  is  used  for  this  purpose,  the  first  two  furrows  are  taken 
round  the  mouth  of  the  drain,  and  fall  into  it  with  considerable  force  ;  and, 
where  tiles  alone  are  used,  such  a  fall  of  earth  may  be  apt  to  break  or  dis- 
place them  ;  and  even  the  steadiest  horses,  which  should  only  be  em- 
ployed at  this  work,  run  the  risk  of  slipping  in  a  hind  foot  into  the  drain, 
which,  in  attempting  to  recover,  may  be  overstrained  ;  and  such  an  acci- 
dent, trifling  as  it  may  seem,  may  be  attended  with  serious  injury  to  the 
animal.  The  safest  mode,  therefore,  both  for  horses  and  .tiles,  is,  in  all 
cases,  to  put  the  first  portion  of  earth  into  the  drain  Avith  the  spade,  and 
this  provision  can  be  made  in  the  agreement  with  the  contractor;  and 
there  is  this  advantage  attending  the  use  of  the  spade  that  a  better  choice 
can  be  made,  if  desired,  of  the  earth  to  be  returned,  the  surface  earth  may 
first  be  put  in  before  the  poorer  subsoil.     (770.) 

(819.)  In  regard  to  the  quality  of  the  earth  which  is  employed  to  fill  up 
the  drains,  some  considerations  are  requisite.  All  deep  drains,  whether 
furnished  with  stones  or  tiles,  should  receive  their  supply  of  water  from 
below,  and  not  immediately  from  above  through  the  soil ;  and  all  drains 
that  receive  their  supply  of  water  in  this  manner  should  be  denominated 
deep  drains,  in  reference  to  the  nature  of  their  functions,  whatever  may 
be  their  respective  depths. 

(820.)  Wei-e  drains  entirely  filled  with  loose  mould,  or  other  loose  ma- 
terials, it  is  evident  that  the  rain,  percolating  directly  through  them,  will 
arrive  in  the  drain  loaded  with  as  many  of  the  impurities  that  the  soil  may 
contain  as  it  could  carry  along  with  it  in  its  downward  course  ;  but  a  pri- 
mary object  with  drainers  is  to  prevent  impurities  getting  into  the  ducts 
of  drains,  because  in  time  they  might  either  collect  in  quantities  in  the 
ducts,  or  fill  up  the   interstices  between   the  stones ;    and  the  smaller  the 

(705) -Jd 


370  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

stones  were  broken,  their  upper  stratum  at  least  would  the  more  easily  be 
rendered  inoperative  as  a  drain.  To  prevent  one  and  all  of  these  mis 
chances,  the  practicable  way  is  to  return  the  clayey  subsoil  into  the  drain, 
where  it  will  again  soon  consolidate,  and  resist  the  direct  gravity  of  rain. 

(821.)  Keeping  these  distinctions  in  view,  and  applying  them  first  to 
the  case  of  strong  clay  soil,  such  as  in  the  Carse  of  Gowrie,  which  does 
not  draw  water  at  all,  were  they  filled  up  above  the  tiles  with  pure  clay, 
the  ultimate  effect  would  be  that  the  duct  would  remain  open,  but  no 
water  would  ever  enter  it.  To  make  them  draw  at  all,  there  must  loose 
materials  be  put  above  the  tiles  within  2  or  3  inches  of  the  plane  upon 
which  the  sole  of  the  plow  moves  ;  and  to  obtain  the  greatest  depth  of 
loose  materials  for  such  drains,  they  should  be  made  in  the  open  furrows. 
As  they  cannot  draw  but  thruugh  the  loose  materials,  and  are,  in  fact, 
covered  ditches,  they  must  receive  their  supply  of  water  like  any  other 
ditch,  from  above ;  but  here  the  analogy  ceases,  for  instead  of  receiving 
their  water  direct  from  the  top  like  a  ditch,  they  should  receive  it  by  per- 
colation through  the  plowed  soil,  and  when  the  water  has  descended 
through  the  soil,  deprived  of  most  of  its  impurities,  it  meets  the  retentive 
subsoil  across  the  whole  area  of  the  ridge,  upon  which  it  moves  under  the 
arable  soil  until  it  meets  with  the  loose  materials  in  the  drains,  by  which 
it  is  taken  down  into  the  ducts  to  be  conveyed  away.  The  loose  materials 
may  be  gravel,  sand,  peaty  eaith,  scoriaj  from  furnaces,  refuse  tanners' 
bark,  and  such  like. 

(822.)  In  a  subsoil  that  draws  only  a  little  water,  were  the  clayey  sub- 
soil returned  immediately  above  the  tiles,  it  would  have  the  effect  of  coun- 
teracting the  purpose  for  which  the  drains  were  made,  because  it  would 
curtail  the  drawing  surface  to  only  the  hight  of  the  tiles  themselves.  The 
method,  therefure,  to  fill  such  drains  is  to  put  loose  materials  immediately 
above  the  tiles,  to  a  hight  not  so  far  as  in  the  case  of  pure  clay  drains,  but 
to  within  ^  a  foot  of  the  plane  of  the  plow's  sole-shoe.  Were  the  drains 
in  such  a  sulwoil,  however,  filled  with  stones,  the  case  would  be  different, 
for  these  would  secure  a  sufficient  drawing  surfice,  and  the  clayey  sub- 
soil may  be  returned  immediately  f  >n  their  top  with  perfect  propriety. 

(823.)  In  the  case  of  a  free  dra\ring  subsoil  to  the  bottom  of  the  drain, 
the  most  retentive  portion  of  the  earth  may  be  returned  immediately  above 
even  tiles,  for  such  a  subsoil  would  still  draw  the  moisture  toward  them  ; 
and  were  stones  used,  there  would  l)e  left  ample  room  for  drawing  with 
the  most  retentive  part  of  the  earth  returned  above  them.  But  should  the 
part  of  the  drain  occupied  by  the  tiles  or  stones  be  of  strong,  impervious 
clay,  although  the  soil  alx)ve  it  be  of  the  best  drawing  materials,  as  much 
of  the  loose  subsoil  should  be  placed  above  the  tiles  or  stones  as  would 
give  an  easy  access  to  the  water,  and  all  the  space  above  that  may  consist 
of  the  strongest  part  of  the  clay. 

(824.)  The  general  rule,  then,  for  filling  the  drains  with  the  earth  that 
has  been  thrown  out  of  them  is,  that,  with  the  exception  of  strong  clay 
soils — the  drains  in  which  should  Im?  filled  with  porous  materials,  that  the 
water  on  the  surface  may  descend  through  them  into  the  duct  below,  and 
be  thence  carried  away — that,  with  this  exception,  every  kind  of  drain 
should  be  filled  near  its  top  with  the  strongest  soil  afiorded  by  the  drain, 
in  order  to  prevent  the  descent  of  the  uafer  into  the  drain  hy  the  top,  but 
rather  that  the  water  shall  seek  its  way  through  the  plowed  ground,  and 
thence  by  the  porous  materials  above  the  duct,  and  under  the  clay  put  in 
above  them  into  the  duct  at  the  bottom.  Through  such  a  channel  of  fil- 
tration the  water  vriW  have  every  chance  of  entering  the  duct  in  a  com- 
paratively pure  state. 

<706) 


DRAINING. 


371 


Fig.  185. 


(S25.)  But  the  best  mode,  in  my  opinion,  of  draining  land  of  any  that 
has  yet  been  described,  has  to  be  brought  before  your  notice,  and  that  is 
by  the  union  of  stofies  and  tiles  in  the  same  drain.  This  method  is  repre- 
sented in  fig.  185,  where  a  tile  a  rests  on  a  sole ; 
small  stones  are  packed  around  the  tile  by  the  hand 
until  they  cover  it  as  at  i ;  the  remaining  small 
stones  c  are  put  in  by  any  of  the  methods  described 
above,  but  especially  by  the  drain-screen ;  a  cover- 
ing is  either  put  above  them  or  small  stones  beaten 
do^^■n,  as  in  the  case  of  the  stone  drain,  \\'ith  the 
beater,  and  the  earth  returned  upon  them  in  either 
of  the  modes  just  described.  The  w-idth  of  the  bot- 
tom is  7  inches,  the  width  of  a  good  sole,  width  of 
the  top  12  inches,  depth  2^  feet,  composed  of  18 
inches  of  earth,  and  12  inches  to  the  top  of  the 
coveiing  of  the  stones.  This  dx'ain  is  constnacted 
similarlv  to   the   tile  drains    that  have   been 


very 


THE  TILE  AND  STONE 


described,  by  first  laying  the  sole  at  the  bottom  and 
the  tile  upon  it ;    but  instead  of  covering  the  tile 

immediately  with  turf,  small  stones  are  packed  by  the  hand  on  both  sides 
until  they  cover  its  top.  As  these  stones  should  be  packed  in  as  the  lay- 
ing of  the  tiles  proceeds,  they  should  be  laid  down  in  heaps,  immediately 
after  the  tiles  have  been  laid  down,  as  near  the  drain  as  possible,  so  as 
they  may  be  filled  in  baskets  by  the  assistant,  and  handed  down  in  them 
to  the  man  in  the  drain.  Two  baskets  are  required  for  this  purpose,  one 
to  be  filled  by  the  assistant  when  the  other  is  emptying  by  the  drainer.  In 
filling  up  with  stones  afterward  to  their  proper  hight  as  to  c,  I  would  be 
afraid  of  using  the  drain-screen  at  first,  in  case  the  fall  of  the  first  stones 
upon  those  which  were  laid  in  by  the  hand,  as  at  b,  should  by  any  chance 
fracture  the  tiles  below  them.  I  would  rather  fill  up  a  few  yards  of  the 
drain  as  high  as  required  by  the  hand,  and  then  use  the  drain-screen  to  let 
fall  tlie  stones  upon  the  end  of  those  previously  filled  in,  from  which  they 
could  be  shoveled  (fig.  38)  or  raked  (fig.  174)  down  gently  upon  the  stones 
over  the  tiles ;  or  the  stones  could  be  filled  in  by  the  hand  at  first  so  high, 
while  laying  those  at  b,  as  to  remove  all  danger  from  those  falling  in  small 
quantities  from  the  screen.  The  filling  in  from  the  drain-screen  and  carts 
should  not  be  proceeded  with  until  as  much  of  the  drain  has  been  laid 
with  tiles  and  packed  in  with  stones  by  the  hand,  as  to  employ  at  least  2 
single  horse  ^carts  for  one  yoking,  and  should  the  weather  seem  favorable, 
not  until  that  number  of  horses  can  be  employed  a  whole  day,  because 
otherwise  the  time  of  the  hoi-ses  would  be  wasted.  If  the  draining  is  of 
such  an  extent  as  to  keep  a  pair  of  horses  thus  constantly  employed,  so 
much  the  better.  In  such  a  case,  other  hands  than  those  employed  in  cut- 
ting the  drain  and  laying  the  tiles  should  be  employed  in  filling  in  the  up- 
per layer  of  stones  with  the  screen,  and  beating  down  the  small  riddlings 
as  a  covering  upon  them.  On  the  earth  being  returned  into  the  drain  the 
opeiation  is  completed. 

(<826.)  This  construction  of  drain  is  declared  by  every  writer  on  and 
practitioner  of  draining,  to  be  the  ne  plus  ultra  of  the  art,  though  I  believe 
very  few  farmers  have  adopted  it,  not  because  there  can  the  slightest  ob- 
jection be  urged  against  it,  but  because,  in  cases  where  stones  have  to  be 
quarried  and  broken,  it  is  an  expensive  mode,  and  in  other  cases  stones 
cannot  be  obtained  at  all.  The  last  reason  is  a  very  good  one,  but  that  of 
the  expense  must  fall  to  the  ground  where  there  is  abundance  of  stones, 
as  the  advantage  derived  from  their  use   along  Avith  the  tile  will  be  more 

(707) 


372 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


than  counterbalanced  by  tlie  additional  cost.  The  durability  and  efficien- 
cy of  such  a  drain  is  undoubted.  It  is  a  perfect  piece  of  work,  inasmuch 
as  the  duct  formed  of  the  tile  and  sole  presents  the  smoothest  passage  ima- 
ginable for  carrying  off  water,  and  it  is  proof  against  the  efforts  of  vermin, 
while  the  stones  not  only  secure  the  duct  in  its  place,  but  impart  dura- 
bility to  the  whole  sti-ucture,  which  at  the  same  time  presents  an  exten- 
sive area  to  the  subsoil.  What  other  property  that  a  good  drain  should 
have  does  this  one  not  possess  1 

(827.)  It  may  be  satisfactory  to  you  to  have  a  general  idea  of  thorough 
draining  a  field  by  a  sketch  of  a  ground  jilaii,  which  is  represented  in  fig. 
186,  where  a  i  is  the  main  drain  formed  in  the  lowest  head-ridge  ;  and  if 
the  field  were  of  a  uniform  surface,  the  drains  would  run  parallel  to  one 
another  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  into  the  main  drain,  as  those  do  from 
a  to  c,  connected  as  they  should  be  at  the  t(jp  witli  the  drain  r/  c  running 
along  the  upper  head-ridge.  But  as  there  may  be  inequalities  in  the 
ground,  a  very  irregular  surface  cannot  be  drained  in  this  manner,  and 
must  therefore  be  provided  with  sub-main  drains,  asfg  and  h  i,  which  are 
each  connected  with  a  system  of  drains  belonging  to  itself,  and  which  may 
differ  in  character  from  each  other,  as  J"  g  with  a  large  double  set  k  I  iu 

Fig.  186. 


:;:!S2=£X3:::22E2S3::jaES^S2s:iS3-;^^ 


A  PLAN  or  A  THOROUGH-DRAINED  FIELD. 


connection  with  it,  and  h  i  with  only  a  small  single  set  m  ;  the  sub-main 
/  g  is  supposed  to  run  up  the  lowest  part  of  a  pretty  deep  hollow  in  the 
ground,  and  the  drains  /.-.  and  /  on  either  side  of  it  are  made  to  run  down 
the  faces  of  the  acclivities  as  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  sub-main  as  ihe 
nature  of  the  inclination  of  the  ground  will  allow,  so  as  alwiiys  to  preserve 
the  natural  tendency  of  water  to  find  its  way  down  the  hollow.  There  is 
also  a  supposed  fall  of  the  ground  from  the  hight  above  /  toward  A,  which 
causes  the  drain  at  tn  to  run  down  and  fall  into  what  would  be  a  common 
ditiin  h  I,  were  it  not,  from  this  circumstance,  obliged  to  be  converted  into 
a  sub-main.  The  sub-main  f  e  may  be  made  as  large  as  the  main  drain 
a  h,  as  both  have  much  to  do  ;  but  the  sub-main  //  /  may  be  made  com- 
paratively smaller,  and  not  larger,  from  the  top  of  the  field,  than  a  com- 
mon drain,  until  it  reaches  the  point  h,  where  the  collateral  drains  begin 
to  join  it.     The  main  drain  should  be  made  larger  below  g  to  i  than  above 

(708) 


DRAINING.  373 


it,  and  still  larger  from  i  to  b,  which  is  its  outlet.  It  will  be  observed 
that  all  the  'common  drains  a  and  c,  and  at  I  and  m,  have  their  ends  curved, 
those  at  k  not  requiring  that  assistance,  as  they  enter  more  obliquely  into 
the  main,  from  the  position  of  the  slope  of  the  ground.  The  dotted  lines 
represent  the  upper  and  lower  head-ridges,  and  the  open  furrows  of  the 
ridges  of  the  field  ;  and  it  will  be  observed  that  the  drains  are  not  made 
to  run  in  the  open  furrows — that  is,  the  black  lines  in  conjunction  with  the 
dotted,  but  along  the  furrow-brows  of  the  ridges.  This  is  done  with  the 
view  of  not  confounding  the  open  fun-ows  and  drains  in  the  figure  ;  but  it 
is  a  plan  which  may  be  followed  with  propriety  in  subsoils  otherwise  than 
of  strong  clay  ;  that  is,  of  a  light  loam  resting  on  a  rather  retentive  subsoil; 
the  water  falling  upon  which  should  not  be  drained  away  by  the  small 
drains  receiving  it  through  their  tops,  but  rather  by  the  absorption  of  the 
water  toward  them  from  below  the  plowed  soil,  as  far  as  the  subsoil  n 
porous.  A  hollow,  such  as  that  occupied  by  the  sub-main  drain  f  g,  alsc 
indicates  that  the  soil  is  a  loam,  and  not  strong  clay.  Although  the  ridges 
are  supposed  to  be  15  feet  wide,  and  they  have  been  set  off  here  at  quar- 
ters of  an  inch,  they  bear  no  true  relation  to  the  size  of  the  field  ;  so  thai 
this  diagram  should  not  be  considered  as  showing  the  relative  proportions 
of  the  distances  betwixt  the  drains  and  the  size  of  the  field. 

(828.)  The  period  of  the  rotation  of  cropping  at  which  draining  should 
be  executed,  requires  consideration  ;  but  I  believe  it  is  now  generally  al- 
lowed to  be  best  performed  when  the  ground  is  in  grass,  and  before  the 
gi'ass  is  plowed  up.  There  are  several  advantages  attending  this  period 
of  cropping  over  every  other,  1.  Turf  can  be  obtained  at  hand  for  cov- 
ering the  tiles  ;  and  although  one  year's  grass  may  not  af!brd  very  good 
turf  for  the  purpose,  yet  if  the  turfs  are  carefully  raised  by  the  spade,  and 
as  carefully  laid  aside  until  used — not  heaped  upon  one  another  to  ninths 
risk  of  rotting,  but  set  down  in  a  row  with  the  grass-side  up — and  as  care- 
fully handled  when  about  to  be  used,  it  will  answer  very  well.  In  2  or  3 
years  old  grass,  the  turf  is  better  ;  and  in  old  pasture  or  meadow  ground 
it  is  as  good  as  can  be  procured  elsewhere.  At  whatever  age  the  turf  is 
used,  it  should  not  be  too  rough  or  too  thick,  as  it  will  not  clap  so  closely 
over  the  tile  in  either  state  as  it  should.  Sheep  are  the  best  stock  for  eat- 
ing down  the  forage,  and  preparing  the  tiu-f  for  this  purpose.  2.  Another 
advantage  which  grass-land  possesses  is  the  firm  surface  which  it  presents 
to  cartage  of  materials,  whether  stones  or  tiles.  If  the  stones  are  put  in 
with  the  screen,  the  cart  and  barrow  will  pass  lightly  along  the  side  of  the 
drain  ;  and  if  tiles  are  used,  the  grass  forms  clean  ground  for  them  to  be 
laid  down  upon.  3.  In  grass,  the  filling  in  of  the  earth  with  the  spade 
makes  very  neat  work. 

(829.)  When  it  is  determined  to  drain  the  land  while  in  grass,  the  sea- 
son of  the  year  in  which  the  drains  should  be  opened  is  thereby  in  a  great 
degree  determined.  It  would  scarcely  be  prudent  to  sacrifice  the  pastui"- 
age  in  summer,  and  no  stock  should  be  allowed  to  roam  about  a  field  that 
is  in  the  act  of  being  drained,  not  only  on  account  of  the  possibility  of 
their  injuring  themselves  by  slipping  mto  the  drains,  but  of  injuiing  the 
di-ains  by  breaking  down  their  edges,  fracturing  the  tiles,  or  displacing  the 
stones.  It  is  therefore  expedient  to  take  the  use  of  the  summer's  grass  ; 
but  that  the  operation  may  commence  soon  in  autumn,  the  grass  should 
be  by  that  time  eaten  down  bare  by  an  extra  quantity  of  stock.  These 
preliminary  arrangements,  then,  being  made,  and  the  materials  laid  down  ' 
as  long  as  the  weather  is  dry  and  the  ground  hard,  the  draining  operations 
may  be  earned  on  through  the  winter,  and  as  far  into  spring  as  to  give 
time  for  the  land  to  be  plowed  for  the  reception  of  the  seed.     Whether 

^709) 


374  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM — WINTER. 

there  are  one  or  more  sets  of  men  engaged  in  cutting  the  drains,  they 
should  all  work  in  the  same  field  at  the  same  time,  as  it  invariably  entaiU 
loss  of  time  to  drive  materials  with  horses  over  different  fields.  With 
concentrated  work,  one  field  is  drained  after  another,  and  this  regularity 
of  the  order  permits  the  eating  down  of  the  grass  in  succession,  as 
regularly  as  the  draining  proceeds,  so  that  none  of  the  aftermath  is 
saciificed. 

(830.)  The  next  important  point  for  consideration  is,  whether  the  gieat 
outlay  upon  land  occasioned  by  draining  can  be  compensated  for  by  in- 
crease of  produce  ]  for  if  no  increase  of  produce,  adequate  to  repay  the 
large  outlay,  can  be  guarantied,  draining  will  not  be  persevered  in.  No 
one,  beforehand,  can  give  such  a  guaranty  ;  but  the  experience  of  enter- 
prising drainers,  who  have  vested  their  capital  in  the  expeiiment,  has 
proved  that  draining — that  is,  effectual  or  thorough-draining,  by  whatever 
means  that  object  is  attained — not  only  compensates  for  the  outlay  in- 
curred, but  also  improves  the  quality  of  the  land  and  everything  that 
grows  upon  it.  Examples  of  amelioration,  as  well  as  of  profit,  effected 
by  draining,  inspiring  confidence  and  stimulating  imitation,  I  shall  ad- 
duce. 

(831.)  The  existence  of  moisture  in  the  soil  being  most  easily  detected 
by  its  injurious  effects  on  the  crops  usually  grown  upon  it,  the  benefits  of 
draining  are  also  first  indicated  by  the  crops.  On  drained  land,  the  straw 
of  white  crops  shoots  up  steadily  from  a  vigorous  braird,  strong,  long,  and 
at  the  same  time  so  stiff  as  not  to  be  easily  lodged  with  wind  or  rain.  The 
grain  is  plump,  large,  bright  colored,  and  thin  skinned.  The  crop  lipens 
uniformly,  is  bulky  and  prolific,  more  quickly  won  for  stacking  in  haiTest, 
more  easily  threshed,  winnowed,  and  cleaned,  and  produces  fewer  small 
and  light  grains.  The  straw  also  makes  better  fodder  for  live-stock.  Clo- 
ver, in  such  land,  becomes  rank,  long,  and  juicy,  and  the  flowers  are  large 
and  of  bright  color.  The  hay  fi-om  it  wons  easily  and  weighs  heavy  to  its 
bulk.  Pasture-grass  shoots  out  in  eveiy  direction,  covering  the  ground 
with  a  thick  sward,  and  produces  fat  and  milk  of  the  finest  quality.  Tur 
nips  become  large,  plump,  as  if  fully  grown,  juicy,  and  with  a  smooth  and 
oily  skin.  Potatoes  push  out  long  and  strong  stems,  with  enlarged  tubers, 
having  skins  easily  peeled  off,  and  a  mealy  substance  when  boiled.  Live- 
stock of  every  kind  thrive,  become  good  tempered,  are  easily  fattened, 
and  of  fine  quality.  Land  is  less  occupied  with  weeds,  the  increased 
luxuriance  of  all  the  crops  checking  their  growth.  Summer  fallow  is 
more  easily  cleaned,  and  much  less  work  is  required  to  put  the  land  in 
proper  trim  for  the  manure  and  seed  ;  and  all  soils  of  manures  incorpo- 
rate more  quickly  and  thoroughly  with  the  soil. 

(832.)  Thorough-drained  land  is  easily  worked  with  all  the  common 
implements.  Being  all  alike  dry,  its  texture  becomes  uniform,  and,  in 
consequence,  the  plow  passes  through  it  with  uniform  freedom  ;  and  even 
where  pretty  large  sized  stones  are  found,  the  plow  can  easily  dislodge 
them  ;  and  moving  in  freer  soil,  it  is  able  to  i"aise  a  deeper  fuiTow-slice ; 
and  the  furrow-slice,  on  its  part,  though  heavy,  crumbles  down  and  yields 
to  the  pressure  and  friction  of  the  plow,  forming  a  friable,  mellow,  rich- 
looking  mould.  The  harrows,  instead  of  Ix-ing  held  back  at  times,  and 
starting  forward,  and  oscillating  sideways,  swim  smoothly  along,  raking 
the  soil  into  a  uniform  surface  and  entirely  obliterating  foot-marks.  The 
roller  compresses  and  renders  the  surface  of  the  soil  smooth,  but  leaves 
what  is  below  in  a  mellow  state  for  the  roots  of  plants  to  expand  in.  All 
the  implements  are  much  easier  drawn  and  held  ;  and  hence,  all  the  opera- 
tions can  be  executed  with   less  labor,  and  of  course   more  economically 

(710) 


DRAINING.  375 


and  satisfactoiily  on  drained  than  undrained  land.*  All  these  effects  of 
draining  I  have  observed  from  my  own  experience. 

(833.)  "  It  is  gratifying,"  says  Mr.  James  Black,  in  reference  to  the  ef 
fects  of  the  Elkington  mode  of  draining  on  the  estate  of  Spottiswoode  in 
Berwickshire,  "  to  be  enabled  to  state  that  the  general  result  of  the  opera- 
tions has  been  such  as  to  bear  out  the  calculations  of  the  engineer,  and  to 
justify  the  most  sanguine  hopes  that  could  have  been  formed  of  a  valuable 
improvement.  Bursts  and  springs,  which  formerly  disfigured  entire  fields, 
and  which  rendered  tillage  precarious  and  unprofitable,  ai'e  now  not  to  be 
seen ;  and  swamps,  which  were  not  only  useless  in  themselves,  but  which 
injured  all  the  land  aronnd  them,  have  been  totally  removed.  The  conse- 
quence is,  that  tillage  can  now  in  those  parts  be  carried  on  without  inter- 
ruption, and  with  nothing  beyond  the  ordinary  expenditure  of  labor  and 
manure  ;  and  a  sward  of  the  best  grasses,  raised  and  continued  on  spots 
which  formerly  only  produced  the  coarsest  and  least  valued  herbage." 

(834.)  But  draining  has  been  found  beneficial  not  only  to  the  soil  itself, 
to  the  processes  of  laboring  it,  to  the  climate  in  reference  to  crops,  and  to 
the  growth  of  trees,  but  also  to  the  health  of  the  laboring  population.  Dr. 
Charles  Wilson,  Kelso,  when  comparing  the  health  of  the  laboring  popu- 
lation of  the  district  of  Kelso  in  two  decennial  periods,  from  1777  to  1787 
and  from  1829  to  1839,  came  to  this  conclusion  in  regard  to  the  effect  of 
draining,  that  "  our  attention  is  here  justly  attracted  by  the  extraordinary 
preponderance  of  cases  of  ague  in  the  first  decennium,  where  they  pre- 
sent an  average  of  y  of  all  cases  of  disease  coming  under  treatment  ;  and 
a  closer  examination  of  the  separate  years  shows  this  proportion  rising 
more  than  once  to  even  as  high  as  i ;  while,  in  the  second  decennium,  the 
average  proportion  is  only  ^o^  of  the  general  mass  of  disease.  Ague, 
then,  as  is  well  known  to  the  older  inhabitants  of  the  district,  was  at  one 
time  regularly  endemic  among  vs  ;  affecting  every  year  a  varying,  but 
always  a  considerable  portion  of  population,  and  occasionally,  in  seasons 
of  unusual  coldness  and  moisture,  spreading  itself  extensively  as  an  en- 
demic, and  showing  its  ordinary  tendency,  under  such  circumstances,  of 
passing  into  a  continued  and  more  dangerous  type.  Ague  was  not  usu- 
ally in  itself  a  disease  of  great  fatality,  the  deaths  recorded  at  the  Dis- 
pensary having  been  only  1.81  per  cent,  of  the  cases  treated — a  sum  which 
denotes  its  absolute  mortality,  while  its  relative  mortality  was  0.26, 
when  viewed  in  connection  with  that  from  all  other  diseases.  Still,  if  we 
keep  in  view  how  frequently  it  was  known  to  degenerate  into  fevers  of  a 
worse  form,  and  how  often  it  terminated  in  jaundice,  '  obstruction  of  the 
viscera  of  the  abdomen,'  and  consequent  dropsies  ;  or  even  if  we  take 
into  consideration  the  frequency  of  its  recurrence,  and  the  lengthened  pe- 
riods during  which  it  racked  its  victims,  we  shall  see  much  reason  to  be 
thankful  that  a  plague  so  universal  and  so  pernicious  has  been  almost 
wholly  rooted  out  from  among  us.  Those  who  recollect  what  has  been 
stated  of  the  former  swampy  nature  of  the  soil  in  our  vicinity,  and  of  the 
extensive  means  which  have  been  adopted  for  its  drainage,  will,  of  course, 
:  have  no  difficulty  in  understanding  why  ague  was  once  so  prevalent,  and 
1  under  what  agency  it  should  now  have  disappeared;  and  will  gratefully 
acknowledge  the  twofold  value  of  those  iviprovcvicnts  inhich  have  at  once 
rendered  our  liomes  more  salubrious  and  our  fields  inore  fruitfuir\ 

(835.)  But  the  most  palpable  advantage  of  draining  land  is  the  j>^'^fi^ 
which  it  returns  to  the  farmer.  A  few  authenticated  instances  of  the  profits 
actually  derived  from  draining  will  suffice  to  convince  any  occupier  of  land 

*  See  papers  by  me  on  this  subject  in  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agiicullure,  vols.  vi.  and  vlil. 
t  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  xli. 
(711) 


376 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


of  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  it.  "  I  am  clearly  of  opinion,"  says  Mr 
North  Dalryniple  of  Cleland,  Lanarkshire,  "  that  well  authenticated  facts 
on  economical  draining,  accompanied  with  details  of  the  expenses,  value 
of  succeeding  cmps,  and  (if  the  land  before  and  after  draining,  will  be  the 
means  of  stimulating  both  landlords  and  tenants  to  pursue  the  most  im- 
portant, judicious,  and  remunerating  o(  a]\  land  improvements.  The  state- 
ments below  will  prove  the  advantages  of  furrow-draining  ;  and  as  to  the 
pro/its  to  be  derived  from  it,  they  are  great,  and  a  farmer  has  only  to 
drain  a  5-acre  field  to  have  ocular  proof  upon  the  point."* 

(836.)  Without  entering  into  all  the  minutiie  of  the  statements  given  by 
Mr.  Dalrymplc,  it  will  suffice  here  to  exhibit  the  general  results.  1.  One 
field  containing  54  Scots  acres  cost  d£303  7s.  to  drain,  or  c£5  12s.t  per 
acre.  The  wheat  off  a  part  of  it  was  sold  for  c£ll,  and  the  turnips  off  the 
remainder  for  ^£25  13s.  4d.  per  acre.  The  soil  was  a  stiff  chattery  clay, 
and  let  in  grass  for  20s.  an  acre  ;  but  in  1836,  after  having  been  drained, 
it  kept  5  Cheviot  ewes,  with  their  lambs,  upon  the  acre.  2.  Another  field 
of  IS  acres  cost  X5  9s.  the  acre  to  drain.  The  wheat  off  a  part  of  it 
fetched  .£13,  the  potatoes  off  another  part  ^£15  15s.,  and  the  turnips  off  the 
remainder  c£21  per  aci'e.  The  land  was  formerly  occupied  with  whins 
and  rushes,  and  let  for  12s.  the  acre;  but  when  let  for  pasture  after  being 
drained,  Mr.  Dalrymple  expected  to  get  50s.  an  acre  for  it.  It  may  be 
mentioned,  that  the  drains  made  by  Mr.  Dalrymple  were  narrow  ones,  30 
inches  in  depth,  filled  IS  inches  high  with  stones  or  scoriee  fi'om  a  furnace, 
and  connected  wdth  main  drains,  36  inches  deep,  furnished  with  tiles  and 
soles.f 

(837.)  Mr.  James  Howden,  Wintonliill,  near  Tranent,  in  East-Lothian, 
asserts  from  his  experience,  that  although  drains  should  cost  as  much  as 
c£7  the  acre,  yet  on  damp,  heavy  land  thorough-di'aining  will  repay  from 
15  to  20  per  cent,  on  the  outlay .|| 

(838.)  A  farmer  in  Lanarkshire,  who  thorough-drained  one-half  of  a 
4-acre  field,  and  left  the  other  half  undi-iined,  in  1838,  planted  the  whole 
field  with  potatoes,  and  from  the  drained  portion  realized  ^£45,  while  the 
undrained  only  realized  c£13  the  Scotch  acre.§ 

(839.)  A  very  successful  instance  of  drainage  is  related  to  have  taken 
place  on  the  estate  of  Teddesley  Hay,  near  the  River  Penk,  in  Stafford- 
shire, belonging  to  Lord  Hatherton,  under  the  direction  of  his  agent,  Mr. 
Bright.  The  soil  is  represented  of  a  light  nature,  resting  on  a  subsoil  of 
stiff  clay.     The  results  are  these  : 


Value  of  the  land  in  its 

Value  of 

the  land 

n  ita 

Quantity  of 
land  drained. 

original  state. 

Cost  of 
draining. 

present  state. 

Per  acre. 

Annual  value- 

I'er  acre. 

Annual  v 

aluo. 

A.      R.    P. 

s. 

£      s. 

D. 

£    a.     D. 

s. 

£     s. 

D. 

78     1  36 

10 

39     4 

3 

262  15     0 

27 

105   18 

9 

19     1   32 

10 

9  14 

6 

74     9     8 

35 

34     0 

9 

38     0     3 

16 

30     8 

3 

52  14     2 

40 

7G     0 

9 

82     2     2 

15 

61   17 

8 

346  16     4 

30 

123   15 

4 

30     3  24 

10 

15     9 

0 

121     5     8 

35 

54      1 

6 

81     1  34 

8 

32  11 

8 

153  16     4 

22 

89  12 

2 

36     3  16 

10 

18     8 

6 

142     8     0 

30 

55     5 

6 

33     0     0 

8 

13     4 

0 

80     5     2 

26 

42  18 

0 

10     2  33 

^90     8     0  j 

50 

26  15 

3 

10     0     8 

21 

10  11 

0 

9     0     0 

12 

5     8 

0 

76     9     8 

30 

13  10 

0 

15     0  11 

16 

12     1 

0 

41     9     4 

33 

24  17 

3 

21     2  10 

15 

16     3 

5 

66     0     0 

30 

32     6 

10 

467     0     9 

254  10 

9 

1.508  17     4 

689  13 

1 

[t  Calculate  the  pound  at  $4  80,  and  the  shilling  at  22  cents. 
•  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  Tiii.        t  Ibid.,  vol.  viii. 
(712) 


£d.  Farm.  Lib."] 
II  Ibid.,  vol.  viiL         §  Ibid,  vol.  x. 


DRAINING. 


377 


Here  is  an  increase  of  o£435  2s.  4d.  a  year  by  draining,  with  an  expenditure 
of  only  c£l,508  17s.  4d.,  or  29  per  cent,  on  the  capital  expended.* 

(S40.)  Mr.  George  Bell's  experience  of  the  good  effects  of  thorough- 
drainino-  on  turnips  gave,  in  the  instance  of  Aberdeenshire  yellow  bullock 
turnips,  which  were  raised  from  bone-dust  in  1838,  a  crop  of  16  tons  16 
cwt.  on  2  acres ;  whereas  the  same  extent  of  undrained  land  only  pro- 
duced 6  tons  4  cwt.  the  acre.  In  1839  the  produce  of  potatoes  on  drained 
land  was  175  cwt.  the  acre,  whereas  that  on  undrained  land  was  only 
70  cwt. 

(841.)  Besides  the  methods  of  draining  land  with  stones  and  tiles  as  have  just  been  described 
to  you  at  much  length,  there  are  other  methods  which  deserve  your  attention,  because  they  may- 
be practiced  in  particular  situations  in  an  economical  manner.  1  do  not  believe  that  the  methoda 
I  am  about  to  mention  are  so  effectual  as  those  1  have  described,  still  I  have  no  doubt  any  one  of 
them  may  be  made  effectual  in  situations  where  the  materials  recommended  are  abundant.  Be- 
sides, it  is  well  to  have  a  choice  of  methods  of  performing  the  same  operation,  that  your  judg- 
ment may  be  exercised  in  adopting  the  one  most  advisable  in  the  circumstances  in  which  you  are 
placed ;  while,  at  the  same  time,  you  should  never  lose  sight  of  this  maxim  in  Agriculture,  that 
tliat  operation  is  most  economically  executed,  or,  at  all  events,  affords  most  satisfaction  in  the  end, 
which  is  executed  in  the  most  efficient  manner,  both  as  regards  materials  and  workmanship,  and 
the  maxim  applies  to  no  operation  so  strongly  as  to  draining,  becau.se  of  its  permanent  nature. 
The  methods  of  draining  which  I  am  about  to" mention  apply  to  every  species  of  soil,  from  light 
loam,  the  heaviest  clay,  to  bog. 

(842.)  The  first  method  which  I  shall  notice  is  applicable  to  a  tilli/  subsoil  which  draws  water 
a  little,  situate  in  a  locality  in  which ,^rt/  stones  are  plentiful  and  sufficiently  cheap.  Suppose  a 
piece  of  land,  containing  2  ridges  of  15  feet  in  width,  which  had  been  gathered  up  from  the  flat, 
and  in  this  form  of  plowing,  as  you  have  already  learned,  there  is  an  open  furrow  on  each  side 
of  a  ridge  {5.=iO).  The  drains  areinade  in  this  maimer  :  Gather  up  the  land  twice,  by  splitting  out 
a  feering  in  the  crown  of  each  ridge,  and  do  it  with  a  strong  furrow.  Should  the  4-horse  plow- 
have  been  used  for  the  purpose,  the  open  furrow  will  be  left  16  inches  wide  at  bottom,  and  if  the 
furrow  have  been  turned  over  12  inches  in  depth,  and  the  furrow-slice  laid  over  at  the  usual  an- 
gle of  45^.  the  tops  of  the  furrow-slices  on  the  furrow-brow  will  be  32  inches  apart,  as  from  a  to 
a.  fig.  187.     After  this  plowing  the  spade  takes  out  a 

trench  from  the  bottom  of  the   open-furrow  8  inches  Fig.  187. 

wide  at  top  e,  16  inches  deep  by  /,  and  3  inches  wide      g^  o 

at  bottom  at  g.  The  depth  of  the  drain  will  tlrus  be  / 
32  inches  in  all  below  the  crowns  of  the  gathered  up  \ 
ridges.  The  drain  is  filled  by  two  flags  h  h  being  set 
up  against  its  sides  and  meeting  in  the  bottom  at  g  ; 
and  they  are  kept  asunder  by  a  large  stone  of  any 
shape,  as  a  wedge,  but  large  enough  to  be  prevented 
by  h  h  descending  farther  than  to  leave  a  conduit  g 
for  the  water.  The  remainder  of  the  drain  is  filled  to 
e  with  small  riddled  stones  with  Mr.  Robertson's  drain- 
screen  or  with  clean  gravel.  The  stones  are  covered 
over  with  turf  and  earth  like  any  other  drain,  or  with 
small  stones  beaten  down  firmly.  The  expense  of  this 
method  of  draining  is  small:  the  spade-work  may  be 
executed  at  Id.  the  rood  of  6  yards,  and  of  an  imperial 
acre,  containing  161 J  of  such  roods,  the  cutting  will 
cost  13s.  Sjd.  The  flags,  at  1  inch  thick  and  6  inches  broad,  will  make  15  tons  per  acre,  at  4d. 
the  ton,  will  cost  5s.  more.  The  broken  stones,  to  fill  9  cubic  feet  in  the  rood  of  6  yards,  at  2\di. 
per  rood,  will  cost  £\  10s.  3id.  more  ;  making  in  all  about  £2  8s.  8d.  the  acre,  exclusive  of  carriage 
and  plowing,  v\'hich,  though  estimated,  will  yet  make  this  a  cheap  mode  of 
draining  land  so  closely  as  15  feet  apart.t 

(843.)  The  draining  of  mossy,  light  soils  where  peat  is  plentiftil  may  be  ef- 
fected in  this  way.  The  peats  are  made  somewhat  of  the  .shape  of  drain-tiles 
but  more  massive,  as  may  be  seen  in  fig.  188.  They  are  laid  in  the  drain  one  a 
like  a  tile-sole,  and  another  inverted  upon  it,  as  b,  like  a  drain-tile,  leaving  a 
round  opening  between  them  for  the  passage  of  the  water.  These  peats  are  cut 
nut  with  a  spade-tool,  contrived  some  years  ago  by  Mr.  Hugh  Calderwood, 
Blacklyres,  Ayrshire.  The  spade  is  easily  worked,  and  forms  a  peat  with  one 
cut,  without  any  waste  of  materials;  that  is,  the  exterior  semicircle  b  is  cutout 
of  the  interior  semi-circle  of  a.  A  man  can  cut  out  from  2,000  to  3,000  peats  a 
day  with  such  a  spade.  The  peats  are  dried  in  the  sun  in  summer,  with  their 
hollow  part  upon  the  ground,  and  are  stacked  until  used  ;  and  those  used  in 
drains  have  been  found  to  remain  quite  hard.     The  invention  of  this  spade,  of  "■ 

which  a  figure,  189,  is  here  given,  tends  to  make  tlie  draining  of  Moorish  soils     the  peat-tilk 
more  practicable  than  heretofore,  and  it  may  be  done  at  1-5  or  1-4  of  the  ex-       for  drains. 
pense  of  ordmary  drain-tiles.     The  frequent  want  of  clay  in  upland  moory  dis- 
tricts renders  the  manufacture  of  drain-tiles  on  the  spot  impracticable,  and  their  carriage  from  a 
distance  a  serious  expense.^ 


THE  FLAT  STONE  DRAIN. 


*  On  Land  Drainage,  &c 
(713) 


t  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  -vii.  %  Ibid.,  vol.  vii. 


378 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


Fig.  189. 


(84'1.)  Sir  Joseph  Banks  alludes  to  the  filling  up  of  drains  in  bo5:8,  which  had  been  execnted  at 
preat  expense  at  W'obuni,  by  the  growth  of  the  mare.stail  (Etpasetnm  paluitrt).  On  examin 
ing  the  plant.  Sir  Joseph  found  "  its  stem  under  ground  a  yard  or  more  in  length, 
and  in  size  like  a  packthread  ;  from  this  a  root  of  twice  the  size  of  the  stem  runs 
horizontally  in  the  ground,  taking  its  origin  from  a  lower  root,  which  strikes  down 
perpendicularly  to  a  depth  I  have  not  hitherto  been  able  to  trace,  as  thick  as  a 
small  finger."*  I  have  frequently  met  with  the  roots  or  stems  of  the  marestail  un- 
der ground,  which,  on  being  bisected  by  the  drains,  poured  out  a  constant  run  of 
water  for  some  time,  but,  when  fairly  emptied  of  it,  and  no  longer  receiving  sup- 
port by  a  due  supply  of  moisture  from  above,  they  withered  away.  Although 
there  is  no  doubt  that,  in  the  case  mentioned  by  Sir  Joseidi  Banks,  the  rooU  of  the 
niaretitail  jienetrated  deeper  than  the  drains,  yet  tlie  circumstance  of  their  sending 
ujjward  shoot.'*  which  grow  "along  the  openings  left  for  the  passage  of  water," 
proves  that  sufficient  moisture  had  been  left  near  the  surface  of  the  bog,  notwith- 
standing llie  draining,  to  supi)ort  the  plant  in  life  ;  in  short,  that  the  bog  had  been 
instifticienily  draineii,  otherwise  the  rivation  of  support  by  moisture  to  the  stems 
at  the  surface  would  inevitably  have  destroyed  the  vitality  of  the  roots  below. 

[ii-t.)  A  plan  similar  to  that  described  in  (t'43)  may  be  practiced  on  strong  clay 
land.  The  open  furrow  is  formed  in  the  same  manner  witli  the  plow,  and,  being 
loft  10  in<'he.s  in  width,  the  spade  work  is  condu'.-ted  in  this  manner:  Leave  a 
scarscment  of  1  inch  on  each  side  of  the  open  furrow  left  by  the  jilow.  as  seen  be- 
low II  a,  tig.  ]90,  and  cut  out  tlie  earth,  14  inches  wide,  perpendicularly,  and  10 
inches  deep,  as  at  b  b.  Then  cast  out  from  the  bottom  of  this  cut,  with  a  spade  3 
or  4  inches  wide,  a  cut  5  inches  or  more  in  depth  <•,  leaving  a  scarst^ment  of  5 
inches  on  each  side  of  the  bottom  of  the  former  cut  b  b.  The  bottom  of  the  small 
cut  will  be  found  to  be  32  inches  below  the  crowns  of  the  ridges,  when  twice  gath- 
ered up  with  a  strong  furrow.  The  drain  is  filled  up  in  this  way:  Take  flag- 
stones of  2  or  3  inches  in  thickness,  as  d,  and  place  them  across  the  opening  of  c 
upon  the  5inch  scarsements,  left  by  the  narrow  spade  ;  ihcy  need  not  be  dressed 
at  the  j(»iuts,  as  one  stone  can  overlap  the  edges  of  the  two  adjoining,  and  they  thus 
form  the  top  of  a  conduit  of  pure  clay  in  which  the  water  may  flow.  As  the  wa- 
ter is  made  to  flow  immediately  upon  the  clay,  it  is  clear  that  this  form  of  drain 
cannot  be  regarded  as  a  permanent  one  ;  though  a  flag  or  tile  sole  laid  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cut  c  would  render  it  much  more  durable.  The  cutting  of  this  form  of 
drain,  the  workmen  having  to  shift  from  one  tool  to  another,  will  cost  Ijii.  lite  rood 
of  6  yards,  which,  at  15  feet  apart,  make  20s.  2d.  the  acre.  The  flags  for  covers 
will  be  12  tons  at  4d.  per  ton,  48.  more,  in  all  if4s.  2d.,  but  wilh  10  tons  of  soles  the 
cost  will  be  3s.  4d.  more,  or  27s.  6d.  the  acre.  exclu.>iive  of  the  carriage  of  stones 
and  the  labor  of  the  plow.  After  the  joinings  of  the  flags  are  covered  over  with  turf,  the  earth 
may  be  returned  into  the  drain  with  the  plow,  but  with  precaution,  and  probably  with  tlie  previ- 
ous a.ssistance  of  the  spade ;  but,  after  all,  the  proba- 
bility is  that  flat  stones  cannot  be  easily  obtained  in 
the  neighborhood  of  strong  clay,  though  this  form  of 
drain  may  be  adopted  in  any  subsoil  where  flat  stones 
are  abundant.t 

(S46.)  A  somewhat  analogous  mode  to  this  last  of 
draining  heavy  clay  land  is  with  the  wedge  or  plug. 
As  this  mode  of  draining  requires  a  very  peculiar 
form  of  tooLs,  they  will  be  described  as  required  for 
use. 

(847.J  The  first  remarkable  implement  used  in  this 
operation  is  the  bitting-iron,  represented  by  fig.  191, 
where  a  is  the  moutli,  Ij  inches  wide;  h  the  bit,  6 
inches  in  length  ;  c  the  width  of  the  bit,  4J  inches. — 
The  bit  is  worked  out  of  the  body  of  the  instrument, 
and  laid  with  the  best  tempered  steel ;  e  is  the  tramp 
of  the  implement,  placed  18  inches  d  from  the  mouth  a  ;  it  would  perhaps  strengthen  the  power 
of  the  implement  to  have  the  tramp  on  the  same  side  as  the  bit  c ;  and  f  is  the  helve,  which  is  of 
the  length  of  that  of  a  common  spade. 


THE  CALDER- 
WOOD  PEAT- 
TILE     SPADE. 


Fig.  190. 


<i 


4 


THE  CLAY-LA.ND  SHOULDER  DRAIN. 


Fig.  191. 


THE  BITTINO-IRON  IS   PLUG-DRAISI.NTi. 


(848.)  This  species  of  draining  is  represented  by  tho.sc  who  have  practiced  it  to  be  applicable 
to  all  soils  that  have  a  various  and  uncertain  depth  of  vegetable  mould,  incumbent  on  a  subsoil  of 


*  Communications  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  voL  ii. 
'714) 


t  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  voL  vii. 


DRAINING. 


379 


tenacious  clay,  exceedingly  impervious  to  water,  and  never  dry  but  by  evaporation.  It  is,  how- 
ever, more  suitable  to  pasture  than  to  arable  land,  although  it  will  suit  all  heavj'  soils  that  are  far 
removed  from  stones,  or  where  tiles  cannot  be  conveniently  made  ;  but  1  would  remark,  on  this 
last  observation,  that  I  w^ould  advise  you  to  prefer  l.ile  draining  to  this  mode,  even  although  the 
tiles  be  very  dear,  either  from  distance  of  carriage  or  difficulty  of  manufacture  on  the  spot. 

(849.)  The  first  process  is  to  remove  the  surface  turf,  12  inches  in  width  and  6^  inches  in  depth, 
with  the  common  spade,  and  to  place  it  on  the  right  hand  side  of  the  workman,  with  the  grass 
side  uppermost.  A  cut  is  then  made  in  the  clay,  on  each  side  of  the  drain,  with  an  edging-iron, 
the  circular-mouthed  spade,  as  tig.  150  ;  bnt  a  common  spade  will  answer  the  purpose  well  enough, 
and  it  requires  some  skill  and  dexterity  to  remove  this  second  cut  properly.  The  first  cut  having 
been  made  with  the  spade  12  inches  wide,  the  second  should  be  made  at  such  an  angle  down 
both  sides  of  the  drain,  9  inches  deep,  as  that  the  breadth  at  the  bottom  shall  be  the  exact  width 
of  the  top  of  the  plug  h,  fig.  192 — that  is,  4  inches  wide.  Carelessness  in  expert,  or  blundering 
in  inexperienced  workmen,  in  this  part  of  the  operation,  has  caused  this  kind  of  drain  to  fail. — 
The  bitting-iron  then  completes  the  cuttings,  by  taking  out  the  last  cut  9  inches  deep,  and  IJ 
inches  wide  at  the  bottom.  This  instrument  is  used  in  this  manner :  The  workman  gives  its 
shaft  such  an  angle  with  the  ground  line  that,  when  pushed  down  to  the  requisite  depth,  it  con- 
tinues the  cut  made  by  the  spade  or  edging-iron  u.sed  previously,  on  the  right  hand  side  of  the 
drain  ;  and  he  does  exactly  the  .same  on  the  opposite  .side  of  the  drain,  using  his  foot  in  both  cases 
on  the  tramp  e,  fig.  191.  On  being  forced  down  on  the  second  side  of  the  drain,  the  clay,  that  is 
now  separated  all  round  by  the  bit  b,  leans  against  the  stem  of  the  iron,  and  is  easily  lifted  out,  so 
that  each  bitful  of  the  clay  taken  out  by  this  instrument  will  have  the  form  of  an  oblique  parallel- 
opipedon.  If  this  part  of  the  operation  is  performed  inaccurately,  the  drain  cannot  succeed,  be- 
cause the  angle  and  depth  made  by  this  instrument  are  of  the  utmost  consequence  in  forming  the 
bed  which  is  to  be  occupied  by  the  plug.  Considerable  accuracy  of  hand  and  eye  is  requisite  ; 
which,  indeed,  cannot  well  be  acquired  by  workmen  without  much  experience,  but  both  may  be 
Boon  acquired.  The  clay  from  the  last  two  cuttings  should  be  placed  on  the  left  hand  side  of  the 
workmen,  or  the  opposite  side  to  that  on  which  the  upper  turf  was  laid  ;  and,  from  the  la.st  cut- 
ting being  uppermost,  it  will  come  readily  to  hand  when  first  returned  into  the  drain.  A^ny  loose 
soil  that  may  happen  to  remain  at  the  bottom  should  be  carefully  taken  out  by  a  scoop  spade, 
such  as  fig.  152,  so  as  to  leave  the  drain  perfectly  clean  before  the  farther  operations  are  effected. 

(850.)  The  next  implement  used  is  the  suter  or  plug,  fig.  192,  -which  consists  of  three  or  more 
pieces  of  wood  i,  %\  inches  in  hight,  6  inches  in  length,  4  inches  wide  at  the  top  h,  and  1^  inches 


Fig.  192. 


THE  SUTERS  OR  PLUGS  IN  PLUG-DRAINING. 

wide  at  the  bottom  g,  joined  together  by  means  of  iron  links  I  sunk  into  the  sides  which  allow 
them  to  pass  in  a  cut  with  a  slight  curve.  A  single  suter  of  18  or  24  inches  long  would  answer 
the  same  or  perhaps  better  purpose.  These  dimensions  are  the  guage  of  the  opening  of  the  drain 
described  above. 

(851.)  The  next  step  in  the  process  is  the  placing  of  the  plugs  on  their  naiTow  edges  in  the  bol 
torn  of  the  drain,  which  they  will  exactly  fit,  if  the  drains  have  been  properly  cut  out.  The  most 
important  part  of  the  proces.s  is  now  to  be  done.  The  clay  that  was  last  taken  out  with  the  bit- 
ting-iron  is  well  rammed  down  upon  the  plugs,  the  pieces  of  the  clay  being  perfectly  incorporated 
mto  one  mass;  then  the  next  portion  that  was  cut  is  returned,  and  equally  well  rammed  down; 
and  lastly,  the  turf  is  placed  in  the  order  it  was  taken  out,  and  fixed  in  its  original  po.sition.  The 
whole  earth  and  the  turf  are  rammed  down  to  the  full  length  of  the  plug,  with  a  rammer  made 
for  the  purpose,  or  with  .such  a  one  as  is  represented  by  fig.  175.  The  operation  of  ramming  be- 
ing finished,  the  lever  n,  fig.  192,  is  then  struck  into  the  bottom  of  the  drain,  and  the  plugs  drawa 
torward  to  within  8  inches  of  their  entire  length  by  the  power  of  the  lever  on  the  chain  m,  which 
18  hooked  to  a  staple  in  the  end  of  the  nearest  plug.  The  work  of  ramming  proceeds  thus  step 
by  step  until  the  whole  drain  is  completed. 

(852.)  The  finished  drain  is  represented  in  section  in  fig.  193,  where  o  is  the  duct  left  in  the 

clay  by  the  plugs,  8^  inches  high  ;  p  is  the  clay  that  was  rammed  down  above  the  plugs,  9  inches 

deep  ;  and  r  is  the  returned  turf,  with  the  grassy  side  uppermost,  6J  inches,  which  again  makes 

„  ,^"^      *^.  ^™oo*'  making  a  drain  of  2  feet  in  depth.     These  two  figures  are  drawn  to  the  scale 

of  I  of  an  inch  to  2  inches. 

(853.)  Some  particulars  in  the  conducting  of  the  work  should  be  attended  to.     1.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  return  all  the  earth  that  was  cast  out  of  the  drain.     This  is  a  criterion  of  good  work  ; 
IT15} 


380 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


Fig.  193. 


THE    SECTION    OK 
DRAI.N. 


and  for  this  purpose,  the  ratnminij  bfini;  tlie  most  laborious  part  of  the  operation,  the  workmen 
are  apt  to  excciite  it  in  uii  iiiLlHciLiit  maimer,  uikI  ^li<lu)(l  ilitrt'ore  be  strictly  euperinteiided  in 
its  execution.  Four  men  and  u.  boy  are  tlie  best  number  of  people 
for  carrying-  on  the  work  exjieditiously ;  and  oi.ly  Mont  people 
should  be  employed,  as  the  ramming  is  really  a  laborious  jirocess. 
2.  As  few  main  drains  should  be  made  as  possible  and  the  open 
ends  of  all  should  be  protected  against  the  inroads  of  vermin  ;  or, 
what  is  a  better  finish,  tlte  lowest  end  of  a  plui;  drain  should  be 
furnished  v^itll  tile  and  sole  or  stone.  The  main  drains,  of  course, 
should  be  made  larger  than  the  ordinary  drains,  and  they  will  have 
to  be  provided  with  proportionally  larger  plugs.  The  drains  should 
be  at  a  distance  from  each  other,  in  proportion  to  the  drawing  na- 
ture of  the  subsoil.  3.  No  stock  whatever  should  be  allowed  to 
enter  the  field  while  under  tliis  treatment,  and  even  not  until  the 
earth  over  the  drains  has  again  become  somewhat  tirin.  After  the 
drains  of  a  field  are  all  finished,  the  ground  should  be  rolled  with 
a  heavy  roller.  4.  This  sort  of  drain  should  not  be  made  in  frosty, 
snowy,  or  very  rainy  weather,  as  the  earth  to  be  Famnied  in  will 
then  be  either  too  hard,  crumbly,  or  too  soft.  A  strict  superintend- 
ence of  the  work  when  it  is  going  on  is  the  only  guaranty  for  effi- 
ciency of  work;  for,  as  to  tlic  expedient  of  imposing  fines  upon 
poor  workmen,  lliey  cannot  be  exacted  without  hardship,  and  per- 
haps injustice. 

(8.'54.)  Mr.  W.  S.  Evans,  of  Selkirk  House,  near  Cheltenham, 
Gloucestershire,  executed  300  miles  of  this  kind  of  drain  in  4  years, 
and  is  well  pleased  with  its  effects  upon  the  laud  that  has  been 
subjected  to  it. 

(85-5.)  It  is  not  so  inexpensive  a  mode  of  draining  as  it  at  first  sight  appears,  costing  lid.  the 
lineal  yard,  or  £5  Os.  lOd.  the  acre,  according  to  Mr.  Evans's  experience  ;  but,  according  to  an- 
other account,  the  expense  is  4d.  the  rood  of  6  yards,  or  £2  ]3s.  9Jd.  the  acre. 

(850.)  The  principle  of  this  mode  of  draining  is  said  to  have  succeeded  well  on  the  tops  of  the 
Gloucestershire  hills,  where  the  bottoms  of  the  drains  descend  to  and  are  cut  through  rock,  and 
where  the  bitting-iron  and  pliig  have  been  laid  aside  for  the  pickax,  the  channel  formed  by 
which  is  covered  with  flat  stones,  and  the  whole  covered  with  clay  rammed  down  as  before  de- 
scribed. This  may  be  a  permanent  mode  of  draining ;  but,  in  plug-draining  in  clay,  I  have  no 
doubt  that  water  will  have  the  effect  of  softening  the  sides  of  the  duct,  and  causing  the  rammed 
wedge  of  clay  above  to  slip  downward  ;  and,  should  the  water  ever  reach  to  the  wedge,  the  lat- 
ter will  inevitably  crumble  down,  and  either  entirely  fill  up,  or  form  a  dam  across  the  duct.* 

(857.)  An  imperfect  form  of  wedge-draining  is  practiced  in  some  parts  of  England  on  strong 
clay  soils,  under  the  name  of  .•jorfdraining.  Tt  is  executed  by  removing  the  upper  turf  willi  the 
common  spade,  and  lii^-ing  it  aside,  for  the  purpose  of  making  it  the  wedge  at 
a  8nbse<pient  part  of  the  operation  ;  and,  if  the  turf  is  tough,  so  much  the  belter 
for  the  durability  of  the  sod  drain.  Another  spit  is  made  with  the  narrow  spade, 
fig.  170,  and  the  last  or  undermost  one  is  taken  out  with  the  narrowest  spade, 
represented  in  fig.  194,  which  is  only  2J  inches  wide  at  the  mouth :  and,  as  its 
entire  narrowness  cannot  allow  a  man's  foot  being  u.sed  upon  it  in  the  usual 
manner,  a  stud  or  spur  is  placed  in  front  at  the  bottom  of  the  helve,  upon  which 
the  workman's  heel  is  pressed,  and  pushes  down  the  spade  and  cuts  out  the 
spit.  The  depth  may  be  to  any  desired  extent.  The  upper  turf  is  then  put  in 
and  trampled  or  beaten  down  into  the  narrow  drain,  in  which  it  becomes 
wedged  against  the  small  shoulder  left  on  each  side  of  the  drain,  before  it  can 
reach  the  narrow  channel  formed  by  the  last-mentioned  spade,  fig.  194  ;  and  the 
channel  below  the  turf  being  left  open,  constitutes  the  duet  for  the  water.  It 
will  readily  be  perceived  that  this  is  a  temporary  form  of  drain  under  any  cir- 
cumstances, though  it  may  last  some  time  in  grass  land,  but  it  seems  quite  un- 
Buited  for  arable  ground,  which  is  more  liable  to  be  affected  by  dashes  of  rain 
than  grass  land  ;  and.  in  any  situation,  the  claj-  in  contact  with  water  will  run 
the  risk  of  being  so  much  softened  as  to  endanger  the  existence  of  the  dust. 

(858.)  Another  method  of  draining  is  performed  on  strong  clay  land  by  the 
mole  plow.  This  implement  is  almost  unknown  in  Scotland,  its  use  being  con- 
fined to  some  parts  of  England,  particularly  in  those  parts  where  grass  land  on 
a  clay  siib.soil  abounds.  It  was,  I  believe,  first  introduced  to  the  notice  of  Scot- 
tish agriculturists  by  the  Duke  of  Hamilton.  v,\w  caused  it  to  be  exhibited  pub- 
licly on  the  occa.sion  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Show  at  Glasgow  in 
1838.  The  day  after  the  Show,  I  saw  it  exhibited  in  operation  on  a  farm  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Glasgow,  of  strong  clay  land,  for  it  seems  to  be  best  suited  to 
operate  in  that  kind  of  soil.  Its  object  is  to  make  a  small  opening  in  the  soil  at 
a  given  distance  from  the  surface,  in  the  form  of  a  molerun,  to  act  as  a  <luct  for 
the  water  that  may  find  its  way  into  it ;  hence  its  name  of  mo/c-plow.  It  makes 
the  pipe  or  opening  in  the  soif  by  means  of  an  iron-pointed  cone,  drawn  through  the  soil  by  the 
application  of  a  force  considerably  greater  than  that  applied  to  a  common  plow. 

(859.)  The  mole-plow  as  a  draming  machine  can  never  be  of  much  utility  in  a  country  like 
Scotland,  whose  alluvial  formations,  though  not  deficient  in  extent,  are  characterized  more  by  the 
abundance  of  their  stony  matters  than  by  their  clays  as  occupying  the  place  of  subsoils  ;  and  it  is 
only  in  the  few  patches  of  carse  land  that  such  clays  occur  as  can  be  brought  nndcr  the  action 


Fig.  194. 


THE     NARROW- 
EST SPADE  FOR 
SOD-DRAINS. 


*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vols.  ir.  and  xi 
(716) 


DRAINING.  381 


of  the  mole  plow.  In  all  those  subsoils  where  bowlders  occur,  whether  large  or  small,  the  mole 
plow  is  so  inapplicable,  its  usefulness  is  limited  to  such  subsoils  as  consist  of  pure  alluvial  clays. 
In  England,  and  where  extensive  flat  districts  of  country  occur,  there  the  alluvium  may  be  found 
which  are  the  proper  sphere  of  action  for  the  mole-plow. 

(860.)  This  plow  is  of  extremely  simple  construction,  as  will  appear  from  fig.  195,  which  is  a 
view  of  it  in  perspective.     It  consists  of  a  beam  of  oak  or  ash  wood  6^  feet  in  length,  and  meas- 


Fig.  195. 


THE  MOLE-PLOW^. 

nring  6  by  5  inches  from  the  butt-end  forward  to  4  inches  sriuare  at  the  bridle  b.  As  the  beam 
when  in  operation  lies  close  upoa  the  ground,  and  is  indeed  the  only  means  of  regulating  the 
depth  at  which  the  conduit  is  to  be  formed,  the  lower  side  is  sheathed  all  over  with  a  plate  of  iron 
about  \  inch  thick.  This  plate  at  the  proper  place  (4  feet  4  inches,  or  thereby,  from  the  point  of 
the  beam)  is  perforated  for  the  coulter-box  ;  its  fore-end  is  worked  into  an  eye,  which  serves  as  a 
bridle,  and  is  altogether  strongly  bolted  to  the  beam.  At  the  distance  of  a  foot  behind  the  coulter- 
box,  a  strong  stub  of  wood  is  mortised  into  the  beam  at  r,  .standing  at  the  rake  and  spread  which 
is  to  be  given  to  the  handles.  Another  plate  of  iron,  of  about  3  feet  in  length  and  \  inch  thick,  is 
applied  on  the  upper  side  of  the  beam  ;  the  coulter-box  is  also  formed  through  this  plate,  and  the 
hind  part  is  kneed  at  c,  to  fit  upon  and  support  the  stub,  to  which,  as  well  as  to  the  beam,  the  plate 
is  firmly  bolted.  The  two  stilts  or  handles  cfare  simply  bolted  to  the  stub,  which  last  is  of  such 
breadth  is  to  admit  of  several  boll-holes,  by  which  the  hight  of  the  handles  can  be  adjusted.  That 
which  may  be  termed  the  head  of  the  plow  is  a  malleable  iron  plate  of  about  2  feet  in  length  ;  that 
part  of  it  which  passes  through  the  beam,  and  is  there  fastened  by  means  of  wedges  like  the  com- 
mon coulter,  is  7  inches  broad  and  |  inch  thick.  The  part  d,  below  the  beam  that  performs  the 
operation  of  a  coulter,  is  9  inches  broad,  J  inch  thick  in  the  back  edge,  and  thinned  offto  a  knife- 
edge  in  the  front.  The  share  or  mole  is  a  solid  of  malleable  iron,  welded  or  riveted  to  the  head  ; 
its  length  in  the  sole  is  about  15  inches,  and  in  its  cross  section  (which  is  a  triangle  with  curved 
sides  and  considerably  blunted  on  the  angles)  it  measures  about  3  inches  broad  at  the  sole,  and  3^ 
inches  in  hight.  A  cylinder  is,  however,  a  better  form  than  a  triangle  ;  but  in  either  caise  the  fore- 
part of  the  share  is  worked  into  a  conical  form,  the  apex  being  in  the  line  of  the  sole,  or  nearly  so. 
This,  while  it  enables  the  share  to  penetrate  the  earth  more  freely,  prevents  a  tendency  to  rising 
out  of  the  ground.  The  tendency  to  rise  is,  however,  not  so  great  as  may  be  supposed,  for  the 
center  of  motion  in  this  implement  being  very  low,  not  less  than  12  inches  under  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  and  the  draft  being  applied  horizontally,  there  is  a  strong  tendency  in  the  point  of  the 
beam  and  of  the  share,  as  in  all  similar  cases  of  oblique  draft,  to  sink  into  the  ground  (630)-(634) ; 
the  effect  of  which,  if  not  properly  balanced  by  the  effects  of  form  in  the  parts,  will  give  the  mole- 
plow  much  unnecessary  resistance. 

(861.)  In  working  this  plow,  the  draft-chain  is  attached  to  the  bridle-eye  at  b,  and  it  is  usually 
drawn  by  two  horses  walking  m  a  circular  course,  giving  motion  to  a  portable  horse  capstan,  that 
is  constructed  on  a  small  platform  movable  on  low  carriage-wheels,  and  which  is  moored  by  an- 
chors at  convenient  reaches  of  50  to  60  yards.  The  mechanical  advantage  yielded  by  the  horse 
capi3tan  gives  out  a  power  of  about  10  to  1,  or,  deducting  friction,  equal  to  a  force  of  about  14 
horses. 

(862.)  Wben  the  plow  is  entered  into  the  soil  and  moved  forward,  the  broad  coulter  cuts  the 
soil  with  its  sharp  edge,  and  the  sock  makes  its  way  through  the  clay  subsoil  by  compi-es.sing-it 
on  all  sides;  and  the  tenacity  of  the  clay  keeps  not  only  the  pipe  thus  formed  open,  but  the  slit 
which  is  made  by  the  broad  coulter  permits  the  water  that  is  in  the  soil  to  find  its  way  directly 
into  the  pipe.  The  plow  is  found  to  work  with  the  greatest  steadiness  at  15  inches  below  the 
surface.  The  upper  turf  is  .sometimes  laid  over  beforehand  by  the  common  plow,  when  the  mole- 
plow  is  made  to  pass  along  the  bottom  of  its  furrow,  and  the  furrow-slice  or  turf  is  again  carefully 
replaced.  This  is  the  preferable  mode  of  working  this  plow,  as  it  serves  to  preserve  the  slit  made 
by  the  coulter  longer  open  than  when  it  terminates  at  the  surface  of  the  turf,  where,  of  course,  it 
is  liable  to  be  soon  closed  up  ;  but  the  least  trouble  is  incurred  when  the  plow  is  made  to  pass 
thro'.igb  'he  turf  unplowed. 

(3P0  )  To  work  the  whole  apparatus  efficiently,  2  horses  and  3  men  are  required ;  and  if  the 
comiryw  estimate  of  10s.  a  day  for  2  horses  and  1  man  is  taken,  but  which  is  too  high,  as  you  shall 
(717) 


382  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

have  occasion  afterward  to  learn,  and  38.  6d.  for  the  other  2  men,  an  were  of  ground  can  be  mole* 
drained  for  138.  tiJ.,  exclusive  of  the  first  cost  and  tear  and  wear  of  this  apparatas,  the  cost  of 
which  canuot  be  less  tlian  ,£50.  At  this  rate,  this  is  the  cheapest  of  all  the  modes  of  draining  that 
you  have  yet  heard  of. 

(864.)  II  tlie  molcplow  is  put  in  motion  in  soft  clay,  the  slit  made  by  the  broad  coulter  will  not 
remain  open  even  for  a  single  day ;  and,  thon^'h  it  may  again  open  in  severe  drouth,  it  will  close 
again  whenever  the  clay  becomes  moist.  This  plow  seems  fitted  lor  action  only  in  pure  clay  sub- 
soils, and,  when  such  are  found  under  old  grass,  it  may  partially  drain  the  ground  with  comparft> 
tive  economy  ;  and,  the  process  being  really  economical,  it  may  be  repeated  in  the  course  of  yean 
in  the  same  ground.  In  my  estimation,  this  mode  of  draiuinij  cannot  bear  a  comparison  for  effi- 
cacy to  tile-draiuiug,  although  it  is  employed  in  some  parts  of  England,  where  its  effects  are  highly 
spoken  of* 

i865.)  It  has  lately  been  proposed  by  Mr.  Scot,  of  Craipmoy,  Stewartrj-  of  Kirkcudbright,  to 
istitute  tubes  of  larch  wood  for  drain-tiles,  in  situations  where  larch  is  plentiful,  and  conse- 
quently cheap,  and  drain-tiles  dear  ;  aiid  he  considers  that  they  would  be  equally  efficient  with 
tiles  in  many  situations,  and  especially  in  mossy  soils.  \Vere  larch  tubes  confined  to  draining 
mos.sy  soils,  I  conceive  they  would  answer  tlie  purpose  well,  not  only  on  account  of  their  lengtn 
maintaining  their  original  position  in  the  drain,  but  on  account  of  the  durable  nature  of  larch 
where  water  is  constantly  present,  as  is  iustance<i  in  cases  of  great  antiquity,  such  as  the  piles  of 
larch  upon  which  the  city  of  Venice  is  founded.  The  larch  tree  that  is  felled  in  winter,  and  al- 
lowed to  dry  with  the  bark  on,  is  much  more  durable  and  useful  for  every  purpo.se,  and  infinitely 
more  free  of  splits  and  cracks  than  that  which  is  cut  down  in  sap,  and  immediately  deprived  of 
its  bark  for  tan. 

(866.)  The  tube  finished,  fig.  196,  presents  a  square  of  4  inches  outside,  witli  a  clear  water-way 
of  2  inches.    To  those  who  wish  to  know  how  they  are  made,  I  refer  to  Mr.  Scot's  published  state- 
ment ;t  but  in  doing  this  I  must  remark  that  the 
cost  of  these  tubes  will  exceed  that  of  clay  tiles.  f  11'.  l'."^ 

For,  take  the  cost  of  drain-tiles  at  30s.  per  1000,  , 

including  carriage,  that  will  be  IJ  farthings  the     f^l  .  .  ~j  i  ^ 

lineal  loot.    Now,  a  lineal  foot  of  larch  tube  con-      l^  .    „    ■  „  .  ,   .  „    .         '^—-^ 

tains  eay  1  superficial  foot  of  timber  at  1  inch 

thick,  which  will  cost  for  carriage  and  sawing  the  larch  drais-tvbe. 

the  timber  1   farthing ;  the  fitting,  boring  and 

pins  will  cost  other  2  farthings;  and  the  timber,  at  6(1.  the  cubic  foot,  will  increase  the  cost  2  far- 
things more,  which  altogether  make  the  tube  more  than  3  times  dearer  than  tiles;  and,  if  the  cost 
of  the  timber  is  thrown  into  the  bargain,  still  they  will  be  double  the  price  of  tiles. 

(867.)  The  recommendation  of  wooden  tubes  for  the  purpose  of  draining  land  reminds  me  of 
many  expedients  which  are  practiced  to  fill  drains,  among  which  are  brushwood,  tliorus.  trees, 
and  even  straw-ropes.  With  the  exception  of  the  trunks  of  small  trees,  which,  when  judiciously 
laid  down  in  drains,  may  last  a  considerable  time,  it  is  not  to  be  imagim-d  that  brushwood  of  any 
kind  can  be  dunililc.  Hence,  drains  filled  with  them  soon  fall  in.  It  could  only  be  dire  necessity 
that  would  induce  any  man  to  fill  drains  with  straw  twisted  into  ropes  ;  and  it  could  only  have 
been  the  same  causiN  in  situations  where  stones  were  scarce,  and  at  a  time  when  drain-tiles  were 
little  known  in  Scotland,  such  as  was  the  case  during  the  late  war,  that  could  have  tempted  farm- 
ers to  fill  drains  with  thorns.  No  doubt,  the  astringent  nature  of  thorn-wood  and  bark  may  pre- 
serve their  suh.siance  from  decay  under  ground  for  a  considerable  time,  but  the  sinking  of  holes  in 
such  drains,  as  I  have  seen,  were  infallible  symptoms  of  decay.  Only  conceive  what  a  mess  such 
a  drain  mu.st  be  that  is  "  filled  up  to  the  hiiriit  of  8  or  10  inches  either  with  bru.-ihwood,  stripped 
of  the  leaves — oak.  ash,  or  willow  twigs  being  the  best — and  covered  with  long  wheat  straw, 
twisted  into  bands,  which  are  put  in  with  the  hand,  and  afterward  forced  down  with  the  spade; 
care  being  taken,"  the  only  case  of  it  evinced  in  the  whole  operation,  "that  none  of  the  loose 
mould  is  allowed  to  go  along  with  them.  The  trench  is  then  entirely  filled  up  with  earth,  the  first 
layer  of  which  is  closely  trampled  down,  and  the  remainder  thrown  in  loosel}-."t  And  yet  such 
is  the  practice  in  several  of  the  .south-ea.stcru  and  midland  counties  of  England. 

(8C8.)  Of  the  ditrahilUy  of  common  brick  when  u.sed  in  drains,  there  is  a  remarkable  instance 
mentioned  by  Mr.  George  Guthrie,  factor  to  the  Earl  of  Stair,  on  Culhom,  Wigtonshire.  In  the 
execution  of  modern  draining  on  that  estate,  some  brick-drains,  on  being  intersected,  emitted  wa- 
ter very  freely.  According  to  documents  which  refer  to  these  drains,  it  appears  that  they  had 
been  formed  by  thi'  celebrated  Marshal,  Earl  .Stair,  upn-ard  of  a  hundred  years  as^o.  They  were 
found  between  the  veirelable  mould  and  the  clay  upon  which  it  rested,  between  tlie  "wet  and  tlie 
dry,"'  as  the  country  phrase  has  it,  and  about  31  inches  below  the  surface.  _  They  presented  two 
forms — one  consisting  of  2  bricks  set  asunder  on  edge,  and  the  other  2  laid  lengthwavs  across 
them,  leavinir  between  them  an  opening  of  4  inches  square  for  water,  but  having  no  soles.  The 
bricks  had  not  sunk  in  the  least  through  the  sandy  clay  bottom  upon  which  ihev  rested,  as  they 
were  3  inches  bro.iii.  The  other  form  was  of  2  bricks  laid  side  by  side,  as  a  sole,  wiili  2  others 
built  on  bed  on  each  other  at  both  sides,  upon  the  solid  grounil,  and  covered  with  flat  stones,  the 
building  being  packed  on  each  side  of  the  drain  with  broken  bricks.|| 

(869.)  Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  lenscn  the  cost  ofatlthi!!  drains.  One  of  these  is  to 
cut  the  drains  narrower  than  they  used  to  be,  for  the  obvious  reason  that  the  drawing  power  of 
drains  lies  more  in  their  dei>tl>  than  breadth ;  and  the  cubical  contents  of  drains,  of  any  givea 
length,  have  in  consequence  been  much  decreased,  and  the  cost  of  digging  them  of  course  muck 
lessened. 

*  See  the  AericuUnral  ."urvcys  of  Middlesex  and  Essex. 

t  Prize  Essays  of  the  llighlnnd  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xiv.,  where  the  machinery  for  making  thesa 
tubes  is  ticinrcd  and  minutely  described. 
X  British  Husbandry,  vol.  L  ||  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  AgricultJiral  Society,  vol.  sir. 

(718) 


DRAINING.  383 


fS70 )  An  attempt  has  been  made  with  this  view  by  Mr.  Peter  McEwan,  Blackdub,  Stirling, 
shire.  His  invention  consists  of  the  application  of  the  plow  in  casting  out  the  contents  of  drains, 
and  it  certainly  displays  much  mechanical  ingenuity,  and  really  performs  the  work  with  a  consid- 
erable degree'of  perfection.  This  application  of  the  plow,  however,  is  by  no  means  adapted  to 
every  species  of  subsoil — the  most  common  one,  of  a  tilly  clay,  containing  small  stones  and  occa- 
sional bowlders,  presenting  insuperable  difBcolties  to  its  progre.ss ;  while  in  pure  unctnous  clay  it 
cuts  its  way  with  ease,  and  lays  aside  the  tenacious  furrow-slice  with  a  considerable  degree  of 
regularity.  The  instrument  has  thus  a  limited  application,  but  a  greater  objection  exists  against 
it,  inasmuch  as  it  requires  an  inordinate  amount  of  power  to  set  it  in  motion,  consisting  of  that  of 
12  horses.  This  circumstance  alone  still  more  limits  its  application,  for  there  are  comparatively 
few  farms  which  employ  6  pairs  of  horses  at  work ;  and  besides,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  yoke 
12  horses  together,  so  as  to  derive  the  amount  of  labor  from  them,  as  when  yoked  in  pairs.  It  is 
truly  distressing  to  see  the  horses  with  this  plow,  as  I  once  had  the  opportunity  of  witnessing  in 
e  field,  of  favorable  subsoil,  too,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Glasgow  in  1838,  on  the  occasion  of  the 
Hig+iland  and  Agricultural  Society's  Show. 

(871.)  Mr.  Smith,  Deanston,  has  given  a  description  of  Mr.  McEwan's  draining-plow,  which  it  is 
not  necessary  to  particularize  farther  than  that  the  horses  go  in  two  divisions,  one  on  each  side 
of  the  line  of  draught,  yoked  to  a  .strong  master-tree  10  feet  long,  arranged  so  as  to  have  4  abreast, 
when  8  horses  are  used,  and  6  abreast  when  12  horses  are  yoked. 

(872.)  With  regard  to  the  state  of  the  work  left  by  this  plow,  men  follow  with  spades,  and 
take  out  a  bed  for  tiles  or  broken  stones,  and  correct  any  deviation  from  a  uniform  fall  in  the  hot 
torn,  occasioned  by  unevenness  of  ground.  The  tiles  or  stones  are  then  put  in  the  usual  manner, 
and  the  earth  is  returned  into  the  drain  by  the  plow. 

(873.)  This  drain-plow  is  made  of  two  sizes,  one  weighing  5  cwt.,  costing  £11,  the  other  weigh- 
ing 4  cwt.  and  costing  £8  Ss.,  and  the  bars  or  swingle-trees,  necessary  to  accompany  each  plow, 
are  2  six-horse,  4  three-horse,  and  a  strong  chain,  the  whole  costing  £4  4s. 

(874.)  With  regard  to  the  length  of  drain  cut  by  this  plow.  Mr.  Smith  estimates  the  time  spent 
at  2  miles  per  hour  for  8  hours ;  and  allowing  J  of  it  to  be  lost  in  turnings,  the  actual  quantity  of 
work  done  in  8  hours  he  takes  at  3,126  roods  of  6  yards,  or  about  19|  acres,  at  15  feet  a.sunder,  the 
drains  being  cut  from  18  to  22  inches  in  depth.  This  quantity  of  work  is  corroborated  by  Mr. 
John  Glen,  Hilton,  Clackmannanshire,  who  states  that  "  we  drain  400  Scotch  chains  in  9  hours," 
going  down  hill  with  the  furrow,  and  up  empty. 

(875.)  The  rate  of  walking  taken  by  Mr.  Smith,  at  2  miles  the  hour,  is  too  great,  as  the  distance 
traveled  in  plowing  1  imperial  acre  of  ground,  in  the  usual  w^ay,  in  a  day  of  10  hours,  which  con- 
stitutes a  good  rate  of  work,  is  Qj  miles,  or  only  1742  yards  per  hour,  including  of  course  turnings. 
There  is  also  a  discrepancy  in  Mr.  Glen's  statement  of  draining  nearly  half  the  extent  of  his  land 
in  9  hours,  going  half  the  time  empty,  with  another  statement  where  he  says,  "  we  have  used  Mr 
McEwan's  drain-plow  for  the  last  4  months,  and  have  drained  837  chains,  Scotch  measure,  with 
it ;"  that  is,  only  2  days'  work  in  4  months,  with  6  horses,  the  drain  being  18^  inches  wide  at  top, 
and  8  inches  wide  at  bottom,  and  from  15  to  17  inches  in  depth. 

(876.)  The  cost  of  employing  this  drain-plow  is  thus  given  by  Mr.  Smith  : 

12  horses  at  4s.  a  day  each £2     8    0 

8  men  at  2s.  a  day  each 0  16     0 

To  cover  interest  of  cost,  and  tear  and  wear  of  plow,  say  Is.  the  hour  0     8    0 

Total £3  12     0 

wkich  is  only  1^  farthings  per  rood  of  6  yards.* 

'877.)  Other  plows  have  been  invented  for  making  drains,  which  have  attracted  attention,  and 
engaged  the  advocacy  of  friends  in  the  immediate  locality  in  which  they  originated,  but  seem 
never  to  have  extended  farther. 

(878.)  In  1832,  Mr.  Robert  Green,  a  farmer  in  Cambridgeshire,  published  an  account  of  a  drain- 
plow  of  his  invention.  It  cuts  the  ground  23  inches  deep  and  8  inches  ^vide  at  top.  and  2  inches 
at  bottom,  at  three  cuts  ;  the  first  being  9  inches,  the  second  8  inches,  and  the  third  6  inches  deep. 
It  is  said  to  take  the  earth  out  clean,  leaving  none  to  shovel  out.  It  cuts  about  500  or  600  poles 
or  rods  of  the  above  dimensions,  at  three  times.  It  requires  4  horses  at  the  first  time,  and  6  horses 
the  other  two,  and  2  men  and  a  boy  to  work  them,  at  £l  10s.  a  day.  The  price  of  this  plow  is 
quoted  at  £l5.t 

(879.)  In  1833,  Mr.  Thomas  Law  Hodges  published  an  account  of  a  drain-plow  invented  by 
Mr.  John  Pearson,  Frotterden,  near  Cranbrook  in  Kent.  The  drain  is  taken  out  by  it  at  three 
turns.  Men  follow  with  narrow  scoop-s,  and  throw  out  all  the  loose  earth  clean,  which  finishes  the 
drain  at  26  inches  deep,  at  an  expense  of  Id.  the  rod. 

(880.)  Both  these  implements  are  best  adapted  to  strong  clay  subsoils,  and  best  for  plug-draining, 
especially  Pearson's,  when,  after  its  operation,  a  long,  narrow  plug  or  slide  of  wood  is  used,  the 
clay  being  rammed  down  upon  which,  it  is  then  drawn  forward  by  means  of  a  windlass  and 
rope.     This  plow  is  estimated  to  cost  £9  5s.,  but  ^vith  spades,  scoops  and  rammers,  it  costs  £l8.t 

(881.)  It  may  be  a.s.serted,  without  much  fear  of  contradiction,  that  improvements  by  thorough- 
draining  will  never  become  general,  or  be  made  permanent,  unless  the  assistance  of  the  landlord 
be  obtained.  When  left  altogether  to  the  tenant,  want  of  capital  and  the  shortness  of  the  lease 
will  tend  at  all  limes  to  limit  the  extent  of  improvements,  and  will  seldom  be  made  permanent ; 
because  the  true  interest  of  the  tenant  is  to  execute  the  work  only  in  such  a  manner  as  will  se- 
cure his  own  temporary  purpo.se.  To  the  proprietor,  among  the  many  inducements  to  improve 
his  estate  by  draining,  the  greatest,  at  least  the  most  satisfactory,  is,  that  it  yields  an  immediate 
and  large  return.    If  he  has  no  spare  money,  he  has  only  to  borrow  it  at  4  per  cent,  and  lend  it, 


♦  Smith's  Remarks  on  Tliorou°b-Drainirip. 

1  Green  on  Underdraining  Wet  and  Cold  Land. 

}  Hodges  on  the  Use  and  .•Advantages  of  Pearson's  liraiGJ&p-jrlow. 

(719) 


384  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

ont  at  6  per  cent.,  a  per  ccntage  which  no  tenant  will  refuse  to  pay,  and  upon  a  security,  too, 
ondoabted — that  of  his  own  propt^rty.  No  one  will  deny  that  a  proprietor  is  bh  justly  entitled  to 
receive  a  fair  return  for  money  laid  out  in  the  improvement  of  his  CHtate,  as  he  is  for  ihat  laid  ont 
on  the  original  purchase  of  it.  Hence,  I  would  a.ssumc,  as  a  general  principle,  that  for  every 
penny  laid  out  by  a  proprietor  ui)on  ameliorations  of  any  kind,  he  shall  have  pn  as.surance  of  a 
return,  eilJier  immediate  or  pros[)erlivo — immediate,  in  the  form  of  interest  or  of  additioiinl  rent  ; 
prospective,  in  the  increased  value  of  his  property,  by  which,  in  after  leases,  it  will  yield  such  an 
increa.sc  of  rent  as  will  repay  the  prr  sent  outlay.  Again,  as  regards  a  tenant,  I  will  assume  that 
he  will  niuke  every  improvement  tl  e  subject  of  a  calculation  of  profit  or  loss  for  one  hare  only, 
and  that  he  will  not  lay  out  any  moaey  merely  for  the  purpose  of  makinfj  improvements  to  extend 
beyond  that  period  Let  him  even  have  an  assurance  of  a  renewal  of  his  lease,  still,  before  that 
takes  place,  a  valuation  will  be  made  of  his  farm,  and  in  that  valuation  will  be  included  his  im 
proveraents;  so  that,  while  he  originally  disbursed  the  whole  expense  of  them,  he  will  in  reality 
nave  to  pay  for  them  again  in  the  shape  of  additional  rent. 

(882.)  (The  mechanical  principles  of  draining  have  been  already  so  fully  discosscd  that  I  need 
not  detain  you  a  moment  with  their  examination  ;  but  this  will  be  the  best  place  for  considering 
a  most  interesting  subject  connected  with  soil,  upon  which  the  whole  necessity  of  draining  de- 
pends, 1  refer  to  the  manner  in  which  an  excess  of  water  proves  injurious  to  the  fertility  of  the 
soil. 

(883.)  In  considering  this  subject  it  will  be  advisable  to  examine  into  the  effects  of  water,  Ist 
npon  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil,  and  2d,  upon  its  chemical  constituents,  rest^rving  the 
influence  which  it  exerts  directly  upon  vegetation  to  be  discuased  on  some  future  occasion. 

(884.)  If  you  call  to  mind  what  I  have  said  regarding  the  mechanical  constitution  of  soil  (424), 
you  will  at  once  perceive  that  a  soil  in  silv  might  not  inaptly  be  compared  to  a  porous  solid  per- 
meated by  innumerable  tortuous  channels,  these  channels  being  formed  by  the  interstitial  spaces 
occurring  between  the  various  particles  composing  the  soil. 

(88.5.)  If  water  is  added  gradually  to  soil,  the  first  ettect  will  be  doubtless  to  fill  these  channels, 
bat  from  the  attraction  which  the  various  components  of  soil  have  for  water,  they  speedily  draw 
it  into  their  pores,  and  thus  empty  the  channels  so  that  even  after  a  considerable  addition,  the  soil, 
taken  as  a  whole,  does  not  lose  its  porosity  although  each  particle  has  its  indiindnal  pores  filled 
with  water.  This  is  the  healthy  condition  of  soil ;  it  is  what  I  shall  call  moist,  in  contradistinction 
to  teet.  Soil  in  this  state  can  be  crumbled  down  in  the  hands  without  making  them  muddy,  al- 
though it  feels  distinctly  damp,  and  will  lose,  when  heated  to  212-^  F.,  from  20  to  50  per  cent  of 
water. 

(886.)  If  now  more  water  shoald  be  added,  the  channels  will  be  again  filled,  and  as  the  porea 
of  each  particle  are  already  saturated  with  moisture,  they  can  again  be  emptied  only  by  one  of 
the  two  following  methods:  1st,  either  very  gradually  by  evaporation  from  the  surface,  as  in  un- 
drained  soil,  or,  2d,  much  more  rapidly  and  cftectually  by  the  channels  having  communication 
with  some  larger  channel  in  a  relatively  lower  level,  as  is  the  ca.se  in  drained  soil.  Soil  in 
which  all  the  interstices  between  its  particles  are  more  or  less  filled  %\'ith  w^ater  may  be  called 
wet  soil,  and  all  such  land  must  be  drained  before  It  can  be  properly  and  advantageously  culti- 
vated. 

(887.)  You  will  thus  perceive  that  water  does  no  harm,  in  fact  it  is  absolutely  necessary  in  soil 
so  long  as  it  does  not  alter  its  mechanical  condition  ;  but  whenever  it  fills  up  the  interstitial  chan- 
nels it  becomes  injurious  for  the  following  rea.sons:  1st,  it  prevents  the  circulation  of  air  through 
the  soil,  as  this  takes  place  entirely  through  the  medium  of  these  channels  ;  2d,  it  impoverishes 
the  soil  by  pennitting  soluble  matter  to  soak  through  ;  because  until  these  channels  are  filled  there 
is  no  flow  of  liquid  in  the  soil,  except  a  very  gentle  current  from  below  upward,  produced  by  ca- 
pillary attraction  toward  the  dricM-  particles  near  the  surface.* 

(888.)  Again,  an  excess  of  water  acts  most  injuriou.sly  in  soil  by  reducing  its  temperature.  This 
is  owing  to  the  extremely  slight  conducting  power  of  water  for  heat,  as  corjpared  to  earthy  mat- 
ter, assisted  also  by  the  cold  produced  by  continued  evaporation.  According  to  some  experi- 
ments which  I  performed,  the  diminution  of  heat  produced  in  this  way  amounts,  in  summer,  on 
an  average  to  6J  degrees  of  Fahrenheit,  which,  according  to  Sir  John  Leslie's  mode  of  calcu- 
lating elevation  by  the  mean  temperature,  is  equivalent  to  a  difference  of  1,950  feet.  When  we 
consider  the  eflTecis  of  elevation  upon  the  nature  and  amount  of  produce,  we  shall  have  good  rea- 
son to  see  the  baneful  effects  of  such  a  change  as  this  represents. 

(889.)  Besides  the  above  injuries  infiicted  by  an  excess  of  water,  there  are  numerous  efTecta 
upon  the  chemical  changes  in  the  soil,  and  also  upon  the  plants  themselves,  all  of  which  must  be 
considen  d  in  their  proper  place.  I  trust,  however,  that  what  I  have  advanced  will  serve  to  im- 
press sufficiently  on  your  minds  the  evident  necessity  of  thorough-draining  in  all  situations  where 
the  soil  is  urt.—n.  R.  M.] 

(890.)  Alter  pointing  out  the  effects  of  draining  in  ameliorating  the  soil  and  promoting  a 
healthy  condition  of  vegetation.  Profe8.sor  .lohnston  proceeds  to  show  the  eflTccts  of  water  upon 
clay  soil.  "  I  shall  add  one  important  remark,'  he  says,  "  which  will  readily  sugcesl  itself  to  the 
geologist  who  has  studied  the  action  of  air  and  water  on  the  various  clay  beils  that  occur  hero 
and  there  as  members  of  the  series  of  stratified  rocks.  There  are  n/>  clays  whif-h  do  not  gradually 
soften  under  the  united  influence  of  air  and  of  running  water.  It  is  false  econoviy,  therefore,  to 
lay  down  files  without  soles,  however  hard  and  stiff  the  clay  subsoil  may  appear  to  he.  In  the 
course  of  10  or  15  years,  the  stiff'est  clays  will  soften,  so  as  to  allow  the  tile  to  sink,  and  many 
very  much  sooner.  The  pa.ssage  for  the  water  is  thus  gradually  removed  ;  and  when  the  tile  has 
sunk  a  couple  of  inches,  the  whole  must  be  taken  up.  Thousands  of  miles  of  drains  have  been 
thus  laid  down,  both  in  the  low  country  of  Scotland  and  ij  the  southern  counties  of  England, 
which  have  now  become  nearly  useless  i  and  yet  the  system  stil!  i^oes  on.  It  would  appear  even 
r- 

*  See  Prize  Essay  on  this  subject  by  me  in  the  Prize  Essayi  of  the  Highland  and  Agi-icultural  Society, 
vol.  xiii. 

(720) 


YOKING  AND  HARNESSING  THE   PLOW.  385 

as  if  the  farmers  and  proprietors  of  each  district,  unwilling-  to  believe  in  or  to  be  benefited  by  the 
experience  of  others,  were  determined  to  prove  the  matter  in  their  own  case  also,  before  they 
will  consent  to  adopt  that  surer  system  which,  though  demanding  a  slightly  greater  outlay  at  first, 
will  return  upon  the  drainer  with  no  after-calls  for  either  time  or  capital.  If  my  reader,"  con- 
tinaes  the  Professor,  "  lives  in  a  district  where  this  practice  is  now  exploded,  and  if  he  be  in- 
clined to  doubt  if  other  counties  be  farther  behind  the  advance  of  knowledge  than  his  own,  I 
•would  invite  him  to  spend  a  week  in  crossing  the  count}'  of  Durham,  where  be  may  find  oppor- 
tunities not  only  of  satisfying  his  own  doubts,  but  of  scattering  here  and  there  a  few  words  of 
useful  advice  among  the  more  intelligent  of  our  practical  farmers."* 

(892.)  As  the  preservation  of  the  fall  in  a  drain  on  nearly  level  ground  is  of  great  importance 
in  drying  it,  it  may  be  satisfactory  to  have  a  demonstration  of  tiie  fact  that  the  angle  subtended 
by  the  plumb-line  df,  in  tig.  183,  is  equal  to  the  angle  of  inclination  of  the  drain  It  a  c.  The  rule 
is,  as  radius  :  a  b  :  :  sine  of  the  angle,  h  a  c  :  b  c,  the  bight  of  the  fall :  Or,  multiply  the  natural 
sine  of  the  angle  b  a  c  by  the  length  of  the  fall  a  b,  and  the  same  result  will  be  obtained. t 

(8^3.)  The  Romans  practiced  draining  both  with  open  and  covered  drains,  the  former  in  clay 
and  the  latter  in  porous  soils.  The  instructions  given  by  Palladius  for  the  formation  of  drains  may 
be  received  with  surprise  by  modern  practicers  of  the  art  on  account  of  their  correctness,  and 
when  their  great  antiquity  is  held  in  remembrance.  "  If  the  land  is  wet,"  he  say.s,  "  it  may  be 
dried  by  drains  drawn  from  every  part.  Open  drains  are  well  known:  covered  drains  are 
Inade  in  this  manner :  Ditches  are  made  across  the  field  3  feet  deep  ;  afterward  they  are  filled 
half-way  up  with  small  stones  or  gravel,  and  then  filled  to  the  surface  with  the  earth  that  was 
thrown  out.  These  covered  drains  are  let  to  an  open  one  to  which  they  descend,  so  that  the 
water  is  carried  off,  and  destroys  no  part  of  the  field.  If  stones  cannot  be  got,  branches,  or  straw, 
or  any  kind  of  twigs,  may  be  used  in  their  place. "^ 

[We  have  omitted  some  calculations  and  tabular  statements,  designed  to  illustrate  the  par- 
ticular and  comparative  cost  of  the  several  kinds  of  drains,  according  to  the  various  inaterials  em- 
ployed in  their  formation,  and  other  circumstances  affecting  the  question. 

All  the  elements  of  these  calculations  differ  so  widely  from  such  as  would  be  brought  into  ac- 
count in  this  country,  that  the  publication  of  them  here  would  afford  no  reliable  or  useful  data  for 
those  who  might  be  disposed  to  enter  on  a  system  of  draining,  more  or  less  extensive.  Having 
BO  thoroughly  exemplified  and  explained  the  principles  of  draining  as  conducted  in  a  counrry 
where  they  are  best  understood  and  recently  most  extensively  cairied  out,  every  reader  can  best 
judge  for  himself  as  to  the  cost  and  the  probability  of  his  being  adequately  remunerated  by  the 
results.  These  questions,  as  they  arise,  must  depend,  in  all  cases,  on  the  peculiar  circumstance.s 
that  belong  to  them.  As  we  have  before  said,  the  portions  of  a  farm  which  most  generally  invite 
the  operation  of  draining,  are  low  grounds,  and  usually  the  most  fertile,  when  divested  of  surplus 
moisture  ;  and  if  any  reliable  inference  is  to  be  drawn  from  the  profits  of  this  operation  in  Eng- 
land, such  as  have  been  detailed,  the  increased  crops  to  be  expected,  would  warrant  a  heavy  out- 
lay, to  say  nothing  of  the  sanatory  effect,  which  has  also  been  referred  to.  The  reasons  here 
given  for  not  copying  all  the  details,  relating  merely  to  the  cost  of  draining  by  the  different  methods, 
and  with  the  materials  employed  in  England,  might  seem  to  apply  to  many  others  which  have 
been  given  in  respect  to  other  branches  of  this  operation,  one  of  the  great  sources  of  the  increased 
productiveness  of  English  Agriculture  ;  but,  in  the  first  place,  the  cases  are  not  exactly  parallel; 
and  besides,  we  are  so  fully  impressed  with  the  importance  and  the  profit  of  draining  rich  spots 
of  land  in  our  country,  and  so  well  satisfied  that  in  the  old  States  this  important  item  in  the  man- 
agement of  land  is  too  much  overlooked,  that  it  was  deemed  better  to  illustrate  the  subject  in  all 
its  aspects,  even  though  many  of  the  examples  given  for  that  purpose  may  not  be  exactly  appli- 
cable to  the  situation  and  circumstances  of  American  landholders.  For  even  these  examples  may 
present  encouragement  to  justify  the  operation,  in  numberless  instances  where  it  has  been  neg- 
lected ;  and  at  all  events,  they  serve  more  fully  to  explain  one  of  the  great  problems  of  the  day, 
with  which  every  enlightened  agriculturist  ought  to  be  familiar  in  all  its  phases.    Ed.  F.  Lib.] 


*  Johnston's  Elements  of  Ag:ricultural  Chemistry. 

t  See  the  prnctical  application  of  this  rule  on  a  large  scale  illnstrated  in  Denton  on  Model  Mapping 

J  Dickson's  Husbandry  of  the  Ancients,  vol.  i. 

(769) 35 


386  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


26.  YOKING  AND  HARNESSING  THE  PLOW,  AND  OF  SWING-TREES. 

"  No  wheels  support  the  diriDg  pointed  share ; 
No  eroaning  ox  is  doomed  to  labor  there ; 
No  Dclpmatcs  teach  the  docile  steed  his  road ; 
Alike  unknown  the  plow-boy  and  the  goad ; 
,  But,  unassisted  through  each  toilsome  day, 

With  smiling  brow  the  plowman  cleaves  hie  way." 

BLOOMFIfiLD. 

(894.)  Having  inspected  the  varieties  of  soil  within  the  sphere  of  your 
observ'atifm,  and  been  told  of  the  various  modes  in  which  the  land  may  be 
stirred  by  the  plow  in  winter,  it  will  be  proper  for  you  to  know  the  simple 
and  efficient  method  by  which  horses  are  attached  to  and  driven  in  the 
plow  in  Scotland,  before  the  winter-j.  lowing  of  the  soil  is  begun,  and  to 
enable  you  to  conceive  the  process  more  vividly,  you  will  find  a  pretty 
accurate  representation  of  a  plow  at  work  in  Plate  XIII.* 

(895.)  The  first  thing  that  will  strike  you  is  the  extreme  simplicity  of 
the  whole  ari'angement  of  the  horses,  harness,  plow,  and  man,  impressing 
you  with  the  satisfactory  feeling  that  no  part  of  it  can  go  wrong,  and  af- 
ford you  a  happy  illustration  of  a  con.plicated  anangement  performing 
complicated  work  by  a  simple  action.  On  examining  particulars,  you 
will  find  the  collar,  better  seen  in  fig.  197,  around  the  horse's  neck,  serv- 
ing as  a  padding  to  preser\-e  his  shoulders  from  injury  while  pressing  for- 
ward to  the  draught.  Embracing  a  groove  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  col- 
lar, are  the  haims,  composed  of  two  pieces  of  wood,  curved  toward  their 
lower  extremities,  which  are  hooked  and  attached  together  by  means  of  a 
small  chain,  and  their  upper  extremities  held  tight  by  means  of  a  leather 
strap  and  buckle  ;  and  they  are  moreover  provided  on  each  side  with  an 
iron  hook,  to  which  the  object  of  draught  is  attached.  The  horse  is  yoked 
to  the  swing-trees  l)y  light  chains  called  trace-chains,  which  are  linked  on 
cue  end  to  the  hooks  of  the  haims,  and  hooked  at  the  other  into  the  eyes 
of  the  swing-trees.     A  back-hand  of  leather  put  across  the  back,  near  the 

[*  How  little  soever  may  be  doing  for  disseminating  iu  America  among  the  rising  generation 
of  agriculturists  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  their  art,  it  may  be  said  to  the  credit  of  the 
profesl*ion,  that  in  the  lightness  and  perfection  of  our  gearing,  and  in  the  manner  of  attaching  and 
using  the  motive  power  employed  in  the  field  of  Agriculture,  we  are  not  behind,  if,  indeed,  we 
are  not  in  advance,  of  countries  the  most  highly  improved.  Yankee  ingenuity,  in  unrestricted 
play,  under  our  fi-ee  Government,  has  effected  wonders  in  the  form  and  structure  and  economy  of 
agricultural  implements  and  machinery,  for  saving  cost  and  labor,  except,  perhaps,  such  as  are  of 
a  co.stly  nature,  involving  too  much  expense  for  common  use.  It  is  not  to  be  maintained  that  onr 
materials,  especially  of  leather,  or  our  workmanship  in  harness  manufacture  and  saddlerj-.  are  by 
any  means  as  perfect  as  in  England  ;  but  so  little  have  wc  'o  learn  from  them  about  '•  yokinir  and 
harnessinir  the  plow,"  that  wc  might  have  ventured  to  omit  this  chapter  except  that  we  choose, 
as  well  to  gratify  the  curiosity  as  to  in.struct  tho  miods  of  young  nnd  inquiring  readers.  England 
and  Scotland  are  admitted  to  be  in  the  van  of  all  European  nations  in  the  march  of  irajirovcment, 
especially  in  scientific  Agriculture  ;  and  he  vrould  be  deemed  but  a  careless  observer  who  should 
visit  either  the  one  or  the  other  and  come  bark  without  being  able  to  tell  if  there  were  anvthing 
peculiar  in  their  mode  of  harnessing  their  teams  to  agricultural  implements.  The  next  best  thing 
to  seeing  for  one"s  self  is  to  be,  as  herein,  authentically  informed.  The  same  rea.sons.  without  feel- 
ing the  necessity  of  repeating  them,  will  prompt  us  to  give  many  other  items  ihat  might  be  omit- 
ted were  we  to  study  nothing  but  practical  usefulness  and  saving  to  our  publishers. 

Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 
(770) 


•  YOKING  AND  HARNESSING  THE  PLOW.  387 

groins  of  the  horse,  supports  the  trace-chains  by  means  of  simple  hooks. 
The  bridle  has  Winders,  and  while-  the  horse  is  in  draught,  it  is  customary 
to  hang  th.e'hearing-reins  over  the  tops  of  the  haims.  In  some  paits  of  the 
country  there  are  no  blinders  ;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  many  horses  so 
brought  up  will  work  very  well  without  them.  But  in  cases  of  horses  of 
so  timid  a  nature  as  to  be  easily  frightened  at  distant  objects,  and  those  of 
so  careless  a  disposition  as  to  look  much  about  them,  they  ai'e  useful  in 
keeping  the  attention  of  the  horse  to  his  work.  You  observe  there  are 
two  horses,  the  draught  of  the  common  plow  requiring  that  number,  which 
are  yoked  by  the  trace-chains  to  the  swing-trees,  which,  on  being  hooked 
to  the  draught-swivel  of  the  bridle  of  the  plow,  enable  the  horses  to  exer- 
cise their  united  strength  on  that  single  point ;  and  being  yoked  abreast, 
they  are  enabled  to  exert  their  united  strength  much  more  effectually  than 
if  yoked  atrip — that  is,  one  before  the  other.  The  two  horses  are  kept 
together  either  by  a  leather  strap,  buckled  at  each  end  to  the  bridle-ring, 
or  by  a  short  rei/i  of  rope  passed  from  the  bridle-ring  to  the  shoulder  of 
each  horse,  where  it  is  fastened  to  the  end  of  the  trace-chain  with  a  knot. 
The  strap  prevents  the  horse  separating  beyond  its  length,  but  allows  their 
heads  to  move  about  loosely  ;  the  short  reins  prevent  them  not  only  sepa- 
rating, but  keep  their  heads  steady  ;  and  on  this  account,  horses  fast- 
ened with  reins  can  be  turned  round  more  quickly  and  simultaneously 
than  with  the  strap.  The  plowman  guides  the  horses  with  plow-reins, 
made  of  rein-rope,  which  pass  from  both  stilts  to  the  bridle-ring  of  each 
horse,  along  the  outermost  side  of  the  horse,  threading  in  their  way  a  ring 
on  the  back-band  and  sometimes  another  on  the  haims.  The  i-eins  are 
looped  at  the  end  next  the  plowman,  and  conveniently  placed  for  him  un- 
der the  ends  of  pieces  of  hard  leather  screwed  to  the  foremost  end  of  the 
heaves  ;  or  small  rings  are  sometimes  put  there  to  fasten  the  reins  to.  In 
many  places,  only  one  rein  is  attached  to  the  near-side  horse,  and  in  oth- 
ers the  horses  are  guided  solely  by  the  voice.  It  is  perfectly  obvious  that 
the  plowman  must  have  a  better  and  quicker  command  over  his  horses 
with  a  double  than  a  single  rein,  and  veiy  much  more  so  than  by  the  voice 
alone. 

(896.)  Thus  harnessed,  each  horse  has  not  much  weight  to  bear,  nor  is 
its  harness  costly,  though  made  of  the  strongest  harness  leather,  as  this 
statement  will  show  : 

Weight.  Value. 

Collar 15lb8.  £10     0 

Haims,  when  covered  with  pftite-iron,  and  with  a  strap 7    "  0     5    6 

Bridle 4^  "  0  10    0 

Back-band ..3J  "  0     8     0 

Chains 8    "  atTd.perlh.          0     4     8 

Total 38  lbs.  and  for  each  horse  X2     8     2 

When  compared  with  the  weight  of  English  harness,  these  are  little  more 
than  feather-weight. 

(897.)  The  collars  are  differently  mounted  in  the  cape  in  different  parts 
of  the  country.  The  use  of  the  cape  is  to  prevent  rain  falling  upon  the 
top  of  the  shoulder,  and  getting  between  the  collar  and  shoulder,  where, 
in  draught,  it  would  heat  and  blister  the  skin.  In  the  Lothians,  the  cape 
of  the  form  of  fig.  197  is  both  neat  and  convenient.  In  Forfarshire,  and 
somewhat  more  northerly,  it  is  of  the  form  of  fig.  198,  which  lies  flatter 
and  comes  farther  back  than  the  former  ;  and  it  is  certainly  a  complete 
protection  from  rain  ;  but  it  makes  the  collar  rather  heavy,  and  its  own 
weight  is  apt  to  loosen  the  sewing  of  white  sheep-skin  with  which  it 
is  attached  to  the  body  of  the  collar.  Fig.  199  is  a  form  of  cape  common 
in  England,  which  answers  no  purpose  of  protection  from  rain,  but  rather 


388 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


to  catch  the  wind,  atiJ  thereby  obstruct  the  progress  of  the  horse.  Such 
a  cape  is  frequently  oniiimented  with  flaring-colored  red  worsted  fringes 
round  the  edge,  or  with  large  tassels  from  the  corner  and  mitfdle,  or  even 
with  bells. 


Fig.  197. 


Fig,  198. 


Fig.  199. 


THE  I.OTHIAN  DRAUGHT- 
HORSE  COLLAR  AND  HAIMS. 


THE  FORFAR.SHIRE 
DRAUGHT-HORSE  COLLAR. 


THE   K.NGLISH 
DRAUGHT-HORSE  COLLAR. 


(898.)  "With  regard  to  ornamenting  farm  harness,  it  never  appears,  in 
my  estimation,  to  greater  advantage  than  when  quite  plain,  and  of  good 
materials  and  excellent  workmanship.  Brass  or  plated  buckles  and  brow- 
bands,  worsted  rosettes,  and  broad  bands  of  leather  tattooed  with  fillagree 
sewing,  serve  only  to  load  and  cover  the  horses  when  at  work,  and  display 
a  wasteful  and  vulgar  taste  in  the  owner.  Whatever  tcmj)tation  there 
may  be  in  towns  to  show  off  the  grandeur  of  teams,  you  should  shun  such 
display  of  weakness  in  the  country. 

(899.)  The  English  farmer  is  not  unfrecjuently  recommended  by  writers 
on  Agriculture  to  adopt  the  2-horse  plan  of  working  the  plow ;  but  the 
recommendation  is  never  accompanied  with  such  a  description  of  the  plow 
as  any  farmer  could  understand  it  who  had  never  seen  a  plow  with  2  horses 
at  woik ;  and  it  is  not  enough  to  tell  people  to  adopt  this  or  that  plan, 
without  putting  it  in  their  power  to  understand  what  is  recommended. — 
To  enable  tlu;  English  farmer,  who  may  never  have  chanced  to  see  a  Iwo- 
norse  plow  at  work,  and  to  facilitate  the  understanding  of  its  aiTangements 
by  those  who  may  have  seen,  but  not  have  paid  sufficient  attention  to  it, 
the  figure  on  Plate  XIII.  has  been  executed  with  a  regard  to  show  the 
just  proportions  of  the  various  parts  f)f  the  plow  and  the  harness.  The 
plow  has  been  sufficiently  well  explained  already,  and  keeping  in  mind 
the  relative  j)rop<ntions  of  iLs  ])arts,  those  of  the  horse  and  harness  may  be 
ascertained  from  this  plate  ;  for,  so  practically  correct  are  those  propor- 
tions, that  any  one  desirous  of  mount ing  a  plow  in  a  similar  manner  may 
easily  do  so  from  this  figure  before  them. 

(900.)  Although  the  reins  alone  are  sufficient  to  guide  the  horses  in  the 
direction  they  should  go — and  I  have  seen  a  plowman  both  deaf  and  dumb 
manage  a  pair  of  horses  with  uncommon  dexterity — yet  the  voicf  is  a 
ready  assistance  to  the  hands,  the  intonations  of  which  liorses  obey  with 
celerity,  and  the  modulations  of  which  they  understand,  whether  express- 

(772) 


YOKING  AND  HARNESSING  THE  PLOW.  389 

ive  of  displeasure  or  otherwise.  Indeed,  in  some  of  the  midland  counties 
of  Scotland,  it  is  no  uncommon  occurrence  to  observe  the  plowmen  guid- 
ing their  horses,  both  in  the  field  and  on  the  road,  with  nothing  but  the 
voice  ;  but  the  practice  is  not  commendable,  inasmuch  as  those  accustomed 
to  it  fall  into  the  practice  of  constantly  roaring  to  their  horses,  which  at 
length  become  regardless  of  the  noise,  especially  at  the  plow ;  and  on  the 
road  the  driver  has  no  command  over  them,  in  any  case  even  of  the  slight- 
est emergency,  when  he  is  obhged  to  huiry  and  seize  the  bridle  of  the 
horse  nearest  to  him  at  the  time;  and  should  one  or  both  horses  evince 
restiveness,  when  he  can  only  have  the  command  of  one  by  the  bridle,  he 
runs  the  risk  of  being  overcome  by  the  other  or  by  the  cart. 

(901.)  The  language  addressed  to  horses  varies  as  much  as  even  the  dia 
lects  are  observed  to  do  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  One  word.  Wo, 
to  stop,  seems,  however,  to  be  in  general  use.  The  motions  required  to 
be  performed  by  the  horse  at  work  are — to  go  forward,  to  go  backward, 
to  go  from  you,  and  to  come  toward  you  ;  and  the  cessation  of  all  these, 
namely,  to  stop  or  stand  still. 

To  lessen  or  cease  motion. — The  word  Wo  is  the  common  one  for  a  ces- 
sation of  motion ;  and  it  is  also  used  to  the  making  any  sort  of  mo- 
tion slower ;  and  it  also  means  to  be  careful,  or  cautious,  or  not  be 
afraid,  when  it  is  pronounced  with  some  duration,  such  as  Wo-o-o. 
In  some  parts,  as  in  Forfarshire,  Stand  has  a  similar  signification ; 
but,  to  stand  without  ,any  movement  at  all,  the  word  Still  is  there 
employed.  In  England,  Wo  is  to  stop. 
To  go  forward. — The  name  of  the  leader  is  usually  pronounced,  as  also 
the  well-known  Chuck,  Chuck,  made  with  the  tongue  at  the  side 
of  the  mouth,  while  impelling  the  breath. 
To  step  hackward.-'Back   is  the    only  word  I  can  remember  to  have 

heard  for  this  motion. 
To  come  toicard  you. — Hie  is  used  in  all  the  border  counties  of  England 
and   Scotland ;   Hie  here,  Gome  ather,  are  common  in  the  midland 
counties  of  Scotland.     In  towns  one  hears   frequently  Wynd  and 
Vane.     In  the  west  of  England  Wo-e  is  used. 
To  go  from  you. — Hup  is  the  counterpart  to  hie  in  the  southern  coun- 
ties, while  haud  aff  is  the  language  of  the  midland  counties ;   and, 
in  towns,  Haap  is  used  where  wynd  is  heard,  and  Hip  bears  a  sim- 
ilar relation  to  vane.     In  the  west  of  England  Gee  a  gen  is  used. 
In  all  these  cases,  the  speaker  is  supposed  to  be  on  what  is  called   the 
near-side  of  the  horse — that  is,  on  the  horse's  left  side.     As  a  single  word 
is  more  convenient  to  use  than  a  sentence,  1  shall  employ  the  simple  and 
easily  pronounced  words   hup  and  hie,  when  having  occasion  to  describe 
any  piece  of  work  in  which  horses  are  employed. 

(902.)  [The  swingle  or  siving-trees,  whtpp'e-trees,  draught-bars,  or  simply  bars — for  by  all  these 
names  are  they  known — are  those  bars  by  which  horses  are  yoked  to  the  plow,  harrows,  and 
other  implements.  In  the  plow-yoke,  a  set  of  swing-trees  consists  of  3,  as  represented  in  Us,.  200, 
where  a  points  oat  the  bridle  of  the  plow,  b  b  the  main  swing-tree  attached  immediately  to  the 
bridle,  c  c  the  furrow  or  off-side  little  swing-tree,  and  d  d  the  land  or  nigh-side  little  tree,  arranged 
in  the  position  in  which  they  are  employed  in  working.  The  length  of  the  main-tree,  between 
the  points  of  attachment  for  the  small  trees,  is  generally  3|  feet,  but  this  may  be  varied  more  or 
less ;  the  length  of  the  little  trees  is  usually  3  feet  between  the  points  of  attachment  of  the  trace- 
chain,  but  this  also  is  subject  to  variation. 

(903.)  Swing-trees  are  for  the  most  part  made  of  wood,  oak  or  ash  being  most  generally  used  ; 
but  the  "former,  if  sound  English  oak.  is  by  much  the  most  durabte,  though  good  Scotch  ash  is  the 
strongest,  so  long  as  it  remains  .sound,  but  it  is  liable,  by  long  exposure,  to  a  species  of  decay  re- 
sembling dry-rot.  As  it  is  always  of  importance  to  know  the  why  and  wherefore  of  everything, 
I  shall  here  point  out  how  it  may  be  known  when  a  swing-tree  is  of  a  proper  degree  of  strength. 
A  swing-tree,  when  in  the  yoke,  undergoes  a  strain  similar  in  practice  to  that  of  a  beam  support- 
ed at  both  ends  and  loaded  at  the  middle  ;  and  the  strength  of  beams  or  of  swing-trees  in  this  state 
is  proportional  to  their  breadths  multiplied  into  the  square  of  their  depths  and  divided  by  their 
lengths.  It  is  to  be  understood  that  the  depth  here  expressed  is  that  dimension  of  the  swing-tree 
(773) 


390 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


that  lies  in  iIk-  liin-ctiou  of  the  Htraia.  or  what  in  the  language  of  agricaltural  mechanics  is  called 
the  breadth  of  tl>e  8witi»;-trcc.     To  apply  the  abore  expression  to  practice — suppose  a  swing  tree 

Fig.  200. 


THE  SWI.VG-TREE5  FOR  TWO  HORSES. 

of  3  feet  in  length  between  the  points  of  attachment  for  the  draoght,  that  its  breadth  is  IJ  inches 
and  depth  3  inches,  and  another  of  the  same  breadth  and  depth,  but  whose  length  is  6  feet,  then 
1*5  X  3  X  3  1*5  V  3  V  3 

in  the  case  of  the  first  we  have    ; =:  4*5 :  and  in  the  second  we  have  :=2*25 

3  feet  6 

— ^the  strength  of  these  two  being  as  2  to  1 ;  and.  to  make  the  6  feet  swing  tree  of  equal  strength 
with  the  othor,  the  breadth  must  be  increased  directly  as  the  length — that  is  to  say,  doubled — or 
the  depth  increased,  so  that  its  aqnore  shall  be  double  that  of  the  former.  Hence  a  swing-tree  of 
6  feet  long,  and  having  a  breadth  of  IJ  inches  and  depth  4j  inches,  will  be  equal  in  strength  to 
the  3  feet  sw-ing-tree  with  a  breadth  of  IJ  and  depth  of  3  inches :  but,  the  depth  remaining  equal, 
the  breadth  is  required  to  be  doubled,  or  made  3  inches  for  the  6  feet  swini;  tree. 

(904.)  To  find  the  absolute  strength  of  a  bar  or  beam,  sitoate  as  above  described,  we  have  tliis 
rule  :  Multiply  the  breadth  in  inches  by  the  square  of  the  depth  in  inches,  divide  the  product  by 
the  length  in  feet,  and  multiply  the  quotient  by  the  constant  660  if  for  oak,  or  by  740  if  for  ash — 
the  product  will  be  the  force  in  pounds  that  would   break  the  swinetree  or  the  beam.*     Here, 


then,  taking  the  former  dimensions  as  of  a  small  swing-tree. 


l-S  X  3'  X  740 


=  3,333  lbs.  the  ab- 


solnte  force  that  would  break  the  tree  ;  but,  taking  into  account  the  defect  that  all  woods  are  lia- 
ble to  break  from  crossing  the  fibres  and  other  contingent  defects,  we  may  allow  \  to  eo  for  secu- 
rity against  such  contingencies,  leavine  a  disposable  streneth  eqnal  to  1,666  lbs.  It  has  been 
shown  (634)  that  the  usual  force  exerted  by  a  horse  in  the  plow  does  not  exceed  168  Iba,  but  U 
occasionally  rises  to  300  lbs.,  and  on  accidental  occasions  even  to  6O0  lbs. ;  but  this  is  not  much 
beyond  J  of  the  disposable  strenirth  of  the  3fcet  swing  tree  when  its  breadth  and  depth  are  1} 
and  3  inches.  The  depth  of  such  trees  may  therefore  be  safely  reduced  to  2^  inches,  and  still  re- 
tain a  suffirient  degree  of  strength  to  resist  any  possible  force  that  can  come  upon  it.  In  the  large 
■wing-tree  the  same  rule  applies  ;  suppose  its  length  between  the  points  of  attachment  to  be  3 
feet  9  inches,  its  breadth  1}  inches,  and  depth  31  inches,  the  material  being  ash  as  before;  tbea 
1*75  X  3*5*  X  740 

— — =  4,230  lbs. ;  reducing  this  \  for  security,  there  remain  2,115  Iba,  but  the  great- 
est force  that  may  be  calculated  upon  from  2  horses  is  1,200  lbs. ;  we  have,  therefore,  nearly  double 
aecnrity  in  this  size  of  large  swing. tree. 

(905.)  In  proportioning  the  stn:'ngth  of  swin^-trees  to  any  particular  draught,  let  the  greatest 
possible  amount  of  force  be  calculated  that  can  be  applied  to  each  end  of  the  tree,  the  sum  o£  these 
will  be  the  opposing  force  as  applied  at  the  middle,  and  this  may  be  taken  as  above  (904)  at  600 
lbs.  for  each  horse  ;  but,  for  security,  let  it  be  3  times  or  l.isoo  lbs.  each  horse  H,  any  number  of 
horses  being  m  H ;  and  having  fixed  upon  a  breadth  B  for  the  tree,  and  L  the  length,  C  being  the 

constant  as  before,  then  the  depth  D  will  be  found  thus :  — — -  ^  DJ  *,  or,  in  words,  mnlti- 

B  X  C 


TredKold's  Carpentry,  art  110. 

(77  4J 


YOKING  AND   HARNESSING  THE    PLOW. 


391 


ply  the  length  into  as  many  times  1,800  lbs.  as  there  are  to  be  horses  applied  to  the  tree,  divide 
the  product  by  the  constant  (740  for  ash,  or  660  for  oak)  multiplied  into  the  breadth,  the  quotient 
will  be  the  square  of  the  depth,  and  the  square-root  of  this  will  be  the  depth  of  the  swing-tree, 
with  ample  allowance  for  assurance  strength.  In  all  cases,  the  depth  at  the  ends  may  be  reduced 
to  J  of  that  of  the  middle. 

(906.)  Wooden  swing-trees  ought  always  to  be  fitted  up  with  clasp  and  eye  mounting  of  the 
best  wrought-iron,  from  2  to  2J  inches  broad,  about  3-16  inch  thick  in  the  middle  parts,  and  worked 
off  to  a  thin  edge  at  the  sides ;  the  part  forming  the  eye  may  range  from  \  inch  diameter  in  the 
center  eye  of  the  large  tree  to  5  inch  in  the  end  clasps  of  the  small  trees ;  and  they  are  applied  to 
the  ■wood  in  a  hot  state,  which,  by  cooling,  makes  them  take  a  firm  seat  In  the  main  tree,  the 
middle  clasp  has  usually  a  ring  or  a  link  e  welded  into  it,  by  which  the  set  is  attached  to  the  hook 
of  the  plow's  bridle  ;  the  two  end  clasps  have  their  eyes  on  the  opposite  edge  of  the  swing-trees, 
with  sufficient  opening  in  the  eyes  to  receive  the  S  hooks  of  the  small  tree.  The  small  are  trees 
furnished  with  the  S  hooks,  by  which  they  are  appended  to  the  ends  of  the  main  trees ;  and  end 
clasps  are  adapted  to  receive  the  hooks  of  the  trace-chains  //,  g  g,  a  small  part  only  of  which  are 
shown  in  the  figure.  The  detached  figure  A  is  a  transverse  section  of  a  tree  showing  the  form  of 
the  clasps,  the  scale  of  which  is  double  the  size  of  the  principal  figure  in  the  cut. 

(907.)  Though  wood  has  hitherto  been  the  material  chiefly  used  for  swing-trees,  there  have  been 
some  successful  trials  of  malleable  iron  for  the  purpose.  These  have  been  variously  constructed, 
in  some  cases  entirely  of  sheet-iron  turned  round  into  a  form  somewhat  resembling  the  wooden 
trers.;  but,  in  this  form,  either  the  iron  must  be  tliin,  or  the  bar  must  be  inconveniently  heavy ;  if 
the  former,  durability  becomes  limited,  by  reason  of  the  oxidation  of  the  iron  acting  over  a  large 
surface,  and  soon  destroying  the  fabric.  Another  method  has  been  to  form  a  diamond-shaped 
truss  of  solid  iron  rods,  tlie  diamond  being  very  much  elongated — its  length  being  3  feet,  and  its 
breadth  about  4  inches,  with  a  stretcher  between  the  obtuse  angles.  A  third  has  been  tried,  con- 
sisting of  a  straight  welded  tube  of  malleable  iron,  about  3  feet  long  and  |  inch  diameter.  In  this 
tube,  acting  as  a  strut,  a  tension-rod,  also  of  malleable  iron,  is  applied  with  a  deflection  of  4  inches, 
the  extremities  of  the  tension-rod  being  brought  into  contact  by  welding  or  riveting  with  the  ends 
of  the  tubular  strut,  and  eyes  formed  at  the  ends  and  middle  for  tlie  attachment  of  the  hooks  and 
chains.  A  tree  thus  formed  is  sufficiently  strong  for  every  purpose  to  which  it  is  applied,  while 
its  weight  does  not  exceed  7  lbs. ;  and  the  w^eight  of  a  w^ooden  tree,  with  its  mounting,  frequently 
weighs  8  lbs.  The  price  of  a  set  of  common  wooden  trees,  with  the  iron  mounting,  is  Via.,  and 
of  the  iron  trees  ISs. 

(908.)  The  foregoing  remarks  apply,  so  far  as  arrangement  goes,  to  the  common  2-horse  swing- 
trees  ;  but  the  various  modes  of  applying  horse-power,  both  as  regards  number  and  position  of  the 
horses,  require  farther  illustration.  The  next  I  shall  notice,  therefore,  is  the  "i-horse  yoke,  of  which 
there  are  various  modes — the  simplest  of  which  is,  first,  a  pair,  working  in  the  common  trees,  fig. 
200 ;  and,  for  the  tliird  horse,  a  light  chain  is  attached  by  a  shackle  to  the  middle  of  the  main  bar 
b  b.  To  this  chain  the  third  horse  is  yoked,  taking  his  place  in  front  of  the  other  two,  in  unicorn 
fashion.  This  yoke  is  defective,  inasmuch  as  there  are  no  means  of  equalizing  the  draught  of  the 
third  horse. 

(909.)  Perhaps  the  most  perfect  method  of  yoking  a  3-horse  team,  whether  abreast  or  unicorn- 
fashion,  is  that  by  the  compensation  levers,  fig.  201 — a  statical  combination,  \vhich  is  at  once  cor- 


Fig.  201. 


THE  SWING-TREES   FOR  THREE  HORSES. 


rect  in  Its  equdization,  scientific  in  its  principles,  and  elegant  in  its  arrangement ;  and  I  have  to 

regret  my  mability  to  single  out  the  person  who  first  applied  it.     The  apparatus  in  the  figure  is 

represented  as  applied  to  the  subsoil-plow— a  being  the  bridle  of  that  plow  ;  i  is  a  main  swing- 

(775)  TO  r         >  » 


392 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


tree,  5  feet  in  length,  and  of  strength  proportioned  to  the  draught  of  3  horaeR;  and  c de  are  three 
small  common  trees,  one  for  each  horse.  The  tracechainH  are  here  broken  off  at/,  e-  respectir©- 
ly,  but  are  to  be  conceived  as  extending  forward  to  the  shoulders  of  the  horses.  Between  the 
main  swing-tree  and  the  three  small  ones  the  compensating  apparatus  is  placed,  as  in  the  ttcure, 
consisting  of  throe  lovers,  usually  constructed  of  iron.  Two  of  these,  k  i  and  A  i,  are  levers  of  the 
first  order,  but  with  unequal  arms,  the  fulcrum  k  being  fixed  at  J  of  the  entire  length  frcm  the 
outward  end  of  each  ;  the  arms  of  these  levers  are  therefore  in  the  proportion  of  2  to  1,  and  the 
entire  length  of  each  between  the  points  of  attachment  is  27  inches.  A  connecting  lever  /,  of  equal 
arms,  andSO  inches  in  length,  is  jomted  to  the  longer  arms  i  i  of  the  former,  by  means  of  the  double 
short  links  m,  n.  The  two  levers  h  i,  h  i,  are  hooked  by  means  of  their  shackles  at  k  to  the  main 
swing-tree  b ;  and  the  three  small  swing-trees  r.  d,  e.  are  hooked  to  the  compensation  lever  at  k, 
k  and  /.  From  the  mechanical  arrangement  of  these  levers,  if  the  whole  resistance  at  a  be  taken 
at  600  lbs.,  k  and  k  will  each  require  an  exertion  of  ."JOO  lbs.  to  overcome  the  resistance.  But  these 
two  forces  fall  to  be  subdivided  in  the  (iroportion  of  the  arms  of  the  levers  hi;  J  of  each,  or  200 
lbs.,  being  allotted  to  the  arms  h.  and  the  remaining  J,  100  lbs.,  to  the  arms  i,  which  brings  the 
system  to  an  equilibrium.  The  two  forces  j,  j,  beini;  conjoined  by  means  of  the  connectinglevera 
m,  n,  their  union  produces  a  force  of  200  lbs.,  thus  ecjualizing  the  three  nitimale  forces  h  I  h  lo  200 
lbs.  each,  and  these  three  combined  are  equal  to  the  whole  resistance  a  ;  and  the  3  horses  that  are 
yoked  to  the  swing-tree  r,  d.  e.  are  subjected  to  equal  exertion,  whatever  may  be  the  amount  of 
resistance  at  n  which  has  to  be  overcome. 

(910  )  The  judicious  farmer  will  frequt-ntly  see  the  propriety  of  lightening  the  labor  of  some  in- 
dividual horse  ;  and  this  isea.sily  accomplished  by  the  compensation  apparatus.  For  this  purpose, 
one  or  more  holes  are  perforated  in  the  levers  h  i,  on  each  side  of  the  true  fulcnim  k,  to  receive 
the  bolt  of  the  small  shackles  k.  By  shifting  the  shackle  and  boh,  the  relation  of  the  forces  h  and 
t  are  changed,  and  that  in  any  proportiort  that  may  be  desired  :  but  it  is  necessary  to  ob«er>-e  that 
the  distance  of  the  additional  holes,  on  cither  side  of  the  central  hole  or  fulcrum  of  equilibrium  in 
the  system,  should  be  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  length  of  the  arms  in  which  the  holes  are  per- 
forated. Thus,  if  the  distance  between  those  in  the  short  arm  is  half  an  inch,  those  in  the  longer 
arm  should  be  an  inch.  By  such  arrangement,  every  increase  to  the  exertion  of  the  power,  whether 
on  the  long  or  the  short  arm,  would  be  equal. 

(911.)  The  same  principle  of  compensation  has  been  applied  to  various  ways  of  yoking,  one  of 
which  is  a  complicated  form  of  that  just  described.  The  main  swing-tree  and  the  compensation 
levers  are  the  same,  except  that  they  may  be  a  few  inches  shorter  in  all  the  arms,  and  the  middle 
one  of  the  three  small  swing-trees  also  shorter.  The  yokins  is  performed  in  this  manner  :  The 
nigh  trace-chain  of  the  nigh  hor.ie  is  hooked  to  the  end  o  of  the  swing-tree  c,  and  his  off-side  trace- 
chain  to  the  end  o  of  the  swing-tree  d.  The  middle  horse  has  his  nigh-side  cha^n  hooked  to  the 
end  p  of  the  swing-tree  c,  while  his  off-side  chain  goes  to  tlie  end  p  of  the  swing-tree  e ;  and  the 
Dff-side  horse  has  his  nigh-side  chain  attached  to  the  end  q  of  the  middle  swing-tree  d,  and  his  off- 
side to  q  of  the  swing  tree  e.  This  system  of  yoking  is  complicated,  and  though  in  principle  it 
equalizes  the  forces  so  long  as  all  the  horses  keep  equally  ahead,  yet  it  is  in  some  degree  faulty. 
Whenever  the  middle  horse  gets  either  behind  or  before  his  proper  station — or  out  of  that  position 
which  keeps  all  the  swing-trees  parallel  to  each  other — the  outside  horses  have  a  larger  share  of 
the  draught  upon  one  shoulder  than  upon  the  other;  and.  as  this  produces  an  unnecesi*ary  fatigue 
to  the  animal,  it  should  be  avoided.  Such  irregularity  cannot  occur  with  the  simple  mode  of  giv- 
ing each  horse  his  own  swing-tree. 

(912.)  A  modification  of  this  compensation  yoke  has  been  contrived,  as  I  am  informed,  by  Mr. 
Bauchop.  Bogend,  Stirlineshire.  The  compensation  levers  are  formed  of  wood,  and  in  place  of 
the  connecting  levers  /,  fig.  201,  a  chain,  2  feet  in  length,  connects  the  ends  i  i  of  the  levers  h  i ; 
and  in  the  bight  of  the  chain,  as  at  k,  a  pulley  and  strap  are  placed,  to  which  a  soam  chain  is 
booked  ;  the  pulley  from  it  oscillating  in  the  Light  of  the  chain  serves  the  same  purpose  as  the 
connecting  lever  /.  In  this  mode  of  yoking,  the  horses  work  in  unicorn-team,  the  middle  horse 
pulling  by  the  soam-chain. 

(913.)  In  the  yoking  of  A  hones,  various  modes  are  also  adopted.  The  old  and  simple  method 
is  for  the  plow-norses  to  draw  by  a  set  of  common  swine-trees,  fie  200  ;  and  to  the  center  of  the 
main  swing-tree  at  e  a  soam  chain  is  hooked  by  means  of  a  shackle  or  otherwise.  The  leading- 
hon>es  are  thus  yoked  by  a  second  set  of  common  swing-trees  to  the  end  of  the  soam  This  is 
now  seldom  employed,  but  an  improved  method  of  applying  the  soam  has  been  adopted  in  its 
plaice,  which  is  represented  by  fig.  202,  where  a  is  the  bridle  of  the  plow,  with  its  swivel  hook. — 
A  pulley  b  of  cast-iron,  6  inches  diameter,  mounted  in  an  iron  frame,  of  which  an  edi;e-view  is 
given  at  m,  is  attached  to  the  hook  of  the  bridle.  A  link-chain  c  is  rove  through  the  frame  of  the 
pulley  ;  and  to  one  end  of  it,  the  short  end,  is  hooked  the  main  swing-tree  rf  of  a  set  of  common 
trees  for  the  plow-horses.  The  other  end  of  the  chain  passes  forward  to  a  sufficient  distance  to 
allow  the  leading  horses  room  to  work  ;  and  to  it  is  hooked  the  second  set  of  common  swing-trees 
at  «  for  the  leaders.  In  the  figure,  a  part  of  the  chain,  froni/to  g,  is  broken  off;  but  the  full  length 
is  about  1 1  feet.  In  this  yoke,  the  trace-chains  of  the  niirh-side  hind  horse  arc  hooked  to  the  swing- 
trees  at  A  A,  and  tliose  of  the  off-side  horse  at  i  i,  the  leaders  being  yoked  at  k  k  and  /  /  respectively. 
In  this  arrangement,  tlie  balance  of  forces  is  perfectly  preserved  ;  for  the  hind  horses  and  the  lead- 
ers, as  tliey  pull  at  opposing  emls  of  the  chain  passin?  round  a  pulley,  which  must  inevitably  be 
alw^ays  in  equilibrium,  each  pair  of  horses  has  an  equal  share  of  the  draught ;  and.  from  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  common  swing-trees  through  which  each  pair  acts,  the  individual  horses  must  have 
an  equally  perfect  division  of  the  labor,  unless  this  equilibrium  has  been  removed  for  the  purpose 
of  easing  a  weaker  horse.  In  order  to  prevent  either  the  hindjiorses  or  the  leaders  from  slipping 
too  much  ahead,  it  is  common  to  apply  a  lieht  check-chain  o.  of  about  LI  inches  long,  connecting 
the  two  parts  of  the  main-chain,  so  as  to  allow  only  a  short  o.scillation  round  the  pulley,  which  id 
limited  by  tlie  check-chain.  When  this  is  adopted,  care  should  be  taken  never  to  allow  the  check- 
chain  to  remain  upon  the  stretch  ;  for,  if  it  do  so,  the  advantage  of  equalization  in  the  yoke  is  lost, 
and  it  becomes  no  better  than  the  simple  soam.  In  all  cases  of  using  a  chain,  that  part  of  it  which 
(776J 


YOKING  AND  HARNESSING  THE   PLOW. 


393 


passes  forward  between  the  hind  horses  must  be  borne  ap  by  means  of  attachment  to  their  back 
bauds,  or  stispended  from  their  collars. 

Fig.  202. 


THE  SWING-TREES  FOR  FOUR  HORSES. 

(914. J  Mr.  Stirling,  of  Gleuhervie.  Stirlingshire,  recommends  a  method  of  yoking  a  team  of  four 
horses  m  pairs,  the  arrangfements  of  which  are  represented  in  fig.  203  ;  a  is  part  of  a  main  swing- 
tree  of  the  common  length,  h  a  small  swing-tree  about  4  inches  longer  than  the  usual  length,  bat 
both  mounted  in  the  usual  form,  except  that,  at  each  end  of  the  small  swing-trees,  ca.st-iron  pulleys 
c  c,  of  3  or  4  inches  diameter,  and  set  in  an  iron  frame,  are  hooked  on  to  the  eyes  of  the  swing-tree. 
The  common  trace-chains  are  rove  through  the  frames  of  these  pulleys,  as  in  the  figure ;  the  ends 
dd  of  the  chains  are  prolonged  forward  to  the  proper  length  for  the  nigh  hind  horse,  and  the  ends 
ee  are  extended  to  the  nigh  leader.  At  the  opposite  end  of  the  main  swing-tree,  which,  in  this 
figure,  is  cut  off,  the  same  arrangement  is  repeated  for  the  off-side  horses.  The  principle  of  action 
in  this  yoke  is  simple  and  effective,  though  different  in  effect  from  the  former.  There  the  two 
hind  horses  are  equalized  through  the  medium  of  their  set  of  common  swing-trees.  The  leading 
horses  are  alike  equalized  by  their  set,  and  thus  the  two  pairs  balance  each  other  through  the  me- 
dium of  the  scam.  Here,  on  the  other  hand,  the  two  nigh-side  horses  have  their  forces  equalized 
through  the  trace-chains,  which  are  common  to  both,  by  passing  over  the  pulleys  c  c ;  and  the 
Bame  holds  in  respect  to  the  two  off-sides.  The  couple  of  nigh-side  and  of  off-side  horses,  again, 
are  equalized  through  the  medium  of  the  one  set  of  swing-trees.  In  both,  therefore,  the  principle 
of  equalization  is  complete,  but  there  is  a  trifling  difference  in  their  economy.  In  the  yoke,  fig. 
202,  which  I  call  the  cross  balance  yoke,  tlie  soam  chain  and  pulley  are  the  only  articles  required 
m  addition  to  the  every-day  gear.  In  that  of  fig.  203,  which  I  call  the  running  balance  yoke,  there 
is  first  the  set  of  swing-trees,  which,  as  they  have  to  resist  the  force  of  4  horses,  must  in  all  their 
parts  be  made  stronger  than  the  common  set,  agreeably  to  the  rules  before  laid  down  ;  and  to 
which  are  added  the  4  pulleys,  all  of  which  are  applicable  only  to  this  yoke.  The  trace-chain,  though 
not  necessarily  stronger  than  those  for  common  use,  is  required  ahoiit  three  times  longer  than  sin- 
gle horse-chains — that  is  to  say,  four  horses  will  require  the  chains  of  six ;  but  the  chains  of  the 
(777) 


394 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM — WINTER. 


leaders  are  more  conveniently  supported  when  they  pass  along  the  sides  of  the  hind  horses,  and 
it  is  free  of  the  set  of  swing-trees  which  dangle  beliina  the  leaders,  of  the  method  fig.  202. 

(915.)  In  cases  wiiere  fi,  8,  and  even  12  horses  are  required,  such  as  for  tn-nching.  subsoil  plow- 
ing, and  especially  draining  with  the  plow,  the  yoking  is  accomplished  by  modifications  and  ex- 


Fig.  203. 


THE  SWING-TREES  ALSO  FOR  FOUR  HORSES. 


tension  of  the  principles  here  laid  down  ;  for  example,  a  team  of  6  can  be  very  conveniently  ap- 
plied with  equalized  eflect  by  employing  the  compensation  levers  of  fig.  202,  along  with  3  single 
Bwing-trees  with  puUeya  at  each  end  and  running  trace-chains,  as  in  fig.  203. — J.  S.j 


27.  PLOWING  STUBBLE  AND  LEA  GROUND. 


"  'T  is  time  to  clear  your  plowshare  in  the  glebe." 

Graham. 

(916.)  When  you  take  an  extensive  glance  over  the  fields  immediately 
after  harvest,  when  the  crop  has  been  gathered  into  the  stack-yard,  you 
perceive  that  a  large  proportion  of  them  are  in  stubble,  while  others  are 
occupied  by  grass,  turnips,  and  young  wheat.  On  examining  the  stubbled 
fields  particularly,  you  will  obser\-e  young  grass  among  the  stubble  in 
some  fields,  and  nothing  but  stubble  in  others.  You  could  not,  of  your- 
self, discover  at  once  that  these  various  states  of  the  fields  bear  a  certain 
proportion  to  one  another,  though  they  really  do ;  and  the  cause  of  their 
being  in  those  proportions  is  that  they  are  cultivated  under  what  is  termed 
a  "  regular  rotation  of  crops,"  which,  when  followed  out,  necessarily  causes 
every  field,  in  its  turn,  to  carry  the  same  series  of  crops.  The  numbers 
composing  the  series  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  it  shall  be  my 
duty  to  make  you  acquainted  with  them  in  due  time.  Meantime,  suffice 
it  to  intimate  that,  when  the  stubble  is  in  that  state,  the  beginning  of  the 
agricultural  year  is  arrived,  when  certain  parts  of  it  must  undergo  a  change 
and  be  transformed  into  those  which  follow  the  ones  you  find  them  in. — 
Now,  that  part  of  the  stubble-land  which  is  devoid  of  any  crop  b  the  first 

(778) 


PLOWING  STUBBLE  AND  LEA  GROUND.  395 

to  undergo  a  cha7ige,  and  it  is  effected  by  the  plow,  not  at  random,  but  by 
the  application  of  those  pi'inciples  which  have  already  been  explained  to 
you  when  we  considered  the  "  various  modes  of  plo\ving  land  into  ridges,' 
from  pages  2S9  to  302,  where,  as  you  may  remember,  the  mode  of  plow- 
ing was  said  to  be  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  subsoil.  The 
stubble-land  is  generally  all  plowed  before  the  lea  is  commenced  with,  and 
that  part  which  is  to  bear  the  potato-crop  next  spring  is  first  plowed,  then 
that  for  the  turnip-ci'op,  and  last  of  all  for  the  bare  fallow,  when  there  is  any 

(917.)  On  daif  soil,  you  will  find  the  stubbled  ridges  of  a  rounded  fonn, 
having  been  at  least  twice  gathered  up,  fig.  139  ;  and  the  way  to  keep 
them  in  a  dry  state  during  winter,  on  a  considerable  declivity,  is  to  cleave 
them  down  without  a  gore-furrow,  fig.  140,  and  without  a  mould-fuiTow, 
fig.  134,  or  to  cleave  them  down  with  gore-furrows,  fig.  141,  and  mould- 
furrows,  when  clay-land  is  flat.  On  less  strong  soil,  casting  with  a  gore- 
furrow  (657)  will  preserve  land  dry  whether  it  be  flat  or  on  a  declivity. — 
On  light  loams,  casting  without  gore-fuiTows,  fig.  135,  will  serve  the  pur- 
pose. And  on  sandif  and  gravelly  soils,  crown  and  furrow  (653)  is  the 
most  appropriate  mode  of  plowing  stubble.  It  is  rare  that  stubble-land  is 
subjected  to  any  other  mode  of  plowing  in  winter.  Snow  should  never  be 
plowed  in,  nor  the  ground  turned  over  when  affected  by  frost,  nor  should 
strong  clay  soil  be  stiired  when  very  wet,  as  it  is  apt  to  become  very  hard 
in  spring,  and  of  course  more  diflScult  to  work. 

(918.)  In  every  variety  of  soil,  plowed  in  the  forms  just  described  for 
winter,  care  should  be  taken  to  have  plenty  of  channels,  or  gaivs  ot  grijfs, 
as  they  are  usually  termed  in  Scotland,  cut  in  the  hollowest  places,  so  as 
surface-water  may  have  them  at  every  point  by  which  to  escape  into  the 
nearest  open  ditch.  The  gaws  are  first  drawn  by  the  plow  laying  them 
open  like  a  feering — taking,  in  all  cases,  the  hollowest  parts  of  the  ground, 
whether  these  may  happen  to  cross  the  ridges  or  go  along  the  open  fur- 
rows ;  and  they  are  immediately  afterward  cleared  out  with  the  spade  of 
the  loose  earth  left  by  the  plow,  and  cast  abroad  over  the  surface.  The 
fall  in  the  gaws  is  made  to  tend  toward  a  point  or  points  best  adapted  to 
carry  off  surface-water  by  the  shortest  route,  and  do  the  least  injury  to  the 
soil.  The  ends  of  the  open  furrows  which  terminate  at  the  furrow  along 
the  side  of  the  lowest  head-ridge,  as  well  as  this  fun'ow  itself,  should  be 
cleared  out  with  the  spade,  and  cuts  made  at  the  hollowest  places  across 
the  head-ridge  into  the  ditch.  This  precaution  of  gaw-cutting  should  never 
be  neglected  in  winter  in  any  kind  of  soil,  the  stronger  soils  requiring  more 
gaws  than  the  lighter  ;  for,  as  there  is  no  foreseeing  the  injuries  which  a 
single  deluge  of  rain  may  commit,  it  is  nevei  neglected  by  the  provident 
farmer,  though  many  small  farmers,  to  their  own  loss,  pay  little  heed  to 
the  necessity  of  its  observance. 

(919.)  With  regard  to  the  plo^ving  of  lea  ground,  the  most  usual  form 
in  strong  soil  is  to  cast  with  a  gore-furrow,  fig.  136 ;  and,  on  less  strong 
soil,  the  same  form  of  plowing  without  a  gore-furrow  ;  while,  on  the  light- 
est soils  of  all,  the  crown  and  furrow  is  in  most  common  use  (653).  Gath- 
ering up  is  a  rare  form  of  furrow  for  lea,  though  it  is  occasionally  prac- 
ticed on  strong  soil  after  gathered  up  or  cast  ridges,  when  it  is  a  rather 
difficult  operation  to  plow  the  furrow-brows  and  open  fuiTOws  as  they 
should  be.  The  oldest  lea  is  first  plowed,  that  the  slices  may  have  time 
to  mellow  by  exposure  to  the  winter  air;  and  that  which  is  on  the  strong- 
est land  is  for  the  same  reason  plowed  before  that  on  light.  Lea  should 
never  be  plowed  in  frosty  weather,  that  is,  as  long  as  the  gi'ound  is  at  all 
affected  by  frost,  nor  when  there  is  rime  on  the  gi-ass,  nor  when  the  gi'ound 
is  very  soft  with  rain  ;  because,  when  ice  or  rime  is  plowed  down,  the  non« 

(779) 


396  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

conductitifj  property  of  gi-ass  and  earth,  in  regard  to  heat  and  cold,  pre- 
serves the  ice  in  an  unaltered  state  so  long  as  to  chill  the  ground  to  a  late 
period  of  the  season  ;  and,  when  the  ground  is  too  soft,  the  horses  not  only 
cut  it  into  pieces  with  their  feet,  hut  the  furrow-slice  is  apt  to  he  squeezed 
out  of  its  proper  shape  by  the  mould-board.  Nor  should  lea  be  plowed 
when  hard  with  drouth,  as  the  plow  in  that  case  will  take  too  shallow  a 
furrow-slice,  and  raise  the  ground  in  broad,  thin  slabs,  instead  of  proper 
furrow-slices.  A  semi-moist  state  of  the  ground  in  fresh  weather  is  that 
which  should  be  chosen  for  plowing  lea.  Gaws  should  not  be  neglected 
to  be  cut  after  lea-plowing,  especially  in  the  fields  first  plowed,  and  in 
strong  land,  always  whether  early  or  late  plowed. 

(920.)  It  is  a  slovenly  though  too  common  a  practice  to  allow  the  head- 
ridges  to  remain  unplowed  for  a  considerable  time  after  the  rest  of  the 
field  has  been  finished  plowing,  and  the  neglect  is  most  frequently  observed 
on  stubble  ground.  The  reasoning  on  the  matter  is  that,  as  all  the  draughts 
cannot  be  employed  on  the  head-ridges,  it  is  a  pity  to  break  their  number 
in  beginning  another  entire  field  ;  and  this  reason  would  be  a  good  one  in 
summer,  when  there  is  little  chance  of  bad  weather  occurring,  but  in  win- 
ter it  has  no  force  at  all,  for  the  gaw-cuts  cannot  be  properly  executed 
until  the  field  is  entirely  plowed ;  and  to  leave  a  plowed  field  to  the  risk 
of  injury  from  wet  weather,  even  for  a  day  longer  than  you  can  help, 
shows  little  regard  to  future  consequences,  which  may  turn  out  far  more 
serious  than  the  beginning  to  plow  a  new  field  without  all  the  draughts. 
No  doubt,  when  land  has  been  thorough-drained,  there  is  less  dread  of  ill 
consequences  from  the  neglect  of  gaw-cutting ;  but,  even  in  the  rhost  fa- 
vored circumstances  of  drained  land,  I  think  it  imprudent  to  leave  isolated 
hollows  in  fields — and  such  are  to  be  found  in  numbers  on  every  fann — 
without  the  means  of  getting  rid  of  any  torrent  of  water  that  may  fall  at  an 
unexpected  time.  Let,  therefore,  as  many  draughts  remain  in  the  field  as 
will  plow  both  head-ridges  during  the  next  day  at  longest ;  and  if  they  can 
be  finished  in  one  yoking,  so  much  the  better. 

(921.)  With  regard  to  the  mode  of  plowing  head-ridges  for  a  winter  fur- 
row, some  consideration  is  requisite.  In  stubble,  should  the  former  furrow 
have  been  cast  with  or  without  a  gore-fun-ow,  then,  on  reversing  the  cast- 
ing, a  ridge  will  be  left  on  each  side  of  the  field,  which  will  be  most  con- 
veniently plowed  along  with  the  head-ridges  by  the  plow  going  round  par- 
allel to  all  the  fences  of  the  field,  and  laying  the  furrow-slices  toward  them. 
The  same  plan  could  be  adopted  in  plowing  lea  in  the  same  circumstances. 
Should  the  furrow  given  to  the  stubble  have  been  a  cleaving  down  with  or 
without  gore-furrows,  then  the  head-ridges  should  be  cloven  down  with  a 
gore-furrow  along  the  ends  of  the  ridges,  and  mould-furrows  aloncj  their 
own  crowns.  On  the  ridges  having  been  crown  and  furrowed,  llic  head- 
ridges  may  be  gathered  up  in  early  and  late  lea-plowing  and  in  stubble  ; 
they  may  be  cloven  down  without  a  gore-funow  along  the  ends  of  the 
ridges,  especially  in  the  upper  head-ridge  ;  and  the  half  ridge  left  on  each 
side  of  the  field  may  be  plowed  by  going  the  half  of  every  bout  empty. — 
But  abetter  plan  would  be,  onhf  if  the  ridges  of  f/tr  field  are  short,  to  plow 
half  of  each  head-ridge  toward  the  ends  of  the  ridcres,  going  the  round  of 
the  field,  and  passing  up  and  down  upon  the  half-ridge  on  each  side  emp- 
ty, and  then  to  plow  those  half-ridges  with  the  other  half  of  the  head-ridges 
in  a  circuit,  laying  the  furrow-slice  still  toward  the  ridges;  all  which  will 
have  the  effect  of  casting  the  head-ridges  toward  the  ends  of  the  ridges. — 
When  the  ridges  have  been  plowed  in  a  completed  form,  a  convenient 
mode  of  plowing  the  head-ridges  on  strong  land  is  to  gather  them  up,  first 
making  an  open  feering  along  the  crowns. 

(780) 


PLOWING  STUBBLE  AND  LEA  GROUND.  397 

(922.)  Whatever  mode  of  plowing  the  land  is  subjected  to,  you  should 
take  special  care  that  it  be  plowed  for  a  winter  furrow  in  the  best  manner. 
The  furrow-slice  should  be  of  the  requisite  depth,  whether  of  5  inches  on 
the  oldest  lea,  or  7  inches  on  the  most  friable  ground ;  and  it  should  also 
be  of  the  requisite  breadth  of  9  inches  in  the  former  case,  and  of  10  in  the 
i.  latter ;  but  as  plowmen  incline  to  hold  a  shallower  furrow  than  it  should 
be,  to  make  the  labor  easier  to  themselves,  there  is  less  likelihood  of  their 
making  a  narrower  furrow  than  it  should  be — a  shallow  and  broad  fun'ow 
confei'ring  both  ease  on  themselves,  and  getting  over  the  ground  quickly. 
A  proper  furrow-slice  in  land  not  in  grass,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  in  red  land, 
should  never  be  less  than  9  inches  in  breadth  and  6  inches  in  depth  on  the 
strongest  soil,  and  10  inches  in  breadth  and  7  inches  in  depth  on  lighter 
soils.  On  grass-land  of  strong  soil,  or  on  land  of  any  texture  that  has  lain 
long  in  grass,  9  inches  of  breadth  and  5  inches  of  depth  is  as  large  a  fur- 
row-slice as  may  possibly  be  obtained  ;  but  on  lighter  soil,  with  compara- 
tively young  grass,  a  furrow-slice  of  10  inches  by  6,  and  even  7,  is  easily 
turned  over.  At  all  seasons,  but  especially  for  a  winter  furrow,  you  should 
endeavor  to  establish  for  yourself  a  character  for  deep  and  correct  plowing. 
(923.)  Correct  flowing  possesses  these  chai'acteristics  :  The  furrow- 
slices  should  be  quite  straight ;  for  a  plowman  that  cannot  hold  a  straight 
furrow  is  unwoithy  of  his  charge.  The  furrow-slices  should  be  quite  par- 
allel in  length,  and  this  property  shows  that  they  have  been  turned  over 
of  a  uniform  thickness,  for  thick  and  thin  slices  lying  together  present  ir- 
regularly horizontal  lines.  The  farrow-slices  should  be  of  the  same  hight, 
which  shows  that  they  have  been  cut  of  the  same  breadth,  for  slices  of  dif- 
ferent breadths,  laid  together  at  whatever  angle,  present  unequal  vertical 
lines.  The  furrow-slices  should  present  to  the  eye  a  similar  form  of  crest 
ard  equal  surface  ;  because  where  one  furrow-slice  exhibits  a  narrower 
surface  than  it  should  have,  it  has  been  covered  with  a  broader  slice  than 
it  should  be  ;  and  where  it  displays  a  broader  surface  than  it  should,  it  is 
so  exposed  by  a  narrower  slice  than  it  should  be  lying  upon  it.  The 
fuiTow-slices  should  have  their  back  and  face  parallel,  and  to  discover  this 
propeity  requii-es  rather  minute  examination  after  the  land  has  been  plowed; 
but  it  is  easily  ascertained  at  the  time  of  plowing.  The  gi-ound,  on  being 
plowed,  should  feel  equally  firm  under  the  foot  at  all  places,  for  slices  in 
a  more  upright  position  than  they  should  be,  not  only  feel  hard  and  un- 
steady, but  will  allow  the  seed-corn  to  fall  down  betw^een  them  and  be- 
come buried.  Furrow-slices  in  too  flat  a  state  always  yield  considerably 
to  the  pressure  of  the  foot ;  and  they  are  then  too  much  drawn,  and  afford 
insufficient  mould  for  the  seed.  FuiTow-slices  should  lie  over  at  the  same 
angle,  and  it  is  demonstrable  that  the  largest  extent  of  surface  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  air  is  when  they  are  laid  over  at  an  angle  of  45^,  thus 
presenting  crests  in  the  best  possible  position  for  the  action  of  the  harrows. 
Crowns  of  ridges  formed  by  the  meeting  of  opposite  furrow-slices,  should 
neither  be  elevated  nor  depressed  in  regard  to  the  rest  of  the  ridge,  al- 
though plowmen  often  commit  the  error  of  raising  the  crowns  too  high 
into  a  crest,  the  fault  being  easily  committed  by  not  giving  the  feered  fur- 
row-slices sufficient  room  to  meet,  and  thereby  pressing  them  upon  one 
another.  The  furrow-brows  should  have  slices  uniform  with  the  rest  of 
the  ridge,  but  plowmen  are  very  apt  to  miscalculate  the  width  of  the  slices 
near  the  sides  of  the  ridges,  for  if  the  specific  number  of  furrow-slices  into 
which  the  whole  ridge  should  be  plowed  are  too  narrow,  the  last  slice  of 
the  furrow-brow  will  be  too  broad,  and  will  therefore  lie  over  too  flat ;  and 
should  this  too  broad  space  be  divided  into  two  furrows,  each. slice  will  be 
too  narrow  and  stand  too  upright.  When  the  fuiTow-brows  are  ill  made, 
(781)  "^     °  . 


398  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

the  mould-furrows  cannot  be  proportionately  plowed  out  ;  because,  if  the 
space  between  the  furrow-brows  is  too  wide,  the  mould-furrows  must  be 
made  too  deep  to  fill  up  all  the  space,  and  rice  versa.  If  the  furrow-slices 
are  laid  too  flat,  the  mould-furrows  will  be  apt  to  throw  too  much  earth 
upon  their  edges  next  the  open-fuirow,  and  there  make  them  too  high. 
When  the  furrow-brows  of  adjoining  ridges  are  not  plowed  alike,  one  sidd 
of  the  open-fun-ow  will  require  a  deeper  mould-furrow  than  the  other, 

(924.)  You  thus  see  that  many  particulars  have  to  be  attended  to  in 
plowing  land  into  a  ridge  of  the  most  perfect  form.  Plowmen  differ 
much  in  bestowing  attention  on  these  particulars  ;  some  can  never  make 
a  gof>d  crown,  others  a  good  furrow-brow  and  open-funow,  while  others 
will  make  them  all  in  a  passable,  but  still  objectionable  manner.  This  last 
class  of  plowmen,  however,  is  preferable  to  the  other,  because  the  injuiious 
fffects  of  the  bad  plowing  of  the  former  are  obvious ;  whereas  the  effects 
of  mediocre  compared  with  first-rate  plowing  are  not  easy  to  ascertain, 
though  no  doubt  the  difference  of  their  effects  must  be  considerable  in 
many  respects.  '*  It  is  well  known,"  observes  Sir  John  Sinclair,  "  that  the 
horses  of  a  good  plowman  suffer  less  from  the  work  than  those  intnisted 
to  an  awkward  and  unskillf  il  hand,  and  that  a  mateiial  difference  will  be 
found  in  the  crops  of  those  ridges  tilled  by  a  bad  plowman,  when  compared 
to  any  pai^t  of  the  field  where  the  operation  has  been  judiciously  per- 
formed."* Marshall  contends  that  want  of  good  tillage  incurs  a  loss  of 
as  much  as  \  of  the  crops  throughout  the  kingdom,!  which  may  be  an  ap- 
proximation to  the  truth  in  his  day ;  hut  plowing  is  certainly  now  hetter 
performed  in  Scotland  than  it  was,  ihougli  it  must  be  owned  that  by  fai- 
the  greatest  part  of  the  process  is  yet  of  a  mediocre  description,  and  the 
reasons  for  the  mediocrity  of  the  work  are  not  difficult  to  find. 

(925.)  Plou-men  cannot  learn  their  profession  at  a  veiy  early  age,  when 
every  profession  ought  to  be  acquired  to  attain  a  high  degree  of  perfec- 
tion in  it,  because  plowing  requires  a  considerable  amount  of  physical 
power,  even  from  the  most  expert  plowmen,  and  it  exacts  the  greatest  ex- 
ertion of  strength  by  comparison  from  the  youngest  in  years  and  the  least 
initiated  in  the  art;  and  after  young  men  possess  sufficient  strength  to  hold 
the  plow,  they  arc  left  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  plowing  more  through 
sheer  experience  than  by  any  tuition  given  them  by  those  who  are  better 
ac(]uainted  with  the  art ;  and  as  excellence  acquired  in  it  cannot  be  be- 
queathed to  the  rising  generation,  its  knowledge  must  be  acquired  ab  initio 
by  every  generation.  For  exam])le,  to  teach  fjoi/s  to  plow  it  has  been 
recommended  "  to  put  a  cross-bar  between  the  cheeks  of  the  bridle,  so  as 
to  keep  them  precisely  at  the  same  distance  from  each  other,  and  then  set- 
ting up  a  pole  at  the  end  of  a  furrow,  exactly  measured  to  the  same  line  as 
that  from  which  he  starts,  fixes  his  eye  steadily  upon  it,  and  carries  tlie 
plow  in  a  direction  precisely  to  that  point. "J  To  do  all  this  implies  thau 
the  Aoyhas  sufficient  strength  to  hold  a  plow,  which  if  he  have,  he  will  have 
come  the  length  of  a  stout  lad  ;  and  to  "  fix  the  eye  steadily  "  upon  a 
pole  at  a  distance,  wliilo  holding  the  plow  with  a  staggering  gait,  and  un- 
able for  want  of  breath  to  speak  even  a  word  to  the  hoi-ses,  far  less  to 
guide  them  with  the  reins,  is  much  beyond  the  power  of  any  lad,  instead 
of  a  hot/  ;  for  it  would  require  a  very  expert  ])lowman  to  do  that,  for  all 
that  is  nothing  short  of  feering,  and  none  but  the  expertest  of  the  plow- 
men on  a  farm  is  intinisted  to  feer  land  ;  and,  besides,  no  single  pole  al- 
ways before  the  spectator  can  possibly  guide  any  one  in  a  straight  line,  for 
he   may  imagine  he  is  moving  by  it  in  a  straight  line,  while  all  the  while 

'  SinrlHii's  Code  of  Agriculture.  f  Msrshall's  Glouccatcrshire,  vol.  i. 

t  Rritii>h  Husbandry,  vol.  ii. 
(782) 


PLOWING  STUBBLE   AND  LEA  GROUND. 


399 


he  may  be  de^^ating  very  widely  from  it.  The  truth  is,  the  young  man 
who  is  desirous  of  becoming  a  plowman  in  a  short  time  should  be  taught 
day  by  day  by  an  experienced  plowman  to  temper  the  irons,  and  guide 
his  plow  according  to  his  strength  and  talents.  Very  few  young  men  have 
or  are  permitted  to  have  such  opportunities  of  learning,  and  the  conse- 
quence is,  that,  as  my  obsei"vation  confirms,  the  best  plowmen  are  gene- 
rally those  who  have  been  taught  directly  by  their  fathers,  and  work  con- 
stantly upon  their  fathers'  farms. 

(926.)  Were  all  the  particulars  of  good  plowing  mentioned  above  (923) 
constantly  attended  to,  there  would  be  no  high  croicned  ridges  as  at  a,  fig. 
204,  by  bringing  the  two  feering  or  the  two  open  fun-ows  too  close  to- 

Fig.  204. 


AN'  EXAMPLE  OF  BAD  PLOWING. 


gether,  thereby  causing  the  corn  soaati  upon  it  to  slip  down  both  sides,  and 
leave  a  space  bare  of  seed  on  the  best  land  of  the  ridge.  There  would  be 
no  lean  flanks  as  at  b,  by  making  the  furrow-slices  there  broader  than  they 
should  be,  with  a  view  to  plowing  the  ridge  as  fast  as  possible,  and  there- 
by constituting  a  hollow  which  becomes  a  receptacle  for  surface-water  that 
sours  the  land;  or  when  the  soil  is  strong,  it  becomes  so  ■  consolidated, 
that  it  is  almost  sure  to  resist  the  action  of  the  haiTOws,  especially  when 
passed  across  the  ridge  ;  or  in  light  soil  it  is  filled  up  with  the  loose  soil 
drawn  by  the  harrows  fi'om  the  suiTounding  bights.  There  would  be  no 
proud furroio-brows  as  at  c,  by  setting  up  the  fun-ow-slices  there  more  up- 
right than  they  should  be,  to  the  risk  of  being  drawn  wholly  into  the  open 
fuiTows  when  the  haiTows  catch  them  too  forcibly  on  leaving  the  ridge 
when  cross-harrowed.  And  there  would  be  no  xinequal  open-fuiTOWS,  as 
at  d,  by  turning  over  a  flatter  mould-furrow  on  the  one  side  than  the  other, 
which  cannot  fail  to  retain  the  greater  quantity  of  seed.  To  extend  this 
lengthened  catalogue  of  ills  accompanying  bad  plowing,  I  may  mention 
that  every  sort  of  crop  grows  unequally  on  an  ill-plowed  ridge,  because 
the  soil  is  more  kindly  on  the  better  plowed  parts ;  but  the  evils  of  bad 
plowing  are  not  confined  to  the  season  in  which  it  is  perfonned,  as  it  ren- 
ders land  unequal  when  broken  up  again,  and  the  thinner  and  harder  por- 
tions cannot  yield  so  abundantly  as  the  deeper  and  more  kindly.  The  line 
d  e,  fig.  204,  shows  the  position  of  the  surface  before  the  land  was  plowed, 
and  the  fuiTow-slices,  in  relation  to  that  line,  show  the  unequal  manner  in 
which  the  ridge  had  been  plowed. 

(927.)  It  seems  to  be  a  prevalent  opinion  among  agricultural  writers,* 
that  land  when  plowed  receives  a  curvature  of  surface  ;  whereas,  coirect 
plowing,  that  is,  making  the  fiirrow-slices  on  the  same  ridge  all  alike,  can- 
not possibly  give  the  surface  any  othei  for)7i  than  it  had  before  it  was 
plowed.     If  the  former  surface  were  cui-ved,  then  the  newly  plowed  sur- 

'  Low's  Elements  of  Practical  Agriculture,  and  British  Husbandry,  toI.  ii. 
(783)  • 


400  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

face  would  also  be  cuiveil ;  but  if  it  were  flat,  the  new  surface  will  be  flat 
also.  No  iloubt,  in  gathering  up  a  ridge,  tlie  earth  displaced  by  the  plow 
occupies  a  smaller  area  than  it  did  before,  but  as  the  displacement  only 
elevates  it  above  its  former  level,  the  act  of  elevating  it  does  not  necessa- 
rily impart  any  cui->ature  to  it.  It  is  quite  true,  however,  that  a  lidge  on 
being  cross-harrowed,  becomes  curved,  inasmuch  as  it  becomes  highest  at 
the  crown,  because  the  harrows,  in  crossing,  have  a  tendency  to  draw  the 
soil  toward  the  open  sides  of  the  ridge,  that  is,  into  the  open  furrows, 
where  the  least  resistance  is  presented,  and  which  will  alter  the  uniformity 
of  surface  left  by  the  plow  ;  but  this  effi-ct  has  no  connection  with  the 
plowing.  Seeing  this  external  effect  produced  without  knowing  its  cause, 
it  is  equally  true  that  most  plowmen  endeavf)r  to  give  the  ridge  a  curva- 
ture, and  this  they  accomplish  by  what  I  would  designate  bad  plowing  ; 
that  is,  they  give  a  slight  cresting  to  the  crown,  which  they  support  with  a 
bout  or  two  of  well-proportioned  furrow-slices  ;  they  th«'n  plow  the  flanks 
with  nanow  and  rather  deep  slices  set  up  a  little  high,  to  maintain  the 
curvature,  for  about  four  bouts  more,  giving  the  last  of  these  bouts  rather 
less  depth  and  hight  than  the  rest,  and  the  remaining  three  bouts  next  the 
furrow  are  gradually  flattened  toward  the  open  furrows,  which  are  endeav- 
ored to  be  finished  off"  to  the  desired  curved  foirn  by  the  mould-furrows. 
This  artfulness  produces  a  ridge  of  pleasing  enough  curvature,  though  it 
is  exercised  by  the  plowman  with  no  intention  to  deceive  ;  ho,  on  the  con- 
trary, conceives  all  the  while  that  he  is  displaying  great  skill  in  his  art  by 
so  doing,  and  if  he  is  not  instructed  better  he  will  continue  to  practice  it 
as  an  accomplishment.  Such  a  device,  however,  sacrifices  correct  plow- 
ing to  a  fancied  superiority  of  external  appearance,  as  much  as  the  crested 
forrow  formerly  spoken  of  (590),  fig.  109.  A  thoroughly  good  plowman, 
and  I  have  known  a  few,  but  only  a  few,  of  such  valuable  men,  avoids  so 
objectionable  a  practice,  and  plows  always  a  true  sound  furrow,  making  it 
larger  or  smaller  as  the  particular  state  of  the  work  may  require. 

(928.)  Witlioat  pulling  much  value  on  the  informaiion.  il  may  serve  as  a  facl  lo  refer  to,  in  oase 
it  should  be  wanted,  to  state  the  weight  of  earth  turned  over  in  plowing.  If  10  inches  are  taken 
as  a  fair  breadth  for  a  furrow-slice,  there  will  he  18  such  slices  across  a  ridge  of  l.">  feet  in  breadth  ; 
and,  taking  7  inches  as  a  proper  depth  for  such  a  furrow-slice,  a  crcsa  section  of  the  slice  will 
have  70  square  inches.  A  cubic  foot  of  earth  is  thus  turned  over  in  every  24^  inches  and  a  little 
more  of  length  of  such  a  slice  ;  and  taking  2.7  as  the  specific  gravity  of  ordinary  soil,  every  24  J 
inches  and  a  fraction  more  of  such  a  slice  will  weigh  12  stones  1  lb.  imperial.* 

(929.)  The  usual  speed  of  horses  at  the  plow  may  he  ascertained  in  this  way.  A  ridge  of  5 
yards  in  breadth  will  require  a  length  of  9C8  yards  to  contain  an  imperial  acre ;  and  lo  plow 
which  at  9  bouts,  of  10-inch  breadth  of  furrow-slice,  counting  no  stoppages,  will  make  the  horses 
walk  9j  miles,  which  in  10  hours  gives  a  speed  of  1742J  yards  per  hour.  But  as  ridges  are  not 
made  of  968  yards  in  length,  and  as  horses  cannot  draw  a  plow  that  distance  without  being  af- 
fected in  their  wind,  and  as  allowance  must  be  made  for  time  lost  in  turning  at  the  ends  of  the 
ridges,  as  well  as  for  affording  rest  to  the  horses,  that  speed  will  have  to  be  consiilerably  increased 
to  do  that  quantity  of  work  in  the  time.  By  experiment  it  has  been  found  that  I  hour  19  m'n- 
Qtes,  out  nf  8  hours,  arc  lost  by  turnings  wliile  plowing  an  acre  on  ridges  of  274  yards  in  length. 
with  an  8  inch  furrow-slice.t  Hence,  in  plowing  an  acre  on  ridges  of  2.')0  vards  in  length,  which 
ia  the  lenslh  of  ridge  I  recommended  as  the  best  for  liorses  in  draught,  when  speaking  of  ii>clo- 
sures  (4.'')6),  in  10  hours,  with  a  10  inch  furrow-slice,  the  time  lost  by  turnings  is  1  hour  22  minutes. 
I  presume  that  the  experiment  alluded  to  does  not  include  the  necessary  stoppages  for  rest  to  the 
horses,  but  which  should  be  included  ;  for  however  easy  the  length  of  ridge  may  be  made  for 
draught,  horses  cannot  go  on  walking  in  the  plow  for .'«  hours  together  (one  yoking)  without  taking 
occasional  rest.s.  Now  2S0  yards  of  length  of  ridge  give  nearly  4  ridtjcs  to  the  acre,  or  :»>  bouts; 
and  allowing  a  rest  of  one  minute  in  every  other  bout.  18  minutes  will  have  to  bo  added  to  the  1 
hour  22  minutes  lost,  or  verj-  nearly  IJ  hours  of  loss  of  time,  out  of  the  10  hours,  for  turnings  and 
rest.  Thus  16,000  yards  will  be  plowed  in  8^  hours,  or  at  the  rate  of  1  mile  422  yards  per  hour. 
I  think  this  result  is  near  the  truth  in  regard  to  the  plowin-  of  lea  in  spring  ;  it  is  loo  little  in 
plowing  red  land  in  summer,  and  perhaps  too  much  in  plowintr  slubble  lain!  in  ■winter;  but,  as 
lea  plowinur  is  the  criterion  by  which  all  others  are  estimated,  this  result  may  be  taken  as  a  near 
approximation  to  the  tr\ith. 

(930.)  The  comparative  time  lost  in  turning  at  the  ends  of  long  and  short  ridges  may  be  seen 
from  the  following  table,  constructed  from  data  furnished  by  the  experiment  above  alluded  to : 

*  ProbHbly  meaning  U  lb.  to  the  stone.— £^.  F.  L.  \  Sinclaii-'s  Code  of  Agriculture. 

(784) 


PLOWING  STUBBLE  AND  LEA  GROUND. 


401 


Length  of  ridge. 

Breadth  of"  lurrovv- 
slice. 

Time  lost  in  turning. 

Time   devoted  to 
plowing. 

Hours  of  work. 

Yards. 

Inches. 

H.    M. 

H.    M. 

H. 

78 

10 

5  11 

4     4 

10 

149 

2  44 

7  16 

000 

2     1 

7  59 

,. 

212 

.- 

1   561 

8     31 

.. 

274 

- 

1  28 

8  33 

-- 

Thus  it  appears  that  a  ridge  of  no  more  than  78  yards  in  length  requires  5  hours  11  minutes  of 
lime  to  turn  at  the  landings,  to  plow  an  acre  in  10  hours,  with  a  lOincli  furrow-slice ;  whereas  a 
ridge  of  274  yards  in  length  only  requires  1  hour  28  minutes  for  the  same  purpose,  making  a  dif- 
ference of  3  hours  43  minutes  in  favor  of  the  long  ridge  in  regard  to  saving  of  time.  Conse- 
quently, in  the  case  of  the  shortest  ridge,  only  4  hours  4'J  minutes  out  of  the  10  can  be  appropri- 
ated to  plowing,  whereas  in  that  of  the  long  ridge,  8  hours  32  minutes  may  be  devoted  to  the 
purpose.  Hence  .so  very  short  ridges  require  double  the  time  of  long  ones  to  plow,  and  are  thus 
a  decided  loss  to  the  farmer.  This  is  a  subject  well  worth  your  experimentinar  on.  by  ascertain- 
ing the  time  usually  taken  in  plowing  and  turning  and  resting  on  ridges  of  different  lengths,  in 
the  different  seasons,  and  in  different  soils.  A  watch  with  a  good  seconds-hand  to  mark  the  time 
will  be  re()uired.  and  the  observations  should  be  made  unknown  to  the  plowmen,  at  their  usual 
rate  of  work  ;  for  if  jou  be  constantly  in  the  presence  of  the  men,  more  than  the  usual  work  will 
be  done,  and  less  than  the  usual  rests  taken. 

(931.)  There  is  another  circumstance,  on  some  farms,  which  also  greatly  affects  the  speed  of 
horses  at  work,  1  mean  the  frreal  steepness  of  the  ground  ;  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  the  ridgea 
traversing  such  steeps  straight  up  and  down.  Ridges  in  such  a  position  are  laborious  to  plow  to 
cart  upon,  to  manure,  and  for  every  operation  connected  with  farming.  The  water  runs  down 
the  furrows  when  the  land  is  under  the  plow,  and  can-ies  to  the  bottom  of  the  declivity  the  finest 
portion  of  the  soil.  In  such  a  position  a  ridge  of  S.'iO  yards  is  much  too  long  to  plow  without 
breathing  the  horses.  But  although  the  general  rule  of  making  the  ridges  run  N.  and  S.  is  the 
correct  one,  yet  in  .such  a  situation  as  a  steep  acclivity,  they  sliould  be  made  to  slope  along  the 
face  oi  the  hill  in.stead  of  running  right  up  and  down  the  acclivity,  and  the  slope  will  not  only  be 
easier  to  labor  in  every  respect,  but  the  soil  will  be  saved  being  washed  so  much  away  in  the  fur- 
rows ;  but  the  direction  of  the  slope  should  not  be  made  at  random  :  it  should  go  away  to  the 
right  hand  in  looking  up  the  acclivity,  becau.se  the  plow  will  then  lay  the  furrow-slice  down  the 
hiil  when  it  is  in  the  act  of  climbing  the  steep,  and  on  coming  down  the  hill  the  horses  will  be 
the  better  able  to  lay  the  slice  even  against  the  inclination  of  the  ground.  What  the  exact  length 
oi  the  ridges  on  such  an  acclivity  should  be,  even  with  the  assistance  of  the  slope,  I  cannot  posi- 
tively say,  but  should  imagine  that  100  or  1.50  yards  would  be  sufficient  for  the  horses ;  but,  at  all 
events,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  would  be  much  better  for  the  labor  of  the  farm,  as  well  as 
for  the  soil,  that  there  .should  be  2  fields  100  yards  broad  each,  one  higher  up  than  the  other,  than 
that  the  whole  ground  should  be  in  one  field  200  yards  in  breadth.  I  have  all  along  been  refer- 
ring to  very  steep  ascents. 

(932.)  There  is  still  another  arrangement  of  ridges  which  may  materially  affect  the  time  re- 
quired to  labor  them  ;  I  mean  that  where,  by  rea.son  of  irregularities  in  the'  fences  or  surface  of 
the  ground,  ridges  from  opposite  directions  meet  in  a  common  line  in  the  same  field ;  and  the 
question  \s,  Whether  the  ridges  should  meet  in  an  imaginary  line  or  at  a  common  head-ridge  ? 
Professor  Low,  when  alluding  to  such  an  arrangement  of  ridge-s,  says,  that  "  the  part  where  the 
opposite  sets  of  furrows  meet,  may  be  made  an  open  furrow,  or  a  raised-up  ridge  or  head-land, 
as  circumstances  may  require."*  When  ridges  meet  from  opposite  directions,  it  is  clear  that 
they  cannot  be  plowed  at  the  same  time  without  the  ri.sk  of  the  horses  encountering  one  another 
even  upon  a  head-ridge  ;  and  where  there  is  no  head-ridge,  should  one  set  of  ridges  be  plowed 
before  the  other,  in  the  plowing  of  the  second  set.  the  end  of  the  plowed  land  of  the  first  will  be 
completely  trampled  down.  At  the  least,  therefore,  there  should  be  one  head-ridge  betwixt  two 
sets  of  ridgo.s,  that  one  .set  may  be  plowed  before  the  other.  But  the  most  independent  way  in 
all  respects  with  such  a  form  of  surface,  is  to  treat  it  as  if  each  set  of  ridges  belonged  to  separate 
fields,  and  let  each  have  a  head-ridge  of  its  own. 

(933.)  When  horses  are  driven  in  the  plow  beyond  their  step,  they  draw  very  unequally  to- 
gether, and,  of  course,  the  plow  is  then  held  unsteadily.  In  that  case,  the  plow  has  a  tendency 
to  take  too  much  land  ;  to  obviate  which  the  plowman  leans  the  plow  over  to  the  left,  in  which 
position  it  raises  a  thin  broad  furrow-slice,  and  lays  it  over  at  too  low  an  angle.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  the  plowman  allows  the  horses  to  move  at  too  slow  a  pace,  he  is  apt  to  forget  what 
he  is  about,  and  the  furrow-slices  most  probably  will  then  be  made  both  too  narrow  and  too  shal- 
low, and  though  they  may  be  laid  over  at  the  proper  angle,  and  the  work  appear  externally  well 
enough  executed,  yet  there  will  be  a  want  of  mould  in  the  plowed  soil. 

(934.)  [The  whole  value  of  plowing,  .scieutilically  speaking,  depends  upon  its  having  the  effect 
of  loosetiing  the  texture  of  the  soil,  and  thus  permitting  a  free  circulation  of  air  and  moisture 
through  its  interstices,  for  the  double  purpose  of  increasing  the  rapidity  of  the  disintegration  of  its 
stony  portions,  and  of  re-reducing  to  powder  what  had  formerly  been  pulverized,  but  which, 
from  the  joint  action  of  pressure,  and  the  binding  effect  of  root-fibres,  had  become  aijelutinated 
together  "° 

(935.)  Sufficient  has  already  been  said  to  draw  your  attention  to  the  point  of  pulverizing  the 
eoil ;  in  it  lies  one  of  the  most  important  secrets  of  good  farming.  However  well  you  may  ma- 
nure your  land,  however  thoroughly  you  may  drain  it,  you  will  never  obtain  the  crops  it  is  capa- 
ble of  yielding,  unless  you  pulverize  it ;  nay,  so  important  did  .lethro  TuU  think  this,  that  he  felt 
firmly  persuaded  that  if  you  pulverized  your  soil  well,  you  need  not  manure  at  all.    I  need  hardly 

*  Low's  Elements  of  Practical  Agriculture. 
(785) 36 


402  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

tell  von  llial  we  sUrII  prove  hereafter  .TetliroTull  to  have  carried  bis  conclusions  loo  far  ;  but  still 
so  direct  and  wnqualifii-d  n  Htatcmcnt,  from  oiioh  a  writer,  should  have  its  full  influence  u[)on  all 
who  wish  to  learn  thoroushly  the  art  of  Aericulturc.  Always  bear  in  mind  that  the  impalpahle 
poirdfr  18  the  active  part  of  noil,  and  that  no  other  portion  has  any  direct  influence  upon  vcireta- 
Hon,  and  you  will  then,  at  all  times,  be  sufficiently  impressed  with  the  necessity  of  tlioroueh- 
plowing.  harrowing,  ice. ;  indeed,  you  may  rest  assured  that,  except  upon  some  few  verj-  light 
sands,  you  cannot  pulverize  tbe  soil  too  much — ecouomy  alone  must  fix  the  limit  of  this  'useful 
operation. 

(936.)  But  were  I  to  stop  here,  you  mieht  naturally  snppo.ee  that  any  scapon  of  the  year  would 
do  equally  well  for  plowine,  provided  it  was  before  seed-time,  and  that  tbe  fixing  of  the  time  was 
regulated  entirely  with  a  view  to  economize  labor.  It  is  certainly  true  that,  to  a  considerable 
extent,  the  time  of  |)Iowinir  may  be  varied  ;  but  you  may  rest  a.ssured  that,  as  a  treneral  rule,  the 
sooner  you  plow  after  the  removal  of  the  crop,  the  belter  condition  will  your  soil  be  in  at  the  com- 
mencement of  spriner. 

(937.)  Several  chemical  processes  of  considerable  consequence  as  respects  the  fertility  of  soil, 
occur  after  it  has  been  plowed,  which  either  take  place  very  slowly,  or  not  at  all,  while  it  lies 
unstirred  ;  and,  moreover,  some  of  these  take  place  to  the  preatest  advantace  durintr  winter. 

(938.)  This  is  especially  the  case  with  the  disintegration  of  mmeral  masses,  nothing  tending  so 
powerf^ully  to  reduce  even  the  hardest  stones  to  povvder  as  sudden  changes  of  temperature,  com- 
bined with  the  presence  of  much  moisture.  During  rain  or  thaw  after  snow  all  the  flods  of  earth 
and  the  pores  of  the  more  loosely  agirregated  stones  become  filled  with  water,  which,  of  course, 
freezes,  if  the  temperature  is  sufficiently  reduced  :  and  from  its  expansion  during  solidification,  a 
peculiar  property  possessed  in  a  marked  degree  bj-  water,  the  particles  of  earth  or  stone,  as  the 
case  may  be,  are  pushed  so  far  asunder  that,  when  the  thaw  returns,  it  crumbles  into  fragments, 
which  are  again  and  a?ain  act«d  on  until  reduced  to  the  state  of  soil. 

(939.)  This  crumblinff  by  frost  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  ca.se  of  stiff  clays,  for  two 
reasons:  1st,  because  they  are  thus  reduced  much  more  ca.sy  to  work  :  and,  2d.  which  is  of  far 
greater  consequence,  they  are  enabled  to  srive  up  their  alkalies  more  readily  to  water  ;  and  clayey 
minerals  are  fortunately  the  quickest  to  di.sintcgrato,  or  rather  to  derotnpose  by  the  action  of  the 
weather;  and  hence,  every  means  that  facilitates  that  process  is  valuable,  because  as  we  have 
already  seen  that  those  most  valuable  ingredients  of  soil,  pota.«s  and  soda,  are  of  no  use  to  plants 
unless  they  are  soluble  in  water,  and  that  they  do  not  obtain  this  property  until  the  mineral  witli 
which  they  have  been  a.ssociated  becomes  completely  decomposed. — H.  R.  M.] 

(9-10.)  [In  the  previous  remarks  on  the  plow  were  embraced  its  construction,  its  principles  of 
action,  the  principles  on  whi-h  its  draught  is  exertei,  and  the  resi.stance  which  it  presents  to  the 
draught,  as  also  some  remarks  on  the  system  of  plowing  that  each  of  the  three  leading  varieties 
of  plows  have  given  rise  to ;  and  on  this  last  branch  of  the  subject  I  feel  constrained  to  offer 
some  farther  remarks. 

(941.)  In  treating  of  the  form  of  the  furrow-slice  I  have  sufficiently  evinced  the  preference  that 
I  give  to  the  rectanarular  slice  ;  and  this  I  do  on  the  broad  principle  that  ilerp ploiciii^  ought  to  be 
the  nile,  and  any  other  practice  the  rxccption.  The  exception  may  apply  ui  a  variety  of  c-ises, 
so  well  known  to  practical  farmers  that  it  would  be  presumptuous  in  me  to  point  them  out ;  but 
our  "  Book  of  the  Fann  "  being  peculiarly  addressed  to  young  famiers,  the  pointing  out  of  a  few 
of  these  cases  of  exception  becomes  more  in  place. 

(9-12.)  Shallow  plowintr,  then,  maybe  admissible  in  the  case  of  a  field  that  has  been  depastured 
with  sheep,  and  to  be  simply  turned  up  for  a  seed-furrow.  The  reason  usually  as.si£rned  for  this, 
that  tbe  droppings  of  the  sheep  forming  only  a  top-dressing,  has  given  ri.sc  to  the  notion  that  a 
deep  furrow  would  bary  the  manure  to  a  depth  at  which  its  beneficial  effects  could  not  be  reached 
by  the  plants  of  the  crop  that  may  be  so«ii  upon  this  field.  While  I  allow  that  this  is  an  admis- 
sible case,  the  rationale o{ \.\\<i  reasons  assigned  for  it  by  practical  men.  may,  on  verj-  fairgrounds, 
be  called  in  question.  Thus,  it  is  well  known  that  the  roots  of  vegetables  in  general  push  'hem- 
selves  out  in  pursuit  of  their  nutriment,  and  wiili  an  instinctive  perseverance  they  will  pass  over 
or  through  media  which  afford  little  or  no  nutriment,  in  order  to  reach  a  medium  in  which  they 
can  luxuriate  at  will.  With  the  larger  vegetable  productions  this  is  remarkably  the  ca.-^e  ;  and 
though,  among  those  plants  which  the  farmer  cultivates,  the  ni'cessity  of  huntiiiL',  as  it  were,  for 
food  cannot  occur  to  a  eroat  extent,  yet  we  arc  well  aware  that  the  roots  of  the  cereal  grasses 
may  extend  from  6  to  12  or  more  inches;  and  there  is  good  rea.«on  to  believe  that  their  length 
depends  upon  the  depth  of  the  penetrable  soil,  and  that  the  luxuriance  of  growth  in  the  plant  will 
in  general  be  jiroportioned  to  that  depth,  soil  and  climate  being  the  same. 

(943.)  Another  case  of  exception  to  deep  plowing,  is  in  some  of  the  courses  of  fallow  plowing. 
where  a  deep  furrow  might  be  injurious ;  these  occurring  in  the  later  courses.  And  a  third  is  that 
of  a  seed  furrow,  though  in  many  cases  this  last  is  of  doubtful  rt-commendution. 

(944.)  In  some  of  the  clay  disirict.s.  a  system  of  shallow  and  nan-ow  plowing  is  practiced,  under 
the  impression  that  the  exposure  of  the  soil,  thus  cut  up  in  thin  slices,  tends  more  to  its  ameliora- 
tion tlian  a  system  ot  deep  and  broad  plowinff  could  effect.  This  supposition  may.  to  a  certain 
extent,  be  true,  as  a  certain  portion  of  the  soil  thus  treated  will  undergo  a  stage  of  improvement ; 
but  allowing  that  it  does  so,  the  imj)rovement  is  but  a  half  measure.  S)ils  of  this  kind  are  fre- 
quently deep,  and.  tlmuL'h  apjiarently  poor,  they  aflbrd  the  stamina  out  of  which  may  be  formed 
the  best  artificial  soils — the  clay  loam — which  may  be  brought  about  by  the  due  application  of 
manure,  and  a  pii)pcr.  well  dircrted.  and  continued  system  of  plowing.  "  On  lands  of  this  kind, 
the  system  of  deep  plowing  will  he  always  atteniled  with  beneficial  effects;  and  in.stead  of  the 
apparently  thin  and  huiii:ry  soil  which  the  shallow  system  is  more  likely  to  perpetuate,  the  result 
might  be  a  deep  and  strong  clay  loam.  To  ellect  tbi.s.  iiowever.  there  must  be  no  sparing  of  ex- 
pense or  of  labor,  the  draining  niu.st  be  efficient,  and  the  manurinir.  especially  with  those  sub- 
stances that  will  tend  to  sharpen  and  yield  jiorosity  to  the  clay,  must  be  abundantly  supplied. 

(945.)  Thi;  most  extensive  suite  of  cases  where  a  departure  from  the  rule  is  admissible,  are 
those  lands  where  a  naturally  thin  soil  rests  ou  a  subsoil  of  saud  or  gravel  variously  impregnated 
(786) 


PLOWING  STUBBLE  AND  LEA  GROUND.  403 


with  oxides  of  iron.  To  plow  deep  at  once  in  such  situations  would  run  the  risk  of  serious  in- 
jury to  the  sparing  quantity  of  soil  naturally  existing.  But  it  is  to  be  observed  of  soils  of  this 
kind,  that  the  subsoil  has  always  a  tendency  to  pan,  and  if  such  do  e.xist,  the  deep  system  should 
again  come  into  requisition  in  the  form  of  subsoil  plowing,  which,  by  destroying  the  pan — 
that  frequent  cause  of  sterility  in  soils  of  this  kind — opens  a  way  to  the  amelioration  of  both  soil 
and  subsoil. 

(946.)  There  appears,  in  short,  every  reason  for  inculcating  the  system  of  deep  plowing,  not 
only  where  existing  circumstance.?  admit  of  its  adoption,  but  where  its  ultimate  effects  are  likely 
to  induce  a  gradual  improvement  on  the  soil  and  all  its  products,  admitting  always  that  a  varia- 
tion in  depth  is  proper  and  necessary  under  the  varying  circumstances  of  crops  and  seasons. 

(947.)  Though  the  Scotch  swing  plow  has  afforded  the  principal  subject  of  what  has  been  here 
given  on  this  implement,  it  must  not  be  lost  sight  of  thaf  numerous  varieties  of  this  important  im- 
plement are  to  be  found  in  other  parts  of  the  kingdom,  many  of  which  possess  a  high  degree  of 
excellence  ;  and  England  is  especially  remarkable  for  these  varieties.  It  has  been  already  noticed 
(487)  that  the  germ  of  improvement  in  the  Scotch  implements  appears  to  have  been  obtained 
through  England;  but,  like  many  other  importations  from  that  quarter,  the  necessities  arising 
from  circumstances  of  chmate,  of  soil,  and,  perhaps  not  the  least  important,  the  paucity  of  pecu- 
niary means,  obliged  the  Scottish  agriculturist  to  husband  all  his  resources,  and  to  call  forth  all 
his  energies,  in  making  the  best  and  most  economical  use  of  his  new  acquisitions,  so  as  in  the 
end  to  outstrip  his  more  favored  brethren  of  the  south.  This  will  be  found  to  have  occurred, 
not  only  in  the  plow,  but  in  the  introduction  of  the  turhip,  of  bone  manure,  and  many  other  simi- 
lar acquisitions. 

(948.)  It  is  remarkable,  too,  that  the  decided  step  taken  in  Scotland  in  regard  to  the  rapid  ex- 
tension of  the  u.se  of  the  improved  plow,  was  long  in  retracing  its  steps  back  to  England,  and  that 
the  retrograde  movement  was  gradual  from  the  northern  counties  southward.  In  nearly  half  a 
century,  this  retrogression  appears  to  have  made  very  slow  progress ;  and,  like  many  other  im- 
provements which  linger  until  some  master-mind  takes  them  in  hand,  the  extension  of  the  use  of 
an  improved  plow  met  with  little  encouragement.  In  due  time  this  subject  was  taken  up  by  the 
Messrs.  Ransome,  of  Ipswich  ;  and,  through  their  exertions,  such  changes  have  been  produced  in 
the  plow  as  place  the  English  agriculturi.st  in  possession  of  a  command  of  these  implements  in 
such  a  variety  of  forms  that  no  other  country  can  boast  of  from  the  hands  of  one  maker. 

(949.)  The  numerous  varieties  (amounting  to  at  least  100)  of  the  plows  constructed  by  the  Messrs. 
Uausome  seem  to  be  chiefly  adapted  to  the  soils  of  England,  and  to  the  practice  of  her  agricultur- 
ists ;  for  we  do  not  find  that,  when  brought  into  Scotland,  and  placed  in  direct  competition  with 
the  Scotch  plow,  that  they  ever  gain  a  preference.  There  can  be  no  question,  however,  that  some 
of  the  varieties  of  these  plows  perform  well,  exhibiting  work,  when  conducted  by  a  skillful  hand, 
that  for  its  usefulness  may  compare  with  that  of  any  implement  now  employed.  The  system  of 
plowing  in  England  being  generally  of  the  shallow  character,  and  the  modern  plow  for  the  most 
part  of  a  light  construction,  adapted  to  the  practice,  it  has  been  found  that  these  plows  were  una- 
ble to  fesist  the  force  required  where  the  deep-plowing  system  is  followed,  as  in  many  parts  of 
Scotland.  But  a  more  .serious  objection  to  the  introduction  of  these  plows  into  Scotland  lies  in 
the  frequent  application  to  them  of  wheels.  No  plowman  who  has  been  able  to  wield  the  swing- 
plow  will  ever  suffer  himself  to  be  incommoded  with  the  addition  of  wheels  to  his  plow  (for  he 
will  always  consider  wheels  an  inconvenience),  and  this  he  does  not  from  a  conviction  that  wheels 
increase  the  labor  of  his  horses,  but  because  to  himself  they  appear  a  source  of  annoyance  ;  and 
here  it  may  be  farther  remarked,  as  regards  wheel-plows,  that,  since  the  wheels  must  always'have 
a  tendency  to  increase  the  draught  (636),  and  on  that  account  are  objectionable,  so  also,  if  a  plow 
can  be  wielded  with  equal  and  perhaps  better  effect  without  wheels  than  with  them,  the  excuse 
that  a  wheel-plow  may  be  wielded  by  a  man  of  inferior  qualifications  is  of  small  value.  Any  man 
may  be  trained  to  handle  a  plow,  though  every  man  will  not  be  equally  succes.sful ;  and  since  in 
the  whole  of  Scotland  not  a  wheel-plow  is  to  be  found,  except  as  a  curiosity,  while  her  plowing 
is  at  least  not  inferior  to  that  of  any  part  of  the  kingdom,  and  as  the  chances  are  surely  equal  that 
the  plowmen  are  not  all  equally  good,  it  is  evident  that  plowing  nan  be  satisfactorily  performed 
without  wheels.  If  plowing  can  thus  be  performed  over  one  part  of  the  kingdom  with  an  imple- 
ment of  the  simplest  fonn,  and  in  a  satisfactory  and  economical  manner,  there  can  be  no  necessity 
for  using  a  more  complicated  and  more  expensive  macl^jne  to  perform  the  same  work  in  another 
part  of  the  kingdom,  where  it  is  at  least  not  f^effer  done  or  done  at  less  expense. 

(950.)  Having  adverted  to  the  plows  of  England,  and  particularly  to  those  of  the  Messrs.  Ransome, 
and  though  still  impressed  with  the  opinion  that  the  simple  Scotch  swing-plow  is  preferable  as  an 
implement  to  the  wheel-plows  in  their  most  improved  form,  and  perhaps  even  to  the  swing^-plowa 
of  England,  it  is  proper  to  describe  generally  at  least  one  example  out  of  the  many. 

(951.)  The  example  cho.sen  for  the  purpose  of  illustration  is  Ransome's  F  F  or  Bedfordshire 
plow,  represented  in  fig.  205.  This  plow  has  attained  a  high  character  for  its  general  usefulness, 
and  may  be  considered  as  the  most  perfect  of  modern  English  plows. 

(952.)  Without  going  into  such  a  minute  detail  of  its  parts  as  has  been  done  in  the  case  of  the 
three  leading  Scotch  plows,  I  cannot  avoid  giving  a  short  description  of  it.  Like  the  greater  part 
of  modern  E  nglish  plosvs,  it  is  constructed  partly  of  wood  and  partly  of  iron.  The  body  is  of  cast- 
iron,  and  is  ingeniously  formed  for  the  attachment  of  the  beam  and  handles.  These  are  simply 
bolted  to  the  body — a  practice  which  leaves  the  parts  in  possession  of  their  full  strength  instead 
of  being  weakened  by  the  mortising,  as  is  the  case  in  the  joining  of  the  beam  and  left  handle  of 
the  Scotch  wooden  plow.  The  body-frame  rises  from  the  middle  of  the  sole-bar  to  the  full  hight 
of  the  upper  edge  of  the  beam,  and  the  two  are  bolted  together— the  body  being  applied  to  the 
land-side  of  the  beam,  where  it.?  upper  edge  is  .seen  at  a  b-  The  land-sides'of  the  beam  and  of  the 
body  lie,  therefore,  in  one  plane  behind  ;  but  the  beam,  at  the  point,  lies  1^  inches  to  the  right  of 
the  body-plane.  The  handles  are  bolted  to  a  vertical  flange  that  projects  from  the  hind  part  of  the 
body  ;  and,  as  an  additiooal  security  to  the  right  handle,  a  bar  of  cast  iron,  extending  from  a  to  c, 
is  laid  upon  the  right-hand  side  of  the  beam,  as  seen  in  the  figure,  and  fixed  by  the  same  bolts  that 
(787)  °  ^ 


404 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


connect  the  beam  and  the  body.  The  hind  part  of  this  bar  \a  also  formed  to  enibmce  the  root  of 
the  rielit  handle,  and  i»  aljo  secured  by  bolta.  A  farther  security  ia  effected  by  the  application  of 
the  iron  May-bar  de,  tying  the  beam  and  bandies  together.     When  the  land-side  ol  the  plow  ia 


Fig.  205. 


RANSOMK  S  r  F,  OR  BEDFORDSHIRE   PLOW. 

vertical,  the  left  handle  h  stands  10  inches  to  the  left  of  the  line  of  the  land-side,  and  the  width  be- 
tween the  handles  k  i  is  26  inches.  Following  the  same  rule  as  has  been  adopted  in  giving  the 
details  of  the  Scotcb  plows,  we  have  the  zero  of  the  FF.  figs.  121  and  122,  Plate  XII..  at  27  inches 
behind  the  point  of  ibe  share  n,  and  the  heel  p,  \\  inches  behind  the  zero.  The  extremity  of  the 
handles  is  4  feet  3  inches  behind,  and  the  point  of  the  beam  4  feet  ."J  inches  before  the  zero,  mak- 
ing the  horizontal  length  of  the  plow  only  8  feet  8  inches.  The  hight  of  the  handles  above  the 
base-line  is  2  feet  10  inches :  the  bight  of  the  body,  at  the  junction  h  of  the  beam  and  handles,  is 
14  inches:  the  bight  of  the  beam  at  the  coulter-box  is  17  inches,  and  at  the  point  16  inches :  these 
higbts  beine  all  as  measured  to  the  upper  edge  of  the  beam.  The  bridle  k  of  this  plow  is  similar 
to  many  others  of  this  much-varied  member,  but  differs  in  the  material  of  which  it  is  composed, 
being  formed  of  cast-iron.  In  fig.  148,  the  plow  is  represented  with  two  wheels  f  and  e,  which 
are  mounted  on  stems  r  s  ;  these  move  vertically  in  separate  boxes,  one  on  each  side  of  the  beam, 
and  are  held  in  position  by  clamp-screws.  The  lareer  wheel  /  runs  in  the  furrow,  and  bears 
against  the  land,  thus  regulating  the  landing  of  the  plow,  while  the  wheel  g  runs  upon  the  land, 
and  regulates  the  earthing  of  the  plow. 

(Q.'SS.)  The  active  parts  of  the  plow  are  al.so  peculiar.  The  mould-board  /  m  has  been  already 
given  in  detail  in  Plate  XII..  figs.  121  and  122  :  it  is  only  necessarj-  to  add  that  its  form  indicates 
a  medium  of  the  convex  and  concave  surfaces,  and  that  its  hielit  points  out  its  inapplicabilitj'  to 
deep  plowine.  The  share  n,  as  in  a  larire  proportion  of  all  plows  made  by  the  Messrs.  Ransome,  is 
of  cast-iron,  but  is  very  judiciously  hardened  at  the  point  and  along  the  edge  of  the  feather  on  the 
lower  surface  only,  which  has  the  effect  of  throwing  all  the  wear  of  the  metal  on  the  upper  sur- 
face, thereby  keeping'  the  edge  sharp  below  eo  long  as  the  share  lasts.  This  share  has  great 
breadth,  being  seldom  under  7  inches  at  tlie  broadest  part.  In  the  clays  and  chalky  soils  of  Eng- 
land, the  ca-st-iron  share  is  boili  convenient  and  economical,  though  it  is  doubtful  how  thev  might 
answer  in  gravellj-  and  stony  .soils,  especially  in  the  latter.  The  price  of  a  cast-iron  share  is  about 
Is.  2d.,  and  an  allowance  is  made  for  them  when  worn  out  and  returned  of  about  6d. ;  their  dura- 
tion may  be  taken  at  from  4  to  14  days,  depending  much  on  the  texture  of  the  soil.  The  coulter  o 
in  this  plow,  as  in  most  others  of  the  cla.«s,  is  fixed  in  a  metal  box  bolted  in  the  land-side  of  the 
beam.  The  land-side  plane  of  the  coulter,  therefore,  instead  of  cro.ssing  that  of  the  plow's  body, 
as  in  the  Lanarkshire  and  other  t^cotch  plows,  is  parallel  to  it,  ami  stands  altogether  to  landward 
of  the  land-side  plane  of  the  plow  from  top  to  bottom,  and  in  some  cases  forms  a  small  angle  from 
the  point  landward.  The  body  is  frequently  left  entirely  open  on  the  land-side,  except  in  so  far 
as  it  is  covered  by  the  land-.side  flange  of  the  sole-shoe,  wliith  is  not  more  than  2  inches  high,  and 
it  stands  1}  inches  to  landward  of  the  body-frame,  which  last  arrangement  virtually  brings  the 
land-side  plane  of  the  body  and  of  the  fore  part  of  the  beam  to  coincide. 

(9.')4.)  Having  in  a  general  way  described  the  construction  of  the  frame-work  and  the  acting 
parts  of  this  plow,  there  remains  for  mc  to  say  a  few  words  on  the  wheels  with  which  it  is  fur- 
nished. I  have  already  '6,36-638|  adverted  to  wheels,  as  they  appear  to  me  to  affect  the  draught 
of  plows,  and  have  expressed  myself  in  sufficiently  distinct  language  to  show  that,  in  my  opinion, 
they  must  in  all  caw's  be  injurious,  and  tend  to  increa.«e  the  resistance  of  the  plow  to  which  they 
are  appended,  whether  they  be  applied  within  the  body,  or  under  the  front,  or  any  other  part  of 
the  beam.  That  wheels  may  be  of  advantace  for  the  working  of  a  plow  in  the  hands  of  an  nn- 
skillful  plowman  may  bo  trni- :  but  if  this  advantage  is  acquired  by  a  certain  additional  expendi- 
ture of  horse  power,  which,  however  much  the  proprietor  of  the  team  may  blind  himself  to,  will 
ultimately,  thousrh  probably  unhei-d.  d.  tell  on  his  profit  and  loss  account." there  will  be  no  gain. 
but  an  ultimate  loss.  It  must  be  admitted,  evt-n  bv  the  advocates  of  the  wheel-plow,  that  though 
they  may  be  handled  with  perfect  regularity  in  plowing  nlonz  ridges,  whether  the  holder  be  an 
experienced  plowman  or  not.  yet  in  rrotf  plowing  they  cannot  by  any  means  be  brought  so  hand- 
ily to  follow  tne  undulations  of  the  surface  In  leavine  one  ridge,  the  share  will  pass  Voo  shallow, 
and.  in  entering  on  the  brow  of  the  next,  it  will  go  too  deep,  or  at  least  deeper  than  the  average 
of  the  plowing.  There  is  also  the  element  of  time,  which  in  all  farming  operations  is  an  important 
one ;  and  here  wheel-plows  are  found  to  come  short  by  about  25  per  cent  as  compared  with 
(788) 


PLOWING  STUBBLE   AND  LEA  GROUND.  405 

swing-plowg.  Mr.  Pusey.  in  his  paper  on  the  draught  of  plows,  incidentally  observes:  "While 
the  work  of  our  plowing  teams  is  at  best  but  j  of  an  acre  upon  strong  ground  (and  sometimes  as 
much  as  I  acre  upon  the  lightest),  the  daily  task  performed  by  two  Scotch  horses  upon  strong  land 
is  Ij  acres."*  This  deficiency  of  effect  cannot  be  attributed.  lo  want  of  power  in  the  horses,  for 
English  hor.ses  are  at  least  not  inferior  to  those  emp  oyed  in  Scotland  for  agricultural  purposes; 
neither  can  it  be  from  unskillfulness  in  the  plowmen,  for  even  the  most  skillful  seem  to  come  short 
in  this  respect,  by  not  being  able  to  plow  more  than  j  of  an  acre  in  a  day,  while  with  the  swing- 
plow  almost  anyplowman  Xvill  turn  over  his  acre  a  day.  From  the  remarks  of  the  same  writer,! 
it  is  to  be  inferred  that  a  Scotch  swing-plovy  was  incapable  of  being  drawn  through  a  certain  clay 
soil  by  two  horses,  while  the  wheel-plows -were  found  to  perform  the  work  with  tolerable  ease, 
though  still  a  heavy  draught.  There  may  be  such  cases ;  but  from  the  conditions  of  this  particular 
case,  where  the  draught  that  baffled  the  horses  in  the  swing  plo\y  seems  not  to  have  exceeded  52 
stones,  there  is  an  ambiguity  in  the  matter  that  leads  to  doubts  of  the  accurac)^  on  the  part  of  the 
observers  of  the  experiment.  We  know  well  that  in  working  the  Scotch  swing-plow  in  an  8  or 
9-inch  furrow  on  stiff  land,  the  draught  is  not  unfrequently  as  high  as  7  cwt.  or  fiti  stones  ;  but  two 
good  horses  never  shrink  from  the  task;  and  how  a  less  draught,  whatever  be  the  soil,  should 
have  baffled  the  exertions  of  two  good  horses  in  a  swing-plow,  even  in  the  Oxlbrd  clay,  requires 
some  farther  investigation  to  be  satisfactory. 

(9.10.)  Under  all  the  circumstances,  then — whether  we  take  expenditure  of  horse  power  com- 
pared with  the  small  saving  in  the  pay  of  an  inferior  workman  ;  the  disadvantages  attending  the 
more  complicated  operation  of  plowing,  compared  with  the  celerity  with  which  the  swing-plow 
can  be  made  to  accommodate  itself  to  all  irregularities  of  ground  ;  the  loss  of  time,  which  is  equiv- 
alent with  capital,  in  plowing  a  given  surface,  when  compared  with  the  extent  turned  over  by 
the  swing-plow ;  and  the  probability  that  even  the  solitary  instance  of  an  apparent  superiority  in 
^  wheel-plow  may  rest  upon  some  oversight  in  observation — all  seem  to  conspire  to  produce  a 
conviction  that  a  superiority  exists  in  the  swing-plow  which  is  in  some  mea.sure  due  to  its  deserv- 
ing that  appellation  from  an  absence  of  wheels.  And  certainly,  whatever  be  the  merits  of  the 
modern  improvements  on  English  plows,  they  may  be  ascribed  to  any  other  cause  than  their  pos- 
sessing wheels,  in  whatever  position  thej'  may  be  placed  in  the  plow. 

(956.)  The  plow  under  consideration  is  furnished  with  two  wheels,  see  again  fig.  205.  The 
land-side  wheel  is  1'2  inches  diameter,  with  a  rim  not  exceeding  1  inch  in  breadth.  The  only 
purpose  to  which  this  wheel  is  applied  is  to  regulate  the  depth  of  the  furrow,  for  which  purpose 
it  runs  upon  the  solid  land.  The  furrow-wheel  is  18  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  breadth  of  rim 
equal  to  the  former  ;  its  object  is  twofold,  serving  in  some  measure  to  regulate  the  depth,  by  run- 
ning on  the  bottom  of  the  previouslj'  formed  furrow,  but  its  chief  duty  is,  by  bearing  against  the 
edge  of  the  furrow  slice  that  is  about  to  be  raised,  to  regulate  the  breadth  of  the  slice,  at  the  de- 
sired hight,  b_\  means  of  pinching-screws. 

(957.)  It  is  evident  that  both  wheels  perform  a  duty  that  either  of  them  alone  could  do  with  per- 
haps equal  effect,  namely,  the  regulation  of  the  depth  ;  but  the  furrow-wheel  performs  a  second 
office,  regulating  the  breadth,  which  it  can  also  do  without  interfering  with  its  other  duty.  It 
would  appear,  therefore,  that  the  land-side  wheel  may  be  set  aside  without  impairing  the  efficiency 
of  the  plow  ;  and  we  find,  accordingly,  that  these  plows  are  frequently  used  with  only  one  wheel, 
which  in  itself  performs  both  duties. 

(958.)  The  consideration  of  these  wheels,  and  their  effects  on  the  plow,  suggests  a  fartiier  ob- 
jection to  their  utility  in  respect  of  the  increased  resistance  they  produce  to  the  draught.  If  the.se 
\vheels  are  to  produce  anj'  effect  at  all,  the  plow-irons  and  yoke  must  be  set  so  as  to  give  the 
plow  a  bias  both  to  earth  and  land.  If  the  plow  has  not  this,  then  whether  it  swim  evenly,  or 
have  a  hvAS,  from  both  earth  and  land,  in  either  case  the  wheels  are  inetlective,  as  they  will  nei- 
ther bear  upon  the  sole  nor  the  ed?e  of  the  furrow,  but  let  the  plow  have  the  bias  as  proposed  to 
both  earth  and  land,  the  wheels  will  then  both  bear,  and  exert  their  efforts  by  reaction  to  coun- 
teract the  tendency  of  the  plow  ;  on  the  one  hand  to  sink  deeper  in  the  furrow,  and  on  the  other 
to  cut  a  broader  slice  ;  and  since  "  action  and  reaction  are  alike  and  in  opposite  directions,''  these 
antagonist  forces  will  be  in  constant  operation  to  a  greater  or  less  amount.  Such  effects  will 
thereby  increase  the  friction  and  consequent  resistance  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  bias  which 
has  been  given  to  the  plow;  and  hence  the  conclusion  is  strengthened,  that  in  all  cases  wheels 
are  incumbrances  and  sources  of  increa.sed  resistance  to  the  plow. 

(959.)  Among  the  numerous  makers  of  plows  in  England  whose  works  have  come  under  our 
observation,  besides  those  of  Messrs.  Ransome,  I  cannot  omit  to  notice  the  names  of  Hart,  of  King, 
of  Parker,  and  of  Crosskill,  all  of  whom  take  a  high  standing  as  plow-makers  after  the  English 
fashions,  and  many  of  their  productions  are  mounted  with  wheels.  It  is  unnecessarj-  to  repeat 
any  of  the  observations  on  that  head,  but  should  the  preceding  remarks  come  under  the  observa- 
tion of  any  of  the  makers  referred  to,  or  of  any  other  person  who  maj'  take  an  interest  in  the  sub- 
ject, it  will  be  gratifying  to  find  that  they  endeavor  to  show  how  wheel-plows  can  be  rendered 
more  advantageous  than  swing-plows,  and  in  doing  so  either  practically  or  demonstrativeU',  in  a 
satisfactory  manner.  I  shall  be  open  to  conviction,  and  ready  to  yield  up  that  sy.stem  which  ap- 
pears to  me  at  present  as  the  only  tenable  one  ;  but  it  would,  of  course,  be  still  more  satisfactory 
to  learn  that  these  very  humble  efforts  shall  be  of  any  use  in  satisfying  those  who  take  the  trouble 
to  inquire,  that  an  extended  application  of  the  swing-plow  practice  might  either  be  of  individual 
or  general  importance. 

(960.)  Among  the  other  numerous  varieties,  I  cannot  pass  over  the  t.ico-fnrroto  pl-ow.  which, 
though  seldom,  if  ever,  seen  in  the  hands  of  a  Scotch  farmer,  is  now  rather  exten.sively  employed 
in  some  of  the  eastern  counties  of  England,  but  more  especially  in  Lincolnshire.  These  plows 
are  constructed  of  a  very  effective  and  convenient  form  by  Ransome  and  others,  and  are  held  to 
be  very  economical  in  point  of  draught,  a  pair  of  good  horses  being  capable  of  working  a  two- 
furrow  plow,  or  in  cases  of  heavier  soil  three  horses ;  the  saving  of  labor  in  the  one  case  being 

•  Journal  of  the  Hoyal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  vol.  i.  t  Ibid  ,  vol.  i. 

(789)  J  s      "< 


406  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

one-half,  in  the  other  one-fourth.  They  are  also  mounted  with  wheels,  and  in  ihe  disiricia  where 
they  are  employed,  and  tlic  plowman  accustomed  to  ihc  iniplument.  tlicy  make  very  (iiir  work, 
the  two  furrows  hcinpr  in  general  laid  very  nearly  alike.  It  must  be  conceiled.  however,  lliat  in 
the  district."*  where  these  plows  are  used,  the  work  is  done  with  a  very  sliallow  furrow,  seldom 
exceeding  3  or  4  inches,  which  may  allow  of  '.2  lior.sos  takini;  the  driiui;hl.  W'licrc  the  deep- 
plowinir  system  is  fallowed,  a  twofurmw  plow  could  not  be  drawn  by  fewer  ilian  4  horses,  wliicn, 
as  it  would  artbrd  no  suvini^,  but  rather  the  contrary,  can  never  be  expedient,  or  in  any  way  ad- 
vantageoij.s ;  for  thouijh  it  may  be  ur-jed.  that  when  a  li^lit  furrow  only  was  re<|uired  the  two- 
furrow  plow  might  otfer  some  advantage,  yet  if  it  couM  not  be  ai»plicable  in  every  case,  ilic  in- 
ference 18,  that  two  seta  of  plows,  double  and  single  furrow,  must  be  retained — a  practice  which 
cannot,  under  any  circumstances,  be  recommended.  The  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  these  re- 
marks is,  that  though  expedients,  such  as  the  two-furrow  plow,  may  be  very  advantageously  em- 
ployed under  a  particular  climate  and  soil,  the  practice  cannot  be  held  up  as  one  of  general  ap- 
plication, or  that  couhi  be  rendered  economical  and  advantageous  under  all  circumstances. — J.  S.] 

(!»fil.)  This  seem.H  to  me  a  befitting  place  to  sav  a  few  words  on  phm-itr^  vin/rlits.  I  believe  it 
admits  of  no  doubt  that,  since  the  in.stitution  of  plowing  matches  throughout  the  country,  the  char- 
acter of  our  farm-servants  as  plowmen  has  risen  to  considerable  celebrity,  not  but  that  individual 
plowmen  could  have  been  found  before  the  practice  of  matches  existed  as  dexterous  as  any  of  the 
present  day,  but  the  general  diffusion  of  good  plowing  must  be  obvious  to  every  one  who  has 
oeen  in  the'  habit  of  observing  the  plowed  surface  of  the  country.  This  improvement  is  not  to  be 
ascribed  to  the  institution  of  plowing  matches  alone,  becau.se  superior  construction  ol  implements, 
better  kept,  better  matched,  and  superior  race  of  horses  ;  and  superior  judgment  and  tasie  in  field 
labor  in  the  farmer  himself  are  too  important  element.s  in  influencing  the  conduct  of  piowmeu  to 
be  overlooked  in  a  consideration  of  this  question. 

(962.)  But  be  the  primarj- motive  for  improvement  in  the  most  important  branch  of  field  labor  aa 
it  may,  there  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  a  properly  regulated  emulation  among  workmen  of  any  class, 
proves  a  strong  incentive  to  the  production  of  superior  workmanship,  and  the  more  generally  the 
inducement  is  extended,  the  improvement  arising  from  it  may  he  expected  to  be  the  more  gen- 
erally difiused  ;  and  on  this  account  the  plow  vnihils  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of 
Scotland  being  open  for  competition  to  all  parts  of  Scotland  every  year,  have  perhaps  excited  a 
spirit  of  emulation  among  plowmen,  by  rewarding  those  who  excel,  beyond  anything  to  be  seen 
in  any  other  country.  Wherever  15  plows  can  be  gathered  together  for  competition  at  any  time 
and  place,  there  the  plowman  who  obtains  the  first  premium  offered  by  tliose  interested  in  the  ex- 
hibition, is  entitled  to  receive,  over  and  above,  the  Society's  plow  medal  of  silver,  bearing  a  suita- 
ble inscription,  with  the  gainer's  name.  About  40  applications  aie  made  for  the  medals  every 
year,  so  that  at  lea.st  fiOO  plowmen  annually  compete  i()r  them  ;  but  the  actual  number  far  exceeds 
that  number  -,  as,  in  many  instances,  matches  ccmiprchend  from  40  to  70  plows,  instead  of  the 
minimum  number  of  l.*).  The  matches  are  usually  occasioned  by  the  welcome  which  his  neigh- 
bors are  desirous  of  giving  an  incoming  tenant  to  his  farm,  and  its  heartiness  is  shown  in  the  ex- 
tent of  the  a.ssislance  they  give  him  in  plowing  a  field  or  fields  at  a  time  when  he  has  not  yet  col- 
lected a  working  stock  sufficient  for  the  purpo.se. 

(963.)  Plowing  matches  are  generally  very  fairly  conducted  in  Scotland.  They  usually  take 
place  on  lea  ground,  the  plowing  of  whi(-h  is  considered  the  best  test  of  a  plowman's  skill,  tlieugh 
I  hold  that  drilling  is  much  more  difficult  to  execute  correctly.  The  best  part  ol'ihc  field  is  usu- 
ally .selected  for  the  purpose,  if  there  be  such,  and  the  same  extent  of  ground,  usually  from  -i  to  4 
ridges,  according  to  the  length,  is  allotted  to  each  portion  of  ground  to  be  plowed.  A  i>in.  bear- 
ing a  number,  is  pushed  into  the  ground  at  the  end  of  each  lot,  of  which  there  are  as  many  marked 
off  as  there  are  plows  entered  in  competition.  Numbers  corresponding  to  those  on  the  pins  are 
drawn  by  the  competing  plowmen,  who  take  possession  of  the  lots  as  they  are  drawn.  Ample 
time  is  allowed  to  liui.>^li  the  lot,  and  in  this  part  of  the  arrangements  I  am  of  ofiinion  that  too  much 
time  is  usually  allowed,  to  the  annoyance  of  the  spectators.  Although  shortness  of  time  in  exe- 
cuting the  same  <'xtcnt  of  work  is  not  to  bo  compared  to  excellency  of  execution,  yet  it  should 
enter  as  an  important  element  into  the  decision  of  the  i)ue.stion  of  excellence!.  Kvery  competitor 
is  obliged  to  feer  his  own  lot,  guide  his  own  horses,  and  do  every  other  thing  connected  with  the 
work,  such  as  a8.sorting  his  hor.-ies,  ami  trimming  his  plow-irons,  without  the  least  as.sistance. 

(964.)  The  judges,  who  have  been  brought  from  a  distance,  and  have  no  i)er8onal  interest  in  the 
exhibition,  are  requested  to  inspect  the  ground  after  all  the  plows  have  been  removed,  having 
been  kept  away  from  the  scene  during  the  time  the  j)lows  were  engaged.  Now,  this  appears  to 
me  a  very  objectionable  part  of  the  arrangennMit.'*,  and  it  is  made  on  the  plea,  that  were  the  judges 
to  see  the  plows  at  work,  some  i>articular  ones  might  be  recognized  by  them  as  belonging  to 
friends,  and  their  minds  might  thereby  be  bia.^ed  by  the  circumstance.  Such  a  plea  |)ay8  bat  a 
poor  compliment  to  the  integrity  of  the  juilge  ;  and  any  farmer  who  acccjits  of  the  responsible 
and  honored  office  of  judge,  who  would  allow  himself  to  he  influenced  by  so  pitiful  a  considera- 
tion, woulil  deserve  not  oidy  not  to  be  em|doyed  in  a  similar  arbitration  again,  but  to  be  scouted 
out  of  society.  One  conseipience  of  the  exaction  of  this  rule  is.  that  the  spectators  evince  impa- 
tience— the  spectators,  not  the  plowmen  who  have  bt-en  competitors,  for  ihey  are  busily  and  hap- 
pily occupied  at  the  time  in  repleni>;liing  the  inner  man  with  rations  of  cheest'  and  bread  and 
ale  provided  to  them  hj'  the  possessor  of  the  field  who  is  to  enjoy  the  profits  of  their  labor — while 
the  judges  are  takini;  no  more  than  the  oroper  time  for  deciding  the  plowing  of  it  may  be,  a  large 
extent  of  ground.  The  judges  ought.  lher<;li)re.  to  \>c  present  during  the  whole  time  devoted  to 
the  competition,  when  they  could  i:almlv  and  certainly  ascertain  the  natun»  and  depth  of  the  fur- 
row-slices, and  have  h-isure  to  mature  their  thoughts  on  points  which  may  turn  the  scale  against 
first  impressions.  That  the  bare  ins]iection  of  the  finished  surface  cannot  inform  them,  in  a  satis- 
factory manner.  v\  hetlier  the  land  has  been  rorrectly  plowed  or  not,  which  can  only  be  done  by 
comparison  of  the  soles  of  the  furrows  while  the  land  is  plowing,  I  shall  endeavor  to  make  clear 
to  you  by  figures  in  a  supposed  case. 

(96.^).!  You  have  seen  the  action  of  different  plows,  which  may  be  all  employed  in  the  same 


PLOWING  STUBBLE  AND  LEA  GROUND.  407 


match  ;  and  yon  have  seen  that  the  East-Lothian  form  of  plow  lays  over  a  slice  of  one  form,  as  in 
fig.  108,  and  that  the  Lanarkshire  plow  lays  over  a  slice  of  another  form,  as  in  fig.  109,  and  _para- 
graph  (591)  acquaints  you,  that  the  latter  form  of  slice,  namely,  that  with  the  high  crest  and  ser- 
rated furrow-sole,  contains  1-7  less  earth  than  the  other.  Now,  were  the  surface  work  only  to  be 
judged  of,  which  must  be  the  case  when  judges  are  prohibited  seeing  the  work  done  in  the  course 
of  execution,  the  serrated  extent  of  the  furrow-sole  cannot  be  ascertained  by  removing  portions 
of  the  plowed  ground  here  and  there,  so  well  as  by  constant  inspection.  As  equal  plowing  con- 
sists in  turning  over  equal  portions  of  soil  in  the  same  extent  of  ground,  other  things  being  equal, 
a  comparison  of  the  quantity  of  earth  turned  over  by  these  two  plows  may  be  made  in  this  way: 
Suppose  a  space  of  1  square  yard,  turned  over  by  each  of  the  two  kinds  of  plows  specified,  taking 
a  furrow-slice  in  both  cases  of  10  inches  in  breadth  and  7  inches  in  depth,  and  taking  the  specific 
gravity  of  soil  at  2-7,  the  weight  of  earth  turned  over  by  the  East-Lothian  would  be  63  stones, 
while  the  Lanarkshire  plow  would  only  turn  over  54  stones,  making  a  difference  of  9  stones  of  14 
lbs.  in  the  small  area  of  one  square  yard.  In  these  circumstances,  is  it  fair  to  say,  that  the  horses 
yoked  to  the  East-Lothian  plow  have  done  no  more  work  than  tho.se  yoked  to  the  Lanarkshire, 
or  that  the  crop  for  which  the  land  has  been  plowed  will  receive  the  same  quantity  of  loosened 
mould  to  grow  in  in  both  these  cases?  The  prohibitory  rule  against  the  judges  making  their  in- 
spection during  the  plowing  has  been  relaxed  in  several  instances  ;  but  1  fear  more  from  the  cir- 
cumstance of  the  spectators  losing  their  patience,  while  waiting  for  the  decision  after  the  excite 
ment  of  the  competition  is  over,  than  from  regard  to  the  justness  of  the  principle.  Thus  far  is  the 
obvious  view  of  the  question  regarding  the  mode  in  which  plowing-matches  are  usually  conduct- 
ed;  but  in  what  follows  will  be  found  a  more  important  view  as  affecting  the  integrity  of  good 
plowing. 

(966.)  [The  primary  objects  of  the  institution  of  plowing-matches  must  have  been  to  produce 
the  best  examples  of  plowmanship — and  by  the  best,  must  be  understood  that  kind  of  plowing 
which  shall  not  only  appear  to  be  w^ell  done,  but  must  be  thoroughly  and  essenScally  mbH  done. 
In  other  words,  the  award  should  be  given  to  the  plow  that  produces  not  only  work  of  a  proper 
surface  fini.sh,  but  which  will  exhibit,  along  with  the  first,  the  property  of  having  turned  up  the 
greatest  quantity  of  soil  and  in  the  best  manner.  That  this  combination  of  qualities  has  ceased  to 
be  the  object  of  reward,  is  now  sufficiently  apparent  to  any  one  that  will  examine  for  him.self  the 
productions  and  rewards  of  recent  plowing  matches,  and  the  causes  of  such  dereliction  are  these: 

(967.)  The  introduction  by  Wilkie  of  the  Lanarkshire  plow  gave  rise,  as  is  supposed,  to  the 
high-crested  furrow-slice.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  plows  made  on  that  principle  produce 
■work  on  lea  land  that  is  highly  satisfactory  to  the  eye  of  a  plowman,  or  to  any  person,  indeed, 
whose  ej-e  can  appreciate  regularity  of  form;  and,  as  there  are  many  minds  who  can  dwell  with 
pleasure  on  the  beauty  of  form,  but  \\  ho  do  not  combine  \\'ith  that  idea  its  adaptation  to  u.sefulnes.s, 
it  is  no  wonder  that  plows  which  could  thus  affect  the  mind  through  the  sense  of  sight,  .should  be- 
come favorites.  While  the  crested  system  of  plowing  kept  within  bounils,  it  was  all  very  good 
but  in  course  of  time  the  taste  for  this  practice  became  excessive  ;  and  lo.sing  sight  of  the  useful, 
a  depraved  ta.ste,  of  its  kind,  sacrificed  utility  to  the  beautiful,  in  so  far  as  plowing  can  be  said  to 
produce  that  impression.  This  taste  came  gradually  to  spread  itself  over  certain  districts,  and 
plow-makers  came  to  vie  with  each  other  in  producing  machines  that  should  excel  in  that  par- 
ticular point  of  cresting.  A  keen  spirit  of  emulation  among  plowmen  kept  up  the  taste  among 
their  own  class,  and  very  frequently  the  sons  of  farmers  became  successful  competitors  in  the 
matches,  which  circumstance  gave  the  taste  a  higher  step  in  the  social  .scale.  Thus,  by  degrees, 
the  taste  for  this  mode  of  plowing  spread  wider  and  wider,  until,  in  certain  districts,  it  came  to 
pervade  all  classes  of  agriculturists.  At  plowing  matches  in  those  districts,  the  criterion  of  good 
plowing  became  generally  to  be  taken  entirely  from  the  appearance  of  the  surface  ;  furrow-slices 
possessing  the  highe.st  degree  of  parallelism,  exposiug-  faces  of  equal  breadth,  and,  above  all,  a 
high  crest,  carried  off"  the  palm  of  victory.  I  have  .seen  a  quorumof  plow  judges  •'  plodding  their 
weary  way  "  for  two  hours  together  over  a  field,  measuring  the  breadth  of  faces,  and  scanning 
the  parallelism  of  slices,  but  who  never  seemed  to  consider  the  underground  work  of  any  im- 
portau..e,  in  enabling  them  to  come  to  a  decision.  Under  such  a  system,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
plowmen  devote  their  energies  to  produce  work  that  might  .satisfy  this  depraved  taste,  and  that 
plow-makers  find  it  their  interest  to  minister  to  those  desires,  by  going  more  and  more  into  that 
construction  of  parts  of  the  plow  that  would  yield  the  so  mnch  desired  results.  Thus  have  those 
valuable  institutions  of  plowing  matches,  in  the  districts  alluded  to,  been  unwittingly  brought  to 
engender  a  practice  which,  though  beautiful  as  an  object  of  sight,  and,  when  within  due  bounds, 
also  of  utility,  has  induced  a  deterioration  in  the  really  useful  effects  of  the  plow. 

(968.)  But  it  is  not  yet  too  late  to  retrieve  what  has  been  lost.  Let  the  Highland  and  Agricul- 
tural Society  of  Scotland,  and  all  local  Agricultural  As.sociations,  take  up  the  subject,  and  institute 
a  code  of  riles  by  which  the  judges  of  plowing  matches  shall  be  guided  in  delivering  their 
awards.  Let  these  rules  direct  attention  to  what  is  truly  beneficial  to  the  land,  as  well  as  what 
may  be  satisfactory  to  sight  in  plowing.  When  such  rules  shall  have  been  promulgated  from 
competent  authority,  we  may  hope  to  see  plowing  matches  restored  to  their  pristine  intcifrity — 
doing  good  to  all  who  are  concerned  in  them,  and  restoring  that  confidence  in  their  usefulness 
■which  is  at  present  on  the  wane,  but  distrust  in  which  has  only  arisen  from  an  accidental  misdi- 
rection of  their  main  objects. 

(969.)  In  connection  with  that  part  of  the  subject  which  has  given  rise  to  the  foregoing  remarks 
on  plowing  matches,  it  is  not  a  little  curious  to  find,  that  instead  of  the  high-crested  furrow  being 
a  modern  innovation,  it  is  as  old  as  the  days  of  Blith  in  1652  -.  and  he.  like  the  moderns,  had  en- 
tertained the  same  false  notions  of  its  advantages.  In  his  curious  work,  under  ths  .section  "  How 
to  plow  as  it  may  yeeld  most  mould."  he.  in  his  quaint  style  says :  •'  As  for  your  ordinary  seasons 
of  plo  ving,  your  land  being  in  good  tillage,  any  well  ordered  and  truly  compas.sod  plow  will  do, 
you  may  help  your.self  sufficiently  in  the  makiiig  of  your  irons,  if  you  would  have  the  edge  of 
your  lying  furrow  lye  up  higher,  which  will  yeeld  most  mould,  then  set  your  sharophin  the  shal- 
lower, an<l  yet  your  plow  the  broader,  and  hold  it  the  more  ashore,  the  plowman  going  upon  the 
{79i> 


408  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM ^WINTER. 

land,  and  it  will  lay  it  with  a  Hharp  cd(^c,  whicli  is  a  gallant  4>08tarc  for  almost  any  land,  e« 
pecially  for  the  lay  turf  beyond  compare."* 

(970.)  The  setting-  of  the  sharcphiu  (feather)  aa  here  described,  is  precisely  what  is  done  in 
the  modern  plows  to  make  tliein  produce  the  Iii:»h-cre8ted  furrow  (."iDO).  Blith  seems  to  consider 
that  holding:  the  plow  "  ashore"  (to  landwani),  aids  the  cfTect ;  it  will  make  a  slice  thinner  at  one 
edge,  but  not  more  acute  in  the  crest. — J.  ti-] 


28.    TRENCH  AND  SUBSOIL  PLOWING,  AND  MOOR-BAND   PAN. 


"If  deep  you  wish  to  go,  or  if  the  soil 
Be  slirt"  Hnd  hard,  or  not  yet  cloHred  of  stones. 
The  t^cotti8h  plow,  drnwn  by  a  loHm  four  strong, 
Your  purpose  best  will  suit ; " 


Gbaham. 

(971.)  Trenching  of  land  with  the  spade  has  been  a  favorite  operation 
in  gardening  for  many  ages  ;  and  since  the  plow  became  the  substitute 
for  the  spade  in  field  culture,  it  has  been  employed  for  the  same  purpose, 
of  deepening  the  friable  portion  of  the  soil,  and  affording  to  the  roots  of 
plants  a  wider  range  in  which  to  search  for  food.  It  is  highly  pro])able, 
however,  that  the  plow  could  not  have  closely  imitated  the  trenching  of 
g^-ound  with  the  spade  until  after  the  introduction  of  the  mould-board, 
which,  comparatively  speaking,  is  of  very  recent  date,  the  ancient  plow 
retaining  its  primitive  simplicity  of  form  until  within  a  few  centuries.  In- 
deed, until  the  mould-board  was  added,  it  was  scarcely  in  the  power  of 
the  plow  to  trench  the  soil,  that  is,  to  reverse  the  position  of  the  furrow- 
slice  and  mix  the  upper  and  lower  soils  together.  When  it  was  added, 
may  now  be  difficult  to  asceitain  ;  but  fully  two  centuries  ago,  Hartlib, 
in  his  Legacie,  intimates  the  practice  of  very  deej)  plowing,  with  the 
mould-board  in  use,  when  he  says  :  "  There  is  an  ingenious  yeoman  in 
Kent  who  hath  two  plows  fastened  together  very  finely,  by  the  which  he 
ploweth  two  fuiTows  at  once,  one  under  the  other,  and  so  stiireth  up  the 
land  12  or  1-1  inches  deep,  which  in  deep  land  is  good."  This  is  essen- 
tially ti-ench-plowing. 

(972.)  Within  a  very  recent  date,  it  has  been  recommended  to  plow  land 
as  deep  as  trenching,  but  so  as  to  retain  the  stirred  soil  below  the  surface. 
Mr.  Smith,  Deanston,  by  the  invention  of  his  subsoil-plow,  has  been  the 
means  of  directing  the  attention  of  agricultuiists  to  this  peculiar  and  ap- 
parently new  process,  which  has  obtained  the  appellation  of  A7//>soil-plow- 
mg.  A  figure  and  description  of  his  subsoil -plow  is  given  below.  After 
the  introduction  of  the  mould-board,  subsoil-plowing  could  not  have  been 
practiced  ;  but  prior  to  that  improvement  it  is  not  improbable  that  the 
process  was  known  and  practiced,  and  so  long  ago  even  as  by  the  Romans. 
It  is  unceilain  wliat  was  the  depth  of  the  furrow  usually  made  by  the  Ro- 
man plow,  some  commentators  supposing,  from  a  particular  phrase  tised 
by  Pliny,  that  it  was  as  much  as  9  inches,  but  at  all  events  he  designates 
a  depth  of  furrow  of  3  iuches  as  a  mere  scarificatioti  of  the  soil.  There 
is  no  doubt,  however,  from  a  passage  of  Columella,  that  the  Roman  far- 
mers occasionally  gave  a  deep  fiirrow  to  good  deep  land,  when  he  says  : 
"  Nor  ought  we  to  content  ourselves  with  viewing  the  surface,  but  the 
qual'Ui/  of  the  matter  below  should  be  dilisreiitly  intjuired  into,  whether  or 
no  it  is  of  earth.  It  is  sufficient  for  corn  if  the  land  is  equally  good  2  feet 
deep."     If  they  imagined  that  corn  received  benefit  from  the  soil  at  the 


Blilh'8  Improver  Improved,  p,  21t>,  edition  1652. 

(792) 


TRENCH  ANP  SUBSOIL  PLOWING.  409 

distance  of  2  feet  below  the  surface,  they  would  consider  it  as  an  advan- 
tage to  plow  as  deep  as  their  cattle  were  capable  of,  and  their  plow  could 
go.*  As  the  Roman  plow  had  no  mould-board,  any  ^ety^-plowing  effected 
by  it  would  partake  much  more  of  the  character  of  a  subsoil  than  of  a 
trench-plowing. 

(973.)  The  effect  of  subsoil-plowing  being  merely  to  stir  the  subsoil 
without  affecting  its  relative  position,  the  best  way  of  performing  the 
operation  is,  as  I  conceive,  in  the  following  manner  :  and  it  may  be  exe- 
cuted either  in  winter  or  in  summer  according  as  it  is  made  to  form  a  part 
of  the  spring  or  summer's  operations.  It  is  best  executed  across  the  ridges  ; 
let,  therefore,  a  feering  of  30  yards  in  width  be  taken  across  them  with 
the  common  plow  from  the  upper  fence  of  the  field  ;  and  this  is  most 
easily  effected  by  opening  out  feering  furrow-slices  parallel  with  and  close 
to  the  fence,  if  it  be  straight,  and  another  at  30  paces  distant,  and  let  the 
subsoil-plow  follow  in  both  the  open  feerings.  The  plow  then  closes  the 
feerings,  and  so  plows  from  one  feering  to  another  until  the  open  furrow 
is  formed  in  the  middle  of  the  feered  space  between  them,  followed  im- 
plicitly all  the  time  by  the  subsoil  plow,  which  is  held  by  one  man,  and  the 
horses  are  driven  by  another.  Feering  after  feering  is  thus  made  and 
plowed  with  the  common  plow,  and  followed  by  the  subsoil  until  the 
whole  field  is  gone  over,  with  the  exception  of  about  the  breadth  of  a  ridge 
at  each  side  of  the  field,  upon  which  the  horses  had  turned,  and  the  ne- 
glect of  which  is  probably  of  no  gi-eat  importance.     Fig.  206  is  given  as 

Fia.  206. 


THE    TRENCH    OR    SUBSOIL  PLOWING. 


a  representation  of  the  operation,  where  the  plows  and  horses  appear  in 
black,  and  where  the  common  plow  with  2  horses  precedes  the  subsoil  one 
with  4.  The  depth  taken  by  the  plow  is  the  usual  one  of  7  inches  in  stub- 
ble, which  is  seen  as  the  upper  furrow,  succeeded  by  the  subsoil-plow, 
which  takes  usually  9  inches  in  such  a  position,  and  whose  furrow  is  seen 
in  section  below  that  of  the  other  plow,  making  both  furrows  16  inches 
deep.  Care  should  be  specially  taken  not  to  allow  the  subsoil-plow  to  ap- 
proach within  2  inches  of  the  covering  of  any  drain,  otherwise  the  drain 
will  be  torn  up  and  materially  injured.  The  drains  in  the  figure  are  sup- 
posed to  be  36  inches  deep,  filled  12  inches  with  tile  and  sole  and  small 
stones,  and  placed  in  every  open  furrow  at  15  feet  asunder,  the  curved 
form  of  the  ground  between  them  representing  the  ridges.  This  figure  is 
not  meant  to  give  the  exactly  relative  proportions  of  the  different  objects 
composing  it. 

(974.)  The  immediate  effect  of  subsoil-plowing  being  to  deepen  the  fri- 
able portion  of  the  soil,  it  is  evident  that  where  the  subsoil-plowed  soil 
rests  upon  impervious  or  even  retentive  matter,  that  the  operation  will  in- 
crease the  depth,  and,  of  course,  the  capacity  of  the  soil  for  holding  water, 
and  on  this  account,  in  so  far  as  respects  itself,  the  operation  after  wet 
weather  would  do  more  injury  than  good  to  the  crops  growing  upon  it.-^ 
This  is  a  very  important  fact  in  regard   to  the  effects  of  subsoil-plowing, 

*  Dickson's  Husbandry  of  the  Ancients,  vol.  i. 
(793) 


410  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

considered  in  itself,  and  demands  your  serious  consideration,  because  a 
misconception  and  disbelief  of  it  continues  to  exist  in  some  parts  of  the 
country,  especially  in  England,  and  injury  may  thereby  be  inflicted  on  land 
which  will  require  a  considerable  time  to  recover.  But  if  injurious  effects 
accompany  cubsoil-plowing,  when  it  occasions  excess  of  water,  it  is  evident 
that  were  drains  formed  to  give  the  water  an  opportunity  to  escape,  it 
would  do  no  injury  to  plow  land  to  any  depth.  The  misconception  which 
I  have  alluded  to  ius  existing  may  not  be  easily  dispelled,  a.s  the  unusual 
depth  to  which  subsoil-plowing  is  executed  operates  in  the  first  instance 
as  a  drier  of  the  surface  of  the  ground,  even  when  there  has  been  no  pre- 
vious draining,  and  it  also  renders  drained  ground  drier  ;  and  these  imme- 
diate effects  are  regarded  by  improvers  of  land  as  all  that  are  required  to 
be  eff'ected  by  the  operation,  and,  consecjuently,  when  it  is  easily  ascer- 
tained that  subsoil-plowing  is  a  much  cheaper  operation  than  draining  and 
seems  to  be  equally  efficacious,  they  are  content  to  abide  by  it  alone.  I 
have  no  doubt  that  much  of  the  land  that  has  been  subsoil-plowed  in  Eng- 
land has  been  so  in  consequence  of  the  adoption  of  this  opinion  by  far- 
mers, upon  whose  attention  the  great  comparative  economy  attending  the 
process  was  so  earnestly  pressed  some  years  ago  by  people  of  influence. 
They,  however,  who  understood  the  nature  and  capability  of  subsoil-plow- 
ing, and  Mr.  Smith  himself  at  their  head,  both  published  and  publicly  stated 
that  to  employ  the  subsoil-plow  upon  land  having  a  retentive  subsoil,  with- 
out draining  it  in  the  first  instance,  would  only  aggravate  the  evil  they 
wished  to  avoid.  It  is  true  that  the  subsoil-plow  might  penetrate  through 
the  retentive  matter  to  an  open  substratum  through  which  the  water  would 
escape;  but  the  chance  of  meeting  with  such  a  rare  arrangement  of  strata, 
forming  the  exception  to  the  general  structure  of  clayey  subsoil,  cannot 
afford  a  sufficient  excuse  for  an  indiscriminate  use  jf  the  subsoil-plow. 

(975.)  It  should,  therefore,  be  laid  down  as  a  general  rule,  that  no  land 
ought  to  be  subsoil-plowed  unless  it  has  been  previously  drained  ;  for, 
where  the  subsoil  is  so  porous  naturally  as  not  to  require  draining,  neither 
will  it  require  subsoil-])lovving.  After  being  thoroughly  diaincd,  any  sort 
of  land  may  be  subsoil-plowed  with  sai'cty — that  is,  no  harm  will  accrue 
from  it;  but  all  sorts  of  land  will  not  derive  equal  advantage  from  the  op- 
eration. Taking  it,  therefore,  for  'granted  that  draining  should  })recede 
the  subsoil-plow,  the  interesting  intjuiry  arises — In  what  quality  of  subsoil 
does  subsoil-plowing  confer  the  greatest  (if  any)  benefit  to  land  ? — the  cor- 
rect answer  to  which  can  alone  determine  the  extent  to  which  this  opera- 
tion should  be  carried.  In  the  first  place,  in  pure  plastic  clay,  any  open- 
ing made  by  the  subsoil-plow  passing  through  it  would  probably  soon  col- 
lapse together  behind  the  imjilcmont.  Through  such  a  clay,  in  a  dry  state, 
the  operation  would  be  performed  with  great  difficulty,  if  not  prove  im- 
practicable. In  what  is  usually  called  till — that  is,  clay  containing  sand 
veins,  small  stones,  or  small  boulders — the  subsoil-plow  will  pass  sufficiently 
well,  though  slowly,  and  it  will  displace  even  pretty  large  stones,  and  the 
clay  be  afterward  kept  oj)on  for  a  time.  Hardened  masses  of  gravelly  clay 
may  be  entirely  broken  up  by  this  operati«»n.  I  believe  experience  has 
established  the  effect  of  the  subsoil-plow  in  these  respects.  It  thus  appears 
that  the  sphere  of  the  subsoil-plow,  as  an  operation  of  jiermanent  utility, 
is  limited  to  the  breakinir  up  of  hard,  gravelly  subsoils  ;  because  it  is 
scarcely  supposable  that  it  can  keep  ])ure  clay  always  open,  and  it  cer 
tainly  admits  of  doubt  that  it  will  keeji  a  tilly  bottom  constantly  open,  as 
experience  has  proved  that  percolation  of  water  through  a  somewhat  po- 
rous clay  renders  it  more  firm,  by  the  well-known  fact  that  such  a  soil,  re- 
turned above  a  drain,  soon  becomes  as  firm  as  any  other  part  of  the  field. 

(794) 


TRENCH  AND  SUBSOIL  PLOWING.  411 


Hard,  chalky,  gravelly  matter,  and  moor-band  pan,  are  the  only  subsoils 
on  which  one  would  feel  confident  that  subsoil-plowing  would  confer  per- 
manent benefit.  I  say  i^ermanent  benefit ;  for  I  believe  it  is  acknowledged 
that  the  process  confers  an  immediate  benefit  in  almost  every  case  in  which 
it  has  been  tried  ;  and  on  this  account  its  tkeener  advocates  have  claimed 
for  it  much  of,  if  not  the  entire,  advantages  deiived  from  its  precursor,  thor- 
ough-draining ;  and  there  seems  some  ground  for  the  claim,  inasmuch  as 
subsoil-plowing  is  executed  so  soon  after  thorough-draining  that  it  would 
be  impossible  to  assert  the  superior  claims  of  draining,  were  it  not  for  its 
occurrence  being  more  common  without  than  with  subsoil-plowing  ; 
whereas,  when  the  latter  is  taken  by  itself,  it  cuts  but  a  soiTy  figure.  In 
vindication  of  his  own  invention,  Mr.  Smith  endeavors  to  explain  in  gen- 
eral terms  why  indurated  subsoil,  when  drained,  should  preserve  the  fria- 
bility imparted  to  it  by  subsoil-plowing.  "  When  drains  have  been  some 
time  executed,"  he  says,  "  innumerable  small  fissures  will  be  found  in  the 
subsoil,  extending  from  drain  to  drain ;  these  are  caused  by  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  substance  of  the  soil  arising  from  its  drier  state.  The  contrac- 
tion being  greatest  in  the  stiffest  clays,  the  operation  of  the  subsoil-plow 
admitting  the  air  to  a  gi-eater  depth,  the  fissures  take  place  under  its  oper- 
ations, and  generally  reach  to  the  level  of  the  bottom  of  the  drains."  This 
is  a  natural  enough  explanation  of  the  almost  immediate  effect  of  draining 
wet  subsoils,  and  also  of  the  almost  immediate  extension  of  its  effects  by  a 
subsequent  subsoil-plowing.  "  These  fissures,"  he  continues,  "  will  get 
more  or  less  silted  or  glutted  up,  from  time  to  time,  by  the  minute  alluvial 
particles  carried  down  and  left  in  filtration  by  the  rain-water,"  which  is 
also  a  natural  effect ;  but  he  adds,  "  the  constant  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion of  the  unremoved  subsoil,  by  the  alternations  of  wet  and  dry,  has  a 
perpetual  tendency  to  renew  them ;"  and  it  is  this  effect  which  I  question, 
because,  before  such  expansion  and  contraction  can  be  kept  up,  it  must  be 
assumed  that  the  subsoil,  after  being  subsoil-plowed,  has  no  tendency  to 
consolidate  into  its  original  state,  whether  of  strong  clay  or  any  other  sub- 
stance ;  and  yet  the  conviction,  as  [  conceive,  of  all  drainers  must  be,  that 
every  sort  of  subsoil,  except  hard  rock,  consolidates,  however  well  it  may 
have  been  stined,  though  perhaps  not  to  the  degree  of  impermeability  it 
may  have  possessed  before  ;  but,  at  all  events,  the  more  friable  it  becomes 
in  its  condition,  it  will  be  the  less  affected  by  the  "  alternations  of  wet  and 
dry."* 

(976.)  It  is  allowed  by  all  who  have  used  the  subsoil-plow  that  it  requires 
much  greater  exertion  from  the  horses  to  work  it  than  the  common  plow, 
and  that  horses  do  not  work  well  together  in  it  for  some  time.  With  re- 
gard to  the  quantity  of  ground  which  a  plow  will  subsoil  in  a  day,  in  a  long 
day  in  summer,  1  imperial  acre  may  be  calculated  on  being  accomplished 
in  favorable  circumstances ;  but  should  obstructions  occur,  such  as  large 
boulder  stones,  |-  of  an  acre  is  a  very  good  day's  work  ;  and  in  winter  \  is 
a  good  day's  work  without  obstructions. 

(977.)  The  great  force  required  to  work  even  the  lightest  of  the  Deans- 
ton  subsoil-plows,  which  weighs  ISi  stones — the  heaviest  weighing  28^ 
stones  of  14  lbs. — and  the  insuperable  bar  which  this  circumstance  places 
against  its  employment  on  farms  working  less  than  3  pairs  of  horses,  have 
induced  people  to  contrive  what  they  designate  subsoil-plows,  to  be  used 
as  a  substitute  for  the  Deanston  one  ;  but,  in  every  modification  which  I 
have  seen  pi-oposed,  their  effect  is  quite  different  from  what  Mr.  Smith 
proposes  that  his  should  produce.     The  Deanston  subsoil-plow  not  only 

»  Smitb'8  Remarks  on  Thorough  Draining. 


412  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

penetrates  the  subsoil  to  a  determinate  depth,  but,  by  the  simple  cojitriv 
ance  of  the  feather,  the  subsoil  is  not  only  stirred,  but  pushed  a  little  aside, 
and  thereby  jiartially  mixed  with  the  jioitlon  adjoininpf  it.  In  douit;  this, 
there  is  little  doubt  that  it  is  the  action  <tt'  the  feather  which  causes  tlie 
princij»al  weitjht  of  the  draught  cwmplained  of  in  this  plow.  To  avoid  this 
redundancy  of  drauijht,  as  it  is  supposed  to  be,  a  feather  is  discarded,  and 
simply  a  larj^e  tine  bent  forward  at  the  point,  as  in  the  case  of  (Jabell's 
subsoil-plow,*  or  a  small  scarifier,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Charlbury  one,t  is 
substituted  as  its  principal  feature — a  furrow  being  opened  by  the  com- 
mon ])low  preceding,  as  in  the  ca.se  of  the  subsoil  one.  But,  as  the  sub- 
soil plow  makes  a  demand  on  the  horse.s  of  the  farm  for  a  common  plow 
as  well  as  itself,  it  is  proposed  in  the  Charlbury  one  to  have  a  small  plow 
ittached  to  the  beam  to  lay  over  the  furrow-slice,  in  oi'der  to  ]>iepare  it 
or  the  tine  or  scarifier  to  pa.ss  along.  But  although  a  lightness  of  draught 
r.as  been  attained  in  both  these  instances,  and  a  pair  of  horses  have  been 
i,aid  to  be  able  to  work  Gabell's  to  the  depth  of  18  inches,  it  requires  4 
horses  to  work  the  Charlbury  to  12  inches — which,  as  a  saving  of  labor,  is 
of  no  great  importance,  except  as  regards  the  employment  of  the  common 
plow  in  preparing  the  way;  for  the  difference  in  the  nature  of  the  work 
performed  by  them  differs  so  widely  from  that  of  the  l)ean.ston  plow,  that 
they  cannot  lie  said  to  be  its  substitutes,  inasmuch  as  they  only  make  ruts 
in  the  subsoil  at  the  distance  of  the  breadth  of  a  furrow-slice  from  one  an- 
other— namely,  8  inches  at  the  least,  most  probably  9  inches,  and  not  im- 
probably 10  inches — and  which,  of  course,  leave  ribs  of  hard  land  standing 
untouched  in  the  subsoil.  It  is  acknowledged  by  the  proposers  of  these 
substitutes  that  the  Dcanston  is  more  efficient  than  either  ;  and,  as  Mr. 
Smith's  opinion  is  that  the  heaviest  of  his  plows  does  the  most  satisfactory 
work,  it  is  clear  that  they  can  never  be  a  substitute  for  his,  provided  he  is 
coirect  in  his  views  regarding  the  utility  of  thoroniili  subsoil-plowing, 
which  these  substitutes  certainly  do  not  even  profess  to  perfoim.  The  con- 
clusion I  would  draw  from  the  inefficiency  of  these  modifications  and  sub- 
stittites  for  the  Deanston  subsoil-plow  is,  that  none  of  them  are  Hkeiy  to 
be  used  on  farms  employing  less  than  3  pairs  of  horses,  such  employment 
being  the  only  object  their  contrivers  had  in  offering  them  to  public  notice. 

(978.)  A  modification  has  been  proposed  and  practiced  in  the  use  of  Mr. 
Smith's  own  subsoil-plow,  which  is,  tliat  instead  of  passing  it  in  every  ^fur- 
row of  the  preceding  small  plow,  it  should  pass  in  every  other  furrow. — 
The  advantages  said  to  be  derived  from  this  plan  are.  that  it  is  cheaper, 
speedier,  and  the  subsoil  is  not  so  much  broken,  though  broken  enough  to 
allow  the  water  to  escape  to  the  drains  ;  but  it  is  obvious  that  it  is  this  very 
defective  mode  of  operation  which  constitutes  the  gieat  objection  to  the 
English  substitution  of  the  Deanston  ])low. 

(979.)  Instances  are  not  wanting  to  prove  that  benefits  have  been  de- 
rived from  the  conjoint  operations  of  thorough-draining  and  subsoil-plow- 
ing ;|  but,  as  in  almost  every  recorded  ca.se  the  combined  efVects  of  both, 
operations  are  reported,  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  the  advantages  derived 
from  each.  In  a  memorandum  which  I  made  some  time  ago,  but  now  for- 
get where  the  circumstance  hapjiened,  1  find  it  stated  that  a  field  of  lea 
was  drained  in  1838,  and  the  crop  of  oats  from  it  in  1839  did  not  exceed 
13  bushels  per  acre  imperial  ;  whereas,  after  it  was  subsoil-plowed,  an- 
other crop  of  oats  in  1840  gave  32  bushels  per  acre.  It  is  well  understood 
that  the  first  crop  of  oats  from  lea  newly  thorough-drained  never  yields  an 
increase  ;  but,  in  this  instance,  I  have  no  doubt  that  the  second  crop  of  oats 

*  Journal  of  the  Roynl  Acrriculturul  .''ocicty  of  Ktiirland,  vol.  iL  \  Tbid„  vol.  i. 

X  JournHl  of  the  Royal  Agiicultural  Society  of  England,  vols.  i.  ii.  and  iii. 
(796) 


TRENCH  AND  SUBSOIL  PLOWING.  413 

would  have  been  better  than  the  first,  without  the  use  of  the  subsoil-plow, 
especially  if  the  lea  were  old.  In  Mr.  Laing's  experience  on  Campend, 
Mid-Lothian,  he  has  "  found  land  to  be  more  thoroughly  dried  after  sub- 
soil-plowing (especially  when  there  was  any  approach  to  clay  in  the  sub- 
!8oil),  with  a  drain  in  every  alternate  funow,  than  with  a  drain  in  every 
•fuTTOw  without  it ;  in  fact,  on  a  stiff  clay  subsoil  I  have  seen  drains  of  lit- 
tle service,  the  Water  for  some  time  standing  on  the  top  of  them  till  evap- 
orated, while  in  the  very  next  field,  which  had  been  subsoil-plowed,  there 
was  an  immense  fl(jw  of  water  in  every  drain,  and  not  a  drop  to  be  seen 
on  the  surface."  Such  an  effect  is  not  at  all  surprising,  as  it  is  well  under- 
stood that  subsoil-plowing  greatly  assists  thorough-draining  at  first  in  dry- 
ing land  ;  and  that  effect  appears  the  more  striking  when  the  land  has  not 
been  so  well  drained  as  it  should  have  been,  which  it  certainly  would  not 
be  with  a  drain  in  every  alternate  furrow,  when  it  is  so  strong  as  that  men- 
tioned by  Mr.  Laing,  where  he  says  of  a  field  of  10  acres  that  was  subsoil- 
plowed  in  November,  1836 — a  wet  season,  certainly — that  it  "  was  at  the 
time,  and  during  the  whole  operation,  so  saturated  with  rain  that  the  horses' 
feet  sunk  in  the  unplowed  ground  from  4  to  6  inches  ;  which  showed, 
though  there  was  a  drain  in  every  alternate  furrow,  they  had  not  drawn 
the  water  from  the  stifli",  retentive  subsoil.  This  circumstance,"  continues 
Mr.  Laing,  "  convinced  me  the  more  of  the  necessity  of  persevering  in 
subsoil-plowing,  which  alone  enabled  me  to  accomplish  my  object  of  thor- 
oughly drying  the  soil."*  The  conclusion  come  to  is  scarcely  a  fair  infer- 
ence from  the  premises,  which  should  rather,  in  the  first  instance,  have 
brought  conviction,  from  the  nature  and  wet  state  of  the  soil,  of  the  neces- 
sity of  persevering  in  thorough-draining,  by  making  a  drain  in  every,  in- 
stead of  every  alternate,  furrow ;  and  it  was  after  t/torougJi-drammg  had 
failed,  that  the  drainer  would  be  entitled  to  say  that  "  subsoil-plowing  is 
an  indispensable  accompaniment  to  furrow-draining,"  "  or  that  it  alone  en- 
abled him  to  accomplish  his  object  of  thoroughly  drying  the  soil."  I  can- 
not refrain  from  making  a  passing  remark  here,  that  there  is  a  strong  pro- 
pensity in  farmers  generally  to  laud  the  good  properties  of  its  auxiliaries 
at  the  expense  of  thorough-draining ;  and  I  can  only  account  for  the  prev- 
alence of  the  feeling,  from  the  fact  being  well  known  to  them  that  it  is 
cheaper  to  subsoil-plow  land  than  to  thorough-drain  it,  the  amount  of  labor 
to  put  it  in  the  condition  of  being  thoroughly  dry  depending  upon  its  na- 
ture. 

(9S0.)  Mr.  Melvin,  Ratho  Mains,  Mid-Lothian,  says  what  will  readily  be 
believed  in  Scotland,  that  "  I  have  never  seen  any  benefit  from  the  use  of 
the  subsoil-plow  upon  damp-bottomed  land  that  had  not  been  drained ;  " 
and  after  a  fair  trial  in  a  particular  field  of  deep,  soft,  damp  soil,  of  both 
operations  conjointly,  he  expresses  himself  in  terms  which  place  the  art  of 
subsoil  plowing  in  nearly  its  proper  position.  "  Much,  no  doubt,  of  the 
improvement  in  the  condition  of  this  field,  is  to  be  attributed  to  draining, 
still,  the  quick  absorption  of  the  water  in  the  furrows  between  the  drains 
(the  land  being  cast),  the  decided  improvement  of  the  drier  part,  and  the 
uniformly  equal  crop,  sufficiently  attest  the  merits  of  subsoil- plowing."  I 
have  said  that,  in  these  remarks,  Mr.  Melvin  has  placed  subsoil-plowing 
in  nearly,  but  as  I  conceive,  not  altogether  its  proper  position  ;  because 
the  field  was  drained  in  the  alternate  furrows,  and  the  drier  part  of  it  was 
not  drained  at  all.  Now,  had  every  furrow  been  drained,  would  not  the 
water  have  been  quickly  absorbed  ;  and  had  the  drier  part  been  drained, 
would  it  have  required  subsoil  plowing  at  alii 

(OSL)  With  regard  to  the  expense  of  subsoil-plowing,  it  may  be  fairly 

*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agi-icuUural  Society,  vol.  xii. 
(797) 


414  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

taken  at  the  cost  of  3  pairs  of  horses  and  3  men,  and  wear  and  tear  of  im- 
plements per  day  for  every  ^  of  an  acre  imperial  plowed  ;  and  Mr.  Pusey 
instances  a  case  of  a  farm  of  not  GOO  acres  of  cold  clay,  the  subsoil-plow- 
ing of  which  was  estimated  to  cost  <:£1,300,  but  how  this  sum  was  made 
out  does  not  appear  *  The  returns  of  the  grain  crops  seem  to  imply  an 
increase  of  25  per  cent,  at  most,  and  in  regard  to  green  crops,  an  instance 
is  given  of  a  yield  of  tuniips  oft'  peaty  soil,  resting  on  stiff"  clay  and  hard 
sand  and  gravel  at  Drayton  in  Staft'ordshire,  belonging  to  Sir  Robert  Peel, 
of  "four  times  the  quantity  in  weight  ever  produced  in  the  same  field  at 
any  previous  time,"  the  large  crop  alluded  to  being  27  tons  per  acre,  in- 
cluding tops.t 

(982.)  With  regard  to  trenching  the  ground,  it  has  long  been  practiced 
by  gardeners  with  the  spade,  and  its  object  is  to  bury  the  exhausted  soil 
on  the  surface  with  all  its  seeds  of  weeds  and  eggs  of  insects,  and  bring 
up  to  the  surface  a  comparatively  fresh  and  unexhausted  soil,  not  so  rich 
in  manure  as  the  one  buried  down,  but  more  capable,  by  its  fresh  proper- 
ties, to  make  a  better  use  of  the  manure  put  into  it.  Trenching  with  the 
spade  is  also  practiced  on  fai-ms  on  a  large  scale.  From  experience  in 
both  ways,  I  can  maintain  that  it  is  cheaper  to  trench  rough,  stony  giound 
with  the  spade  than  with  the  plow,  giving  consideration  to  the  state  of  the 
soil  when  left;  by  the  two  implements.  The  plow  with  4  horses  will  turn 
over  and  rip  up  a  strong  furrow,  and  where  there  are  no  stones  and  roots, 
it  will  answer  the  purpose  well  enough  ;  but  where  stones,  though  small 
but  numerous,  and  if  large,  are  encountered,  the  fuiTOW  becomes  very 
uneven  and  unequal,  the  horses  jaded,  the  men  fatigued,  the  implement 
broken,  and  the  work  very  imperfectly  done.  It  is  the  same  case  with  the 
roots  of  trees,  and  even  of  bushes,  against  which,  when  the  plow  comes, 
horses  pull  with  vehemence,  so  as  either  to  injure  themselves,  or  break 
their  tackling.  At  such  work  I  had  two  valuable  hoi-ses  so  much  injured 
in  their  wind  as  to  become  unfit  for  ordinary  farm  work  ;  and  finding  so  I. 
abandoned  the  plow  for  this  purpose  altogether.  The  same  work,  on  the 
other  hand,  can  be  much  better  done  with  the  spade,  and  when  it  is  un- 
dertaken by  a  contractor  who  remains  constantly  with  the  spadesmen,  it 
will  be  your  own  fault  in  superintendence,  if  the  work  be  ill  executed. 

(983.)  I  have  found  this  plan  succeed  in  making  good  trenching.  Let 
the  ground  to  be  trenched  be  laid  off'  in  lots  with  pins  ;  and  let  the  lots 
contain  equal  areas  of  five  yards  in  breadth.  The  trench  to  be  14  inches 
in  perpendicular  depth  in  the  solid  ground  on  the  average  over  the  lot,  the 
surface  being  left  even  with  the  general  inclination  of  the  field  that  is  to 
be.  The  14  inches  out  of  the  solid  will  give  a  depth  of  16  inches  in  the 
trenched  part  of  the  ground.  The  contractors  should  be  obliged  to  re- 
move all  stones,  large  and  small,  all  roots,  large  and  small,  and  every  other 
thing  that  it  likely  to  obstruct  the  future  course  of  the  plow,  and  lay  them 
upon  the  surface  of  the  trenched  ground  ;  and  should  large  boulders  be 
found  a  little  below  the  surface,  these  must  either  be  blown  to  pieces  by 
gunpowder,  and  the  fragments  left  on  the  surface,  or  farther  sunk  in  the 
earth  so  as  to  be  out  of  the  reach  of  the  plow  in  future,  according  as  you 
find  that  you  may  have  use  for  the  stones  fin*  drains  or  foundations  of  fence 
dykes.  The  trenching  is  begun  at  the  utmost  limit  of  the  rough  ground, 
by  each  man  rutting  some  breadths  of  12  or  15  inches  wide  across  his  lot, 
and  making  a  trench  of  the  required  depth  of  14  inches,  gauged  by  a  stick 
kept  constantly  in  his  possession  to  guide  him  in  the  depth,  that  he  may 
not  have  the  plea  of  ignorance  to  urge  in  extenuation  of  his  cupidity.  The 
upper  turf  or  spading  is  put  on  its  back  in  the  bottom   of  the  trench  ;  the 

*  Journal  of  the  RojhI  Agricultural  Society  of  Encland,  vol  i.  1  Ibid.,  vol.  iil 

(799) 


TRENCH  AND  SUBSOIL  PLOWING.  415 

soil  is  then  dug  and  thrown  upon  it,  care  being  taken  to  make  the  new- 
ground  level  and  even  ;  and,  lastly,  shoveling  the  loose  earth  over  the  sur- 
face, leaving  no  inequalities  in  the  bottom  of  the  nev^^  trench.  After  one 
set  of  allotted  spaces  has  been  trenched  in  this  way,  another  is  ready 
marked  off  by  the  contractor  for  the  men  to  enter  upon  as  they  finish  their 
lots,  and  the  second  set  should  be  marked  off  either  along  one  end  or  one 
side  of  the  field,  whichever  is  found  most  convenient  for  the  future  opera- 
tions of  removing  the  trenched-up  materials  to  their  destination,  that  a 
whole  piece  of  gi-ound  maybe  cleared  for  futui-e  operations  without  inter- 
fering with  the  pi'ogress  of  the  trenching,  the  workmen  employed  in  which 
should  be  called  upon  to  do  nothing  else  than  their  appointed  tasks. 

(9S4.)  Ground  that  has  lain  in  this  rough  state  for  years  will  no  doubt 
require  draining,  and  should  be  drained  befoi'e  or  after  being  trenched,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances.  It  should  be  examined  beforehand,  by  pits  sunk 
here  and  there,  whether  the  subsoil  will  afford  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
stones  to  thorough-drain  the  ground.  If  it  is  supposed  or  certain  that 
it  will,  the  ground  should  first  be  trenched  to  obtain  the  stones,  and  they 
being  on  the  spot,  the  drains  will  be  easily  filled  with  them.  If  the  stones 
be  only  to  that  amount  as  to  form  an  ordinary  covering  to  tiles,  then  tiles 
and  soles  should  be  used  as  the  principal  materials,  and,  in  this  case  as 
well  as  the  other,  the  ground  should  first  be  ti'enched.  But  if  stones  are 
plentiful  near  at  hand,  though  not  in  the  particular  field  under  improve- 
ment, from  a  quarry  hard  by,  for  instance,  then  the  drains  should  be 
opened  and  filled  to  the  requisite  depth  before  the  surface  of  the  old 
ground  is  broken  up,  that  the  cartage  of  the  stones  may  first  be  borne  by 
it ;  and  the  trenchers  in  that  case  should  be  obliged  to  cover  the  stones  of 
the  drains  with  turf,  and  level  the  ground  over  them  as  they  proceed  with 
the  trenching. 

(985.)  The  expense  of  trenching  rough  ground  at  14  inches  deep — and 
it  should  never  be  shallower,  in  order  to  insure  a  good  plow-fuiTow  ever 
after — is  from  lOd.  to  Is.  per  pole,  according  to  the  roughness  of  the 
ground.  I  have  had  very  rough  ground,  consisting  of  large  roots  of  trees 
in  scattered  wood,  with  brushwood  of  birch,  alder,  whin,  and  broom, 
and  containing  as  rnany  stones  as  would  have  half-drained  the  ground, 
trenched  14  inches  deep  for  Is.  per  fall,  Scotch  measure,  which  is  equal 
to  c£6  13s.  3d.  the  imperial  acre,  or  rather  more  than  Q-^^d.  per  pole,  a  large 
sum,  undoubtedly,  independent  of  draining,  clearing  away  rubbish,  and 
other  horse  and  manual  labor ;  but  then  the  ground  was  rendered  at  once 
from  a  state  of  wilderness  to  one  in  which  manure  could  be  applied  and 
covered  in  with  an  ordinary  furrow-slice  of  mould.  If  this  is  not  the  cheap- 
est mode,  in  a  pecuniary  point  of  view,  of  rendering  ground  available  to 
cultivation,  it  is  at  all  events  the  most  pleasant  to  the  feelings  in  the  do- 
ing, and  the  most  satisfactory  when  done. 

(986.)  But  there  is  a  mode  of  trenching  gi'ound  which  is  best  done  v^dth 
the  plow,  its  object  being  to  imitate  the  work  of  the  spade  by  descending 
deeper  than  the  ordinary  depth  of  furrow,  and  of  commixing  part  of  the 
subsoil  with  the  surface  soil,  which  has  been  probably  rendered  effete  by 
overcropping.  Ground  can  be  trenched  with  the  plow  in  two  ways,  ei- 
ther with  a  lai-ge-sized  common  plow  drawn  by  4  horses  in  one  of  the 
ways  pointed  out  before,  fig.  202,  or  with  one  plow  going  before  and  turn- 
ing over  an  ordinary  furi'ow-slice,  and  another  following  in  the  same  fur- 
row drawn  by  2  or  more,  usually  with  3  horses,  or  both  plows  drawn  by 
3  horses  each.  It  is  best  performed  across  the  ridges.  In  either  of  the 
above  ways  tbe  same  effect  is  produced  in  similar  soil,  breaking  up  indu- 
rated gravel,  deepening  thin  clays,  ameUorating  stiff  clays  by  exposure  to 


416  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WIiNTER. 

the  air,  and  mixing  old  and  new  soils  together,  the  ultimate  rfTect  on  all 
bein^  to  dft]>en  that  portion  of  the  soil  which  is  used  by  the  cultivated  crops. 

(9b7.)  In  one  respect  trenching  lias  the  same  efiect  as  subsoil-plowing, 
namely,  the  stirring  of  the  ground  to  the  same  depth,  the  first  plow  turn- 
ing over  a  furrow  of  7  inches  in  depth,  and  the  second  going  8  or  9  inches 
deeper,  m:dving  in  all  a  furrow  of  15  or  16  inches  in  depth  ;  but  in  another 
respect  the  two  operations  leave  the  soil  in  veiy  difiei-ent  states — the  sub- 
soil-plow stirs  the  soil  to  the  depth  named,  but  brings  none  of  it  to  the 
surface,  while  the  trench-plow  does  not  altogether  bring  that  which  waa 
undermost  to  the  surface,  but  commixes  the  under  and  upper  soils  to- 
gether. This  latter  practice  has  long  been  known  in  the  midland  counties 
of  England,  but  the  former  has  only  been  presented  to  the  notice  of  the 
Scottish  agriculturist  since  1S29. 

(988.)  It  has  been  made  a  question,  which  is  the  better  mode,  if  l)Oth 
are  not  aUke,  of  making  the  soil  fertile  ?  the  advocates  of  subsoil-plowing 
alleging  that  it  is  better  to  ameliorate  the  subsoil  while  under  the  soil  by 
the  admission  to  it  of  air  and  moistuae  ;  while  those  of  the  trench-plow 
answer  that,  if  the  object  of  both  operations  is  to  ameliorate  the  subsoil, 
it  will  become  sooner  so  by  being  brought  to  the  surface  in  contact  with 
atmospheric  air  and  moisture.  But,  say  the  ])romoters  of  subsoil-plowing, 
there  are  subsoils  of  so  pernicious  a  nature,  having  the  salts  of  iron  and 
of  magnesia  in  them,  that  the  upper  soil  would  be  much  injured  by  its  ad- 
mixture with  such  substances.  No  doubt,  answer  the  treuch-plowers,  if 
the  subsoil  that  contained  these  noxious  ingredients  in  a  lar^e  proportion 
were  brought  up  in  quantity,  when  compared  with  the  bulk  of  the  upper 
soil,  injury  would  be  done  to  it  for  a  time,  but  they  say  it  is  not  the  abuse 
but  the  proper  use  of  trench-plo\\"ing:  which  they  advocate  ;  and  of  svch  a 
subsoil,  they  would  use  the  discretion  to  bring  up  only  a  little  at  a  time, 
which  they  have  it  in  their  power  to  do,  until  they  accomplish  their  end, 
namely,  that  of  ameliorating  the  whole  depth  of  subsoil.  But  they  main- 
tain that  by  far  the  greatest  proportion  of  subsoils  do  not  contain  those 
noxious  ingredients  ;  and,  besides,  the  very  best  and  quickest  way  of  get- 
ting rid  of  even  these  is  to  bring  them  At  once  to  the  surface,  for  any  of 
the  acids,  or  the  salts  of  iron,  are  easily  neutralized  by  the  action  of  lime, 
which  is  always  applied  to  the  surface  ;  and  those  of  magnesia  are  most 
easily  reduced  on  free  exposure  to  the  air.  And,  moreover,  they  ask.  If 
subsoils  shall  be  ameliorated  by  air  and  moisture  when  stirred  by  a  sub- 
soil, why  should  they  not  also  be  ameliorated  when  stirred  by  a  trench- 
plow  ]  And  they  ursfe  farther,  that  trenching  may  be  practiced  more 
safely  without  previous  thorough-draining,  than  subsoil-plowing. 

(989.)  I  have  no  hesitation  in  expressing  my  preference  of  trench  to 
subsoil-plowine ;  and  I  cannot  see  a  single  instance,  with  the  sole  excep- 
tion of  tuniinsr  up  a  very  bad  subsoil  in  large  quantity,  there  is  any  advan- 
tage attending  subsoil  that  cannot  be  enjoyed  by  trench-plowing  ;  and  for 
this  single  drawback  of  a  very  bad  subsoil,  trenching  has  the  advantage  of 
being  performed  in  perfect  safetv,  where  subsoil-plowing  could  not  be 
without  previous  draining.  Mr.  Mi-lvin.  Katlio  Mains,  mentions  an  instance 
of  a  field  containing  both  damp  and  dry  ground  ;  the  dry  was  trench-plowed 
in  the  autumn  of  18,36,  an  inch  or  two  of  the  sandy  gravel  being  brought 
up,  and  "  was  decidedly  increased  in  fertility,"  both  in  the  turnip  and  bar- 
ley crops  which  followed.*  I  trench-])lowed  a  field  of  25  acres  of  deep 
black  mould  which  had  been  worn  out,  with  a  4-horse  plow,  taking  and 
clearing  a  furrow  from  14  to  16  inches  deep  in  the  solid  land,  and  bring- 
ing up  almost  in  evcrv'  part  a  portion  of  the  tilly  subsoil,  which  was  only 

*  Prire  Essaje  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  voL  xii 

(eoo; 


TRENCH   AND   SUBSOIL   PLOWING.  417 

drained  to  the  extent  of  a  few  roods  put  in  the  face  of  a  slope  exhibiting 
spouts  of  water.  The  turnips  that  followed  were  excellent ;  the  barley 
yielded  upward  of  50  bushels  per  acre  imperial,  and  the  year  after  a  part 
was  measured  otf  and  fenced,  containing  6  acres,  to  stand  for  hay,  which 
yielded  of  good  hay  1999  stones  of  22  lb.  Another  field,  the  year  after, 
that  was  not  drained,  suffered  injury  after  trench-plowing  ;  but  that  was 
in  consequence  of  having  been  caught  with  a  premature  fall  of  rain  in  the 
autumn  before  the  trenched  land  could  be  ridged  up,  and  it  lay  in  the 
trenched  furrow  all  winter.  It  is  stated  that  Mr.  Scott,  Craiglockait,  Mid- 
Lothian,  "  trench-plowed  in  the  winter  of  1833-4,  with  one  common  plow 
following  another,  a  field  of  20  acres,  every  two  alternate  ridges,  and  he 
has  never  observed  on  any  of  the  crops  the  slightest  difference."*  This 
is,  as  I  conceive,  an  unsatisfactory  mode  of  testing  the  value  of  any  sort 
of  plowing  land,  as  it  is  possible  that  the  untrenched  ridges  derived  a  cer- 
tain and  it  might  be  a  sufficient  advantage,  in  regard  to  drying,  from  the 
adjoining  trenched  ridges. 

(990.)  But  while  giving  a  preference  to  trench-plowing  over  subsoil,  I 
am  of  opinion  that  it  should  not  be  generally  attempted  under  any  circum- 
stances, however  favorable,  without  previous  thorough-draining,  any  more 
than  subsoil-plowing,  but  when  so  drained  there  is  no  mode  of  manage- 
ment, in  my  opinion,  that  will  render  land  so  soon  amenable  to  the  means 
of  putting  it  in  a  high  degree  of  fertility  as  ti-ench-plowing.  Mr.  Smith 
himself  acknowledges  the  necessity  of  trench-plowing  land  in  a  rotation 
or  so  after  the  subsoil  has  been  subsoil-plowed,  in  order  to  insure  to  it  the 
greatest  degree  of  fertility.!  The  experience  in  trench-plowing  after 
thorough-draining  of  the  Marquis  of  Tweeddale  at  Yester,  East  Lothian, 
may  with  great  confidence  be  adduced  in  favor  of  the  system.  I  have  seen 
a  field  on  Yester  farm  under  the  operation  of  draining  which  did  not  caiTy 
a  single  useful  pasture  plant,  but  which  afterward  admitted  of  the  turnips 
being  drilled  across  the  face  of  inclining  ground,  and  of  presenting  to  sheep 
in  winter  as  dry  a  bed  as  they  could  desire  ;  and  no  farther  gone  than  the 
spring  of  1841,  after  the  Swedish  turnip-seed  had  been  sown,  a  field  was 
trench-plowed  with  3  powerful  horses  in  each  plow,  bringing  up  white  and 
yellow  tilly  subsoil  as  unpromising  in  appearance  as  possible.  The  weather 
being  very  dry,  this  till  became  so  hard  that  part  of  the  field  had  to  be 
rolled  four  times  before  they  were  reduced  to  powder,  and  after  all  the 
operations,  there  was  apparently  no  sap  left  in  the  ground.  White  turnips 
were  sown,  came  away,  one-half  being  eaten  off  by  sheep  ;  and  when  the 
land  was  plowed  up  in  spring  1842,  it  turned  up  to  appearance  a  fine  rich 
dark  mould,  rising  in  friable  clods,  and  not  a  particle  of  till  to  be  seen.  No 
one  need  be  afraid  to  bring  up  subsoil  of  any  kind  on  thorough-drained 
land  after  the  experience  at  Yester. 

(991.)  The  advocates  of  subsoil-plowing  seem  to  lay  great  stress  on  the 
laying  of  ground  quite  flat  after  that  operation  has  followed  thorough- 
draining,  and  of  showing  no  open  furrows  in  the  field  ;  because  a  uni- 
form sui-face  is  the  best  for  absorbing  the  rain,  and  transmitting  it  in  the 
purest  state  to  the  drains.  All  this,  however,  is  not  peculiar  to  subsoil- 
plowing,  for  trenched  land  can  be  so  treated  if  desired.  But  as  to  dispens- 
ing with  open-furrows,  the  plan  savors  more  of  conceit  than  of  possessing 
real  utility.  There  is  no  way  that  has  been  contrived  of  plowing  land  so 
conveniently  as  in  ridges,  a  portion  of  gi'ound  being  allotted  to  each  plow- 
man, who  is  responsible  for  his  own  work  ;  and  the  operations  of  sowing 
and  reaping  are  easily  marked  off  in  equal  distances  to  the  work-people ; 

*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Auricnltural  Society,  vol.  xii. 
t  Smith's  Remarks  on  Thorough  Drainine. 
(801) »r 


418  THE  BOOK  O"  THE  FARM WINTER. 

and  if  in  conducting  all  these  operations  few  open-furrows  seem  desirable, 
there  is  tlu'  mode  of  plowing  by  two-out-and-two-in,  fiij.  138,  which  only 
leaves  one  open-furrow  in  every  four  ridges,  and  the  ground  as  flat  as  you 
please.  But  the  truth  is,  that  a  field  cannot  be  plowed  without  making  an 
open-furrow,  but  with  either  one  plow  making  a  feering  in  the  middle  and 
turning  over  the  whole  ground  ;  or,  if  more  than  one  plow  is  employed, 
they  must  follow  one  another  in  adjoining  furrows — a  plan  inimical  to  good 
plowing,  inasmuch  as  no  plowman  can  hold  so  steady  a  furrow  as  when 
following  up  his  own  method  of  plowincr,  and  few  plows  are  exactly  of  the 
same  guage  on  the  funow-sole  ;  or  the  land  must  be  plowed  with  a  turn- 
wrest  plow,  becrinning  at  one  end  and  finisliing  at  the  other  of  the  field 
plowing  the  whole  of  it  itself,  or  followed  by  othei-s  of  the  same  sort ;  but 
where  such  plows  are  used  for  such  a  purpose,  other  common  plows  must 
be  provided  on  the  same  farm,  as  land  for  turnips  or  potatoes  cannot  be 
drilled  up  with  the  turn-wrest  plows,  as  you  will  learn  by-and-by. 

(992.)  The  nature  of  moor-hand  pan  is  given  below,  and  as  to  its  de- 
struction, although  I  have  not  had  much  experience  of  its  obduracy,  any 
case  within  my  experience  not  exceeding  2  or  3  inches  in  thickness,  which 
were  easily  ripped  up  with  the  4-horse  plow,  and  as  easily  mouldered 
down  to  dust  on  exposure  to  the  winter's  frost ;  yet  there  are  places,  such 
as  in  Aberdeenshire  and  Morayshire,  where  it  is  so  deep  and  hard  that  ex- 
traordinary- means  are  required  to  break  it  up.  A  remarkable  and  exten- 
sive band  of  this  substance  was  encountered  by  Mr.  Roderick  Gray,  Peter- 
head, when  improving  a  part  of  the  property  of  the  Governors  of  the 
Merchants'  Maiden  Hospital  of  Edinburgh  in  that  neighborhood.  The 
moory  surface  was  plowed  with  4  horses.  "  At  first  the  plow  ran  upon 
the  pan,  which  it  seemed  impossible  to  penetrate  ;  various  trials  were 
made,  and  the  plan  which  ultimately  succeeded  was  to  have  4  men  em- 
ployed at  the  plow,  and  these  were  engaged  as  follows  :  One  with  a  pick 
and  spade  made  a  hole  when  necessary,  until  it  reached  below  the  pan, 
and  entered  the  plow  at  this  hole  ;  another  held  the  plow  ;  the  third  held 
do\%Ti  the  beam,  and  kept  the  plow  below  the  pan  ;  and  the  fourth  took 
care  of  the  horses.  In  this  way  the  upper  stratum  and  pan  were  broken, 
and  afterward  they  were  brought  into  a  sort  of  mould  by  the  grubber  and 
hari'ows."*  However  obdurate  this  substance  may  be  to  break  up,  it  will 
yield  to  the  air  and  moulder  down  into  an  innocuous  powder  of  sand  and 
gravel ;  but  T  should  suppose  that,  after  the  plow  was  fairly  entered  below 
the  crust  it  would  not  require  to  be  held  down. 

(993  )  [In  describiii£»  the  simple  construction  of  the  subsoil-plow,  I  shall  not  po  to  any  length 
into  its  histon-.  The  implement,  as  now  used,  is  pencrally  know  as  Smith's  subsoil-plow,  having 
been  brought  into  the  present  form  bj-  Mr.  Smith.  Dcanston  Works,  who.  in  the  year  1829,  exhib- 
ited this  plow  at  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  .Society's  Show  al  Dumfries,  and  obtained  a  pre- 
mium from  the  .•society  for  his  invention  and  application  of  this  useful  implement.t 

(994  )  There  is  no  doubt  that  plows,  actini;  on  the  principle  of  Mr.  Smith's,  penetrating  into, 
breaking,  and  stirring  up  the  subsoil,  without  hriniring  it  to  the  surface  or  mixing  it  in  tiie  first 
instance  with  the  incumbent  soil,  have  been  long  known.  Mr.  Holt,  in  his  View  of  the  Asricul- 
ture  of  the  County  of  Lancaster,  rendered  in  1794  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  when  treating  of 
the  plows  of  that  county,  says :  "  Another  instrument  has  been  lately  introduced,  which  Mr.  Ec- 
cleston  with  propriety  calls  the  Miner,  which  is  a  plow-share  fixed  in  a  strong  beam,  without 
mould  boards,  and  drawn  by  four  or  more  horses,  and  follows  in  the  furrow  the  plow  (the  com- 
mon plow)  has  just  made;  and.  without  turniiiir  up  the  substratum,  penetrates  into  and  loostMis 
from  8  to  12  inches  deeper  than  the  plow  has  liefore  gone  ;  which  operation,  besides  drainiuii  the 
land,  causes  the  water  to  carry  along  with  it  any  vitinolic  or  other  noxious  matter  by  the  substra- 
tum thus  loosened.  The  roots  of  plants  may  penetrate  deeper  ;  and,  in  course  of  time,  that  which 
is  but  a  barren  suKstance  may  become  fertile  soil."  This  is  truly  the  subsod-plow  of  Mr.  Smitli, 
invented,  laid  aside,  and  forpotten  for  a  period  of  S."!  years. 

(995.)  Recent  experience  points  out  the  reason  why  the  earlier  introduction  of  the  snb.soil-plow 
did  not  meet  with  the  success  which  has  attended  Mr.  Smith's,  which,  from  the  above  description 
appears  to  be  the  Bamu  implement,  for  they  appear  in  the  essential    parts  to  be  almost  exactly 


Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agriculiural  Society,  vol  viiL  t  II  id.,  toL  viiL 

(802) 


TRENCH  AND   SUBSOIL  PLOWING. 


419 


alike;  yet  the  one  has  been  lost  sight  of,  while  the  other  has  come  into  all  that  notice  which  it 
deserves.  The  reason  is  now^  obvious :  Without  the  necessary  improvement  of  thorough-drain- 
ing, subsoil-plowing  is  thrown  away  ;  and  though  thorough,  or  at  least  furrow  draining,  has  been 
practiced  in  England  for  a  long  period,*  the  idea  of  combining  the  two  seems  not  to  have  oc- 
curred to  the  agriculturists  of  that  day.  To  Mr.  Smith,  therefore,  is  still  due  the  merit  of  having 
brought  these  two  powerful  auxiliaries  of  Agriculture  into  effective  cooperation. 

(996.)  Since  its  first  appearance  in  1829,  Mr.  Smith's  plow  has  undergone  various  slight  altera- 
tions, not  affecting,  however,  its  essential  character,  but  chiefly  in  lightening  its  construction.  The 
imploment  at  first  was  made  of  enormous  weight,  sometimes  so  much  as  5  cwt.,  but  a  few  years' 
experience  served  to  show  that  all  its  objects  could  be  achieved  with  a  plow  of  little  more  than 
lialf  that  weight ;  they  are  accordingly  now  generally  made  from  2  to  3  cwt.     Fig.  207  represents 


Fig.  307. 


THE  DEANSTON  SUBSOIL-PLOW. 

one  of  the  modifications  of  the  subsoil  plow  as  now  manufactured  by  James  Slight  &  Co.,  Edin- 
burgh. It  retains  all  the  acting  parts  of  Mr.  Smith's  without  material  change,  except  in  weight, 
thouijh  ill  other  respects  it  deviates  slightly  from  the  original.  The  beam,  which  is  from  3  to  3  J 
inches  deep  at  the  fore  sheath  or  slot,  a,  and  1  to  I3  inches  thick,  extends  from  b  to  c,  a  length  of 
7  feet  4  inches;  at  c,  the  point,  it  is  diminished  to  2^  by  J  inches,  and  at  b  to  about  the  same 
dimensions.  The  two  handles,  extending  from  d  to  c,  are  6  feet  9  inches  in  length.  They  are 
thinned  off  at  e,  and  bolted,  one  on  each  side,  to  the  beam  ;  the  depth  of  the  handles  is  2  to  2^ 
inches,  and  aro  ^  to  |  inch  thick,  worked  into  sockets  at  d  in  the  usual  manner  for  the  reception 
of  a  wooden  helve.  The  beam  and  handles  are  farther  connected  by  stretcher  tubes  and  bolts, 
the  latter  passing  through  all  three  at  I,  and  binding  them  firmly  together ;  the  handles  are  also 
farther  supported  by  the  stretcher-bolts  and  bow,  /  and  g.  .The  beam  is  mounted  at  c  with  the 
bridle,  which  is  at  least  2  inches  by  J  inch,  bolted  on  the  point  of  the  beam,  being  first  formed  into 
an  oblong  loop  of  8  inches  in  length,  standing  at  right  angles  to  the  beam,  and  having  the  opening 
vertical.  To  the  front  part  of  the  loop  is  fitted  a  stout  clasp,  the  two  arms  of  which  embrace  the 
loop  above  and  below,  and  admit  of  the  slot  k  h  to  pass  at  once  through  them  and  the  loop.  The 
clasp  and  slot  together  have  a  motion  along  the  loop  right  and  left,  and  the  slot  itself  has  a  motion 
vertically.  The  chain-bar  i,  is  attached  to  the  beam  at  k,  and  passes  through  an  eye  in  the  lower 
end  of  the  slot  k  ;  to  the  chain-bar  is  then  attached  the  draught-hook  /,  to  which  the  yoke  is  ap- 
plied. The  motion  above  described  of  the  slot^,  and  consequently  of  the  chain-bar  and  draught- 
hook,  afford  ready  means  of  adjusting  the  earthing  and  landing  of  the  plow,  and  the  position  is 
retained  by  means  of  the  pinching-screw  »«,  which,  by  being  screwed  into  the  clasp,  acts  against 
the  outside  of  the  loop,  drawing  the  slot  and  the  loop  into  firm  contact.  Tlie  body  consists  of  the 
two  slots  a  and  n,  the  first  about  3  inches  broad,  the  last  about  2^  inches,  and  each  |  inch  thick  ; 
they  are  welded  to  a  sole  bar  2  inches  square,  and  30  inches  long,  flush  on  the  land-side.  The 
head  of  the  slots  is  worked  into  a  kneed  palm,  which  is  strongly  bolted  to  the  beam,  and  the  di- 
agonal brace  o  is  fitted  in  to  resist  the  strain  that  tends  to  derange  the  form  of  the  body.  The 
coulter-bar  jo  is  3  inches  broad,  5  inch  thick  at  the  back  in  the  upper  parts,  becoming  thinner 
downward,  and  is  finished  with  a  blunt  edge  and  point;  it  is  simply  held  in  its  place  by  being 
tongued  into  the  beam,  the  fore-slot  and  the  share.  The  share  q  is  made  after  the  same  form  as 
that  of  the  common  plow,  having  a  feather  to  the  furrow-side,  and  is  spear-pointed.  The  length 
of  the  share  is  from  14  to  16  inclies,  and  the  breadth  over  the  feather  about  6  inches.  It  is  fitted 
upon  the  prolongation  of  the  sole-bar,  and  its  socket  is  usually  furnished  with  a  short  ear,  by 
which  it  is  fixed  to  the  sole-bar  to  prevent  its  falling  ofl*;  as  the  fixture  of  the  coulter  depends  upon 
the  share  keeping  its  place.  The  feather  ?•  is  a  thin-edged  bar,  3  inches  deep  and  about  ^  inch 
thick,  thinned  off  on  the  upper  edge  ;  it  is  tapered  off  at  the  fore  end  where  it  joins  the  share,  and 
is  held  in  contact  by  being  notched  into  it;  but  its  chief  supports  are  two  palms,  by  which  it  is 
bolted  to  the  sole-bar;  and  a  sole-shoe  of  cast-iron,  having  a  flange  rising  6  inches  on  the  land- 
side,  completes  the  subsoil  plow,  which,  with  the  exception  of  the  sole-.shoe,  is  constructed  en- 
tirely of  malleable  iron.  The  length  of  the  plow  over  all  is  about  13  feet ;  the  length  of  the  sole 
3  feet  3  inches ;  the  hight  of  the  handles  3  feet  6  inches ;  and  at  the  point  of  the  beam  2  feet  4 
inches. — J.  S.] 

(997.)  [Not  much  need  be  said  regarding  the  etficacy  of  subsoil-plowing.  After  what  I  have 
stated  of  the  immense  value  of  a  mixture  of  impalpable  matter,  and  larger  particle.«,  in  the  fcrm 
of  a  porous  mass,  I  need  scarcely  say  that  anything  capable  of  increasing  the  depth  to  which  this 
porosity  extends,  must  of  necessity  be  advantageous.     This,  however,  does  not  show  any  differ- 

*  See  Sir  James  Graham's  observations  on  the  subject  in  vol.  i.  of  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  of  England. 
(803) 


420  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

ence  between  subsoil  and  trench  plowing — in  my  opinion,  the  latter  is  the  best  in  most  instancCB, 
and  this  for  the  following  reasons:  All  subsoils  require  ameliorating  by  exposure  to  air,  before 
they  are  capable  of  acting  beneficially  to  plants.  This  is  owing  to  certain  chemical  changes 
which  are  produced  by  the  joint  action  of  air  and  water,  and  it  is  very  evident  that  all  these  murt 
take  place  much  more  rapidly  when  the  subsoil,  as  in  trench-plowing,  is  laid  upon  Ihexvjfaceof 
the  field,  and  freely  exposedlhroughout  the  winter,  than  when  the  air  is  merely  admitted  more 
freely  by  the  subsoil  being  broken  w^  while  it  still  remains  under  the  surface.  It  may  be  averred 
that  the  trench-plow  does  not  ^o  so  deep  into  the  soil  as  the  subsoil-plow  ;  but  still  I  camiot  help 
thinking  that  notwithstanding  this  disadvantage  (if  any  such  exists),  it  is  in  most  cases  the  most 
advi.<able  of  the  two  methods,  if  employed  for  deepening  the  soil.  Not  so.  however,  if  used  to 
assist  in  draining  the  xubsoil.  To  prove  its  value  for  this  puri)ose,  1  would  earnestly  direct  your 
attention  to  the  following  valuable  remarks  of  Professor  Johnston  :  "The  subsoil-plow  is  an  aux- 
iliary to  the  drain ;  in  very  stiff  clay  subsoils  it  is  most  advantageous  in  loosening  the  under  lay- 
ers of  clay,  and  allowing  the  water'to  find  a  ready  escape  downward,  and  to  either  side  until  it 
reach  the'drains.  It  is  well  known  that  if  a  piece  of  stiff  clav  be  cut  into  the  shape  of  a  brick, 
and  then  allowed  to  dry,  it  will  contract  and  harden — cut  up  trhile  wet,  it  will  only  be  divided 
into  so  many  pieces,  each  of  which  will  harden  when  dn,-.  or  the  whole  of  which  will  again  attach 
themselves," and  stick  together  if  exposed  to  pressure.  But  tear  it  a.sunder  irhen  dry,  and  it  wiU 
fall  into  many  pieces,  will  more  or  less  crumble,  and  will  readily  admit  the  air  into  its  inner  parts. 
So  it  is  with  "a  clay  subsoil.  After  the  land  is  provided  with  drains,  the  subsoil  being  verj'  reten- 
tive, the  subsoil-plow  is  used  to  open  it  up — to  let  out  the  water,  and  to  let  in  the  air.  If  this  is 
not  done,  the  stiff  under-clay  will  contract  and  bake  an  it  drie.i.  but  it  will  neither  sufficiently  ad- 
roit the  air  "—nor  let  out  the  water — "  nor  open  a  free  passage  for  the  roots.  But  let  this  opera- 
tion be  performed  when  the  clay  is  still  too  wet,  a  good  effect  will  follow  in  the  first  instance  ; 
but  after  a  while  the  cut  clay  will  again  cohere,  and  the  farmer  will  pronounce  subsoiling  to  be  a 
useless  expense  upon  ht.<i  land.  Defer  the  use  of  the  sub.soil  plow  till  the  clay  is  dry — it  will  then 
tear  and  break  instead  of  cutting,  and  the  openness  will  remain.  Once  give  the  air  free  access, 
and  it,  after  a  time,  so  modifies  the  drained  clay,  that  it  has  no  longer  an  equal  tendency  to  co- 
here. Mr.  Smith  of  Deanston  verj-  judiciously  recommends  that  the  subsoil-plow  should  never  be 
used  till  at  least  a  year  after  the  land  has  been  thoroughly  drained.  To  attain  those  benefits 
which  attend  the  adoption  of  improved  methods  of  culture,  ...  let  the  practical  man  make  his 
trial  in  the  ways  and  with  the  precautions  recommended  by  the  author  of  the  method,  before  be 
pronounce  its  condemnation."*  Thus  yon  perceive  that  subsoil-plowmg,  when  pmperly  per- 
formed, will  always  be  found  useful  in  assi.sting  the  action  of  drains,  but  cannot  be  considered 
equal  to  deep  or  trench  plowina-,  if  an  alteration  is  desired  in  the  depth  of  the  soil. 

(998.)  Another  alleged  advaniase  of  subsoiling  is  the  breaking  in  pieces  the  moorland  pan.  I 
will  therefore  now^  say  a  few  words  respecting  this  enemy  to  good  farmers.  This  ferruginoos 
deposit  which  so  frequently  occurs  in  particular  localities  between  the  soil  and  subsoil  is  e.xtremely 
hard  and  compact,  and  almost  completely  impermeable  to  water.  Very  much  has  been  w^ritten 
concerning  this  substance,  by  persons  who  have  but  little  knowledge  of  chemistry,  and  in  their 
endeavors  to  prove  the  manner  in  which  the  deposit  had  been  produced,  and  likewise  the  caase 
of  its  injurious  action  upon  vegetation  when  newly  brought  to  the  surface,  have  made  so  many 
chemical  errors  that  the  whole  subject  appear.^  at  first  siirht  wrapped  in  doubt,»whereas,  we  be- 
lieve that  for  all  practical  pnrpo.ses  its  nature  is  already  sufficiently  well  known. 

(999.)  Moor-band  pan  belongs  to  a  cla.ssof  bodies  known  to  chemists  under  the  name  of  ochrey 
depo^if<!.  These  deposits,  which  so  frequently  occur  in  the  beds  of  chalybeate  springs,  were 
carefully  examined  by  Berzelins  in  1?32.  and  were  found  to  consist  of  the  two  oxides  of  iron  i  i 
chemical  combination  with  two  new  organic  acids,  which  he  denominated  the  crenic  and  apo- 
crenic  acids.  Feeling  certain  from  various  circumstances,  that  moor-band  pan  belontred  to  this 
class,  I  undertook  ari  analysis  to  a.<certain  whether  it  contained  these  acids,  and  find  that  in  each 
of  two  specimens  of  pan,  sent  to  me  for  the  purpose,  there  exists  a  large  proportion  of  crenic 
acid,  in  one  apocrenic  also,  and  in  the  other  Itumic  acid  .-  there  can  therefore  be  no  longer  any 
doubt  about  itie  composition  of  this  substance  :  and.  instead  of  attemptin?  to  prove  iLs  injurious 
effects  by  relating  the  difference  between  the  protoxide  and  peroxide  of  iron,  and  the  fact  of  the 
peroxide  being  generally  combined  with  water  formincr  hydrate,  none  of  which  facts  throw  the 
least  li^'ht  upon  the  subject,  -.ve  can  readily  explain  all  by  reference  to  the  chemical  properties 
of  the  compounds  of  these  two  aciils  with  iron.  It  is  well  known  that  iron  in  solution  acts  inju- 
riously ipon  vecetation  ;  and  Berzelius  has  .shown  that  the  crenafe  and  apocrenate  of  the  protox- 
ide of  iron  are  l)oth  soluble  in  water ;  and  that  the  same  salts  of  the  peroxide,  although  of  them- 
selves insoluble,  are  easily  rendered  so  by  ammonia,  which  substance  is  always  produced  in  fer- 
tile soil :  it  foUow.s.  therefore,  that  moor-band  pan  must  continue  injurious  to  vegetation  so  long 
as  the  cretia'rs  and  aporrenates  of  iron  remain  undecomposed.  In  the  course  of  time,  various 
chemical  changes  are  effected  by  the  joint  action  of  air  and  moisture,  which  decompose  these  com- 
pounds, and  give  rise  to  new  ones  having  no  injurious  effect  upon  vegetation. — H.  R.  M.l 

*  Johnston's  Elements  of  Agricalmral  Chemistry. 


(804) 


DRAWING  AND  STORING  TURNIPS.  423 


29.  DRAWING  AND  STORING  TURNIPS,  MANGEL-WURZEL,  CABBAGE, 
CARROTS   AND   PARSNIPS.* 

"  Beneath  dread  Winter's  level  sheets  of  snow. 
The  sweet  nutiitioua  Turnip  deigns  to  grow." 

Bi-OOMFIELD. 

(1000.)  The  treatment  of  live-stock  receives  early  attention  among  the 
farm  operations  of  winter  ;  and  whether  they  or  land  get  the  precedence 
depends  entirely  on  the  circumstance  of  the  harvest  having  been  completed 
late  or  early.  If  the  harvest  have  been  got  through  early,  there  is  ample 
time  to  plow  a  large  portion  of  stubble-land,  in  preparation  of  gieen  crops 
in  spring,  before  winter  quarters  are  required  to  be  provided  for  stock ; 
but  should  it  occupy  all  hands  until  a  late  period — that  is,  until  the  pas- 

[*  There  are  those  who  think,  or  affect  to  think,  tliat  nothing  of  practical  Agriculture  is  to  be 
learned,  forsooth,  by  reading ;  while  another  class  would  maintain  that  it  is  all  foolishness  to  read 
anything  relating  to  the  subject,  except  what  may  have  a  direct,  immediate  bearing  on  the  objects 
and  course  of  culture  in  which  the  reader  is  himself  personally  engaged.  Such  men  treat  as  ridic- 
ulous the  idea  that  a  farmer  should  indulge  in  any  curiosity  about  the  crops  which  serve  to  make 
up  the  wealth,  and  the  course  of  husbandry  that  constitutes  the  field  practice  of  other  States  of 
tbeir  own  countrj-,  much  more  those  of  foreign  countries.  Now  we  confess  not  to  be,  or  to  feel 
any  ambition  to  be,  a  member  of  either  of  these  classes.  We  confess  to  being  well  persuaded 
that  to  hooks  we  owe  the  creation  and  the  spread  of  knowledge  ;  and  that  the  farmer  who  enter 
tains  right  notions  of  his  own  respectabilit}-,  and  true  position  in  societj-,  will  surely  desire  to  be 
familiar  with  the  natural  and  commercial  history  of  all  the  great,  staples  that  serve  to  employ  the 
industry  of  mankind,  not  only  in  his  own  but  in  all  countries.  There  is  no  reason,  that  is  not  in- 
sulting and  derogatory,  why  the  agriculturist  should  not  pos.sess  as  general  information  as  he  of 
any  other  business  or  pursuit;  and,  if  even  there  were,  it  does  not  follow  that  he  should  not  pos- 
sess information  as  to  all  the  great  branches  and  products  of  his  own  profession,  even  though  some 
of  tliem  may  never  come  within  the  range  of  his  own  cultivation,  and  may  even  be  forbidden,  by 
considerations  of  climate  or  other  circumstances,  from  being  produced  in  his  own  State  or  country. 

Take,  for  example,  this  chapter  on  Turnips,  and  the  uses  made  of  them  in  England.  Every 
one  at  all  acquainted  with  agricultural  literature  knows  of  how  comparatively  recent  date  is  the 
introduction  of  them,  especially  in  ajield  crop  in  England,  even  as  late  as  the  end  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  ;  yet  he  who  has  any  pretensions  to  familiarity  with  the  industrial  resources  of  the 
nation  from  which  we  sprung,  and  with  which  we  have  the  most  extensive  and  important  rela- 
tions, must  know  that  the  spread  of  this  single  root  has  had  an  influence  beyond  calculation,  on 
the  wealth  and  industry  and  power  of  Great  Britain.  With  no  great  degree  of  exageeration  it 
has  been  said  that  her  national  power  has  its  root  in  the  turnip  !  Now  suppose  an  American 
traveler,  especially  an  agricultural  one,  through  England,  to  return  without  having  made  any 
observation  as  to  the  culture  and  uses  of  a  crop  thus  influencing'the  destiny  of  a  great  nation  ! 
What  would  be  said  of  such  a  dolt  ?  Since,  then,  all  cannot  travel  who  may  desire  it,  is  it  not  the 
great  province  of  letters— o[  books — to  take  the  next  place,  and  do  the  office  of  traveling  ?  Too 
well  do  we  know  that  there  are  those  who  will  argue  that  because  we  do  not  and  cannot  rely  on 
turnips,  as  the  English  do,  to  rear  and  fatten  sheep  and  cattle — that  climate,  deamess  of  labor, 
want  of  capital  to  manure  tlie  land  sufficiently,  and  want  of  the  moisture  indispensable  to  bring 
forward  this  crop,  as  w^ell  as  the  possession  of  Indian  com  and  other  crops  better  adapted  to  our 
climate  and  purposes,  all  forbid  its  culture  to  an  extent  sufficient  to  render  it  a  great  national  ob- 
ject, all  .going  to  interdict  turnip  culture  ;  therefore  it  is  out  of  place  to  admit  a  full  exposition  of 
this  branch  of  English  husbandry  into  an  American  work  devoted  to  American  Agriculture. 
The  same  cavilers  might  object  that  because  turnips  may  never  be  with  us  a  great  staple  crop, 
therefore  it  was  superfluous  and  ill  judged  to  occupy,  in  the  last  number,  the  little  space  which 
served  to  inform  the  reader  that  a  good  crop  of  English  turnips,  say  twenty  tons  to  the  acre, 
(805) 


422  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

tures  have  failed  to  supply  stock  with  the  requisite  quantity  of  food — pro- 
vision for  their  support  should  be  made  in  the  Steading  in  preference  to 
plowinp^  land.  The  usual  occurrence  is,  that  the  harvest  is  entirely  com- 
pleted before  the  failure  of  the  pasture  ;  and,  accordinj^ly,  I  have  described 
the  methods  of  plowing  the  land  before  taking  up  the  subject  of  wintel 
treatment  of  live-stock  ;  and  in  doing  so,  have  included  the  plowing  of 
lea  after  that  of  stubble-gi'ound,  in  order  to  keep  all  the  particulars  of  win- 
ter-plowing together,  although  the  usual  occunence  is,  that  the  live-stock 
are  snugly  housed  in  the  steading,  and  the  stubble  nearly  all  turned  over, 
before  the  plowing  of  lea  is  commenced,  unless  there  happen  to  be  an  old 
piece  of  lea  to  plow  on  strf»ng  land,  in  which  case  it  should  be  turned  over 
before  the  setting  in  of  the  winter's  fiost. 

(1001.)  Sheep  always  occupying  the  fields,  according  to  the  practice  of 
this  country,  the  only  varieties  of  stock  requiring  accommodation  in  the 
steading  in  winter  are  cattle  and  honses.  The  horses  consist  chiefly  of 
those  employed  in  draught,  which  have  their  stable  always  at  hand,  and 
any  young  horses  besides  that  are  reared  on  the  farm.  Of  the  cattle,  the 
cows  are  housed  in  the  byre  at  night  for  some  time  before  the  rest  of  the 

would  extract  and  carry  off  4,500  ponnds  of  starch  and  sngar,  540  pounds  of  gluten,  and  45  of 
oil.  We  are  altogether — with  all  due  deference  to  such  wise  and  practical  men — of  a  different 
opinion  ;  and  the  question  is,  to  which  of  the  classes  we  have  named  does  the  reader  belong  ? 
In  this  matter  we  go  in  for  the  "  largest  liberty."  We  would  open  wide  to  the  mind  of  the  young 
agriculturist  the  whole  Jield  of  practical  Agriculture  in  every  country.  If  he  is  denied  the 
pleasure  and  benefit  of  traveling,  in  person,  to  enlarge  his  mind  by  enlarged  observation,  there  is 
the  greater  reason  that  he  should  travel  in  books.  For  what  else  was  that  enlightened  observer, 
Mr.  CoLMAN,  invited  to  visit  and  give  us  his  "Personal  Observations  of  European  Agriculture," 
we  would  like  to  know  ?  And  what  reader  of  anj-  taste  or  ambition  for  knowledge  would  not 
rejoice  as  he  reads  them,  to  have  been  his  compaf^non  de  voyage  I  These  are  the  views  under 
which  we  have  published,  and  shall  continue  to  publish,  much  that  may  never  be  put  in  practice, 
or  that  is  not  practicable  in  our  country  exactly  in  the  way,  cither  in  detail  or  extent,  that  it  is 
done  in  others.  We  even  think  that  although  a  man  might  not  make  a  pound  or  a  barrel  more, 
for  example,  of  apples,  or  beets,  or  barley,  or  sugar,  yet  that  if  our  country  schools  were  patron- 
ized and  conducted  as  they  ought  to  be.  and  provided  with  ma.sters  as  enlightened,  because  as 
well  paid  and  as  much  honored,  us  professors  of  the  military  art,  not  a  boy  would  leave  school 
without  some  knowledge  of  the  native  country  and  the  constituent  qualities  and  habits  of  these 
and  of  all  other  plants  and  animals.  A  little  insight  gained  when  young,  would  plant  in  him  an 
appetite  that  would  prompt  to  farther  inquiry  all  his  life,  and  the  love  of  reading  and  research 
would  take  the  place  of  sensuality  and  dis.sipation  that  idleness  and  even  leisure  moments  al- 
ways engender  in  men  whose  vacant  minds  are  insensible  to  all  thirst  for  knowledge  or  intel- 
lectual recreation.  After  all,  there  is  one  consideration  from  which  we  may  take  some  comfort, 
even  under  the  mortification  of  differing  from  wiser  heads,  whom  we  would  fain  not  only  please 
but  oblige  in  all  things.  No  one  is  obliged  to  read  that  for  which  he  has  no  taste,  and  from 
which  he  may  think  no  advantage  (money  1 )  is  to  be  derived  ;  and  so.  in  this  ca.«c,  he  who  has 
no  curiosity  to  know  how  the  great  branches  of  turnip  and  sheep  husbandry  are  connected  and 
carried  on,  where  both  constitnte  great  items  in  the  resources  of  our  great  and  powerful  mother 
country,  may  pass  over  all  that  follows  on  these  subjects,  to  The  Monthly  Journai,  of  Agri- 
culture, where  fifty  pages  of  matter  await  him,  in  such  variety  as  that  he  must  be  hard  to  please 
if  he  cannot  find  something  sufficiently  practical  and  enlightened,  were  it  even  on  sheep,  in  the 
able  letters  of  otir  friend  Mr.  Randall,  which  promise  to  make  readers  the  least  familiar  an  cou- 
.rant  of  that  subject. 

After  all.  we  should  be  perfectly  willing  to  leave  it  to  the  decision  of  any  enlightened  and  lib- 
eral minded  reader  to  say  whether  even  this  chapter  on  turnips  and  sheep  feeding  does  not  pos- 
sess much  intrinsic  value  and  ronvey  information  both  interesting  and  practically  useful  for  all 
agricultural  inquirers,  except  those  erreat  would-be  monopolists  of  knowledge,  who  conceit  them- 
selves to  be,  in  the  agricultural,  what  the  sun  is  in  the  natural  world,  the  great  fountain  of  light 
from  which  alone  the  least  ray  of  information  is  to  be  derived. 
With  these  explanations  we  shall  be  content  for  the  future.  Ed.  Farm.  Lih.\ 

(806) 


DRAWING  AND  STORING  TURNIPS.  423 

cattle  are  brought  into  the  steading,  in  case  the  coldness  of  the  autumnal 
dews  and  frosts  should  injure  their  milking  propeities  ;  so  that  it  is  only 
the  younger  and  feeding  cattle  that  have  to  be  accommodated,  and  of 
these  the  feeding  are  generally  housed  before  the  younger  stock,  which 
usually  get  leave  to  wander  about  the  fields  as  long  as  they  can  pick  up 
any  food.  I  am  only  here  describing  what  is  the  common  practice,  with- 
out remarking  whether  it  is  a  good  or  bad  one,  as  the  whole  subject  of  the 
treatment  of  cattle  will  very  soon  engage  our  attention. 

(1002.)  By  the  time  the  cattle  are  ready  to  occupy  the  steading,  turnips 
should  be  provided  for  them  as  their  ordinary  food,  and  the  supply  at  all 
times  sufficient ;  and  it  should  be  provided  in  this  way  :  The  lambs  of  last 
spring,  and  the  ewes  which  have  been  drafted  from  the  flock  as  being  too 
okl  or  otherwise  unfit  to  breed  from  any  longer,  are  fed  on  turnips  on  the 
ground  in  winter,  to  be  sold  off  fat  in  spring.  The  portion  of  the  turaip- 
ground  allotted  sheep  is  prepared  for  their  reception  in  a  peculiar  manner, 
by  being  draicn  or  stripped,  that  is,  a  certain  proportion  of  the  turnips  is 
left  on  the  ground  for  the  use  of  the  sheep,  and  the  other  is  carried  away 
to  the  steading  to  be  consumed  by  the  cattle.  The  reason  for  stripping 
turnips  is  to  supply  food  to  the  sheep  in  the  most  convenient  form,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  enrich  the  ground  for  the  succeeding  crops  by  their  dung, 
which  is  applied  in  such  quantity  as  to  prevent  the  ground  being  manured 
beyond  what  would  be  proper  for  the  perfect  development  of  the  future 
crops  ;  for  it  has  been  found  that,  were  an  entire  good  crop  of  turnips 
consumed  on  the  ground,  the  yield  of  corn  would  be  scanty  and  ill-filled. 
The  usual  proportion  drawn,  if  a  good  crop,  is  ^,  but  should  the  soil  be  in 
low  condition,  ^  only  is  taken  away,  and  should  it  be  in  fine  condition,  ^ 
or  even  ^  may  be  drawn  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  quantity  drawn  is 
dependent  upon  the  bulk  of  the  crop.  If  the  crop  is  very  large,  and  the 
gi'ound  in  very  fine  condition,  |-  may  be  drawn,  but  it  is  rarely  the  case 
that  the  soil  is  so  rich  and  the  crop  so  large  as  to  make  ^  too  great  a  pro- 
portion to  be  left  to  be  consumed.  If  the  crop  is  poor,  -g-  only  should  be. 
drawn,  and  a  very  poor  crop  should  be  wholly  eaten  on,  whatever  condi- 
tion the  soil  may  be  in.  There  is  another  consideration  which  materially 
affects  the  quantity  to  be  left  on  the  ground,  which  is  the  occurrence  of  a 
poor  crop  of  turnips  over  the  whole  farm.  Hitherto  I  have  only  been 
speaking  of  that  part  of  the  crop  of  turnips  which  is  to  be  appropriated 
to  the  use  of  the  sheep,  but  when  the  entire  crop  is  bad,  that  is,  insufficient 
to  maintain  all  the  stock  fully,  then  the  proportion  to  be  consumed  by  the 
sheep  and  cattle  respectively,  should  be  determined  at  the  commencement 
and  maintained  throughout  the  season,  that  neither  class  of  stock  may  re- 
ceive undue  advantage.  In  such  a  case,  it  is  evident  that  neither  the  sheep 
nor  cattle  can  be  fattened  on  turnips  ;  and  other  expedients  must  be  re- 
sorted to  to  fatten  them,  such  as  either  the  sheep  or  cattle  should  get  as 
many  turnips  as  will  feed  them,  and  the  other  be  fed  on  extraneous  mat- 
ter, or  both  classes  of  stock  be  left  in  lean  condition.  When  foreign 
matters  for  feeding — such  as  oil-cake — can  be  procured,  the  cattle  should 
get  the  largest  quantity  of  them,  and  the  sheep  the  largest  portion  of  the 
turnips  ;  because  oil-cake  can  be  more  easily  administered  at  the  steading 
than  turnips,  and  sheep,  saving  the  trouble  of  manuring  the  ground  aftei'- 
ward,  can  more  easily  be  supplied  with  turnips.  Thus,  then,  considera- 
tions of  the  state  of  soil  and  crop  are  required  to  determine  the  proportion 
of  the  turnip  crop  that  should  be  drawn  ;  but  the  standard  proportion  is 
^,  and  when  that  is  deviated  fi-om  it  should  only  be  from  very  urgent  cir- 
cumstances, such  as  those  alluded  to  above. 

(1003.)  Fig.  208  shows  how  turnips  are  stripped  in  the  various  propor- 

(807) 


424 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


tions  noticed  above.  When  ^  is  drawn,  it  can  be  done  in  vanous  ways, 
but  each  not  alike  beneficial  to  the  land  ;  for  example,  it  can  be  done  bj 
l(!aving  2  drills  a  and  taking  away  2  drills  b;  or  by  taking  away  3  drills  e 
find  leaving  3  drillsy';  or  l)y  taking  away  6  drills  i  and  leaving  6  drills  A; 

Fig.  208. 


THE  METHODS  OF  STRIPPING  THE  GROU.VD  OF    TURNIPS  IN  ANY  GIVEN   PROPORTIONS. 

or  by  taking  away  1  drill  I  and  leaving  1  drill  k  ;  and  so  on  in  every  other 
proportion.  Though  the  same  result  is  attained  in  all  these  different  way.s, 
in  so  far  as  the  turnips  are  concerned,  there  are  cogent  reasons  against 
them  all  except  the  one  which  leaves  2  drills  a  and  takes  away  2  drills  b ; 
because,  when  1  drill  only  is  left,  as  at  /,  the  sheep  have  not  room  to  stand 
and  lie  down  with  ease  between  k  and  m,  without  interfering  with  the  tur- 
nips, and,  beside,  sufficient  room  is  not  left  for  horses  and  cart  to  pass 
along  I,  without  injuring  the  turnips  on  cither  side  of  the  horses'  feet  or 
the  cart-wheels  ;  whereas,  when  2  or  more  drills  are  pulled,  as  at  b,  and 
only  2  left,  as  at  a,  the  sheep  have  room  to  stand  and  eat  on  either  side  of 
the  turnips,  and  the  cart  can  pass  easily  along  b  without  injuring  the  tur- 
nips ;  that  is,  the  horse  walks  up  the  center  hollow  of  the  drills,  and  a 
wheel  occupies  a  hollow  on  each  side.  Again,  when  3  drills  are  left,  as  at 
f,  and  3  taken  away,  as  at  e,  the  sheep  injure  the  turnips  of  the  two  out- 
side rows  to  reach  the  middle  one  at  jf;  and  much  more  will  tlioy  injure 
those  at  h,  when  6  drills  are  left  ;  and  there  is,  besides,  this  si-rious  objec- 
tion to  this  latter  mode,  that  when  practiced  on  light  soils  it  is  observed 
that  the  succeeding  grain  crop  is  never  so  good  on  the  ground  that  has 
been  cleared  as  where  the  turnips  are  left.  When  other  proportions  are 
determined  on,  ^  may  be  easily  left,  by  pulling  2  drills,  as  at  b,  and  leaving 
1,  as  at  c ;  or  \  may  be  left,  by  pulling  3  drills,  as  at  c,  and  leaving  1,  as 
at  c  ;  or  1^  may  be  left,  by  pulling  2,  as  at  p,  and  leaving  3,  as  at  /I  There 
are  thus  various  ways  in  which  the  same  and  different  proportions  of 
turnips  may  be  pulled  and  left  on  the  ground;  but  in  whatever  propor- 
tion they  may  be  taken,  the  rule  of  leaving  2  empty  drills  for  the  horses 
and  carts  to  pass  along  without  injury  to  the  turnips,  should  never  be 
violated. 

(808) 


DRAWING  AND   STORING  TURNIPS. 


425 


(1004.)  But  the  convenience  and  propriety  of  the  plan  of  leaving  2  and 
taking  2  drills,  when  the  ^  of  the  crop  is  to  be  eaten  on,  will  be  best  ap- 
preciated in  witnessing  the  mode  of  doing  it,  as  shown  in  fig.  209,  where 
the  drills  are  represented  on  a  larger  scale  than  in  the  preceding  figure. — 
One  field-worker,  being  a  woman,  clears  the  2  drills  at  a,  and  another 
simultaneously  the  other  2  at  Z> ;  and  in  clearing  these  4  drills,  the  turnips 
are  thrown  into  heaps  at  regular  distances,  as  at  c  and  d,  among  the  stand- 
ing turnips  of  the  2  drills  e  andyj  to  the  right  of  one  woman  and  to  the 
left  of  the  other ;  and  thus  every  alternate  2  drills  lefi;  unpulled  become 
the  receptacle  of  the  tuinips  pulled  by  every  2  women.  The  cart  then 
passes  along  a  or  h,  without  touching  the  turnips  either  in  e  or  g  on  the 
one  hand,  or  in  f  and  h  on  the  othei',  and  it  clears  away  the  heaps  in  the 
line  of  c  d.     In  the  cut  the  turnips  are  represented  thinner  on  the  ground 


THE  METHOD  OF  PULLING  TURNIPS  IN   PREPARATION  FOR  STORING. 

than  they  usually  are,  but  the  size  of  the  bulb  in  proporMon  to  the  width 
of  the  drills  is  preserved  both  in  the  drills  and  in  the  heaps.  The  seats 
of  the  pulled  turnips  are  shown  upon  the  bared  drills. 

(1005.)  The  usual  state  in  which  turnips  are  thus  placed  in  these  tem- 
porfiry  heaps,  c  and  d,  is  with  their  tops  on,  but  the  tails  are  generally  taken 
away.  The  most  cleanly  state,  however,  for  the  turnips  themselves,  and 
the  most  nutritious  for  cattle,  is  to  deprive  them  of  both  tops  and  taiU. — 
Many,  and  indeed  I  may  say  most  farmers  are  impressed  with  the  idea 
ttiat  tops  of  turnips  make  good  feeding  at  the  beginning  of  the  season  and 
especially  for  young  beasts.  The  notion  is  quite  a  mistaken  one,  in  regard 
to  the  feeding  qualities  of  tops  at  any  season,  for  there  js  really  no  such 
property  in  them.  No  doubt  at  that  season  they  contain  a  large  quantity 
of  watery  juice,  which  makes  cattle  devour  them  with  avidity  on  coming 
into  the  steading  off  bare  pasture,  and  they  will  even  be  eaten  off  before 
the  turnips  themselves  are  touched,  when  both  are  presented  together ; 
but  observation  and  experience  confirm  me  in  the  opinion  that  the  time 

(809)  ^ 


426  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


bestowed  by  cattle  in  consuming  the  turnip-tops  is  worse  than  so  much 
valuable  time  thrown  away  ;  inasmuch  as,  in  their  cleanest  state,  tops  are 
apt  to  produce  a  looseness  in  the  bowels,  arising  partly,  perhaps,  from  the 
sudden  chano-e  of  food  from  grass  to  such  a  succulent  vegetable  ;  and  the 
complaint  is  much  aggravated  by  the  dirty,  wetted,  or  frosted  state  in 
which  they  are  usually  given  to  beasts.  This  looseness  never  fails  to  bring 
down  the  condition  of  cattle  so  much  that  a  considerable  part  of  the  win- 
ter passes  away  before  they  entirely  recover  from  the  shock  which  tlieir 
system  has  thus  received.  Like  my  neighbors,  I  was  impressed  with  the 
economic  idea  of  using  turnip-t()})s — and  1  believe  it  is  solely  as  regards 
economy,  rather  than  a  conviction  of  their  utility,  that  prompts  farmers  to 
continue  their  use — but  their  weakening  effects  upon  cattle,  especially 
young  ones,  caused  me  to  desist  from  their  use  ;  and  fortunate  was  the 
resolution,  for  ever  aftei  their  abKudonment  my  cattle  throve  better  and 
the  tops,  after  all,  were  not  thrown  away,  as  they  served  to  assist  the  ma- 
nuring of  the  field  on  which  they  had  grown.  I  have  no  hesitation,  there- 
fore, in  recommending  you  to  deprive  the  turnips  of  both  tops  and  tails 
before  carrying  them  to  the  steading  for  the  use  of  cattle.  Sheep  are  not 
60  easily  injured  by  them  as  cattle,  on  account,  perhaps,  of  their  costive 
habit ;  and  perhaps  in  spring,  when  turnips  are  naturally  less  juicy,  tops 
might  be  of  service  to  them  as  a  gentle  aperient,  but  then,  when  they 
might  be  most  useful,  they  are  the  most  scanty  and  fibrous. 

(1006.)  The  tops  and  tails  of  turnips  are  easily  removed  by  means  of  a 
very  simple  instrument.     Figs.  210   and  211  Fig.  210. 

represent  these  instruments,  fig.  210  being 
formed  from  a  portion  of  an  old  scythe  reap- 
ing-hook, with  a  piece  of  the  point  liroken  off. 
This  is  a  light  instrument,  and  answers  the 
purpose  pretty  well;  but  fig.  211  is  still  bet- 
ter. It  is  made  of  the  point  of  a  worn  patent 
scythe,  the  very  point  being  broken  oft',  and  instrument  for  top 
the  i,o„  hack  ,„  wl,ich  ,l,c  blade  i.  rivete.!  is  JJ-'r^^c^'H"'.""?.::,,"" 
driven  into  a  helve,  provided  with  a  terule 
around    the    end    next    the    blade.       This   is  Fig.  sih 

rather  heavier  than  the  other  instniment, 
and  on  that  account  removes  the  top  more 
easily.  anothkr    instrument    for   the 

(1007.)  The  mode  of  using  these  instru-  same  riRrosK,  made  of  a  piece 
ments  in  the  removal  of  the  tops  and  tails  or  old  patent  .scythe. 
of  turnips  is  this.  The  field-worker  moves  along  between  the  two 
drills  of  turnips  which  are  to  be  drawn,  as  from  r/,  ficf.  209,  and  pull- 
ing a  turnip  with  the  left  hand  by  the  top  from  either  drill,  holds  the  bulb 
in  a  horizontal  position,  as  represented  in  fig.  212,  over  and  between  the 
drills  e  and/  fig.  209,  and  with  the  hook  or  knife  described  above  (1006), 
first  takes  off' the  root  at  h  with  a  small  stroke,  and  then  cuts  off"  the  top  at 
a,  between  the  turnip  and  the  hand,  with  a  sharper  one.  on  which  the  tur- 
nip falls  down  into  the  heap  c  or  ih  whichever  is  i'urniing  at  the  time. 
Thus,  pulling  «)fie  or  two  tuniips  from  one  drill,  and  then  as  many  from 
the  other,  the  two  drills  are  cleared  to  the  extent  desired.  Another  field- 
worker  acts  a*  a  companion  to  this  one.  by  ffoincf  iij)  h,  pulling  the  turnips 
from  the  drills  on  either  side  of  her,  and  dni]»ping  them,  topped  and  tailed, 
into  the  same  heaps  as  her  companion.  The  to]>s  are  scattered  over  the 
cleared  ground.  A  left  and  a  right-handed  field-worker  get  on  best  to- 
gether at  this  work. 

(1008.)  Due  care  is  requisite,  on  removing  the  tops  and  tails,  that  none 
(810J 


)prisG     axd 


DRAWING  AND  STORING  TURNIPS. 


427 


of  the  bulb  be  cut  by  the  instrument,  as  the  juice  of  the  turnip  will  exude 
through  the  incision.  Of  course,  when  turnips  are  to  be  consumed  imme- 
diately, this  precaution  is  less  necessary  ;  but  the  habit  of  slicing  off  a  part 
or  hacking  the  skin  of  the  bulb  indicates  carelessness,  and  should  be 
avoided  at  all  times. 


Fig.  212. 


MODE    OF    TOPPING    AND    TAILING    TURNIPS. 


(1009.)  When  f  of  the  turnips  are  drawn  and  1  left,  the  field-worker 
goes  up  at  b,  fig.  208,  and,  pulling  the  2  drills  there,  drops  the  prepared 
turnips  between  c  and  d,  beyond  the  drill  c  that  is  left.  When  |-  are  pulled, 
as  at  c,  and  i  left  on  the  ground,  as  at  c,  the  turnips  may  still  be  dropped 
in  the  same  place  between  c  and  d,  the  field-worker  pulling  all  the  3  drills 
herself,  and  the  horse  walking  along  from  e  when  taking  them  away. 
When  3  drills  are  pulled,  as  at  e,  and  3  left,  as  at /^  which  is  not  so  good 
a  plan  of  leaving  the  ^  as  the  2  and  2  I  have  described  before  (1003),  the 
same  field- worker  pulls  all  the  3  drills,  and  drops  the  turnips  along  the 
outside  row  next  herself  of  those  that  are  left.  When  ^  are  left,  as  aty) 
and  1^  pulled,  as  at  g,  the  field-worker  goes  up,  pulling  the  2  drills  there, 
and  dropping  the  turnips  between  the  two  rows  next  her  of  /!  When  6 
drills  are  pulled,  as  at  i,  which  is  not  a  good  plan  for  leaving  the  ^,  3  wo- 
men work  abreast,  each  pulling  2  drills,  and  all  three  drop  the  turnips  into 
the  same  heap  before  the  woman  in  the  middle.  This  plan  has  the  sole 
advantage  of  collecting  a  large  quantity  of  tui'nips  in  one  place  and  causing 
little  carting  upon  the  land.  When  the  field  is  intended  to  be  entirely 
cleared  of  turnips,  the  cleai-ance  is  begun  at  the  side  nearest  the  gate,  and 
carried  regularly  on  from  top  to  bottom  of  the  field,  the  nearest  part  of  the 
crop  being  taken  when  the  weather  is  least  favorable  and  the  farthest  when 
most  so. 

(1010.)  These  last  remarks  remind  me  of  mentioning  that  when  a  field 
is  begun  to  be  stripped  for  sheep,  that  part  should  be  chosen  which  will 
afford  them  shelter  whenever  the  weather  proves  inauspicious.  A  plan- 
tation, a  good  hedge,  a  bank  sloping  to  the  south,  or  one  in  the  direction 
opposite  to  that  from  which  winds  most  prevail  in  the  locality,  or  any 
marked  inequality  in  the  form  of  the  ground,  will  afford  shelter  to  sheep 
in  case  of  necessity.  On  the  sheep  clearing  this  part  first,  it  will  always 
be  ready  for  a  place  of  refuge  should  it  be  required  for  protection  against 
a  storm.  The  utility  of  such  shelter  you  shall  be  made  acquainted  with 
very  soon. 

(1011.)  On  removing  prepared  turnips  from  the  land,  the  carts  should 
De  filled  by  the  field- workers,  as  many  beinsr  employed  as  to  keep  the  carts 

(811)    •  -  J  o  i'     J 


428  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

going,  that  is,  to  have  one  filled  by  the  time  another  approaches  the  place 
of  work,  in  the  field.  If  there  are  mf)re  field-woikers  than  will  he  re- 
quired to  do  this,  the  remainder  should  be  cmj)l()yed  in  toppinj;  and  tail- 
ing. The  topped  and  tailed  tun)ij)s  should  be  thrown  into  the  carts  by  the 
hand,  and  not  pricked  by  means  of  forks  or  graips  ;  the  cart  should  be 
placed  alongside  the  drill  near  two  or  more  heaps  ;  and  the  carter  should 
manage  the  horses  and  assist  in  the  filling,  until  the  turnips  rise  so  high  in 
the  cart  as  to  recjuire  from  him  a  little  adjustment  in  heaping,  to  prevent 
their  falling  oft"  in  the  journey. 

(1012.)  As  it  is  scarcely  probable  that  your  field-workers  will  be  so  nu- 
merous as  to  top  and  tail  and  assist  in  filling  at  the  same  tune,  so  as  to 
keep  even  2  carts  at  work,  it  will  be  necessary  for  them  to  begin  the  pull- 
ing so  much  sooner,  whether  one  yoking,  or  a  whole  day,  or  two  days,  but 
80  much  sooner,  according  to  the  bulk  of  the  crop,  as  to  keep  the  carts 
going  when  they  begin  to  drive  away  the  turnips  ;  for  it  at  all  times  im- 
plies bad  management  to  let  horses  wait  longer  in  the  field  than  the  time 
occupied  in  filling  the  cart.  And  yet  how  common  an  occurrence  it  is  to 
see  horses  waiting  until  the  turnips  are  pulled  and  tailed  and  thrown  into 
the  cart  by  perhaps  only  2  women,  the  carter  building  them  up  not  as  fast 
as  he  can  get  them,  but  as  slow  as  he  can  induce  the  women  to  give  them  ! 
The  driving  away  should  not  commence  at  all  until  there  is  sufficient 
quantity  of  turnips  prepared  to  employ  at  least  two  carts  one  yoking  ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  allow  more  turnips 
than  will  employ  that  number  of  carts  for  that  time  to  lie  upon  the  ground 
before  being  carried  away,  in  case  frost  or  rain  should  prevent  the  carts 
entering  the  field  as  .long  as  to  endanger  the  quality  of  the  turnip. 

(1013.)  Dry  weather  should  be  chosen  for  the  pulling  of  turnips,  not 
only  for  the  sake  of  cleanliness  to  the  turnips  themselves,  but  for  the  sake 
of  the  land,  which  should  be  cut  up  and  poached  by  cart-wheels  and  liorses' 
feet  as  little  as  possible;  because,  when  land  is  much  cut  up  in  canying 
away  turnips,  sheep  have  a  veiy  uncomfortable  lair,  the  ruts  forming  ready 
receptacles  for  water,  and  are  not  soon  emptied.  No  doubt  thorough- 
draining  assists  to  make  land  proof  against  such  a  condititm  ;  but  let  the 
land  be  ever  so  well  drained,  its  nature  cannot  thereby  be  entirely  changed 
— clay  will  always  have  a  tendency  to  retain  water  on  its  surface  and  soil 
everything  that  touches  it,  when  wetted  by  recent  rains  ;  and  deep  loam 
and  black  mould  will  still  be  penetrated  by  horses'  hoofs,  and  rise  in  large 
masses  with  wheels  immediately  after  rain.  No  turnips  should  therefore 
be  led  oft*  fields  consisting  of  these  sorts  of  soils,  however  well  drained, 
immediately  after  or  during  severe  rain  ;  nor  should  they  be  pulled  at  all, 
until  the  ground  has  again  become  consolidated. 

(1014.)  In  commencing  the  pulling  of  turnips,  one  of  the  fields  intended 
to  sup])<)rt  sheep  should  first  be  taken,  in  order  to  prepare  space  for  them  ; 
and  this  is  done  while  all  the  stock  are  engaged  on  ])asture,  which  should 
not  be  bared  too  much,  in  case  the  sheep  that  are  to  be  fed  oft'  on  turnips 
fall  off" in  condition  upon  it. 

(1015.)  Should  the  weather  prove  unfavorable  at  the  beginning  of  the 
season — that  is,  too  wet  or  too  frosty — there  should  no  more  turnips  be 
pulled  and  canied  than  will  suffice  for  the  daily  consumption  of  the  cattle 
in  the  steading  ;  but  whenever  the  ground  is  dry  and  firm  and  the  air 
fresh,  no  o])j)ortunity  should  be  neglected  except  from  other  more  impor- 
tant operations — siich  as  the  wheat-seed — of  storing  as  large  a  quantity  as 
the  time  will  permit,  to  be  used  when  the  weather  proves  inteiruptive  to 
field  operations.  This  is  a  very  important  matter,  and,  as  I  conceive,  much 
neglected  by  most  farmers,  who   too  frequently  place   their  cattle   fi-om 

(812) 


DRAWING  AND  STORING  TURNIPS.  429 

hand  to  mouth  for  food.  A  very  common  practice  is  to  employ  one  or  two 
carts  an  afternoon's  yoking,  to  bring  In  as  many  turnips  as  will  serve  the 
cattle  for  two  or  three  days  at  most,  and  these  are  brought  in  with  the 
tops  on,  after  much  time  has  been  spent  in  the  field  In  waiting  for  the  pull- 
ing and  tailing  of  the  turnips.  This  slovenly  mode  of  providing  provender 
for  cattle  should  be  abandoned.  It  should  be  considered  a  work  of  the 
first  importance  in  winter  to  provide  cattle  with  turnips  in  the  very  best 
condition,  independent  of  the  vicissitudes  of  the  weather ;  and  this  can 
only  be  done  by  storing  a  considerable  quantity  of  them  in  good  weather, 
to  be  used  when  the  weather  changes  to  a  worse  state.  When  a  store  is 
once  made,  the  mind  becomes  easy  under  the  certainty  of  having,  let  the 
weather  prove  ever  so  unpropitious,  plenty  of  good  food  provided  at  home 
for  the  cattle,  and  having  such  a  provision  does  not  prevent  you  taking 
supplies  from  the  field  as  long  as  the  weather  permits  the  ground  to  be 
carted  upon  with  impunity,  to  be  immediately  consumed  or  to  augment 
the  store.  How  much  better  for  all  parties — for  yourself,  for  men,  horses 
and  cattle — to  be  always  provided  with  plenty  of  turnips,  instead  of  being 
obliged  to  go  to  the  field  for  every  day's  supply,  and  perhaps  under  the 
most  uncomfortable  circumstances  !  I  believe  few  farmers  Avould  refuse 
their  assent  to  this  truth  ;  and  yet,  how  many  violate  it  in  their  own  prac- 
tice !  The  excuses  usually  made  for  pursuing  the  ordinary  practice  are, 
that  there  is  no  time  to  store  turnips  when  the  potato-land  should  be 
plowed  up  and  sown  with  wheat ;  that  the  beasts  are  yet  doing  well 
enough  upon  the  pasture  ;  and  that  it  is  a  pity  to  pull  the  turnips  while 
they  continue  to  grow.  It  is  proper  to  bestow  all  the  time  required  to  plow 
and  sow  the  potato-land;  and,  after  a  late  hai'vest,  these  may  have  to  be 
done  after  the  pasture  has  failed ;  but  such  an  occunence  as  the  last  being 
the  exception  to  the  usual  condition  of  the  crops  and  seasons,  ought  not 
to  be  adduced  as  an  excuse  applicable  at  all  times  ;  and  as  to  the  other 
excuses,  founded  upon  the  growing  state  of  the  turnips  and  the  rough  state 
of  the  pastures,  they  are  of  no  force  when  adduced  in  compensation  for 
the  risk  of  loss  likely  to  be  incuiTed  by  a  low  condition  in  the  stock. 
Rather  than  incur  such  a  risk,  give  up  the  rough  pasture  to  the  sheep,  or 
delay  the  working  and  sowing  of  the  potato-land,  or  sacrifice  a  portion  of 
the  weight  of  a  small  part  of  the  turnip  crop  by  pulling  it  before  reach- 
ing entire  maturity.  As  for  sheep,  they  are  never  at  a  loss  for  food,  being 
constantly  surrounded  with  turnips  as  long  as  the  ground  is  bare. 

(1016.)  The  storing  of  turnips  is  very  well  done  in  this  way  :  Let  a 
piece  of  lea  ground,  convenient  of  access  to  cai'ts,  be  chosen  near  the 
steading  for  the  site  of  the  store,  and.  if  that  be  in  an  adjoining  field,  on  a 
15-feet  ridge,  so  much  the  better,  provided  the  ridge  runs  N.  and  S.  Fig. 
213  represents  the  form  of  the  tm'nip-store.  The  cart  with  the  topped  and 
tailed  turnips  is  backed  to  the  spot  of  the  ridge  chosen  to  begin  the  store, 
and  there  emptied  of  its  contents.  The  ridge  being  15  feet  wide,  the  store 
should  not  exceed  10  feet  wide  at  the  bottom,  to  allow  a  space  of  at  least 
2^  feet  on  each  side  toward  the  open  fun-ow  of  the  ridge,  for  the  fall  and 
conveyance  of  water.  The  turnips  may  be  pijed  up  to  the  hight  of  4  feet, 
but  will  not  easily  lie  to  5  feet  on  that  width  of  base.  In  this  vs^ay,  the 
store  may  be  formed  of  any  length  ;  but  it  is  more  desirable  to  make  two 
or  three  stores  on  adjoining  ridges  than  a  very  long  one  on  the  same  ridge, 
as  its  farthest  end  may  be  too  far  removed  for  using  a  wheel-barrow  to  re- 
move the  stored  turnips.  Assorted  straw,  that  is,  drawn  out  lengthwise, 
is  put  from  4  to  6  inches  thick  above  the  turnips  for  thatch,  and  kept  down 
by  means  of  straw-ropes,  arranged  lozenge-shaped,  and  fastened  to  pegs 
driven  in  a  slanting  direction  in  the  ground,  along  the  base  of  the  straw, 


430 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE   FARM WINTER. 


as  may  be  distinctly  seen  in  the  figure.  Or  a  spading  of  earth,  taken  out 
of  the  furrow,  may  be  placed  up<jn  the  ends  of  the  ropes  to  keep  them 
down.  The  straw'  is  not  intended  to  keep  out  either  rain  or  air — for  both 
are  requisite  to  preserve  the  turnips  fresh — but  to  protect  them  from  frost, 

Fig.  213. 


THE    TKIASGULAR  TUR.V1P-3T0RE. 


which  causes  rottenness,  and  from  drouth,  which  shrivels  turnips.  To 
avoid  frost  the  end,  and  not  the  side,  of  the  store  should  be  presented  to 
the  north,  whence  frost  may  be  expected  to  come.  If  the  ground  chosen 
is  so  flat,  and  the  open  fiirrows  are  so  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  ridges  as 
that  a  dash  of  rain  would  overflow  the  bottom  of  the  store,  a  furrow-slice 
should,  in  that  case,  be  taken  out  of  the  open  furrows  of  the  ridges  with 
tbe  plow,  or  a  gaw-cut  made  with  the  spade,  and  the  earth  used  to  keep 
down  the  ropes. 

(1017.)  When  the  turnips  are  to  be  used  from  the  store,  the  straw  on 
the  south  end  is  removed,  as  seen  in  fig.  213,  and  a  cart,  or  the  cattle-man's 
capacious,  light  wheel-barrow, backed  to  it;  and,  after  the  requisite  quan- 
tity for  the  day  has  been  taken  out,  it  should  be  replaced  over  the  mouth 
of  the  store. 

(1018.)  Some  people  evince  a  desire  to  place  the  turnip-store  in  the 
stack-yard,  on  account,  perhaps,  of  the  straw ;  but  there  is  not  likely  to 
be  sufficient  room,  especially  at  the  beginning  of  winter,  for  the  turning 
of  carts  in  an  ordinary-sized  stack-yard.  I  have  seen  turnips  stored  up  be- 
tween two  stacks,  in  the  early  part  of  the  season,  but  only  as  a  tempo- 
rary expedient,  when  there  was  a  scarcity  of  straw. 

(1019.)This  is  not  the  only  form  of  store  that  will  preserve  turnips  fresh 
and  good  for  a  considerable  time.  I  have  seen  turnips  heaped  about  3 
feet  in  hight,  quite  flat  on  tlie  top,  and  covered  with  loose  straw,  keep 
very  well.  Other  ])lans  have  been  devised  and  tried,  such  as  to  pull  them 
from  the  field  in  which  they  have  grown,  and  sot  them  upright  with  their 
tops  on  in  another  field,  in  a  furrow  made  with  the  plow,  and  then  cover 
the  bulbs  with  the  next  furrow-slice;  and  another  plan  is  to  pull  the  tur- 
nips as  in  the  former  case,  and  carry  them  to  a  bare  or  lea  field,  and  set 
them  upright  beside  one  another,  as  close  as  they  can  stand,  with  their 
tops  and  roots  on.  No  doubt  both  these  latter  plans  will  kecj)  turnips 
fresh  enough,  and  an  area  of  1  acre  will,  by  these  methods,  contain  the 
growth  of  4  or  5  acres  of  the  field  in  which  they  had  grown  ;  but  turnips 
are  certainly  not  so  secure  from  frost  in  those  positions  as  in  a  store  ;  an^ 
after  the  trouble  of  lifting  and  carrying  them  has  been  incuned,  it  would 
be  as  easy  to  take  them  to  a  proper  store  ^t  once,  where  they  would  be 

(814) 


DRAWING  AND  STORING  TURNIPS.  431 

near  at  hand,  and  save  the  farther  trouble  of  bringing  them  again  from  the 
second  field.  And  even  if  they  were  so  set  in  a  field  adjoining  the  stead- 
ing, they  would  occupy  a  much  larger  space  than  any  store.  Objection- 
able as  these  plans  are,  compared  to  triangular  or  flat-topped  stores,  they 
are  better  than  storing  turnips  in  houses,  where  they  never  fail  to  sprout 
on  the  top  and  become  rotten  at  the  bottom  of  the  bin.  Piling  them 
against  a  high  wall,  and  thatching  them  like  a  to-fall,  preserves  them  very 
little  better  than  in  an  outhouse.  Stored  in  close  houses,  turnips  never 
fail  to  rot  at  the  bottom  of  the  heap  ;  and  the  heat  engendered  thereby 
not  only  endangers  the  rest  of  the  heap,  but  superinduces  on  its  surface  a 
premature  vegetation,  very  exhausting  to  the  substance  of  the  bulbs.  Tur- 
nips put  into  pits  dug  in  the  ground,  and  covered  with  earth,  have  failed 
to  be  preserved.  A  plan  has  been  recommended  to  drive  stakes  2^  feet 
high  into  the  ground,  and  wattle  them  together  with  brushwood,  making 
an  inclosure  of  3  sides,  in  the  interior  of  which  the  turnips  are  packed, 
and  piled  up  to  a  point,  and  thatched,  like  the  store  in  fig.  213;  and  the 
turnips  are  represented  as  keeping  fresh  in  such  a  structure  until  June  ; 
and  one  advantage  attending  this  plan  is  said  to  be,  that  "  where  room  is 
rather  limited  in  the  rick-yard,  one  pile  of  this  description  will  contain  3 
times  as  much  as  one  of  those  placed  on  the  ground  of  a  triangular  shape  ; 
and  the  saving  of  thatcn  is  also  considerable."*  But,  as  it  appears  to  me, 
the  providing  of  stakes  and  the  trouble  of  wattling  around  an  inclosure 
will  far  more  than  counterbalance  any  advantage  of  space  or  saving  of 
straw  for  thatch,  compared  with  the  mode  I  have  described  in  fig.  213  ; 
and  besides  all  these  inconveniences  attending  the  plan,  there  is  no  neces- 
sity whatever  for  having  a  turnip-store  in  a  rick-yard. 

(1020.)  With  regard  to  storing  mangel-icurzel,  this  plan  seems  unexcep 
tioiiable.  "  It  should  be  stored  early  in  November.  The  best  and  cheap- 
est mode  is  to  build  it  up  against  some  high  wall,  contiguous  to  your 
beasts'  sheds,  not  more  than  7  or  8  feet  deep,  can-ied  up  square  to  a  cer- 
tain hight,  and  then  tapering  in  a  roof  to  the  top  of  the  wall ;  protect  the 
sides  with  thatched  hurdles,  leaving  an  interval  between  the  roots  and  the 
hurdles,  which  fill  up  with  dry  stubble  (straw) ;  cover  the  roof  with  about 
1  foot  of  the  same,  and  then  thatch  it,  so  as  to  conduct  all  moisture  well 
over  the  hurdles  placed  as  a  protection  to  the  sides.  In  pulling  the  plants, 
care  should  be  taken  that  as  little  injury  be  inflicted  upon  them  as  possi- 
ble. Cleansing  with  a  knife  should  on  no  account  be  permitted,  and  it  is 
safer  to  leave  some  of  the  leaf  on,  than,  by  cutting  it  too  close  to  impair 
the  crown  of  the  root.  The  drier  the  season  is  for  storing  the  better ; 
although  I  have  never  found  the  roots  decayed  in  the  heap  by  the  earth, 
which,  in  wet  weather,  has  been  brought  from  the  field  adhering  to  them."t 
Carrots  may  be  stored  exactly  in  the  same  manner,  and  so  may  parsnips. 
Cabbages  are  stored  by  being  soughed  into  the  soil,  or  hung  up  by  the 
stems,  with  the  heads  downward,  in  a  shed.  As  cabbages  are  very  ex- 
hausting to  the  soil,  the  plants  should  be  pulled  up  by  the  roots  when  they 
are  gathered,  and  the  stems  not  merely  cut  over  with  a  hook  or  knife,  be- 
cause they  will  sprout  again. 

(1021.)  All  these  modes  of  storing  turnips  apply  to  all  the  varieties  of 
the  root  usually  caltivated,  and  which  are  much  more  numerous  than  ne- 
cessary. Mr.  Lawson  enumerates  and  describes  no  fewer  than  46  varie- 
ties cultivated  in  the  field  ;  namely,  11  of  Swedes,  17  of  yellow,  and  18 
of  white,.|  the  color  names  being  derived  as  much  from  the  color  of  the 
flesh  as  that  of  the  skin.     One  kind  from  each   of  these  classes  seems  al- 

•  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asricultural  Society  of  En!?Iand,  vol.  ii.  t  Ibid.,  vol.  ii. 

+  Lawsou's  Agriculturista'  Manual,  and  Supplement. 
(815)  ^^ 


432  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

most  requisite  to  be  cultivated  on  every  farm,  although  the  yellow  is  omit- 
ted in  some  districts,  and  the  Swedes  in  others.  Where  Swedes  are  omit- 
ted, they  have  never  been  cultivated,  and  where  the  yellow  is  the  favorite, 
the  Swedes  are  unknown;  for  where  they  are  kno\%Ti  their  culture  is  never 
relinquished,  and  their  extension  is  treading  hard  upon  the  yellow,  and 
even  curtailing  the  boundary  of  the  white.  The  white  varieties  come  eai*- 
liest  into  use,  and  will  always  be  esteemed  on  account  of  their  rapid  growth 
and  early  maturity,  though  unable  to  withstand  the  severest  effects  of  frost. 
It  is  they  which  first  support  both  cattle  and  sheep,  being  ready  for  use  as 
soon  as  the  pasture  fails;  and  in  storing  them,  only  such  a  quantity  should 
be  prepared  as  will  last  to  the  end  of  the  year.  The  yellows  then  follow, 
and  last  for  about  2  months,  that  is,  to  the  end  of  February  or  thereabout; 
and  the  same  nile  of  storing  a  quantity  for  a  specified  time  is  followed  in 
regard  to  them  as  with  the  whites.  Then  the  Swedes  finish  the  course, 
and  should  last  until  the  grass  is  able  to  support  the  cattle,  that  is,  to  the 
end  of  May,  or  beginning  of  June,  to  which  time  they  will  continue  fresh 
in  store,  if  stored  in  proper  time  and  in  the  manner  recommended  above  ; 
and  the  most  proper  time  for  storing  them  is  before  any  vegetation  makes 
its  appearance  on  them  in  spring,  which  is  generally  about  the  end  of 
March  or  beginning  of  April. 

(1022.)  Of  all  the  18  varieties   of  white  turnips,  I  should   say  that  the 
White  Globe  (Brassica  rapa,  deprcssa,  alba,  of  De  CandoUe)  a,  fig.  214, 

Fig.  214. 


THE  WHITE  GLOBE  TURNIP.       THE  PURPLE  TOP  SWEDISH       THE  ABERnEEN?HinE  YELLOW 

TURNIP.  BULLOCK  TURNIP. 

is  the  best  for  early  maturity,  sweetness,  juiciness,  size  of  root,  weight  of 
crop,  and  elegance  of  form.  Its  form  is  nearly  globular,  as  its  name  indi- 
cates ;  skin  smooth,  somewhat  oily,  fine,  and  perfectly  white  ;  neck  of  the 
top  and  tap-root  small  ;  leaves  long  (frequently  18  inches),  upright,  and 
luxuriant.  Though  the  root  does  not  feel  particularly  heavy  in  the  hand, 
it  does  not  emit  a  hollow  sound  when  struck  ;  its  flesh  is  somewhat  firm, 
fine-grained,  though  distinctly  exhibiting  fibres  radiating  from  the  center  ; 
the  juice  ea.-^ily  exudes,  and  the  rind  is  thin.  Its  specific  gravity  wa.s  de- 
termined by  Dr.  Skene  Keith  at  0-840  ;  and  its  nutritive  properties  by  Sir 
Humphry  Davy,  at  42  parts  in  1,000;  of  which  were,  of  mucilage  7,  of 
sugar  2\,  and  of  albumen  or  gluten  1.*  Mr.  Sinclair  mentions  this  re- 
markable fact  in  regard  to  the  white  turnip,  that  the  quantity  of  nutritive 
matter  contained  in  different  roots  of  the  same  variety  varies  according  to 
the  size  and  texture  of  their  substances.  Thus,  a  root  of  the  white-loaf 
turnip,  measuring  7  inches  in  diameter,  afforded  only  72^  grains  ;  while 
the  same  (]uantity  of  a  root  which  measured  only  4  inches,  aflV)rded  SO 
grains."  So  he  forms  this  important  conclusion,  that  "  the  middle-sized 
roots  of  the  common  tumip  are  therefore  the  most  nutritious."! 

(1023.)  I  suspect  that  our  crops  of  white  globe  turnip  ordinarily  consist 

•  Davy's  Agricultural  Chemistry.  «-<lilion  of  1^39. 
t  Sinclair's  Hornis  Gramineus  WobJimensis,  edition  of  1824. 
(81fi) 


DRAWING   AND   STORING   TURNIPS.  433 

of  middle-sized  bulbs,  or  they  contain  many  blanks,  as  the  following  state- 
ment tends  to  show.  Taking  the  distance  between  the  turnips  at  9  inches 
— being  that  at  which  white  turnips  are  usually  thinned  out — and  taking 
the  distance  between  the  drills  at  27  inches — the  usual  one — these  dis- 
tances embrace  an  area  of  243  square  inches  of  ground,  for  each  turnip. 
On  each  turnip  occnpying  that  area,  there  should  be  25,813  turnips  per 
acre  imperial  ;  and  taking  30  tons  per  acre  as  a  fair  crop,  each  turnip  will 
weigh  nearly  1  lb.  1  oz.  !  Now,  in  an  ordinary  crop  of  white-globe  tur- 
nips it  is  not  beyond  the  truth  to  take  them  at  6  inches  in  diameter  over- 
head ;  and  having  the  specific  gravity  of  white  turnip  as  mentioned  above, 
a  6-inch  turnip  should  weigh  6  lbs.,  and  the  crop  of  course  be,  per  acre, 
69  tons  2  cwt.,  instead  of  30  tons.  The  inevitable  conclusion  is,  either 
that  blanks,  to  the  enormous  extent  of  being  able  to  contain  39  tons  2  cwt. 
of  tuiTiips  per  acre,  occur  in  the  ordinary  crops  of  white  globes — that  is, 
the  number  on  the  acre  is  only  9,445  turnips,  instead  of  25,813  ;  or  the 
average  distance  between  the  turnips  may  be  20  inches  instead  of  9. 
When  actual  results  fall  so  very  far  short  of  anticipation,  the  important  and 
interesting  inquiry  arises.  Whether  the  great  deficiency  is  occasioned  by 
the  death  of  plants  after  the  singling  process  has  been  completed  ]  or  the 
average  size  and  weight  of  each  turnip  are  much  less  than  we  imagine  ? 
or  the  distance  left  by  the  singling  is  greater  than  we  desire  "? — or  from  all 
these  causes  combined  1  From  whichever  of  these  causes,  singly  or  com- 
bined, the  result  arises,  it  is  worthy  of  serious  investigation  by  the  farmer  ; 
for  the  bulk  of  the  crop  may  really  depend  more  on  these  less  obvious 
circumstances  than  on  the  mode  of  culture.     Let  us  see. 

(1024.)  Weights  and  sizes  of  turnips  have  already  been  ascertained 
with  sufficient  accuracy.  The  white  globes  exhibited  at  the  Show  of  the 
Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  at  Inverness  in  October,  1839,  gave  a 
girth  varying  28^  to  34  inches,  and  a  weight  varying  still  more— from  8 
lbs.  to  15^  lbs.  each  root ;  so  that  3  roots  of  the  same  girth  of  30^  inches, 
varied  in  weight  respectively  8  lbs.,  d^  lbs.,  and  14^  lbs.*  After  the  state- 
ment of  these  facts,  our  surprise  at  realization  falling  so  far  short  of  ex- 
pectation may  be  moderated ;  for  we  see  crops,  of  appai'ently  the  same 
bulk,  weigh  differently  •,  and  turnips  growing  on  the  same  field  exhibit 
different  fattening  properties ;  and  different  localities  produce  turnips  of 
different  bulk.  Whence  arise  these  various  results  ]  These  weights  are 
by  no  means  the  utmost  to  which  this  turnip  attains,  examples  occurring 
in  some  seasons  of  weights  from  18  lbs.  to  23  lbs.  ;t  and  I  have  pulled  one 
from  among  Swedes,  weighing  29  lbs.,  including  the  top.|  From  30  to  40 
tons  per  imperial  acre  is  a  good  crop  of  this  kind  of  turnip. 

(1025.)  Of  the  yellow  turnip,  Mr.  Lawson  has  described  17  varieties,  of 
which  perhaps  the  greatest  favorite  is  the  green-top  Aberdeen  Yellow 
Bullock  ( Brassica  rapa,  dcpressa,  Jlavcscens,  of  De  Candolle).  This  is  a 
good  turnip,  of  the  form  of  an  oblate  spheroid,  as  seen  at  c,  fig.  214  ;  color 
of  the  skin  below  the  ground,  as  well  as  of  the  flesh,  a  deep  yellow  or- 
ange, and  that  of  the  top  bright  green.  The  leaves  are  about  1  foot  lono-, 
dark  green,  rather  soft,  spreading  over  the  bulb,  and  collected  into  a  small 
girth  at  the  top  of  the  turnip  ;  the  tap-root  small.  Its  specific  gravity,  as 
determined  by  Dr.  Keith,  is  0-940  ;  and  its  nutritive  property,  according 
to  Sinclair,  is  44  in  1,000  parts,  of  which  4f  are  of  mucilage,  37f  of  sugar, 
and  l\  of  bitter  extract  or  saline  matters.     This  root  feels  firm  and  heavy 

I  '?v^'"v^'^''^  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  x.  t  Lawson'a  Agriculturist's  Manual. 

D  1      5;°''"'"^"  Mercury,  of  July.  1841,  makes  mention  of  a  turnip— a  white  one,  we  presume— exhibited 
at  Pakenham  market,  and  sent  from  Van  Diemen's  Land  in  strong  brine,  which  weiahed  8-1  lbs.,  having  a 
girth  of  o  teet  2  inches.     It  is  said  to  have  weighed  92  lbs.  when  pulled. 
(S65) «8  .    °  ^ 


434  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

in  the  haiul,  with  a  Bkin  smooth  and  fine,  flesh  firm,  but  not  so  juicy,  noi 
the  rind  so  thin  as  the  globe. 

(1026.)  Selected  specimens  exhibit  a  circumference  of  the  larger  diame- 
ter of  fi-om  27  to  30  inches,  which  vary  in  weight  from  6  lbs.  to  8i  lbs. 
each,  but  specimens  may  be  found  weighing  as  much  as  from  9  to  1 1  lbs., 
and  those  of  the  same  diameter  sometimes  show  a  difference  of  1  lb.  in 
weight  :  yellow  turnips  seldom  yield  so  heavy  a  crop  as  either  the  globe 
or  Swedes,  30  tons  the  imperial  acre  being  a  good  crop ;  but  their  power 
of  fattening  is  greater  than  tliat  of  white  tuniips.  In  some  parts  of  the 
kingdom,  they  are  grown  in  preference  to  Swedes,  especially  where  light 
soils  predominate  ;  but  from  my  own  experience  in  raising  Swedes  on  the 
driest  gi-avelly  soil,  of  a  superior  description  to  the  yellow,  I  believe  that 
if  Swedes  always  received  the  sort  of  culture  they  require,  they  would  in 
every  soil  exceed  the  yellows  in  weight  and  nutrition  ;  and  a  strong  proof 
of  the  soundness  of  this  opinion  may  be  found  in  the  rapid  inroads  which 
they  have  of  late  years  made,  and  are  making,  upon  the  confines  of  the 
yellows. 

(1027.)  Of  the  IS  varieties  of  the  Swedish  turnip  described  by  Mr. 
Lawson,  the  Purple-Top  (Brassica  camj^cstris,  najw-hrassica,  rutahaga,  of 
De  Candolle,)  has  long  obtained  the  preference,  and  certainly  if  weight 
of  crop,  nutritious  property,  and  durability  of  texture  are  valuable  proper- 
ties in  a  turnip,  none  can  exceed  the  Swedes.  They  are  of  an  oblong 
form,  as  seen  at  b,  in  fig.  214,  having  the  color  under  ground  and  of  the 
flesh  a  deep  yellow  orange,  and  the  upper  part  above  the  ground  a  dusky 
purple.  The  leaves  are  about  1  foot  long,  standing  nearly  upright,  of  a 
bluish  green  color,  and  gi'owing  out  of  a  firm  conical  base,  which  forms 
the  neck  of  the  bulb.  The  skin  is  somewhat  rough,  the  rind  thicker  than 
either  of  the  two  former  sorts  of  turnip,  and  the  flesh  firm.  This  turnip 
feels  heavy  and  very  hard  in  the  hand.  According  to  Dr.  Keith,  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  the  yellow  Swede  is  1,035,  and  of  the  white  1,022,  and  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  estimates  its  nutritive  property  at  64  in  1,000  parts,  of 
which  9  are  starch,  51  sugar,  2  gluten,  and  2  extract.  Dr.  Keith  states 
that  he  found  the  Swedish  tuniip  heaviest  in  April,  at  the  shooting  out  of 
the  new  leaves,  and  that  after  its  flower  stem  is  fairly  shot  in  June,  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  root  decreases  to  0*94,  that  exactly  of  the  yellow  tur- 
nip. This  fact  shows  the  relative  values  of  those  turnips,  and  also  of  the 
time  in  spring,  namely,  before  April,  for  storing  the  Swedes,  after  \\hich 
they  should  not  remain  in  the  ground  in  a  growing  state.  As  Sir  Hum- 
phry experimented  on  Swedish  turnips  gi'own  in  the  neighborhood  of 
London,  whore  they  are  confessedly  inferior  to  those  in  the  northern  coun 
ties,  his  results  as  to  their  nutritive  properties  may  be  considered  below 
the  true  mark. 

(1028.)  Picked  specimens  have  exhibited  a  girth  of  from  25  to  28 
inches,  varying  in  weight  from  7  lbs.  to  9^  lbs.,  but  the  weight  of  this,  like 
all  other  turnips,  is  not  in  proportion  to  the  bulk,  as  a  25-inch  one  gave  a 
weight  of  9^  lbs.,  while  one  that  measured  26  inclies  only  weighed  7  lbs. 
It  is  not  an  uncommon  thing,  however,  to  see  tiicm  from  8  lbs.  to  10^  lbs. 
A  crop  of  from  16  to  20  tons  may  be  obtained  by  very  ordinary  culture, 
but  in  the  neighborhood  of  large  towns,  such  as  Etiinburgh,  from  28  to 
34  tons  are  obtained  on  the  imperial  acre  I  have  heard  of  50  or  60  tons 
boasted  of,  but  suspect  that  such  weights  had  been  calculated  for  the 
whole  field  from  very  limited  and  selected  spots  ;  nevertheless,  a  large 
and  equal  crop  will  sometimes  be  obtained,  under  favorable  circumstances, 
for  I  remember  seeing  a  crop  of  50  acres  within  the  policy  of  "Wedder- 
burn,  Berwickshire,  in  1815,  then  farmed  by  Mr.  Joseph  Tod,  Whitelaw, 

(866) 


DRAWING  AND  STORING  TURNIPS.  435 


on  traversing  which  I  could  not  detect  a  single  turnip  of  less  apparent  size 
than  a  man's  head.  The  crop  was  in  no  part  weighed,  but  it  was  let  to 
be  consumed  by  cattle  and  sheep,  the  half  being  eaten  off  by  wether  sheep 
at  6d.  a  head  per  week,  and  realized  c€21  per  imperial  acre  !  Taking  a 
man's  head  at  7  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  specific  gravity  of  a  Swedish 
turnip  at  1-035,  the  weight  of  each  turnip  should  have  been  Hi  lbs.,  and 
taking  19,360  tuniips  per  acre,  at  12  inches  apart,  the  distance  at  which 
Swedish  turnips  are  singled,  and  27  inches  wide  in  the  diill,  the  weight  of 
the  crop  should  have  been  99  tons  7  cwt.  Taking  the  calculation  in 
another  form,  let  us  see  the  result  of  =£21  at  6d.  a  head  per  week.  That 
gives  32  sheep  to  the  acre,  and  taking  Mr.  Curwen's  estimate  of  a  sheep 
eating  24  lbs.  a  day,  exclusive  of  4  lbs.  a  day  of  waste,  for  180  days,  oi 
half  a  year,  the  weight  of  crop  by  this  method  should  have  been  61  tons 
14  cwt.  Statements,  however,  regarding  the  quantity  of  turnips  eaten  by 
sheep  are  various.  One  given  by  Sir  John  Sinclair  is  a  consumption  of 
21  acres  of  44  tons  each,  by  300  sheep  in  180  days,  or  half  a  year,  which 
gives  38  lbs.  a  day  for  each  sheep.*  If  we  take  this  allowance  of  38  lbs. 
the  crop  mentioned  above  should  have  weighed  85  tons  1  cwt.  to  have 
paid  c£21  per  acre  !  The  usual  allowance  is  16  young  sheep  to  the  or- 
dinary acre  of  30  tons,  which  is  23^  lbs.  a  day  to  each,  and  10  old  sheep, 
which  is  37^  lbs.  to  each,  and  both  are  probably  near  the  truth ;  but  the 
exact  consumption  of  food  by  live-stock  is  a  subject  worthy  of  experi- 
mental investigation. 

(1029.)  The  proportion  of  the  top  to  the  root  is  less  in  the  Swedish  than 
in  other  sorts  of  turnips,  as  evinced  in  the  experiments  of  Mr.  Isaac  Ev- 
erett, South  Creake,  Norfolk,  which,  on  a  crop  of  Swedes  gi'own  at  18 
inches,  and  27  inches  apart  in  the  rows,  of  an  average  of  17  tons  9  cwt., 
gave  3  tons  3  cwt.  of  tops,  on  the  15th  December,  after  which  they  were 
not  worth  weighing ;  and  while  mentioning  this  experiment,  I  may  advert 
to  a  fact  derivable  from  it,  that  tops  are  lighter  in  a  crop  raised  on  drills 
than  one  in  rows  on  the  flat  surface  ;  that  is,  while,  in  the  above  case,  28 
tons  8  cwt.  of  topped  and  tailed  turnips  afforded  only  5  tons  10  cwt.  of  tops 
from  the  drilled  land,  those  from  the  rows  on  the  flat  surface  yielded  6 
tons  16  cwt.  from  a  crop  very  little  heavier,  namely,  28  tons  16  cwt. 

(1030.)  The  yellow  turnip  will  continue  fresh  in  the  store  until  late  in 
spring,  but  the  Swedes  have  a  superiority  in  this  respect  to  all  other  tur- 
nips. The  most  remarkable  instance  I  remember  of  Swedes  keepino-  in 
the  store,  in  a  fresh  state,  was  in  Berwickshire,  on  the  farm  of  Whitsome 
Hill,  when  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  George  Brown,  where  a  field  of  25 
acres  of  excellent  Swedes  was  pulled,  rooted,  and  topped,  and  stored  in 
the  manner  already  described,  in  fine  dry  weather  in  November.  This  ex- 
tensive storing  was  undertaken  to  have  the  field  sown  with  wheat.  The 
store  was  opened  in  February,  and  the  cattle  partook  of  the  turnips  and 
continued  to  like  them  until  the  middle  of  June,  when  they  were  sold  fat 
the  turnips  being  then  only  a  little  sprouted,  and  somewhat  shriveled,  but 
exceedingly  sweet  to  the  taste.  There  is  a  property  possessed  by  the 
Swedish  turnip  which  stamps  a  great  value  upon  it  as  a  root  for  feeding 
stock,  which  is,  the  larger  it  gi-ows  the  greater  quantity  of  nutritive  matter 
it  contains.  According  to  Sinclair,  1,728  grains  of  large-sized  Swedes  con- 
tained 110  grains  of  nutritive  matter,  whereas  small-sized  ones  only  yield- 
ed 99  grains,!  affording  a  sufficient  stimulus  to  the  farmer  to  raise  this 
valuable  root  to  the  largest  size  attainable. 

(1031.)  A  comparative  view  of  the  specific  gi-avity  and  nutritive  proper- 

*  Sinclair's  Arcount  of  the  Husbandly  of  Scot' and,  vol.  ii.,  Aopendix. 
t  Sinclair's  Honua  Gramineus  W-jburnensis. 

(867) 


436 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


ties  of  the  turnips  just   descrihorl  may  prnve  to  you   both   an   interesting 
statement  and  a  memorandum  of  facts,  as  far  as  at  present  known. 

Specific  gravity  of  yellow  Pwedieh  turnip  in  December 1-035 

It  is  hcavicdt  in  Apri!.  aboat  the  shooting  of  tlie  new  leaves,  and  in  Jane,  after  ibc 

development  of  iho  flower  Bialk,  it  is 0940 

Specific  gravity  of  wliito  ditto , 1022 

yellow  bullock 0  940 

white  globe 0  840 

carrot '0018 


Grains. 

Mucilngp,   or 
Swrcb. 

Sacchitrinc 
matter. 

(iluien. 

Extract  or 
saline 
manor. 

ToihI  soluble 

or  nutritive 

mailer. 

1,000  of  Swedish  turnip  contain 
yellow  bullock 

9 

7 
13 
2.'>J 
17} 
41 

3 

2 

9 

51 

37J 

34 
119 
106J 
126J 

24 

95 

98 

90 

2 

1 

4 

li 

H 

8 

2 

n 

less  than  1 

1 

i 

1 

64 
44 

42 
136 
135 
146) 

73 

98J 
105 

60 

99t 

mangel-wurzel 

(1032.)  A  summary  of  tlie  foreq-oing  results  may  here  be  given,  thus  :  A 
7-inch  diameter  of  white  turnip  attords  72^  grains,  whereas  a  4-inch  turnip 
yields  80  grains  of  nutiitive  matter  in  the  same  bulk.  On  the  contrary',  a 
large  Swedish  turnip  affords  110  grains,  and  a  small  one  only  99  grains  of 
nutritive  matter  in  the  same  bulk.  Swedi.sh  turnip  is  superior  to  cabbage 
in  nutritive  matterin  the  proportion  of  110  to  107^;  the  white  turnip  in- 
ferior in  the  propoition  of  80  to  1071 ;  and  can-ots  superior  in  the  propor- 
tion of  187  to  107^.  A  good  crop  of  Swedes  weighs  from  30  to  35  tons, 
of  yellow  from  30  to  32  tons,  and  of  white  globe  from  30  to  40  tons  the 
imperial  acre.  A  bushel  of  tumijis  weighs  from  3  stones  to  3  stones  3 
lbs.  of  14  lbs.  to  the  stone,  that  is,  from  42  to  45  lbs.  the  bushel.  A  young 
sheep  eats  about  18  lbs.,  and  an  old  one  about  24  lbs.  of  turnips  eveiy  day;f 
or,  by  another  authority,  a  young  sheep  eats  23  lbs.,  and  an  old  one  37  lbs. 
a  day.  The  usual  allowance  to  an  ordinary  crop  of  turnips  is  20  young 
Black-faced,  or  16  Leicester,  and  1(3  old  Black-faced  and  10  Leicester,  or 
1  three-year-old  ox.  to  the  imperial  acre  ;  that  is,  a  yountj  Black-faced  will 
consume  about  126  lbs.,  an  old  one  168  lbs.  ;  a  young  Leice.^ter  161  lbs., 
an  old  one  259  lbs.,  and  an  ox  about  1  ton  of  turnips  every  week.  For 
sheej)  a  crop  of  turnips  of  30  tons  will  he  required,  and  one  of  26  tons 
will  suffice  for  an  ox  during  ISO  days.  In  makijig  this  last  estimate,  the 
state  of  the  crop  should  be  taken  into  consideration,  a  crop  of  small  yel 
low  or  white  tuniips,  if  regular,  takes  longer  time  to  consume  in  propor- 
tion to  the  bulk  than  a  crop  of  larger  tuniijvs,  but  a  crop  of  large  Swedi.sh 
tuniips,  though  ajiparently  thin  on  the  ground,  takes  a  much  longer  time 
to  be  consumed  than  a  thicker  crop  of  small  roots.  There  is  no  rcrtaivty 
in  these  calculations  ;  at  the  same  time,  they  are  perhaps  near  enough  the 
truth  to  enable  you  to  lay  on  to  turnips  such  a  lot  of  sheep  or  cattle  as 
■will  about  consume  a  crop  in  a  given  time. 

(1033.)  The  ])rices  of  turnips  depend  almost  entirely  t)n  the  demand  of 
the  locality.  In  the  neighborhood  of  towns  they  are  always  high  pnced, 
•where  an  ordinary  crop  of  white  will  fetch  .£10,  of  yellow  c£12,  and  of 
Swedes  -£16  an  imperial  acre.  They  are  chiefly  purchased  by  milkmen, 
or  cow-feedei-s,  as  they  are   usually  called  in  Scotland.     In  the  country, 

•  Keith's  Acriculmrn!  Koiiorl  of  Ahrrdconshire. 

t  Journal  of  the  Koyai  A-,'riiuIiiiral  Society  of  KneUnd,  vol.  ii. ;  Sinclair"!!  Hortus  Graminens  Wobumen 
sis;  Davy's  Agricuiiura!  Chemistry.  J  Curwen's  Agricultural  Hints. 

(868) 


DRAWING   AND   STORING  TURNIPS.  437 

about  <£5  10s.  for  white,  and  =£8  for  Swedish  turnips,  to  be  carried  off  the 
land,  are  given  ;  and,  when  consumed  on  the  gi'ound  by  sheep,  =£3  to  o£5 
an  acre  are  considered  a  fair  price  ;  and,  when  on  the  premises  by  cattle, 
J£5  for  white,  and  from  =£5  to  £7  per  acre  for  Swedes,  with  straw.  A 
fairer  plan  for  both  the  raiser  and  consumer  of  turnips  is  to  let  them  by 
the  week  at  so  much  a  head  of  stock  put  on  to  consume  them.  At  the 
usual  price  of  3d.  per  head  per  week  for  young  sheep,  f  ^r  the  ordinary 
period  of  26  weeks,  makes  a  cost  for  keep  of  6s.  6d.  for  the  season ;  and, 
if  it  take  16  sheep  to  consume  an  acre,  the  turnips  will  realize  about  £5 
5s.  per  acre  For  old  sheep,  6d.  per  head  per  week  is  given,  which  is  just 
double  the  cost  for  the  season  of  the  other — namely,  13s. — which,  for  10 
sheep,  will  realize  c£6  10s.  per  acre.  For  cattle,  5s.  per  head  per  week 
are  given,  with  straw  ;  and,  if  an  ox  take  26  weeks  to  eat  an  acre,  the  tur- 
nips will  realize  c£6  10s.  Thus,  an  acre  of  turnips  that  will  support  10 
old  sheep  for  the  season  is  worth  more  than  one  that  will  support  16  young 
sheep  ;  but  why  old  sheep  should  cost  more  to  keep  them  than  young  does 
not  appear  ;  it  would  be  fairer  for  the  owner  of  the  sheep  to  make  the  rate 
of  keep  exactly  proportionate  between  the  young  and  old.  In  plentiful 
years  2d.,  and  in  scarce  years  4d.  per  head  are  given  for  young  sheep,  and 
other  stock  in  proportion. 

(1034.)  These  three  kinds  of  turnip  seem  to  possess  all  the  properties 
desiderated  by  the  farmer,  and  more  than  these,  in  my  opinion,  need  not 
be  cultivated;  for  although,  in  peculiar  seasons,  it  is  possible  that,  in  a 
particular  locality,  some  other  variety  may  attain  greater  perfection  and 
prolificacy,  yet  I  believe  that,  in  the  long  run,  these  will  bear  comparison 
with  any  variety  that  has  yet  been  introduced  into  cultivation,  provided 
they  are  of  pure  kinds. 

(1035.)  There  are  one  or  two  hybrids  of  turnips  worth  mentioning,  and 
which  are  so  named,  although  it  is  probable  that  most  of  the  varieties  of 
turnips  in  use  are  natural  hybrids.  One  is  called  Dale's  Hybrid,  being  a 
cross  betwixt  the  green-topped  Swede  and  the  globe,  but  whether  the 
white  or  green-topped  globe  I  do  not  know.  It  possesses  more  of  the 
properties  of  the  yellow  turnip  than  of  either  of  its  progenitors  ;  and  it  has 
the  advantage  of  arriving  sooner  at  maturity,  and  may  therefore  be  sown 
later  than  the  ordinary  yellow  turnip.  The  other  hybrid  is  called  the 
Lawtown  Hybrid,  being  a  cross  between  the  green-topped  Swede  and  the 
green-topped  globe,  the  result  of  which  is  a  heart-shaped,  white-fleshed, 
green-topped  turnip,  considerably  harder  than  the  globes,  with  its  leaves 
set  on  like  those  of  the  Swedes.  The  results  of  these  two  crosses  are — a 
yellow  turnip.  Dale's,  which  arrives  sooner  at  maturity  than  the  older  va- 
rieties, and  a  white  globe,  the  Lawtown,  which  is  more  hardy  th  in  any 
other  variety  of  white. 

(1036.)  With  regard  to  the  crop  afforded  by  these  hybrids,  in  an  exper- 
iment made,  in  1835,  by  Mr.  John  Gow,  Fettercairn,  Kincardineshire,  the 
Dale  attained  to  28  inches  in  girth,  and  yielded  23  tons,  and  the  Lawtown 
to  32  inches  in  girth,  and  yielded  27  tons  the  imperial  acre.* 

(1037.)  Although  storing  is  the  proper  method  of  securing  turnips  for 
use  during  a  storm  of  rain  or  snow,  when  the  turnip-field  should  not  be 
entered  by  a  cart,  yet  it  is  necessary  that  you  should  be  provided  with  ex- 
pedients for  obtaining  food  for  your  cattle  should  you  be  overtaken  by  a 
storm,  with  a  scantiness  of  provision  in  hand.  As  both  rain  and  snow  ex- 
hibit prognostics  of  their  approach,  and  should  these  indicate  a  serious  fall 
or  storm,  send  all  the  field-workers  and  plowmen   to  the  tumip-field,  and 

*  Lawson's  Agriculturist's  Manual. 
(669) 


438  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


pull  the  turni])s  in  the  form  in  whifh  the  laud  is  in  the  course  of  being 
stripped;  and,  removing  oidy  the  tails,  throw  the  tuniips  into  heaps  of 
from  3  to  6  cart-loads  each,  according  to  the  tliickness  of  the  crop,  taking 
care  to  place  the  tops  of  the  uppermost  tuniips  an  the  heap  upon  the  out- 
side, in  order  to  protect  the  bull)s  from  frost,  should  it  come  suddenly  and 
unaccompanied  with  snow.  To  these  heaps  rain  will  do  no  harm,  and 
they  will  sene  to  point  out  where  they  are,  should  snow  cover  them  and 
the  ground.  As  the  turnips  gathered  in  frost  or  snow  should  be  immedi- 
ately consumed  and  not  stored,  they  may  be  thrown  into  the  cart  with  a 
fork  or  graip,  and  their  tops  taken  oft'  at  the  steading,  where  this  process 
can  be  done  in  the  severest  weather,  when  women  could  not  stand  out  in 
the  field  to  do  it. 

(1038.)  I  have  given  fig.  215   to  show  you  what  I  conceive  to  be  an  ill- 
fnrmed  turnip,  and  also  one  which  stands  so  much  out  of  the  ground  as  to 

Fig.  215. 


AN  ILL-SHAPED  TURNIP.  THE  TANKARD  TURNIP. 

be  liable  to  injury  from  frost — where  a  is  an  ill-formed  turnip,  inasmuch 
as  the  upper  part  of  it  around  the  top  being  hollow,  rain,  snow  or  rime 
may  lodge  there,  and  find  their  way  into  the  heart,  and  conupt  it,  as  is 
actually  found  to  take  place.  All  white  turnips,  when  allowed  to  remain 
on  the  ground  after  they  have  attained  maturity,  become  soft  and  spongy, 
of  inferior  quality  in  the  heart,  and  susceptible  of  putrefaction,  which  fre- 
quently overtakes  them  in  sudden  changes  from  frost  to  thaw,  and  reduces 
them  into  a  saponaceous  pulp.  This  fact  supplies  a  strong  reason  for  stor- 
ing white  turnips  after  they  come  to  maturity,  which  state  is  indicated  by 
the  leaves  losing  their  green  color  and  becoming  flaccid.  There  are  some 
sorts  of  white  turnips  tliat  become  spongy  in  the  heart  early  in  the  season, 
and  among  these  I  would  pronounce  the  Tankard-shaped,  such  as  is  rep- 
resented by  h  in  fig.  21.');  as  are  also  a  flat-shaped  red-topped,  and  a  small 
flattish  white  turnip,  both,  much  cultivated  among  small  farmers,  because, 
being  small,  they  are  supposed  to  require  little  manure  to  bring  them  to 
maturity,  and  this  class  of  people  are  apt  to  spread  manure  as  thin  as  pos- 
sible upon  th(!  land,  to  make  it  go  the  farther.  I  iummI  scarcely  tell  you 
that  thrift  attends  the  cultivation  of  only  the  best  varieties  of  turnip.  The 
dotted  line  in  figs.  21 1  and  21.'5  represents  the  surface  of  the  ground,  by 
which  will  be  seen  the  relative  depths  to  which  these  kinds  of  turnips  de- 
scend into  the  soil  when  growing. 

(103!).)  I  think  it  useful  to  ^ivc  you  a  tabular  view  of  tlic  nnnibcr  of  turnips  tliore  should  be  on 
i\n  imperial  arre.  at  triven  dlKtanreH  between  the  drills,  and  between  tlic  plants  in  the  drills,  and 
of  the  weii,'ht  of  the  crop  at  speciHod  weights  of  each  turnip,  that  you  may  compare  actual  receipta 
with  defined  data,  and  endeavor  to  ascertain  whether  differences  in  the  crop  in  these  respects 
arise  from  deficiency  of  weight  in  the  tuniip  itself,  or  loo  much  thinning  out  of  the  plants.  The 
distance  between  the  drills  is  taken  at  the  usual  width  of  27  inches:  the  distance  between  the 
plants  is  what  is  allowed  to  the  dilTerent  sorts  of  turnips;  and  the  imperial  acre  coDtains  6,272  640 
(870J 


DRAWING  AND  STORING  TURNIPS. 


439 


square  inches.  On  altering  the  width  between  the  drills,  a  calculation  from  these  data  can  easily 
be  made  of  what  ought  to  be  the  weight  of  crop  at  these  given  weights  of  turnips.  On  comparing 
a  usual  crop  of  20  tons  of  Swedes  with  these  data,  and  keeping  in  view  the  distance  of  12  inches 
aimed  at  between  the  plants,  the  inevitable  conclusion  is  that  the  average  weight  of  each  turnip 
in  that  crop  must  be  less  than  3  lbs.,  or  the  distance  between  the  turnips  greater  than  12  inches. — 
In  the  one  case  your  skill  in  raising  a  crop  is  almost  rendered  abortive,  and  in  the  other  your  neg- 
ligence in  wasting  space  by  too  much  thinning  out  appears  conspicuous.  An  amendment  in  both 
particulars  is  therefore  requisite,  and  fortunatelj'  is  attainable  in  both  ;  for,  as  you  perceive  that 
but  a  slight  difference  in  either  of  these  particulars  makes  a  great  difference  in  the  weight  of  the 
crop,  your  endeavor  should  be  both  to  make  the  turnip  heavy,  and  to  maintain  the  desired  dis- 
tance between  the  plants  inviolate.  For  example,  5lb.  turnips,  at  9  inches  asunder,  give  a  crop 
of  57  tons,  12  cwt.;  whereas  the  same  weight  of  turnip  at  11  inches  apart  gives  a  crop  of  10  tons 
less.  Now,  how  easy  is  it  for  careless  people  to  thin  out  the  plants  to  11  instead  of  9  inches;  and 
yet,  by  so  doing,  a  difference  of  no  less  than  10  ton.s,  or  18  per  cent,  on  a  crop,  is  sacrificed.  And 
again,  a  difference  of  only  1  lb.  on  the  turnip — from  4  lbs.  to  5  lbs. — at  9  inches  asunder,  makes  a 
difference  of  11  tons,  or  25  per  cent,  per  acre  on  the  crop  !  So  that  a  difference  of  only  1  lb.  in 
each  turnip,  and  2  inches  in  the  distance  between  them,  makes  the  enormous  difference  of  21  tons 
on  the  whole  crop  !  "Who  will  say,  after  this,  that  these  particulars  do  not  require  the  most  seri- 
ous consideration  in  the  treatment  of  the  turnip  crop  ? 


UsuhI  distance 

between  the 

drills. 

Usual  distances 
between  the  plants. 

Area  occupied 
by  each  plant. 

Number  of  turnips 
there  should  be 
per  imperial  acre. 

Weight  of  each 
turnip. 

Weight  which 
the  crop  should 
be  per  imp.  acre. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Square  inches. 

Lbs. 

ri 

2 
3 

Tons.  Cwt. 
11      10 
23       0 
34     11 

27 

9 

between  the  plants 

of  white  turnips. 

243 

25,313 

. 

4 
I 

Is 

2 
3 

46       0 
57     12 
69       2 
85       2 
92       0 

10       7 
20     14 
31       1 

27 

10 
between  the  plants 
of  yellow  turnips. 

270 

23,232 

■ 

4 
5 

6 
7 
,8 

41       8 
51     15 
62       2 
72       9 

82     16 

27 

11 

297 

21.120 

-i 

ri 

2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
^8 

ri 

2 
3 

9       8 
18     16 
28       5 
37     13 
47       3 
56     11 
66       0 
75       8 

8     13 
17       6 
25     19 

27 

12 

between  the  plants 

of  Swedes. 

324 

19,360 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

4     12 
43       5 
51     18 
60     11 
69       4 

(1040.)  On  comparing  the  amount  of  what  the  crop  should  be  with  instances  given  in  the  news- 
papers of  what  are  considered  great  crops,  it  will  be  seen  that  these,  after  all.  are  no  more  than 
what  they  should  be  ;  and  they  are  only  the  result  of  what  misht  be  expected  to  be  attained  by 
combined  skill  and  care  in  culture.  In  the  in,stances  adduced  in  the  Mark-Lane  Express  in  1840, 
crops  were  considered  heavy  which  ranged  from  40  to  60  tons  per  acre  ;  and  the  Leinster  Ex- 
press of  the  same  year  mentions  tumijis  having  been  raised  on  Lord  Charleville's  property  in  Ire- 
land to  a  still  greater  amount— namely,  of  yellow  Aberdeen,  49  tons,  13  cwt.;  of  yellow  tancred, 
60  tons,  10  cwt. ;  of  Swedish.  60  tons,  10  cwt. ;  and  of  white  Tancred,  79  tons,  18  cwt.  Such 
statements  prove  one  of  two  things— ekher  that  large  crops  of  turnips  are  more  ea.sily  rai.sed  than 
farmers  deem  practicable,  or  great  errors  have  been  committed  in  making  out  these  results.  It  is 
quite  po8s:.ble  for  great  errors  to  be  committed  in  m.aking  returns  from  any  other  mode  of  ascer- 
tainmg  the  amount  of  a  crop  of  turnips,  than  by  topping  and  tailing  a  whole  field,  and  weitrhing 
every  cart-load  separately.  Tor  example  :  Suppo.se  that  1  square  yard  is  measured  in  a  field  of 
turnips  in  this  way— that  is,  if  the  distance  of  1  yard  is  measured  from  a  himip  fsce  fig.  208)  along 
a  drill,  then  the  yard  will  embrace  5  turnips  of  white  and  4  of  Swedes  ;  whereas,  if  the  measure- 
ment is  begun  between  tieo  turnips,  the  same  measure  will  oiilv  embrace  4  turnips  of  white  and  3 
of  Swedes— making,  in  the  former  case,  a  difference  in  amount  of  1  turnip  out  of  every  5,  and  in 
(871)  ^ 


440 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


the  latter,  1  oat  of  every  4  ;  and,  if  the  weight  of  a  statute  acre  han  been  calculated  on  sacb-Hka 
data,  the  crop  will,  in  the  case  of  the  white  turnips,  be  returned  15,  and  in  that  of  the  Swede*  J 
beyond  the  truth.  Ai^ain,  if  the  yan)  is  placed  acrosx  tiro  drillf,  their  produce  will  be  included 
within  the  yard,  the  distance  between  them  being  onlv  27  inches;  but,  if  the  yard  be  placed 
across  one  drill  only,  then  its  produce  alone  will  be  included,  as  the  yard  will  not  reach  to  the 
drill  on  either  side;  and,  if  the  produce  of  the  whole  field  is  calculated  on  such  data,  the  resnlt, 
in  the  latter  mode  of  mcaf<urenient,  will  just  pive  half  the  amount  of  the  other.  Such  ways  of  as- 
certaining the  weight  of  a  crop,  when  thus  plainly  stated)  appear  ridiculous  enough  ;  but  it  is  an 
error  which  country  people,  who  are  not  aware  of  the  effects  of  the  powers  of  numbers  when 
squared,  are  verj-  liable  to  fall  into.  The  part  of  the  field,  too,  from  which  the  data  are  taken,  may 
make  a  ver\-  great  difference  in  the  result  over  the  whole  :  as.  even  nn  true  tuniip-.>ioil,  how  dif- 
ferent will  the  size  and  number  of  turnips  be  on  a  rising  knoll  and  a  hollow  !  The  difference  ia 
not  verj-  obvious  on  looking  upon  the  tops  alone,  but  it  is  made  verj-  apparent  after  sheep  have 
eaten  off  the  leaves,  and  just  begun  to  break  upon  tlie  bulbs.  The  plan,  too,  of  filling  one  cart-load 
or  so  and  weighing  it,  and  tilling  the  rest  of  the  cart  loads  to  a  similar  extent,  without  weighing 
them,  is  a  fallacious  one,  when  the  fact  is,  as  shown  above,  that  turnips  grown  on  the  same  field 
differ  in  weight,  and  therefore  a  few  more  or  le.ss  in  a  small  cart-load  will  make  a  considerable 
difference  in  the  amount  over  the  whole  field.  I  question  much  whether  any  person  ever  weighed 
every  cart  load  of  turnips  as  they  were  brought  out  of  a  field,  or  ever  measured  many  places  of 
the  same  field,  to  ascertain  the  number  and  weight  of  turnips  in  them  ;  and.  unless  some  plan  ap- 
proaching to  either  or  both  of  tliese  is  adopted,  the  results  obtained  will  never  prove  satL-^factory. 
When  tlie  trouble  of  weighins;  every  cart  load  is  wi.shed  to  be  avoided,  the  smallest  and  the  larg- 
est and  tlie  middle-sized  turnips  should  be  pulled,  topped  and  tailed,  and  chosen  from  every  part 
of  the  field  where  a  difference  of  size  and  number  is  found  to  occur,  such  as  in  hollows,  on  knolls, 
OD  sloping  and  level  ground,  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  field  ;  and  each  turnip  weigheil,  and  the 
tops  weighed  too,  separately  if  desired,  and  then  the  averaiie  weight  of  the  turnip  may  be  relied 
on.  A  convenient  machine  for  such  a  purpose  is  one  of  Salter's  spring  steelyards,  with  a  basin 
suspended  from  it  by  chains,  in  which  a  turnip  may  be  placed  with  ease  and  celerity.  Besides 
doing  this,  the  distance  from  center  to  center  of  the  tops  of  the  turnips,  before  they  are  pulled, 
should  be  measured  and  noted  down,  and  the  average  distance  from  turnip  to  turnip  would  then 
be  a.«certained.  Having  thus  obtained  correct  data  of  the  weight  and  number  of  turnips  within 
the  given  limits  of  a  field,  the  amount  of  the  crop  would  then  lie  so  a.«certained  as  to  insure  confi- 
dence in  the  result.  The  average  girth  of  the  turnips  could  be  ascertained  at  the  same  time  if  de- 
sired ;  but  this  is  not  an  essential  element  in  determining  the  weight  of  the  crop. 

(1041.)  It  may  prove  interesting  to  you  to  know  the  periods  at  which  the  various  kinds  of  tur- 
nips in  culture  were  introduced.  According  to  the  name  given  to  the  plant  in  this  country,  the 
Swedes  are  natives  of  Sweden  ;  the  Italian  name  Savoni  de  Loponia  intimates  an  origin  in  Lap- 
land ;  and  the  French  names,  Chou  de  Lnpone,  Chou  de  Hircde.  would  indicate  an  uncertain  oii- 
^in.  Sir  John  Sinclair  says:  "  I  am  informed  that  the  Swedes  were  first  introduced  into  Scotland 
m  anno  1781-2,  on  the  recommendation  of  Mr.  Kno.x,  a  native  of  East  Lothian,  who  had  settled 
at  Gottenburg,  whence  he  sent  some  of  the  seeds  to  Dr  Hamilton."*  There  is  no  doubt  they 
were  first  introduced  into  Scotland  from  Sweden,  but  I  believe  their  introduction  w.is  prior  to  the 
date  mentioned.  The  late  Mr.  Airth,  Mains  of  Dunn,  Forfar.shire,  informed  me  that  his  father  was 
the  first  farmer  vs-ho  cultivated  Swedes  in  Scotland,  from  seeds  sent  him  by  his  eldest  son  then 
settled  in  Gottenburg,  when  my  infomiant,  the  youngest  son  of  a  large  family,  was  a  boy  of  al>out 
10  years  of  age.  This  would  make  the  date  of  their  introduction  17T7  ;  and  this  date  is  corrobo- 
rated by  the  silence  preserved  by  Mr.  Wight  regarding  the  culture  of  such  a  crop  by  Mr.  Airih's 
father,  when  he  undertook  the  survey  of  the  state  of  husbandn,-  in  Scotland,  in  1773.  at  the  request 
of  the  Commissioners  of  the  Annexed  Estates,  and  when  he  would  not  have  failed  to  report  .-o  re- 
markable a  circumstance  as  the  culture  of  the  Swede.  Mr.  Airth  sowed  the  first  portion  of  seed 
he  received  in  beds  in  tlie  garden,  and  transplanted  the  plants  in  rows  in  the  field,  and  thus  suc- 
ceeded in  raising  good  crops  for  some  years,  before  sov^  ing  the  seed  directly  in  the  li»-lils.  I  have 
not  been  able  to  trace  the  history  of  the  yellow  turnip  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  it  originated,  as  ia 
supposed  by  Professor  Low,  in  a  cross  between  a  white  and  the  Sweiie  ;t  and,  as  it.-*  name  im- 
plies, this  may  have  been  in  Aberdeenshire.  All  the  white  varieties  of  field  turnips  obtained  at 
first  the  name  of  the  '•  Norfolk  whites."  from  the  circum.stance  of  their  having  been  first  cultivated 
in  that  county,  to  any  extent,  by  Lord  Townshend,  who.  on  coming  home  from  being  ambassador 
to  the  StatesGeneral,  in  1730.  paid  great  attention  to  their  culture,  and  for  which  good  service  he 
obtained  the  ai)pellation  of  "Turnip  Townshend."  It  is  rather  remarkable  that  no  turnips  should 
have  been  raised  in  this  countrj-  in  the  fields  until  the  end  of  the  17tli  centurj-.  when  it  was  lauded 
as  a  field-root  as  long  ago  as  Columella,  and  in  his  time  even  the  Gauls  fed  tlieir  cattle  on  iliein  in 
winter.  The  Uomans  were  so  well  aciiuaintcd  with  tuniips  that  Pliny  mentions  bavins  raised 
them  40  lbs.  weight.t  Turnips  were  cultivated  in  the  gardens  in  England  in  the  time  o?  Henry 
VIII. II  Dale's  hybrid  originated  in  a  few  ounces  of  a  hybridal  seed  being  sent,  in  1822  or  1823, 
by  the  late  Mr.  Sherriff,  of  Bastleridge,  Berwickshir*-,  to  Mr.  Robert  Dale.  Libberton  West  Mains, 
near  Edinburgh,  who,  by  repeated  selection  and  inipreirnation.  bmught  it  to  what  it  is.  a  good 
yellow  turnip,  and  now  pretty  extensively  cultivated. $  The  Lawtown  hybrid  originated  about-8 
or  10  years  ago.  by  CapL  Wright,  of  Lawtown.  in  Forfarshire,  crossing  the  green-topped  white 
with  the  green  topped  Swede,  to  harden  the  white;  which  object  proved  successful,  but  its  cul- 
Uire  has  not  been  pushed.  By  sowing  the  Swede  beside  the  vs  bite  Lawtown.  the  latter  has  been 
converted  into  a  yellow  turnip,  possessing  the  properties  of  the  Swede;  and.  were  the  cross  still 
farther  pushed,  I  have  no  doubt  tliat  a  distinct  variety  of  the  Swede  would  be  obtained.  A  vari- 
ety of  Swedes  was  brought  into  notice,  about  4  or  5  years  ago,  by  Mr.  Laing,  Duddo,  Northom- 

•  Sinclair's  Account  of  the  Husbandry  of  Scotland,  vol.  i.,  noU. 

t  Low's  Elements  of  Pnictical  Aericulture.  J  Dickson's  Husbandry  of  the  Apcients,  vol.  iL 

H  Phillips's  History  of  Cultivated  Vcgctablei,  vol.  iL  §  Laweon'«  Agriculturist's  ManuaL 

(872) 


DRAWING  AND  STORING  TURNIPS.  441 

berland.  wlio  found  it  among  his  ordinary  Swedes,  and  observed  it  by  its  remarkably  elegant 
form  of  leaf  which  is  much  notched  near  the  base.  It  is  getting  into  use,  and  possesses  the  valu- 
able propertj'  of  resisting  the  effects  of  spring  for  at  least  a  fortnight  longer  than  the  common  va- 
rieties, as  I  had  a  favorable  opportunity  of  observing  in  Berwickshire  late  in  spring  1841,  and  on 
this  account  may  be  stored  and  kept  in  a  fresh  state  to  a  very  late  period  of  the  season. 

(1042.)  As  ctibbnscea  are  considered  good  food  for  cows  giving  milk,  it  may  be  desirable  to  .say  a 
few  words  as  to  their  use.  The  varieties  of  cabbage  most  suited  for  field  culture  are  the  Drum- 
head fBraxxicn  oh'racca,  capitata,  deprexxaj,  and  the  great  round  Scotch  or  white  Strasburg, 
from  v^liich  the  German  sour-krout  is  chiefly  made  (Brassica  oleraccn,  capitatn,  spherica  alba  of 
De  Caudolle).  Of  these  two,  the  drum-head  is  the  most  productive,  and  the  Scotch  stands  the 
winter  best.  It  is  alleged  by  Sinclair  that,  for  the  purposes  of  the  dairy,  1  acre  of  cabbages  is 
wortli  3  of  turnips  ;  but  wherein  tl)is  advantage  consists  is  not  .stated,  which  it  ought  to  have  been, 
as  he  mentions  that  the  nutritive  matter  contained  in  Swedi.sli  turnips  is  superior  lo  that  in  the  cab- 
bage, in  the  ratio  of  110  to  107^.  There  is  no  doubt,  however,  thai  the  taste  of  milk  is  less  tainted 
by  cabbages  than  turnips,  and  I  believe  more  milk  may  be  derived  from  them  ;  but  there  is  con- 
siderable difference  of  opinion  with  re.specl  to  the  effects  of  cabbage  on  butter  and  milk,  and  there 
is  no  doubt  that  a  decayed  leaf  or  two  in  a  head  of  cabbage  will  impart  both  to  butter  and  milk  a 
strong,  disasreeable  taste.  "  This,"  says  Sinclair.  "  I  have  long  had  an  opportunity  of  proving."* 
If  planted  in  drills  usually  made  for  turnips,  these  two  kinds  of  cabbage  will  require  to  be  placed 
in  good  soil,  18  inches  asunder  at  least,  which  will  give  12,907  plants  to  the  acre.  and.  at  24  inches 
apart,  the  number  of  plants  will  be  9,834 ;  and  if  they  at  all  attain  to  the  weight  that  cabbages 
.sometimes  do — that  is,  from  18  lbs.  to  23  lbs.  each — the  lowest  number,  18,  will  give  a  crop  of  78 
tons;  but  the  usual  crop  is  from  35  to  40  tons  per  acre.  Their  uses  are  to  feed  milch  cows,  to  fat- 
ten o.xen.  and  sheep  are  very  fond  of  them.  It  is  questionable  how  far  their  culture  .«hould  be 
preferred  to  turnips,  excepting  on  soil  too  strong  for  turnips,  as  they  require  a  fine.  deep,  strong 
soil,  and  a  large  quantity  of  manure — means  too  valuable  to  be  expended  on  cabbages,  as  an  eco- 
nomical crop,  in  Scotland.  I  have  no  experience  of  the  cabbage  as  a  food  for  milch  covn's  or  feed- 
ing cattle,  but  know  they  are  much  relished  by  ewes  at  the  season  of  lambing. 

(1043. 1  The  turnip-rooted  cabbase  fBrasnica  compeitris,  napo-brasgica,  cnmiminix  of  De  Can- 
dollel  is  little  known  in  English  culture,  though  it  is  cultivated  in  the  fields  in  France.  Its  root 
is  either  white  or  red,  and  its  neck  and  petioles  greenish  or  purplish.  It  has  a  woody,  short  stem, 
produced  by  the  formation  and  decay  of  the  leaves  ;  and,  as  new  leaves  are  formed  by  the  central 
bud  of  the  stem,  the  lower  leaves  drop  off,  and  thus  the  top  of  the  bulb  assumes  the  appearance 
of  a  stem  ;  and  Dr.  Neill  observes  it  has  a  root  under  ground  as  sweet  as  a  Swedish  turnip.  In 
both  these  respects  it  is  very  similar  to  our  Swedi.sh  tuniip.  but  whether  it  could  be  made  to  as- 
sume the  form  of,  or  has  given  origin  to,  that  valuable  root,  I  must  leave  to  be  determined  by  the 
botanical  physiologist. 

(1044.)  Tlie  cow-cabbage  or  Cesarean  kale  fBraxaica  oleracea,  acephola,  arhnrexcenx  of  De  Can- 
dolle),  which  created  such  a  noise  a  few  years  ago.  deserves  only  a  passing  notice.  "  This  plant," 
says  Don,  "  is  almost  similar  in  habit  to  the  palm  kale,  but  the  stem  rises  to  the  bight  of  from  10  to 
16  feet,  the  leaves  are  not  so  puckered  nor  rolled  inward  at  the  edges,  nor  do  they  bans  down  so 
much.  The  stem  is  naked  and  simple,  crowned  by  a  head  of  leaves  like  a  palm-tree.  Sixty 
plants  of  this  variety  are  said  to  afford  sufficient  provender  for  one  cow  for  a  year  :  and.  as  the 
side  leaves  are  only  to  be  used,  it  lasts  four  years  without  fresh  planting.  In  La  Vendee  it  is  said 
to  attain  the  bight  of  12  or  16  feet.  In  Jersey  this  plant  is  sufficiently  hardy,  and  where  it  grows 
from  4  to  12  feet  The  little  farmers  there  feed  their  cows  with  the  leaves,  plucking  them  from 
the  stem  as  they  grow,  leaving  the  crown  at  the  top.  The  stems,  being  stronc,  are  also  used  by 
them  for  roofing  small  outhouses.  When  the  gathering  of  the  leaves  is  finished,  at  the  end  of  the 
year,  the  terminating  bud  or  crown  is  boiled,  and  is  said  to  be  particularly  sweet.  It  is  not  suflB- 
ciently  hardy  to  stand  the  climate  of  Britain,  unless  planted  in  a  very  sheltered  situation. "t 

(104.5.)  There  is  still  another  variety  of  the  cabbage  tribe  which  deserves  notice — the  turnip- 
stemmed  cabbage  or  kohlrabi  (Braxsica  nJerncea.  cn.uln-ropa,  alba  of  De  Candolle).  The  varie- 
ties of  this  plant  are  numerous,  but  the  best  suited  for  field  culture  are  the  large  red  and  green 
sorts.  It  is  a  native  of  Germany,  where  it  is  much  cultivated,  as  it  also  is  in  the  low  countries 
and  the  north  of  France,  where  it  is  chiefly  given  to  milch  cows,  for  which  it  is  well  adapted  on 
account  of  its  possessing  little  of  that  acridity  which  is  found  in  the  turnip  to  affect  butter  and 
milk.  It  is  taken  up  before  the  frost  sets  in.  and  stored  like  potatoes  or  turnips  for  winter  use. 
Its  habits  and  produce  are  similar  to  the  Ssvedish  turnip,  the  part  of  the  plant  re«emblini:  which 
is  a  swollen  bulb  at  the  top  of  the  stem,  which,  when  divested  of  leaves,  may  readily  be  mi.staken 
for  a  Swedish  turnip.  Hares  are  so  fond  of  it,  that  on  farms  where  they  abound,  its  culture  is 
found  to  be  impracticable.     Sir  Thomas  Tyrwhitt  first  introduced  it  into  Emrhind  from  Germany^ 

(1046.)  Although  the  parsnip  (PaMinncea  safiva  ednlia  of  De  Candolloi  is  too  tender  a  root  for 
general  cultivation  in  this  country,  it  deserves  notice  on  account  of  its  fattening  properties  when 
given  to  all  domesticated  animals.  "  The  parsnip,"  says  Don.  "has  been  partially  introduced  of 
late  years  as  a  field-plant,  and  is  nearlj^  equal  to  the  carrot  in  its  product  of  saccharine  and  nutri- 
tive matter.  Its  culture  as  a  field-plant  has  chiefly  been  confined  to  the  island  of  Jersey,  where 
it  attains  a  large  size,  and  is  much  esteemed  for  fattening  cattle  and  pigs.  It  is  considered  rather 
more  hardy  than  the  carrot,  and  its  produce  is  said  to  be  greater.  .  .  .  The  variety  best  suited 
for  the  field  is  the  lar^e  Jersey.  ...  In  the  fattening  of  cattle,  it  is  found  equal,  if  not  superior, 
to  the  carrot,  performing  the  business  with  as  much  expedition,  and  affording  meat  of  exquisite 
flavor,  and  a  highly  juicy  quality.  The  animals  eat  it  with  much  greediness.  It  is  reckoned  that 
30  perches,  where  the  crop  is  good,  will  be  sufficient  to  fatten  an  ox  3  or  4  years,  old,  when  per- 
fectly lean,  in  the  course  of  3  months.     They  are  given  in  the  proportion  of  about  30  lbs.  weight 

*  Sinclair's  Hortus  Graminens  Wobumensis. 
t  Don's  Oeneral  Dictionary  of  Botany  and  Gardening,  vol.  i. 

X  Sinclair's  Hortua  Gramineue  Wobumensis  ;  and  Lawson's  Aari-iculturiBt'B  ManuaL 
(873) 


442  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

morning,  noon  and  night,  the  large  oneH  being  split  in  3  or  4  piece*,  and  a  little  hay  sapplied  in 
the  intervalH  of  those  poriodn.  And  when  given  to  milch  cowa  with  a  little  hay,  in  the  winter 
season,  the  butter  itt  found  to  be  of  as  fine  a  color  and  ao  exceili-nt  a  Havor  ajt  when  fpcdioL'  in  the 
best  pastures.  Indeed,  the  result  of  experiment  ban  kIiowh  that  not  only  in  neat  cattle,  but  in  the 
fattening  ol  hogs  and  poultry',  the  animals  become  fat  much  sooner,  and  arc  more  healthy,  Uian 
when  fed  with  any  other  root  or  vegetable  ;  and  that,  besides,  the  meat  is  more  sweet  and  deli- 
cious. The  parsnip-leaves  being  more  bulky  than  those  of  carrots,  mav  be  mown  off"  before 
taking  up  the  roots,  and  given  to  cows,  oxen,  or  borsies,  bv  whom  they  will  be  greedily  eaten."* 
The  leaves  may  be  erreeiiily  eaten  when  no  other  green  )t)od  is  presented  as  a  clxjice  to  cattle  , 
but  I  have  no  doubt  that  cattle  will  make  very  little  progress  toward  condition  when  using 
them.  The  weight  of  the  largest  parsnips  grown  in  gardens  in  Scotland,  varies  from  10  ounces 
to  2  lbs.  each.t 

(1047.;  The  carrot  (Dacut  carrot  a  ttativa  of  Do  Candolle)  is  raised  in  the  fields  in  several  parts 
of  this  counirj-.  The  varieties  most  suited  for  field-culture  are  the  large  orange,  Altringham,  long 
red,  and  green-top  while.  In  giving  a  detailed  statement  of  the  general  treatment  of  the  rnnt>t, 
Mr.  Burrows  .^ays,  in  regard  to  their  use  in  winter:  "  1  take  up.  in  the  last  week  of  October, 
willi  3i)ronged  graips,  a  sufficient  quantity  to  have  a  store  to  last  me  out  any  considerable  frost 
or  snow  th.ii  may  happen  in  the  winter  months.  The  rest  of  the  crop  I  leave  in  the  ground,  pre- 
ferring them  fresh  out  of  the  earth  for  both  horses  and  bullocks.  The  carrots  keep  best  in  the 
ground  nor  can  the  severest  frosts  do  them  any  material  injun.-.  The  first  week  in  March,  it  is 
necessarj-  to  have  the  remaining  part  of  the  crop  taken  up,  and  the  land  cleared  for  barley.  Tl>e 
carrots  can  either  be  laid  in  a  heap,  with  a  small  c|uaniity  of  straw  covered  over  them,  or  they 
may  be  laid  in  some  empty  outhou.se  or  bam,  in  heaps  of  many  hundred  bushels,  provided  they 
are" put  togctlier  drj-.  This  latter  circumstance  it  is  indispensable  to  attend  to  ;  for  if  laid  lOKetlier 
in  large  heaps  when  wet,  they  will  certainly  sustain  much  injury.  Such  as  I  want  to  keep  for 
the  use  of  my  horses  until  the  months  of  May  and  June,  in  drawing  over  the  heaps  (which  is  ne- 
cessary to  be  done  the  latter  end  of  April,  when  the  carrot  begins  to  sprout  at  the  crown  very 
fast),  I  throw  aside  the  healthy  and  most  perfect  roots,  and  have  their  crowns  cut  completely  off 
and  laid  by  themselves.  By  this  means,  carrots  may  be  kept  the  month  of  June  out  in  a  hit;h 
state  of  perfection."}  When  the  ground  is  desired  to  be  cleared  for  wheat,  carrots  should  be 
taken  up  in  autumn,  and  stored  in  the  manner  described  for  manirel-wurzel  (1020),  in  a  rfry  state, 
though  wiili  fewer  precautions  against  the  fro.st.  Arthur  Young  gives  the  average  produce  of  an 
acre  of  carrots  in  Suffolk  at  3.">b  bushels;  but  Mr.  Burrow's  crops  averaged  upward  of  800 
bushels,  which,  taking  the  bu.ehel  at  42  lbs.,  will  make  the  former  crop  6  tons  11  cwt.,  and  the 
latter  l.*)  tons  exactly.  In  the  fields  in  Scotland,  the  Altringham  carrot  has  been  grown  to  1^  lbs. 
and  in  gardens  to  •2\  lbs. ;  and  a  crop  of  the  large  orange  carrot,  manured  with  night-soil,  has  been 
raised  by  Mr.  S|iier.«.  of  Calcreuch.  at  the  rate  of  9  tons  the  acre — probably  the  Scotch  acre — 
which  is  equal  to  7  tons  1  cwt.  the  imperial. $ 

(1048.)  Varieties  of  the  common  potato  (Solntnim  tuberosum)  are  al.so  used  in  the  feeding  of 
cattle,  but  as  the  crop  is  of  more  importance  as  human  food,  I  shall  re.«erve  the  description  of 
storing  them  until  the  proper  season,  in  autumn,  when  they  are  removed  from  the  ground.  Mean- 
time, I  may  mention  that  the  varieties  raised  exclusively  for  cattle  are  the  common  yam,  red  yam. 
and  oX'Doble. 


30.    FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 

"  Now,  shepherds,  to  your  helpless  charge  be  kind. 
Baffle  ihc  ra^ng  year,  nnd  till  their  pens 
Wiih  food  at  will ;  lodge  them  below  th'o  storm. 
And  watch  them  strict ;  for,  from  the  bellowing  East, 
In  this  dire  PCBSon,  oft  the  whirlwind's  wing 
.•Sweeps  U|i  ihf  burden  of  whole  wintiy  plains 
At  one  wide  wafl.  and  o'er  the  hapless  tlocko. 
Hid  in  the  hollow  of  two  neighboring  bills. 
The  billowy  tempest  whelms." 

Thomson. 

(1049.)  Having  prepared  room  on  the  turnip  land  for  the  sheep  intended 
to  be  fattened  iijxin  tiirnip.s,  l>y  reniovinsj  the  projiortion  of  the  crop  in  the 
manner  dcscrilxMl  above,  that  is,  by  drawinu  2  rows  and  leaving  2  rows 
alternately,  and  liaving  prepared  that  part  of  the  field  to  be  first  occupied 
by  the  sheep,  which  will  afl'ord  them  shelter  in  case  of  need,  the  first  thing 
to  be  afterward  done  is  to  carry  on  carts  the  articles  to  the  field  requisite 
to  form  a  temporary  inclosure  to  confine  the  sheep  within  the  ground  al- 
lotted them.     It  is  the  duty  of  the  shepherd  to  erect  temporary  inclosures, 

*  Don's  General  Dictionary  of  Botany  nnd  Gardeninft,  vol.  i.  ♦  Lawson's  Agriculrurisl's  Manual. 

J  CommunicatioDB  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  vol.  vii.  §  Lawson's  Agriculturi£t'a  Manual 

(874) 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


443 


and  as,  in  doing  this,  he  requires  but  little  assistance  from  other  laborers, 
he  bestows  as  much  time  daily  upon  it  until  finished  as  his  avocations  will 
allow. 

(1050.)  There  are  two  means  usually  employed  to  inclose  sheep  upon 
turnips,  namely,  by  hurdles  made  of  wood,  and  by  w<?/.?  of  twine.  Of  these 
I  shall  first  speak  of  the  hurdle  ox  Jlahe.     Fig.  216  represents  2  hurdles  set 

Fis.  216. 


HURnLES  OR  FLAKES  SET  FOR  CONFINING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 

as  they  should  be.  The  mode  of  setting  them  is  this  ;  but  in  doing  it,  the 
shepherd  requires  the  assistance  of  another  pci^son, — a  field-worker  will 
serve  the  purpose  :  The  flakes  are  set  down  with  the  lower  ends  of  their 
posts  in  the  line  of  the  intended  fence.  The  first  flake  is  then  raised  up 
by  its  upper  rail,  and  the  ends  of  the  posts  are  sunk  a  little  into  the  gi-ound 
with  a  spade,  to  give  them  a  fi:  m  hold.  The  second  flake  is  then  i-aised 
up  and  let  into  the  ground  in  the  same  way,  both  being  held  in  that  posi- 
tion by  the  assistant.  One  end  of  a  stay^' is  then  placed  between  theflakes 
near  the  tops  of  their  posts,  and  these  and  the  stay  are  made  fast  together 
by  the  insertion,  through  the  holes  in  them,  of  the  peg  h.  The  peg  i  is 
then  inserted  through  near  the  bottom  of  the  same  posts.  The  flakes  are 
then  inclined  backward  away  fi-ora  the  ground  fenced,  until  their  upper 
rail  shall  be  3  feet  9  inches  above  the  ground.  The  stake  c  is  driven  into 
the  ground  by  the  wooden  mallet,  fig.  218,  at  such  a  point  as,  where  the 
stay  /  is  stretched  out  from  the  flakes  at  the  above  inclination,  that  a  peo 
shall  fasten  stake  and  stay  together,  as  seen  at  g.  After  the  first  two  flakes 
are  thus  set,  the  operation  is  easier  for  the  next,  as  flake  is  raised  after 
flake,  and  fastened  to  the  last  standing  one  in  the  manner  desciibed,  until 
the  entire  line  is  completed. 

(1051.)  Various  objections  can  be  urged  against  the  use  of  flakes,  the 
first  being  the  inconvenience  of  carrying  them  from  one  part  of  a  field  to 
another  in  carts,  and  of  their  liability  to  breakage  in  consequence  ;  as  also 
the  shepherd  himself  cannot  set  them  up  well  and  speedily  without  assist- 
ance, and  even  with  that  they  require  a  good  deal  of  time  in  setting  up. 
They  are  also  easily  upset  by  a  high  wind  blowing  behind  them  ;  and, 
when  in  use  they  require  almost  constant  repair  and  replacing  of  pegs, 
stays  and  stakes  ;  though,  when  repaired  and  set  carefully  by  at  the  end 
of  the  season,  they  will  last  several  years.  The  mode  of  making  flakes, 
and  their  price,  are  mentioned  below, 

(1052.)  The  other  method  of  inclosing  sheep  on  turnips  is  with  nets 
made  of  twine  of  the  requisite  strength.  These  nets  having  square  meshes 
when  stretched  upon  the  stakes,  usually  extend  to  50  yards  in  length,  and 
stand  3^  feet  in  hight.  They  are  furnished  with  a  rope  along  both  sides 
passing  through  the  outer  meshes,  which  are  called  the  "  top  "  and  "  bot- 
tom rope  "  as  the  position  of  either  may  be  at  the  time.  These  ropes  are 
wound  round  the  stakes  by  a  peculiar  sort  of  knot  called  the  "  shepherd's 
knot."     The  stakes   are  best  formed  of  thinnings  of  ash-trees   that  have 

(875) 


444 


rnr.    l'.ofM<    OF  THE   FARM WINTER. 


been  planted  vpiy  tliirk  i(iq;otlier  and  irrown  up  Umg  and  small,  and  they 
should  he  3  inches  i'.i  diameter  and  4  feet  9  inches  lout?  ;  allowin;;  9  inches 
of  a  hold  in  the  ground,  3  inches  l>etween  the  gi-ound  and  the  bottom  of 


Fig.  217. 


)Ox 


SHEK.r  XKT  si:t  K'Hi  roxKiNiNo  sUKK.r  ox  TUKNirs. 

the  net,  and  3  inches  from  the  top  of  tlie  net  to  the  top  of  the  stake  ;  or 
they  may  be  made  of  larch  wccdings,  4  inches  in  diameter  and  4  feet  9 
iiicl  es  long  ;  but  every  kind  of  wood  of  w  hich  they  may  be  made  should 
be  >easoned  with  the  bark  tm  before  being  cut  into  stakes.  They  arc 
poiited  at  one  end  with  the  ax,  and  that  end  slioukl  be  chosen  to  be 
poii.ted  which  will  make  the  stake  stand  in  the  same  position  as  when  it 
was  growing  in  the  tree,  for  its  bark,  it  has  been  found,  is  then  in  the  best 
state  for  re[>clling  rain. 

(1053.)  A  net  is  set  in  this  way  :    If  the  ground  is  in  its  usual  soft  state, 
the  stakes  may  simply  be  driven  into  the  grountl  with  a  hard-wood  mallet, 


Fig.  218. 


Fi-.  21<'. 


THE  SHEPHEIId's  WOOD  MAr.I.ET. 


TUB    DRIVER. 


fig.  218,  in  the  line  fixed  on  fi)r  setting  the  net,  at  distances  of  3  paces 
asunder.  The  wood  of  the  apple-tree  makes  the  best  mallet,  as  not  being 
apt  to  split.  Should  the  soil  be  thin  and  the  subsoil  moderately  hard,  a 
hole  sufficiently  lar'j;e  for  a  stake  may  be  made  in  the  subsoil  with  the 
tramp-pick,  fig.  37  ;  but  should  the  subsoil  be  so  very  hard  as  to  require  a 
larger  hole  to  be  made  than  wiiat  can  easily  be  formed  by  the  tramp-pick, 
or  should  the  ground  be  so  dry  and  hard  as  to  require  the  use  of  any  in- 
strument at  all,  the  most  efficient  one  for  the  puqiose  is  one  called  a  dri- 
ver, fig.  219.  It  is  formed  of  a  piece  of  pointed  hard-wood,  strongly  shod 
with  iron,  and  its  upper  end  is  protected  by  a  strong  ferule  of  iron  to  pre- 
vent its  splitting  by  the   strokes  of  the   mallet.     The  stakes  being  thus 

(876) 


FEEDING  SlIKEi*  Oi\  TUKMPS.  445 

driven  so  tliat  their  tops  may  not  be  less  llioii  4  icet  liigh,  along  as  many 
sides  ')t"  the  inclosiire  as  are  required  at  the  place  to  form  a  complete 
fence. 

(10r)4.)  A  net  is  set  in  this  manner:  Being  in  a  bundle,  having  been 
rolled  up  on  the  arms  and  fastened  togolher  by  the  spare  ends  of  the  top 
and  bottom  ropes,  these  are  unloosened  and  tied  to  the  stake  that  has  been 
driven  close  to  the  fence,  whatever  that  may  be,  and  then  the  net  is  run 
out  in  hand  toward  the  right  as  far  as  it  will  extend  in  a  loose  manner',  on 
the  side  of  t!ie  stakes  facing  the  ground  the  sheep  are  to  occupy.  On 
coming  to  the  next  stake  from  the  commencement,  the  bottom  rope  gets  a 
turn  to  the  left  round  the  stake,  and  tlie  top  rope  above  it  a  similar  turn 
round  the  same  stake,  so  as  to  keep  the  leading  coil  of  the  rope  upper- 
most. The  bottom  rope  is  then  fastened  with  the  shepherd's  knot  to  the 
stake,  3  inches  from  the  ground,  and  the  top  rope  is  fastened  with  a  simi- 
lar knot  near  the  top  of  the  stake,  stretching  the  net  even  and  upward  ; 
and  in  this  way  the  net  is  fastened  to  one  stake  after  another  until  the 
whole  of  it  is  set  up,  as  it  is  called,  care  being  taken  to  make  the  top  of 
the  net  lun  uniformly  thi'oughout  its  entire  length. 

(lOoo.)  The  shepherd's  knot  is  made  in  this  way  :  Let  a,  fig.  220,  be 
the  continuation  of  the  rope  which  is  fastened  to  the  ^.^  22^ 

first  stake,  then  press  the  second  stake  with  the  hand 
toward  a  or  the  fastened  end,  and  at  the  same  time 
tighten  the  turn  round  the  stake  with  the  other  hand 
by  taking  a  hold  of  the  loose  end  of  the  rope  d,  and  <t 
moving  it  so  as  to  cause  it  to  pass  under  a  at  c,  and 
screwing  it  round  the  stake  to  L,  where  the  elastic 
force  of  the  stake  will  secure  it  tight  under  a  at  b 
when  the  stake  is  let  go.  The  bottom  rope  is  fast- 
ened first,  to  keep  the  net  at  the  proper  distance  from"^"^  shepherds  knot,  bt 

.  '-  ,1,  ,  '^         f     I.  -,  ,        WHICH  A  NET  IS   FASTENED 

the  ground,  and  then  the  top  rope  is  fastened  to  the  ^g  j^  staks. 
same  stake  in   the   same  manner.     Proceed   in  this 

manner  at  each  successive  stake  until  the  whole  net  is  set  up.  A  net  may 
be  thus  set  up  either  toward  the  right  or  the  left  as  the  starting  point  may 
be  situate,  but  in  proceeding  in  either  direction  caie  must  be  taken  to  pass 
the  top  and  bottom  ropes  round  the  stakes,  so  as  the  leading  coil  of  the 
rope  is  always  uppermost  toward  the  direction  in  which  the  net  is  to  be 
set  up.  Thus,  in  fig-  2:20,  the  rope  d  was  uppermost  until  it  was  passed 
under  a,  because  the  setting  of  the  net  in  this  case  is  from  right  to  left, 
and  it  continues  to  be  uppermost  until  it  reach  the  next  stake  to  the  left. 
If  both  the  cord  and  stake  are  dry,  the  knot  may  slip  as  soim  as  made, 
but  if  the  part  of  the  stake  at  b  where  the  knot  is  fastened  is  wetted 
a  little,  it  will  make  the  rope  keep  its  hold  until  the  cord  has  acquired 
the  set  of  the  knot.  With  a  new  rope  that  is  greasy,  and  a  smooth 
stake,  it  is  difficult  for  the  knot  to  retain  its  hold  even  with  the  assistance 
of  water. 

(1056.)  There  are  some  precautions  required  in  setting  a  net  beside  this 
of  the  ropes.  If  the  net  is  new,  the  cords  may  be  stretched  as  tight  as  you 
please,  because  they  will  stretch  considerably  ;  but  if  old,  the  least  damp 
or  rain  afterward  will  stretch  them  so  as  to  cause  them  to  break.  If  the 
net  is  at  all  in  a  damp  state,  it  should  be  set  very  tight,  because  rain  can- 
not make  it  tighter  ;  and  if  not  set  very  tight,  the  first  dry  weather  will  so 
slacken  the  cords  as  to  loosen  all  the  knots,  and  make  the  net  slip  down 
the  stakes  ;  but  even  if  it  should  not  be  slackened  to  that  extent,  it  will  be 
so  slackened  as  to  shake  about  with  the  wind,  and  bag  down  and  touch  the 
ground.     Such  an  occurrence  will  create  the  trouble  to  the  shepherd  of 

(877j 


446  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

re-setting  the  whole  net,  and  the  best  way  of  avoiding  this  trouMe  is  to 
have  the  nets  in  a  dry  slate  when  they  are  set.  In  wet  weather  sliej)lierd3 
take  the  opportunity  of  a  dry  moment  of  setting  a  dry  net  in  anti'Mpaiion 
along  a  new  break  of  turnips,  and  they  also  hang  up  wet  nets  to  dry  on 
the  outside  of  the  stakes  away  from  the  sheej).  Nets  shr>uld  never  be 
wound  up  in  a  wet  state,  even  for  a  short  time,  as  they  will  soon  mould 
and  rot. 

(1057.)  On  commencing  the  setting  of  another  net,  its  top  and  bottom 
ropes  are  fastened  to  those  of  the  last  net,  and  the  ends  of  the  nets  them- 
selves are  brought  together  by  interlacing  the  meshes  of  both  witli  a  piece 
of  string,  as  at  a,  fig.  217.  Here  the  knots  in  the  top  and  bottom  ropes 
are  seen,  and  the  twine  interlacing  the  meshes  are  made  to  appear  stronger 
than  that  of  the  net  only  to  let  it  be  perceived.  Thus  one  net  is  set  after 
another,  until  the  whole  intended  area  is  inclosed.  AVhere  there  is  a  turn 
in  the  line  of  nets  in  going  from  one  side  of  the  inclosure  to  another,  as 
seen  on  the  right  side  of  fig.  226,  if  there  is  much  of  the  net  left  at  the 
turn,  it  should  be  brought  down  the  next  side  ;  in  which  case  the  stake  at 
the  comer  should  be  driven  very  securely  down,  as  there  will  be  a  consid- 
ei-able  strain  upon  it  fiom  the  nets  pulling  from  different  directions,  and 
this  will  especially  be  the  case  in  damp  weather.  But  the  safer  and  per- 
haps belter  plan  is  to  take  a  fresh  net  at  the  turn  and  fasten  it  to  a  stake, 
and  nin  on  the  other  net  in  its  own  line  until  it  is  suspended  either  in  set- 
ting or  coiling  it  around  the  top  of  a  stake.  All  surplus  ends  of  nets  should 
be  carefully  hung  upon  the  back  of  the  stakes  when  wet,  to  dry  and  get 
the  air.  Part  of  the  nets  will  thus  cross  ridges,  and  pait  will  nan  along  a 
ridge.  WTiere  they  cross  ridges  that  have  been  but  once  gathered-up,  or 
plowed  crown-and-furrow,  the  bottom  of  the  nets  will  be  nearly  close  to 
the  open-fuiTows,  but  where  they  cross  a  gaw-cut  in  rather  strong  land,  a 
stake  or  two  should  be  made  to  lie  upon  the  bottom  rope  to  keep  it  down, 
for  some  sheep  have  a  trick  of  creeping  under  the  net,  when  they  find  a 
suitable  opening  ;  and  where  nets  cross  ridges  which  have  been  twice 
gathered-up,  one  stake  should  be  driven  at  one  side  of  the  open-fu'Tow, 
and  another  at  the  crown  of  the  ridge,  and  the  bottom  rope  will  then  run 
nearly  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

(1058.)  In  setting  nets,  in  whatever  position,  care  should  be  taken  to 
keep  each  side  of  the  inclosure  in  the  same  plane — that  is,  each  side  ex- 
actly in  a  straight  line,  and  the  surface  of  its  nets  pei-pendicular ;  and 
the  different  lines  should  meet  at  right  angles  to  one  another,  so  that 
every  break  of  turnips  occupied  by  the  sheep  should  either  be  a  rectangle 
or  a  square  ;  because  the  strain  upoji  the  ends  will  then  be  equalized 
over  the  entire  cords  and  stakes  of  each  side,  and  no  undue  pressure 
exerted  on  any  one  stake.  A  shepherd  who  knows  his  business  so  as  to 
pay  attention  to  these  particulars,  will  presei"ve  his  nets  and  stakes  a 
much  lonfjer  lime  in  a  serviceable  state,  than  one  who  is  ignorant  or  care- 
less about  them. 

(1059.)  The  shepherd  should  ahvays  be  provided  with  net-twine  to  mend 
any  holes  that  may  be  made  in  the  nets  ;  and  where  they  happen  to  be  set 
across  hare-roads,  the  hares  will  invariably  keep  their  iTins  open  ;  which 
being  the  case,  it  is  much  better  to  allow  them  to  remain  open,  than  in 
filling  them  up  to  have  them  cut  lhrouc[h  daily. 

(1060.)  When  flakes  or  nets  have  been  set  round  the  first  break,  the 
ground  may  be  considered  in  a  proper  state  for  the  reception  of  sheep  ; 
and  the  ground  should  be  so  prepared  before  the  gi-ass  fails,  that  the  sheep 
to  be  fattened  may  not  in  any  deari'ee  lose  the  condition  they  have  ac- 
quired on  the  grass  ;  for  you  should  always  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  much 

(876) 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS.  447 

easier  to  improve  the  condition  of  lean  sheep  that  have  never  been  fatter 
than  to  regain  the  condition  of  those  that  have  lost  it.  Much  rather  leave 
pastures  a  little  rough,  than  risk  the  condition  of  sheep  for  the  sake  of  eat- 
ino-  it  down.  The  rough  pasture  will  be  serviceable  to  the  portion  of  the 
sheep-stock  that  are  not  to  be  fattened,  such  as  ewes  in  lamb  and  aged 
tups.  Let  sheep,  therefore,  intended  to  be  fattened,  be  put  on  turnips  as 
early  as  will  maintain  the  condition  they  have  acquired  on  the  grass.  By 
a  break  of  turnips  is  meant  that  part  of  the  crop  which  is  being  consumed 
by  the  sheep. 

(1061.)  As  the  tops  of  white  turnips  are  long  and  luxuriant  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  season,  the  first  break  or  inclosure  should  be  made 
smaller  than  those  which  succeed,  that  the  sheep  may  not  have  too  many 
tops  at  first  on  a  change  of  food  from  grass  to  turnips,  and  which  they  will 
readily  eat  to  excess,  on  account  of  their  freshness  and  juiciness.  Let  the 
sheep  fill  themselves  with  turnips  pretty  well  before  taking  them  to  the 
next  break.  The  second  break  may  be  a  little  larger  than  the  first,  and 
the  third  may  be  of  the  proper  size — that  is,  contain  a  week's  consumption 
of  food.  These  considerations  Avill  cause  the  shepherd  some  trouble  for 
two  or  three  weeks  in  the  beginning  of  the  season  ;  but  they  are  trifling 
compared  with  the  advantage  derived  from  it  by  the  sheep.  Rather  let 
him  have  the  assistance  of  a  field-worker  to  shift  the  nets,  than  neglect 
the  precautions.  When  the  tops  wither  in  the  course  of  the  season, 
and  one  night  of  sharp  frost  may  effect  that,  or  after  the  sheep  have  been 
accustomed  to  the  turnip,  the  danger  is  over.  The  danger  to  be  appre- 
hended is  diaiThcea  or  severe  looseness  of  the  bowels,  which  is  an  unnatural 
state  in  regard  to  sheep,  and  they  soon  become  emaciated  by  it ;  many 
sink  under  it,  and  none  recover  from  such  a  relaxation  of  their  system  un- 
til after  a  considerable  lapse  of  time. 

(1062.)  Another  precaution  to  be  used  on  this  head  is,  to  avoid  putting 
sheep  on  turnips  for  the  first  time  in  the  early  part  of  the  day  when  they 
are  hungry.  The  danger  may  be  apprehended  with  tops  in  a  dry  state, 
but  when  they  are  wet  by  rain  or  snow,  or  half-melted  rime,  they  are  most 
likely  to  do  the  harm.  The  afternoon,  then,  when  they  are  full  of  gi-ass, 
should  be  chosen  to  put  the  sheep  on  turnips,  and  they  will  immediately 
begin  to  pick  the  tops,  but  will  not  have  time  to  injure  themselves.  Should 
the  weather  prove  wet  at  first,  and  the  ground  be  either  somewhat  too 
clayey  or  soft,  and  the  sheep  thereby  find  an  uncomfortable  lair,  it  would 
be  advisable  to  allow  them  to  rest  in  an  adjoining  gi-ass  field  for  a  few 
nights  until  the  ground  becomes  consolidated  (which  will  soon  take  place) 
by  their  constant  and  repeated  tramplings. 

(1063.)  Sheep  when  put  on  turnips  are  selected  for  the  purpose.  Ewes 
being  at  this  season  with  young,  whether  as  a  flying  or  standing  flock,  are 
never,  in  Scotland,  put  on  turnips  in  winter,  but  continue  to  occupy  the 
pastures,  part  of  which,  if  left  on  purpose  in  a  rough  state,  will  suffice  to 
support  them  as  long  as  the  ground  is  free  of  snow.  The  reason  why 
great  ewes,  as  ewes  in  lamb  are  called,  are  never  put  on  turnips,  is  the 
chance  of  getting  too  fat,  which  if  they  do,  they  will  produce  small  lambs 
and  run  great  risk  of  being  attacked  by  inflammatory  complaints  at  the 
lambing  time.  Tups  are  most  frequently  put  on  turnips,  especially  tup 
hoggs,  but  they  are  never  folded  in  the  same  part  of  the  field  as  the  feed- 
ing sheep,  having  a  snug  comer  somewhere  to  themselves,  or  else  the  tur- 
nips  are  led  to  them  in  a  sheltered  part  of  a  grass  field.  Young  sheep, 
that  is,  lambs  of  the  same  year,  are  always  put  on  turnips,  whether  with 
the  view  of  feeding  them  fat  at  once,  or  enlarging  the  size  of  their  bone. 
Every  year  a  certain  number  of  old  ewes,  unfit  for  farther  breeding  from 

(879) 


448  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

want  of  teeth,  or  means  of  supplying  milk,  are  drafted  out  of  the  standing 
flock  to  make  room  for  the  Bume  number  of  young  females  into  the  ewe 
flock,  and  are  fattened  off'  upon  turnips.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the 
castrated  male  lambs  of  last  year,  inst»,'ad  of  being  sold,  have  been  grazed 
during  the  summer,  and  are  fattened  (jff*  the  second  season  on  turnips.  All 
these  classes  of  sheep,  of  different  ages,  may  be  mixed  together  and  occu- 
py the  same  break  of  turnips.  It  is  seldom  that  the  last  class,  namely,  the 
lambs  of  last  vear,  are  kept  on  to  the  second  year,  but  the  draft  ewes  are 
always  fed  along  with  the  young  sheep,  and  they  prove  useful  in  break- 
ing the  turnips  and  eating  up  the  picked  shells.  A  mixture  of  old  and 
young  sheep  are  less  useful  to  one  another  when  turnips  are  cut  by  ma- 
chines. 

(1064.)  Since  I  have  had  occasion  to  mention  some  of  the  classes  of 
sheep,  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  here  to  make  you  acquainted  with  the 
technical  names  which  they  receive  in  respect  of  age  and  sex,  and  which  I 
shall  always  employ  when  speaking  of  them  in  future.  A  new-bom  sheep 
is  called  a  lamb,  and  retains  that  name  until  it  is  weaned  from  its  mother 
and  able  to  support  itself.  The  name  is  modified  according  to  the  sex  and 
condition  of  the  animal :  when  a  female,  it  is  a  cice-lamb,  when  a  male,  a 
tup-lamb,  and  the  last  name  is  changed  to  hogg-lamb  when  the  creature 
undergoes  emasculation.  After  a  lamb  has  been  weaned,  until  the  first 
fleece  is  shorn  from  its  back,  it  receives  the  name  of  hogg,  which  cogno- 
men, like  that  of  lamb,  is  modified  according  to  the  sex  and  condition  of 
the  animal ;  namely,  a  female  is  called  a  ewe-hogg,  a  male  a  tup-liogg,  and 
a  castrated  male  a  wether-hogg.  After  the  first  fleece  has  been  shorn,  an- 
other change  is  made  in  the  nomenclature ;  the  ewe-hogg  then  becomes  a 
gimmcr,  the  tup-hogg  a  dinmont  or  shearling-tup,  and  the  wether-hogg  a 
difimont,  and  these  names  are  retained  until  the  fleece  is  shorn  the  second 
time.  After  this  operation  another  change  is  effected  in  all  the  names,  the 
gimmer  being  then  called  a  etre  if  she  is  in  lamb,  but  if  she  has  failed  be- 
ing in  lamb  she  is  said  to  be  a  tup-eill  ginwicr  or  barren  gimjner,  and  if  she 
has  never  been  put  to  the  ram  she  gets  the  name  of  i/ield  gimmer.  If  a 
ewe  who  has  borne  lambs  fails  again  to  be  in  lamb,  she  is  called  a  tvp-cill 
ewe  or  barren  ewe.  After  the  ewe  has  ceased  to  give  milk,  or  become  dry, 
she  is  said  to  be  a  yield  etre.  The  shearling-tup  is  called  a  2-shear  tup 
when  the  fleece  has  been  taken  off"  him  the  second  time,  and  the  dinmont 
commonly  a  wether,  but  more  correctly  a  2-shear  wether.  After  a  ewe  has 
been  shorn  three  times  she  is  called  a  twinter  ewe,  that  is,  a  two-winter  ewe  ; 
a  tup  that  has  been  so  treated  is  called  a  3-shear  tup  ;  and  a  wether  still  a 
toether,  or  more  correctly  a  3-shear  wether,  which  is  an  uncommon  name 
among  Leicester  sheep,  as  the  castrated  sheep  of  that  breed  are  rarely 
kept  to  so  great  an  age.  A  ewe  that  has  been  four  times  shorn  gets  the 
name  of  a  three-winter  ewe  or  aged  ewe  ;  a  tup  is  called  an  aged  tup,  a 
name  which  he  retains  ever  after,  whatever  his  age,  but  they  are  seldom, 
except  for  special  reasons,  kept  beyond  this  age  ;  and  the  wethrt"  is  now  a 
wether  properly  so  called.  A  tup  and  ra7n  are  synonymous  tcirns.  A  ewe 
when  she  is  removed  from  the  breeding  flock  is  called  a  draft  ewe,  what- 
ever her  age  may  be,  and  gimmers  that  are  put  aside  as  unfit  for  breeding 
from  are  called  draft  giminers,  and  the  lambs,  dinmonts,  or  wethers,  that 
are  drafted  out  of  the  fat  stock  are  called  the  sheddingx,  or  tails,  or  drafts. 
In  England  a  somewhat  different  nomenclature  prevails.  There  sheep 
bear  the  name  of  lamb  until  S  months  old,  after  which  they  are  called  ewe 
and  wether  tegsrsMutW  once  clipped.  Gimmers  are  called  thearcs  until  they 
bear  the  first  lamb,  when  they  are  named  eices  qfi-teeth,  next  year  ewes  of 
6-<ccM,  and  the  year  ^her  full-mouthed  ewes.     Dinmonts  are  called  shear 

(880) 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


449 


hosss  until  clipped,  when  they  are  2-sJicar  wethers,  and  ever  after  they  are 
called  ic ethers. 

(1065.)  When  sheep  are  on  turnips  they  are  invariably  supplied  with 
dry  fodder,  hay  or  straw — hay  being  the  most  nutritious,  though  most  ex 
pensive  ;  but  sweet,  fresh  oat-straw  answers  the  purpose  very  wel  .  Th(» 
fodder  is  supplied  to  them  in  racks.  There  are  various  forms  of  straw- 
racks  for  sheep — so7'ne  being  placed  so  high  that  sheep  can  with  diffic  ;!'\- 
reach  the  fodder,  and  others  are  mounted  high  on  wheels.  The  form  rep 
resented,  in  fig.  221  I  have  found  convenient,  containing  as  much  straw  ai 


at 


Fisr.  221. 


THE  SHEEP  STRAW  OR  HAY  RACK. 


a  time  as  should  be  given,  admitting  the  straw  easily  into  it,  being  easily 
moved  about,  of  easy  access  to  the  sheep,  and  being  so  near  the  ground  as 
to  form  an  excellent  shelter.  It  is  made  of  wood,  is  9  feet  in  length,  4^ 
feet  in  bight,  and  3  feet  in  width,  having  a  sparred  rack  with  a  double  face 
below,  which  is  covered  with  an  angled  roof  of  boards  to  throw  off  the 
rain.  The  rack  is  supported  on  2  triangular-shaped  tressels  h,  shod  with 
iron  at  the  points,  which  are  pushed  iijto  the  ground,  and  act  as  stays 
against  the  effects  of  the  wind  fi'om  either  side.  The  billet  c,  fixed  on  the 
under  or  acute  edge  of  the  rack,  rests  upon  the  ground,  and,  in  common 
with  the  feet,  supports  it  from  bending  down  in  the  middle.  The  lid  a  is 
opened  on  hinges  when  the  fodder  is  put  into  the  rack.  There  should  at 
least  be  2  such  racks  in  use  ;  because,  when  set  at  an  angle  to  each  other 
against  the  weather  point,  the  space  embraced  between  them  forms  an  ex- 
cellent shelter  for  a  considerable  number  of  sheep.  (Fig.  226.)  Such  a 
rack  is  easily  moved  about  by  2  persons,  and  their  position  should  be 
changed  according  to  a  change  of  wind  indicative  of  storm. 

(1066.)  It  is  the  duty  f  the  shepherd  to  supply  these  racks  with  fodder, 
and  one  or  all  of  them  may  require  replenishment  daily.  Thi"^  he  effects 
by  carrying  a  bundle  of  fodder  at  any  time  he  visits  the  sheep.  When  carts 
are  removing  turnips  direct  from  the  field,  they  cany  out  the  bundles  ;  but 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  shepherd  to  have  them  ready  for  the  carters  in  the 
straw-barn  or  hay-house.  For  shelter  alone  the  racks  should  be  kept  full 
of  fodder.  Fodder  is  required  more  at  one  time  than  another ;  in  keen, 
sharp  weather,  the  sheep  eat  it  greedily,  and  when  turnips  are  frozen  they 
will  have  recourse  to  it  to  satisfy  hunger,  and  after  eating  succulent  tops 
they  like  dry  fodder.  In  rainy,  or  in  soft,  muggy  weather,  sheep  eat  fod- 
der with  little  relish  ;  but  it  has  been  remarked  that  they  eat  it  steadily 
and  late,  and  seek  shelter  near  the  racks  prior  to  a  coming  storm  of  wind 
and  rain  or  snow ;  in  fine  weather,  on  the  other  hand,  they  select  a  lair  in 
the  more  exposed  part  of  their  break. 

(1067.)  Until  of  late  years  sheep  were  allowed  to  help  themselves  to  tur- 

(881) 39 


450 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


Fig  222. 


nips  in  the  early  part  of  the  season  ;  and  in  consuming  them  the  t()j)s  were 
fii-st  eaten,  and  then  tlie  bulbs  were  scooped  out  as  far  as  the  ground  would 
permit.  When  a  large  proportion  of  the 
turnips  of  the  break  were  thus  eaten,  the 
shells,  as  the  bottom  part  fast  in  the  ground 
is  called,  were  picked  out  of  the  ground  with 
an  instrument  made  for  the  purpose.  Its 
name  is  a  tiirnip-pickcr,  and  the  mode  of 
using  it  may  be  seen  in  fig.  222.  Its  handle 
is  4  feet  long,  and  blade  10  inches,  including 
the  eye  for  the  handle.  By  its  mode  of  ac- 
tion, you  will  see  that  the  tap-root  of  the 
turnip  is  cut  through  and  the  shell  separated 
from  the  giound  at  one  stroke.  A  very  com- 
mon form  of  these  pickers  is  with  the  mouth 
cleft  in  two,  between  which  cleft  the  tap-root 
•is  embraced,  and  the  shell  and  root  are 
pulled  up  together.  It  is  found,  however, 
that  the  tap-root  contains  an  acrid  juice  detrimental  to  the  stomach  of 
sheep,  so  that  the  better  plan  is  to  cut  it  off  and  leave  it  on  the  giound  to 
rot.  The  best  form  of  blade  may  be  seen  in  fig.  223,  and  fig.  224  shows 
the  objectionable  form  of  the  same  instrument. 


THE  TURNirriCKKB  IN  THE  ACT  OF  CUT- 
TING  OFF  THE  TAP-KOOT  AND  FVLMNO 
UP  THE  SHELL  OF  THE  TURNIP. 


Fig.  223. 


Fig.  224. 


THE  BEST  FORM  OF  TURNIP-PICKER. 


OBJECTIONABLE  FORM  OF  TURNIP-PICKER 


(1068.)  Only  half  of  the  ground  occupied  by  the  shells  should  be  picked 
up  at  one  time,  by  removing  every  alternate  double  row  of  them,  in  order 
to  make  the  sheep  spread  over  a  greater  space  while  consuming  them. — 
When  the  ground  is  dry,  the  shells  should  be  pretty  clean  eaten  up  before 
a  new  break  of  tuniips  is  foi-med  ;  but,  a  fe^v  being  left,  the  sheep  will 
come  over  the  ground  again  and  eat  them  up,  though  in  a  shriveled 
state,  especially  in  frost,  when  they  are  sweeter  and  softer  than  turnips. 

(1069.)  But  the  more  recent  and  better  plan  of  serving  turnips  to  sheep 
— and  it  should  be  universally  adopted — is  to  cut  them  into  small  pieces 
with  a  turnlp-slicer  into  troughs  conveniently  placed  for  use,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  sheep  have  liberty  to  eat  the  turnips  themselves.  A  conve- 
nient and  expeditious  form  of  turnip-slicer  is  described  below  at  fig.  252, 
which  description  you  should  peruse  at  once  ;  and  a  simple  form  of  tuniip- 

Fig.  22.'). 


THE  TURNIP-TROUGH  FUR  SHF.EP-FEEDING. 


trough  is  here  represented  by  fig.  225.     It  is  8  feet  long,  and  made  acute 

(882) 


FEEDING   SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


451 


at  the  bottom,  for  the  more  easy  seizure  of  the  pieces  of  turnip  by  the 
mouths  of  the  sheep,  by  nailing  two  boards  together  upon  the  two  trian- 
gular-shaped ends,  and  placing  it  upon  billets  for  feet.  The  troughs  are 
set  in  a  line  along  the  outside  2  rows  of  turnips  about  to  be  pulled.  The 
turnip-cutter  is  wheeled  to  each  trough  successively  by  the  field-v/orker, 
who  works  the  handle,  and  its  hopper  is  filled  by  another  worker,  who  tops 
and  tails  the  turnips.  The  sheep  range  themselves  on  either  side  of  the 
trough. 

(1070.)  I  have  constructed  fig.  226  to  give  you  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the 
manner  in  which  a  turnip-field  should  be  fitted  up  for  sheep.     There  are, 


Fig.  226. 


1^  %  i  "%  -i  *♦«. 
«  «  ■*  i:  -4  *  * 
pn  %  ■^  ft  •» 
^  *  t  -4    » 

'*  ^  i  -i-  ifc  « 

*   ^  *  ' 

M 


THE  MODE  OF  OCCUPYING  TURNIP-LAND  WITH  SHEEP. 

in  the  first  place,  the  turnips  themselves  a,  of  which  half  have  been  drawn 
by  pulling  2  drills  and  leaving  2  alternately.  The  ground  upon  which 
they  are  growing  is  represented  partly  bare,  because  they  are  supposed  to 
have  been  pulled  up  in  the  progress  of  the  turaip-cutter  advancing  from 
one  side  of  the  break  to  the  other  ;  and  it  constitutes  the  break.  As  mat- 
ters are  represented,  the  turnip-slicer  b  is  proceeding  up  beside  the  2  drills 
c,  and  depositing  the  cut  turnips  into  one  of  the  small  troughs  d,  out  of 
another  of  which  some  of  the  sheep  are  eating,  while  others  are  helping 
themselves  fi-om  the  bulbs  in  the  drills  c.  The  sheep  are  represented  scat- 
tered over  the  ground  as  they  are  usually  seen,  some  following  one  an- 
other in  a  string  f  toward  the  place  where  their  food  is  preparing  for 
them,  while  others,  g,  are  lying  resting,  regardless  of  food.  Some,  k,  are 
standing,  as  if  meditating  what  next  to  do,  and  others,  /,  examining  the 
structure  of  the  nets.  Some  nibble  at  the  diy  fodder  in  the  racks  r,  while 
k,a.  group,  he  under  their  shelter.  The  field-worker  I  is  slicing  the  turnips 
with  the  machine.  Such  are  the  usual  occupations  of  sheep  when  they 
have  abundance  of  food  at  their  command.  The  nets  m  are  represented 
as  inclosing  two  sides  of  the  break,  the  other  two  sides  being  supposed  to 
be  composed  of  the  fences  of  the  field,  and  not  represented.  The  turnips 
n,  to  the  right  of  the  nets,  appear  undrawn,  while  those  o,  above  the  nets, 
are  stripped,  indicating  that  the  progress  of  the  breaks  at  this  time  is  up- 
ward toward  the  top  of  the  field,  in  a  line  with  the  direction  of  the  drills, 

(883) 


452  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

and,  of  course,  with  that  of  the  ridges  ;  and  this  part  of  the  plan  is  not  a 
matter  of  indifference,  because  the  breaks  should  so  succeed  one  another 
in  their  passage  across  the  field,  as  that  the  land,  when  cleared  of  turnips, 
may  be  plowed  from  end  to  end  and  ridsjed  up,  if  desired.  In  a  large 
field,  which  engages  the  sheep  for  a  considerable  part  of  the  season,  the 
land  is  plowed  as  each  stretch  of  breaks  is  cleared,  in  older  to  preser>'e 
the  virtue  of  the  manure  ;  and  this  is  of  more  importance  in  a  large  than 
in  a  small  field,  over  which  a  large  number  of  sheep  will  soon  pass. 
In  plowing  up  land,  however,  with  this  intent,  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
deprive  the  sheep  of  any  natural  shelter  they  have  enjoyed  ;  and  to  secure 
this  to  them  as  long  as  practicable,  the  breaks  should  be  so  airanged  as  to 
make  those  first  formed  along  the  lowest  and  most  sheltered  part  of  the 
field,  so  that  the  sheep  could  resort  at  the  bottom  of  the  set  of  breaks  they 
are  occupying,  after  the  first  set  had  been  given  up  and  plowed  to  the  top 
of  the  field,  and  so  on  in  succession.  Such  an  arrangement  requires  more 
consideration  than  at  first  sight  may  appear,  and  its  neglect  may  much  in- 
convenience the  sheep  for  want  of  shelter;  and  shelter  to  sheep  in  winter 
does  not  merely  imply  protection  from  unusual  inclemency  of  the  weather 
for  a  night  or  two,  but  also  presenation  of  the  fleece,  and  comfort  to  the 
flock  throughout  the  season.  The  remainder  of  the  net  along  the  upper 
part  of  the  break  is  represented  coiled  round  the  top  of  a  stake  at  p,  and 
there  also  the  mallet  and  driver  await  their  use. 

(1071.)  I  have  already  stated  that  tujjs  or  rams  are  fed  on  turnips  in  a 
separate  division  from  the  feeding  sheep.  Some  apportion  them  in  a  space 
in  the  same,  while  others  give  them  a  break  in  another  field  ;  but  I  would 
prefer  giving  tups  turnips  in  a  small  grass  paddock,  and  cutting  them  with 
the  small  lever  tumip-slicer  represented  in  fig.  246,  and  described  minutely 
below.  Where  the  lot  of  tups  is  large,  say  40  or  50,  it  may  create,  it  is 
true,  more  trouble  to  fetch  their  turnips  to  them  than  to  inclose  them  on 
turnips  ;  but  this  consideration  should  be  always  borne  in  mind,  in  regard 
to  tups,  that  whenever  they  and  female  sheep  become  aware  of  the  pres- 
ence of  each  other  in  the  same  field,  and  even  in  contiguous  fields,  neither 
party  will  rest  to  feed.  The  air  will  carry  the  scent  of  their  bodies  to  each 
other,  and,  whenever  any  of  the  females  show  a  tendency  toward  coming 
into  season,  the  scent  of  the  males  confirms  it,  and,  becoming  restless  them- 
selves, they  have  a  tendency  to  render  the  rest  of  the  flock  so  also.  And 
if  tups  are  in  a  separate  fold  by  themselves,  away  from  the  rest  of  the 
sheep,  they  cause  as  much  trouble  to  the  shepherd  in  visiting  them  there 
as  a  larger  flock  ;  whereas,  were  they  near  home  in  a  grass  paddock,  he 
could  visit  them  frequently  in  going  and  coming  to  his  house  at  his  hours 
of  repEist. 

(1072.)  Sheep  are  sometimes  assisted  in  their  feeding  on  tuniips  with 
other  substances,  such  as  oil-cake  and  com.  Either  of  them  is  adminis- 
tered in  a  covered  box,  to  protect  it  from  injury  from  weather.  Such  a 
box  is  represented  in  fig.  227,  the  construction  of  which  requires  no  expla- 
nation. 1  have  never  had  any  experience  of  feeding  sheep  on  oil-cake  or 
com,  ha\"ing  mostly  farmed  turnip-land,  upon  which  sheep  never  failed  to 
become  abundnntly  fat  without  any  adventitious  aid.  On  deaf  and  clay 
soils,  however,  oil-cake  may  prove  beneficial ;  and  it  may  be  presented  in 
these  boxes  to  sheep  on  jrrass  in  winter  as  their  entire  food.  Oil-cake  has 
the  effect  of  keeping  the  dung  of  sheep  in  a  moist  state.  It  is  supplied 
them  in  a  bruised  state,  partly  in  powder,  and  partly  in  bits,  as  it  falls 
from  the  oil-cake  crusher — a  convenient  machine,  the  construction  and  op- 
eration of  which  will  be  described  when  treating  of  the  feeding  of  cattle. 
I  believe  there  is  little  use  of  measuring  the  quantity  of  oil-cake  to  sheep, 

(884J 


FEEDING   SHEEP   ON  TURNIPS. 


453 


even  when  on  turnips,  as  they  will  eat  it  when  inclined,  and  some  sheep 
eat  it  more  heartily  than  others.  The  discriminating  choice  of  food  mani- 
fested by  sheep  is  a  valuable  hint,  in  fattening  them,  to  supply  them  with 

Fig.  227. 


THE  OIL-CAKE  OR  CORN   BOX  FOR  FEEDING   SHEEP. 

different  kinds  of  food,  such  as  oil-cake,  corn,  hay,  straw,  and  turnips,  at 
one  and  the  same  time,  that  every  sheep  may  take  his  choice  daily ;  but, 
in  case  such  a  mode  of  feeding  may  be  costly,  it  is  worth  while  to  try  ex- 
periments on  the  subject,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether,  when  a  number 
of  articles  are  presented  at  the  same  time  to  sheep  for  their  choice,  less  of 
the  most  costly  kind  is  not  proportionally  consumed  than  when  supplied 
separately.  On  this  principle,  corn  may  be  put  in  one  box,  and  oil-cake 
in  another,  and  so  of  other  substances ;  and,  although  it  is  an  indubitable 
fact  that  sheep  will  feed  quite  fat  upon  turnips  alone  with  fodder  on  tur- 
nip-soil, yet  they  may  become  sooner  ripe  upon  mixed  than  simple  food  ; 
and  the  time  thus  gained  may  more  than  compensate  (or  at  least  compen- 
sate) for  the  cost  of  the  various  materials  employed  in  feeding. 

(1073.)  Salt  has  been  frequently  given  to  sheep  on  turnips,  but  with 
what  advantage  I  have  never  satisfactorily  learned.  I  have  given  them  it, 
and  the  eagerness  with  which  they  followed  the  shepherd  when  he  came 
at  the  stated  hour  to  lay  down  small  quantities  here  and  there  over  the 
break,  upon  flat  stones,  and  the  relish  with  which  they  enjoyed  it,  was  very 
remarkable ;  yet  the  great  desire  for  it  continued  but  a  short  time,  and 
then  every  day  they  took  so  little  that  it  appeared  as  if  they  were  trifling 
with  it  ;  and  hence  I  could  perceive  no  benefit  they  derived  from  its  use. 
Perhaps  the  cultivator  who  paid  the  greatest  attention  to  the  use  of  salt  to 
animals  was  the  late  Mr.  Curwen,  of  Workington  Hall,  Cumberland,  who 
used  to  give  from  2  to  4  ounces  per  week  to  sheep,  if  fed  on  dry  pastures  ; 
but,  if  feeding  on  turnips  or  rape,  they  were  supplied  without  stint.  "  It 
is,  in  fact,  indisputably  proved,'''  says  Mr.  Cuthbert  W.  Johnson,  "  that  if 
sheep  are  allowed  free  access  to  salt,  they  will  never  be  subject  to  the  disease 
called  the  rot.  Is  not  this  a  fact  worthy  of  a  farmer's  earliest,  most  zeal- 
ous attention  1  Some  recent  experiments  also  lead  me  even  to  hope  that 
I  shall  one  day  or  other  be  able  to  prove  it  to  be  a  cure  for  this  devastat- 
ing disease.  I  have  room  but  for  one  fact :  Mr.  Rusher,  of  Stanley,  in 
Gloucestershire,  in  the  autumn  of  1828,  purchased,  for  a  mei'e  trifle,  20 
sheep,  decidedly  rotten,  and  gave  each  of  them,  for  some  weeks,  1  ounce 
of  salt  every  morning.  2  only  died  during  the  winter ;  the  surviving  18 
were  cured,  and  have  now,  says  my  informant,  lambs  by  their  sides."* 

(1074.)  There  are  some  inconveniences  attending  the.  feeding  of  sheep 
on  turnips  m  winter,  which  necessarily  you  should  be  made  aware  of.  A 
heavy  rain  may  fall  for  some  days,  and  render  the  land  quite  soft  and 
poachy,  though  it  had  been  previously  thoroughly  drained,  or  even  natu- 
rally dry.    As  the  wet  will,  in  such  a  case,  soon  subside,  the  removal  of  the 

*  Johnson's  Observations  on  the  Employment  of  Salt. 
(885) 


454  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

sheep  for  a  night  and  day  to  an  old  grass-field  will  g^ve  the  land  time  to 
become  firm  ;  and  a  small  quantity  of  oil-cake  will  suffice  to  support  the 
sheep  all  the  time  they  will  be  in  the  grass-field.  A  very  heaN-y  i-ain  may 
fall  in  a  day,  and  inundate  the  lower  end  of  the  field  with  water,  which 
may  take  some  days  to  subside.  The  best  way  of  preventing  the  sheep 
approaching  the  inundated  part  is  to  fence  it  off  with  a  net.  A  fall  of 
snow,  accompanied  with  wind,  may  cover  the  sheltered  part  of  the  field, 
and  leave  the  turnips  bare  only  in  the  most  exposed.  In  this  case,  the 
sheej)  must  feed  in  the  exposed  part,  and  the  racks  placed  there  for  shel- 
ter. Eut  the  snow  may  fill  heavily,  and  lie  deep  over  the  whole  field,  and 
cover  every  turnip  out  of  reach.  Two  expedients  only  present  themselves 
in  such  a  case  ;  the  one  is  to  cast  the  snow  from  the  drills  containing  the 
turnips,  and  pile  it  upon  those  which  have  l)een  stripped.  This  task  can- 
not be  performed  by  the  shepherd  alone,  or  by  the  field-workers.  The 
plowmen  must  bring  their  stable-shovels,  fig.  149  or  fig.  176,  and  clear  the 
turnips  ;  but,  in  doing  this  in  severe  frost,  too  many  turnips  should  not  be 
exposed  at  one  time,  in  case  they  become  frosted,  which  they  are  apt  to 
be  when  exposed  suddenly  to  frost  from  under  snow.  The  advantage  of 
casting  the  snow  is  that  it  gives  the  sheep  an  immediate  access  to  the  tur- 
nips ;  but  a  disadvantage  attends  it  when  the  snow  lies  for  a  considerable 
time,  all  the  manure  being  left  by  the  sheep  in  the  channels  cut  out  of  the 
snow,  and,  of  course,  none  in  those  parts  upon  which  the^snow  has  been 
piled.  The  best  plan  to  pursue  at  first,  under  the  circumstances,  is,  in  my 
opinion,  to  adopt  the  other  expedient  alluded  to  above — namely,  to  give 
the  sheep  oil-cake  in  the  troughs,  fig.  227,  for  a  time,  in  a  sheltered  place 
of  the  field,  until  it  is  seen  whether  the  snow  is  likely  soon  to  disappear; 
and,  should  it  lie  longer  than  afibrd  time  to  consume  the  turnips,  then  the 
first  expedient  of  casting  oflT  the  snow  may  be  resorted  to  at  once,  and  its 
disadvantages  submitted  to.  In  the  great  fall  of  snow,  in  spring  1823,  my 
turnip-field  was  covered  over  4  feet  deep.  Having  no  oil-cake,  and  find- 
ing it  impossible  to  remove  the  sheep,  the  snow  was  cast  in  trenches,  in 
which  they  soon  learned  to  accommodate  one  another,  and  all  throve 
apace.  A  fresh  fall  of  snow  a  few  days  after  came  from  the  opposite  quar- 
ter, and  covered  up  the  trenches,  which  had  to  be  cleared  out  again.  The 
snow  continued  upon  the  ground  until  the  end  of  April,  and  as  there  was 
no  time  after  that  to  put  manure  on  the  land  which  had  been  covered  with 
piled-up  snow — and,  indeed,  its  soft  state  rendered  the  operation  imprac- 
ticable— the  succeeding  crop  of  barley  grew  in  strips  conesponding  to  the 
trenches.  Even  a  supply  of  oil-cake  would  not,  in  this  case,  have  super- 
seded the  trenching  of  the  snow,  to  get  the  turnips  eaten  in  time  for  the 
barlcy-secd. 

(107/).)  While  young  sheep  and  tups  are  thus  provided  with  turnips 
during  winter,  the  ewes  in  lamb  find  food  on  the  older  grass,  which,  for 
their  sakcs,  should  not  be  eaten  too  bare  in  autumn.  Where  pastures  are 
very  bare,  or  when  snow  covers  the  ground,  they  should  either  have  a  few 
turnips  thrown  down  to  them  upon  the  snow,  or,  what  is  better,  clover- 
hay  given  them  in  a  sheltered  situation.  The  best  hay  for  this  purpose  is 
of  broad  or  red  clover,  and  next  meadow-hay ;  but  as  you  can  only  give 
the  kind  you  happen  to  have,  much  rather  give  them  turnips  than  hay 
that  has  been  heated  or  wetted,  or  is  moulded,  as  in  either  of  those  states 
it  has  a  strong  tendency  to  engender  diseases  in  sheep,  such  as  consump- 
tion of  the  lungs  and  rot  of  the  liver  ;  and  in  regard  to  great  ewes,  it  is 
apt  to  make  them  cast  lamb.  If  turnips  cannot  be  had,  and  the  hay  bad, 
give  them  sheaves  of  oats,  or  clean  oats  in  troughs,  or  oil-cake  ;  but  what- 
ever extraneous  food  is   given,  do  not  supply  it  in  such  quantity  as  to  fat- 

(886) 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS.  455 

ten  the  ewes,  but  only  to  keep  them  in  fair  condition.  In  the  severe  snow- 
storm of  1823,  I  put  my  ewes  into  an  old  Scots-fir  plantation,  into  which 
only  a  small  quantity  of  snow  had  penetrated,  and  there  supplied  them 
with  hay  laid  on  the  snow  around  each  tree.  A  precaution  is  requisite  in 
using  a  Scots-fir  plantation  in  snow  for  sheep  ;  its  branches  intercepting 
the  snow  in  its  fall  to  the  gi-ound  are  apt  to  be  broken  by  its  weight,  and 
fall  upon  the  sheep  and  kill  them ;  and  in  my  case,  a  ewe  was  killed  on 
the  spot  by  this  cause.  The  branches  should  therefore  be  cleared  of  the 
snow  around  where  the  sheep  are  to  lodge  by  shaking  them  with  poles  or 
long  forks,  assisted  by  ladders  if  the  case  require  it.  In  driving  ewes 
heavy  with  lamb,  through  deep  snow  to  a  place  of  shelter,  plenty  of  time 
should  be  given  them  to  creep  along,  in  case  they  should  overreach  them- 
selves, and  the  exertion  thereby  cause  them  to  cast  lamb. 

(1076.)  In  some  parts  of  Scotland,  and  more  generally  in  England,  rape 
as  well  as  turnips  is  grown  for  winter  food  for  sheep.  The  rape  (Brassica 
rapus  oleifcra  of  De  Candolle)  cultivated  in  this  country,  is  distinguished 
from  the  colsat  of  the  Continent  by  the  smoothness  of  its  leaves.  It  has 
been  cultivated  for  the  fattening  of  sheep  in  Av-inter  from  time  immemorial. 
The  green  leaves,  as  food  for  sheep,  are  scarcely  surpassed  by  any  other 
vegetable,  in  so  far  as  respects  its  nutritious  properties ;  but  in  quantity  it 
is  inferior  both  to  turnips  and  cabbages.  Its  haulm  may  be  used  as  hay 
with  nearly  as  much  avidity  as  cut  straw.*  The  consumption  of  rape  by 
sheep  should  be  conducted  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  that  of  turnips. 
In  England,  that  intended  for  sheep  is  souni  broadcast  and  very  thick,  in 
which  state  it  is  certainly  very  suitable  for  them.  In  Scotland,  it  is  raised 
in  drills  like  tuniips ;  and  although  not  so  conveniently  placed  for  sheep 
as  the  broadcast,  the  top  leaves  being  somewhat  beyond  their  reach 
from  the  bottom  of  the  diill,  yet  this  form  permits  every  cleansing  process 
of  the  land  during  summer,  and  thus  renders  the  culture  of  rape  as  ame- 
liorating a  crop  for  land  as  any  other  green  crops  raised  for  the  purpose. 
It  is  acknowledged  on  all  hands  that,  for  raising  seed  for  oil,  the  drill  form 
of  culture  is  far  the  best. 

(1077.)  Every  kind  of  sheep,  of  whatever  breed,  when  kept  in  the  low  country,  should  be  treat- 
ed in  winter  in  the  way  described  above,  thouorh  the  remarks  there  are  meant  to  apply  to  the  pe- 
culiar management  of  Leicester  sheep,  which  is  the  usual  breed  cultivated  where  sheep  form  an 
integral  part  of  the  mixed  husbandrj-.  Where  a  Leicester  flock  is  so  kept,  the  ewes  are  regarded 
as  a  standins  fli^ck  ;  that  is,  they  have  themselves  been  bred  upon  the  farm  npon  which  they  are 
supported,  and  are  used  as  breeders,  until  considered  no  longer  profitable,  when  they  are  fed  oif. 
But  on  many  lowland  farms,  the  mixed  husbandry  is  only  practiced  to  a  partial  extent,  no  flock 
of  pwes  being  kept  for  breeding,  and  only  wethers  intended  to  fatten  on  turnips  are  bought  in 
on  purpose.  Some  farmers,  instead  of  wethers,  buy  old  ewes,  dinmonts,  or  lambs.  When'weth- 
ers  are  bought,  the  breeds  generally  selected  for  the  purpose  are  Cheviots  and  Black-faced  from 
the  mountains,  where  they  are  bred,  and  where  large  standing  flocks  of  ewes  are  kept  for  the 
purpose  of  supplying  the  demand  for  lambs.  Turnip-sheep  are  thus  easily  obtained  at  fairs  in 
autumn  ;  but  where  certain  stocks  have  acquired  a  good  name,  purchasers  go  to  the  spot  and  buy 
them  direct  from  the  breeders. 

(1078.)  Sheep  on  turnips  have  little  shelter  afforded  them  but  what  the  fences  of  the  field  can 
give.  In  some  cases,  this  is  quite  sufficient;  but  in  others,  it  is  inadequate.  Of  late  years,  the 
subject  of  shelter  has  attracted  attention,  and  artificial  means  have  been  suggested,  consisting  of 
various  devices  involving  different  degrees  of  cost,  not  merely  for  protection  against  sudden  out- 
breaks of  weather,  but  with  the  view  of  gradually  improving"  the  condition  of  sheep,  both  in  car- 
cass and  wool.  It  is  a  natural  expectation  that  a  fat  carcass  should  produce  more  wool,  and  con- 
Btant  shelter  improve  its  quality. 

(1079.)  One  plan  for  shelter  and  comfort,  a  slight  remove  from  the  usual  practice,  was  first  tried 
by  Mr.  Hunter  of  Tynefield.  in  East-Lothian,  in  1809,  by  littering  the  break  occupied  by  the  sheep 
in  the  field  with  straw,  and  supplying  them  with  turnips  upon  it.  In  this  way  he  littered  300 
sheep  upon  25  acres  of  turnips,  which  afforded  36  tons  the  acre,  with  the  straw  of  60  acres  of 
wheat,  weighing  1  ton  the  acre  imperial.  The  sheep  were  thus  treat<;d  5  months  on  the  ground, 
and  fetched  2s.  a  head  more  than  those  treated  in  the  usual  manner.  This  increase  of  price  is  an 
advantage  ;  but  it  is  not  all  advantage,  as  the  trouble  of  leading,  at  intervals,  60  tons  of  straw  to 
the  field  ;  of  leading  the  same,  in  the  shape  of  manure,  from  that  field  to  another  :  and  of  carrj-ing 
the  turnips  from  the  drills  to  tlie  fold,  shouhl  be  deducted  from  it.     "When  turnips  are  laid  upon 

■»  Don's  General  Dictionary  of  Botany  and  Gitrdcninc,  vol.  i. 
(687)  ^ 


456 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


straw,  sheep  cannot  bite  them  easily  ;  and  tills  is  an  objection  to  laying  down  whole  tarnips  tc 
■heep  on  grass,  instead  ot  rutting  tiiini  with  a  turiiiiiKlicer ;  and  among  damp  litter,  sheep  al- 
most invariably  contract  foolrot,  as  T  of  Mr.  Hunter's  did.* 

(lOeo  )  Another  plan  of  affording  shelter  to  sheep  on  turnips  is  that  of  movable  sheds  to  lie  in. 
Tig.  8VB  gives  a  floor  plan  of  such  a  shed,  15  feet  long,  7  feet  wide,  with  an  opening  of  j  of  as 

Fig.  228. 

EZIl 


THE  FLOOR  OF  A   MOVABLE  SHED  FOn  SHEEP  OS  TOR.NIPS. 

inch  between  the  floor-deaLs.     The  floor-frame  rests  on  2  axles  of  iron  supported  upon  4  iron 
wheels,  1  foot  diameter,  which  raise  it  6  inches  above  the  ground.    Fig.  229  gives  a  side  eleva- 


Fig  229. 


THE  SIDE-ELEVATION  OF  A  BJOVABLE  SHED  FOll  SHEEP  OS  TUR.NIPS. 


Fig.  230. 


tion  of  the  shed,  with  the  form  of  the  roof,  made  of  deals,  lapping  over  each  other,  and  elevated 
5  feet  above  the  floor ;  and  fig.  230  is  an  end  ele- 
vation of  the  same.  One  .side  and  both  ends,  when 
the  shed  is  in  use,  could  be  boarded  in  the  quarter 
from  wiiich  the  wind  comes ;  and  if  the  boards  are 
fastened  dead,  the  shed  .•<hould  be  wheeled  round  to 
suit  the  wind  ;  but  if  boarding  is  considered  too  ex- 
pensive a  mode  of  fitting  up  such  sheds,  hurdles 
clad  with  thin  slubs,  or  wattled  with  straw  or  wil- 
low against  the  ends  and  side,  might  answer  the 
same  purpose.  A  horse  is  required  to  wheel  such 
a  shed  to  any  distance.  A  shed  of  the  above  dimen- 
sions might  accommodate  about  a  score  of  sheep, 
and  its  cost  is  said  to  be  £4.  But  should  this  con- 
Btmclion  be  considered  too  unwieldy,  the  shed 
could  be  made  of  two  pieces  of  half  the  size,  which 
would  easily  be  moved  about  by  people,  and  when 
placed  together  on  end.  would  form  an  entire  shed 
of  the  proper  dimensions.  Thus,  fig.  231  represents 
two  short  floors  placed  together  on  8  wheels  ;  and 
fig.  232  a  siile-elevation  and  roof  of  two  half . •sheds, 
mounted  on  wheels  set  together.  The  scale  at- 
tached to  fig.  232  gives  the  n-lntive  proponions  of 
every  part.  The  cost  of  2  half-sheds  will  of  course 
be  more  than  a  whole  one.    Whether  any  one  will  incur  the  cost  of  sheltering  sheep  on  tnmipa 


THE  END  ELEVATION  OF  A  MOVABLI  SHED 
FOR  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


*  Sinclsir'B  Account  of  the  Husbandry  of  Scotland,  voL  iL,  Appendix. 
(868^ 


FEEDING  SHEEP   ON  TURRIPS. 


457 


in  Bncli  sheds  is,  I  conceive,  questiouable ;  and  it  might  be  some  time  ere  sheep  would  be  in- 
dsced  to  enter  them.* 

Fig.  231. 


THE   FLOOR  OF  TWO  SHORT  MOVABLE  SHEDS   FOR  SHEEP  O.N'  TL'R.SIPS. 

(1081.)  A  third  plan  is  to  erect  sheds  and  courts  at  the  steading,  to  be  littered  vi-hen  required 
and  the  sheep  daily  supplied  with  cut  turnips.      This  plan,  as  I  conceive,  would  afford  more 
shelter  and  protection  thau  by  putting  down  litter,  or  erecting  movable  sheda  ia  the  field.    I  re- 
Fig.  132. 


Scale  of  Feet.  5  .  10  ^ 

THE  SIDE-ELEVATION  OF  TWO  SHORT  MOVABLE  SHEDS  FOR  SHEEP  OV  TURNIPS. 


member  of  seeing,  more  than  20  years  ago,  the  courts  and  sheds  erected  at  his  steading  by  the  late 
Mr.  Webster  of  Balruddery,  Foifarshire  ;  so  that  the  recent  practice  and  suggestions  on  the  sub- 
jeok  by  English  sheep  feeders  possess  at  least  no  novelty.  The  results  of  Mr.  Webster's  experi- 
ments, I  believe,  were  not  very  encouraging.  Mr.  Childers.  M.  P.  for  Malton.  fed  40  Leicester 
wetherhoggs  on  turnips,  20  in  the  field  and  iO  in  a  shed.  The  shed  consisted  of  a  thatched  erec- 
tion of  rough  deals,  having  a  Hoor  of  slabs  raised  18  inches  above  the  ground,  with  a  small  court 
belonging  to  it.  The  boarded  tloor  was  swept  every  day,  and  fresh  straw  put  over  the  court  after 
every  shower  of  rain.  The  sheep  were  divided  into  as  equal  lots  as  could  be  drawn,  the  score 
to  be  fed  in  the  shed  weighing  183  stones  3  lbs.,  and  those  in  the  field  184  stones  4  lbs.  Each  lot 
pot  as  many  cut  turnips  as  they  could  eat,  which  amounted  to  27  stones  every  day  ;  10  lbs.  of  lin- 
seed cake,  or  \  lb.  to  each  sheep,  per  day  ;  |  pint  of  barley  to  each  sheep  ;  and  a  little  hay.  and  a 
constant  supply  of  salt.  They  were  fed  frou  1st  .lanuary  to  1st  April ;  and,  on  the  fourth  week, 
the  hoggs  in  the  shed  ate  3  stones  fewer  turnips  every  day ;  in  the  ninth  week,  2  stones  still  fewer 
uiid  of  linseed -cake  3  lbs.  per  day     The  results  were  these  : 


Date. 

20  sherl-h"g£?. 

Increase. 

■M  noia-hi  )•:;;*. 

111.  1,  a.«e. 

t=t8.   lbs. 
183     3 
205     0 
215  10 
239     9 

Sis.   lbs. 

21  11 
10  10 

9t!    1' 

.-Jis.   lbs. 
1  .^'4     4 
199     8 
208     2 
220  12 

15     4 

8     8 
lo  in 

March  1 

April  1 

Total  increase 

56     6 

36     8 

Quarterly  Journal  o  Agriculture,  vol.  xL 
(889) 


458 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


"  Coosequenily,"  says  Mr.  Childers,  "the  sheep  in  the  bhed,  though  they  consumed  nearly  1-5  leaa 
food,  have  made  J  iL'reater  progress."*  Thus,  in  4  months,  the  shedfed  hof^gs  gained  about  1 
stone  a  head  more  than  UiO!<e  in  tl)e  field,  and  were  worth  (*8.  a  head  more.  This  experiment  of 
shed-feeding  corroborates  the  oniinary  oxpcrience  in  the  progress  of  fattening  sheep  :  namely, 
that  the  greatest  progress  is  made  at  Uie  beginning  and  end  of  the  season.  In  the  beginning,  the 
fat  is  laid  on  in  tlic  inside,  to  till  up ;  and  at  the  end  it  is  laid  on  on  the  outside,  after  the  acquire 
ment  of  muscle  in  the  intermediate  period. 

(1082.)  Lord  Westenj  pursues  the  plan  of  shed-feeding  his  Anglo-Merino  sheop,  to  tlie  extent 
of  confining  them  all  the  year  round.  His  foldinir-yards  are  spacious,  and  surrounded  bj'  sheds, 
which  are  only  10  feet  wide,  and  6  or  7  feet  high — built,  in  the  cheapest  manner,  of  timber  that 
would  otherwise  be  burnt.  The  j-ards  are  well  littered,  and  to  a  considerable  depth,  and  they 
never  heat  After  three  years'  experience,  his  lordship  is  "decidedly  of  opinion  that  tlie  fatting 
stock  thrive  quicker,  and  the  sheep  with  their  lambs  also  do  better  than  out  of  doors."  Turnips, 
cabbages  and  salt  constitute  their  tbod.t 

(10il!3.;  Similar  experiments  have  been  tried  in  Scotland  with  succe.'ss.  Mr.  Wilkin,  Tinwald 
Downs.  Dumfriesshire,  fed  20  cross-bred  Cheviot  and  Leicester  hoggs  in  courts  and  sher%  on 
turnips,  grass  and  oilcake,  and  their  increased  value  over  others  in  the  field  was  estimated  at 
from  22s.  to  25s. ;  and  Mr.  John  MacBryde,  Belkar,  fed  both  Leicester  and  Cheviot  wt-thers  in 
$talh  on  turnips,  rice,  sago,  sugar,  and  linseed-oil,  and  realized  Ts.  a  head  more  tlian  from  those 
fed  in  the  field.{  But,  in  estimating  the  advantages  derived  from  shed-feeding,  the  trouble  occa- 
sioned in  bringing  the  turnips  from,  and  taking  the  manure  to  the  field,  should  always  be  home 
in  mind.  But  should  the  plan  leave  no  profit,  yet  if  it  improve  the  quality  of  the  wool  in  its  most 
essential  particulars,  it  is  worthy  o*"  consideration. 

(10i?4.)  Sheep  are  not  fed  on  turnips  oii  every  kind  of  farm.  Carse-farms  are  unsuitcd  to  thia 
kind  of  stock  ;  and,  where  turnips  can  be  raised  on  them,  cattle  would  be  more  conveniently  fed. 
There  being,  however,  abundance  of  straw  on  clay-farms,  sheep  might  be  fed  in  small  courts  and 
sheds  at  the  steading  on  oil-cake,  or  any  other  succedaneum  for  turnips. 

(1085.)  On  farms  in  the  neighborhood  of  lar^  towns,  whence  a  supply  of  manure  is  obtained 
at  all  times,  turnips  are  not  eaten  off  with  sheep  ;  but  on  those  near  small  towns  they  are  so  em- 
ployed to  manure  the  land.  They  are  bought  in  for  the  purpose,  and  consist  of  Cheviot  or  Black 
faced  wetliers,  or  Leicester  hoggs,  or  draft-ewes,  which,  if  young,  feed  more  quickly  than  weth 
ers  of  the  same  age. 

(1086  )  On  dairy-farms  there  is  as  little  use  for  sheep  as  near  towns,  except  a  few  wethers  to 
eat  off  part  of  the  turnips  that  may  have  been  raised  with  bone-dust,  or  any  other  specific  manure, 
in  lieu  of  farm-yard  dung. 

(1087.)  On  pa>toral  farms,  sheep  are  not  fattened  on  turnips  ;  but  their  treatment  in  winter  pos- 
sesses excitine  interest  There  are  two  kinds  of  pastoral  farms,  and  as  this  is  the  first  opportu- 
nity 1  have  had  of  considering  the  peculiarities  of  uieir  management,  1  shall  here  make  some  gen 
eral  remarks  on  their  con.stitution  and  fitness  for  rearing  sheep. 

(1088.)  The  first  thing  that  strikes  you  on  examining  a  pastoral  countrj-  is  the  entire  tcaut  of 
shelter.  After  being  accustomed  to  see  inclo.«ed  and  protected  fields  in  the  low  country,  the  wind 
ing  valleys  and  round-backed  hills  of  a  pa.storal  one  appear,  by  comparison,  naked  and  bleak. — 
You  are  not  surprised  to  find  bare  mountain-tops  and  exposed  slopes  in  an  alpine  country,  be- 
cause you  scarcely  conceive  it  practicable  for  man  to  inclose  and  shelter  elevated  mountains  ;  but 
among  green  hills  and  narrow  glens,  where  no  natural  obstacles  to  the  formation  of  shelter  seem 
to  exist,  but,  on  the  contrary,  whose  beautiful  outlines  indicate  sites  for  plantations  that  would  de- 
light llie  eye  of  taste,  independent  of  their  utility  as  shelter  to  their  owner's  habitation  ;  and  he, 
having  experienced  their  utility  in  that  respect,  could  not  refuse  similar  comfort  to  the  dumb  and 
patient  creatures  dependent  on  his  bounty.  Hence,  the  hurricane  that  a  planter  arroiJis  in  its  pro- 
gress toward  his  own  dwelling,  ceases  at  the  same  time  to  annoy  the  peace  of  his  fiocks  and 
herds.  The  chief  difficulty  of  forming  shelter  by  planting  is  the  expense  of  inclosing  it;  for.  as 
to  the  value  of  trees  from  a  nursery,  it  is  a  trifie  compared  to  the  advantage  derived  fi-om  the  shel- 
ter where  they  grow  ;  and  yet,  in  a  mountainous  country,  there  is  no  want  of  materials  for  inclos- 
ing, no  want  of  rock  to  produce  stones  for  building  roui:h  but  substantial  stone-dykes  ;  labor  is  but 
required  to  remove  and  put  them  together ;  and,  as  a  simple  means  of  their  removal,  it  is  surpris- 
ing what  a  quantity  a  couple  of  men  will  quarry,  and  a  couple  of  single-horse  carts  will  convey, 
in  the  course  of  a  summer.  The  carriage,  too.  in  every  instance,  could  be  made  down-hill,  fresh 
rock  being  acce.ssible  at  a  higher  elevation  as  the  building  proceeds  npw^ard. 

(1089.)  Suppose  a  hill-farm  containing  4  square  miles,  or  2,.^60  acres,  were  inclosed  with  a  ring- 
fence  of  planting  of  at  least  60  yards  in  width,  the  ground  occupied  by  it  will  amount  to  174  acres. 
A  fi-feet  stone  wall  round  the  inside  of  the  planting  will  extend  to  13.600  roods  of  6  yards,  which, 
at  6s.  6d.  per  rood,  will  cost  i.612.  But  the  sheltered  2.386  acres  will  be  worth  more  to  the  ten- 
ant, and  of  course  to  the  landlord,  than  the  entire  2,560  acres  unsheltered  would  ever  have  been, 
while  the  proprietor  will  have  the  value  of  tlie  wood  for  the  co.st  of  fencing.  Besides,  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind  by  the  pniprietor  that  planting,  as  a  ring-fence  to  one  farm,  shelters  one  side  of 
4  other  farms  of  the  same  size,  which  is  an  inducement  to  extend  the  benefits  of  shelter ;  and 
these,  moreover,  can  be  afforded  on  a  larije  scale  at  a  cheaper  cost  than  on  a  small — so  much  so 
that,  were  neighboring  proprietor.'*  to  undmake  simultaneously  the  sheltering  of  their  farms  on  a 
systematic  plan,  not  only  would  warmth  be  imparted  over  a  wide  extent  of  country,  but  eflScient 
fencine  would  be  accomplished  alons  march  fence-i  ai  half  the  cost  to  each  proprietor. 

(1090.)  Low  pastoral  farms  shoulil  be  stocked  wii'i  Chrri"!,  and  liiu'h  with  the  more  hardy 
Black-fared,  sometimes  called  the  Heath  and  Mountain  Sheep;  and,  although  the  general  treat- 
ment of  both  breeds  is  nearlv  alike,  yet  their  n^spcctive  farms  are  laid  out  in  a  differrnt  manner. 
A  Cheviot  sheep-farm  contains  from  500  to  2,000  sheep  ;  that  which  maintains  from  .^OO  to  1,000 


*  Jonnal  of  the  Rojal  AcricuUunU  Society  of  Knclnr.d,  vol.  L 

I  Mark-Lnne  Express,  16th  Dec.  1839.  \  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  toL  xi. 

(890) 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS.  459 

is  perhaps  the  highest  rented,  beiusr  within  the  reach  of  the  capital  of  many  farmers  ;  and  one  that 
maintains  from  1,000  to  2,000  is  perhaps  the  most  pleasant  to  possess,  and,  if  it  have  arable  land 
attached  to  it,  will  afford  pretty  good  employment  to  the  farmer,  though,  with  good  shepherds 
under  him,  and  no  arable  farm,  he  could  manage  the  concerns  of  6,000  sheep  as  easily  as  those  of 
500.  A  shepherd  to  every  600  Cheviot  sheep  is  considered  a  fair  allowance,  where  the  ground 
is  not  very  difficult  to  traverse,  and  it  may  be  held  as  a  fair  stent  to  put  1,000  sheep  on  every  1,200 
acres  imperial.'' 

(1091.)  Everj-  Cheviot  sheep-farm  should  have  arable  land  within  it,  to  supply  turnips  and  hay 
to  the  stock,  aiid  provision  to  the  people  who  inhabit  it.  It  is  trae  that  all  the  necessaries,  as  well 
as  the  luxuries,  of  lite  may  be  purchased  ;  but  no  dweller  in  the  country  will  hesitate  a  moment 
to  choose  the  alternative  of  raising  the  necessaries  of  life  and  having  them  at  command,  to  going 
perhaps  many  miles  to  purchase  the  most  trivial  article  of  domestic  use.  It  is  not  easy  to  deter- 
mine the  proportion  which  arable  land  should  bear  to  pastoral,  to  supply  the  requisite  articles  of 
provision ;  but  perhaps  2  acres  arable  to  every  20  breeding-ewes  the  pasture  maintains  may  sup- 
ply all  necessaries.  Taking  this  ratio  as  a  basis  of  calculation,  a  pastoral  farm  maintaining  1,000 
ewes,  a  medium  number,  would  require  100  acres  of  arable  land,  which  would  be  labored  by  2 
pair  of  horses,  on  a  4-course  shift;  becau.se,  pasture  not  being  required  on  the  arable  portion  of 
the  farm,  new  grass  will  be  its  substitute.  The  farm  will  thus  bo  divided  into  25  acres  of  green 
crops,  25  acres  of  corn  after  them,  25  acres  of  sown  grasses,  and  25  acres  of  oats  after  the  grass. — 
Manure  will  be  required  for  25  acres  of  green  crop,  which  will  partly  be  supplied  by  the  100 
acres  of  straw,  by  bone-dust,  and  by  sheep  on  turnips  after  bone-dust.  To  render  the  straw  into 
manure  there  are"  4  hor.ses;  cows  of  the  fanner,  the  shepherd,  and  plowmen  ;  with  perhaps  a  few 
stirks.  the  offspring  of  the  cows,  and  a  youns  colt  or  two.  in  the  farm-yard.  The  arable  land  should 
have  a  ring-fence  of  thorn,  if  the  situation  will  admit  of  growth  or  of  stone. 

(1092.)  The  steadinsr  for  such  a  farm  may  be  of  the  form  of  fig.  2S,  containing  a  4horse  thresh- 
ing-mill, driven  by  v>'atcr  if  possible,  by  horses  by  necessity  ;  a  corn-barn,  straw-bam,  chaff-house, 
stable,  byre,  cart-.shed,  wool-room,  and  implement-room  for  the  shepherd's  stores. 

(1093.)  The  pasture  division  of  the  farm  should  be  subdivided  into  different  lots,  varying  in 
number  and  dimension  according  to  the  age  and  kind  of  the  stock  to  be  reared  upon  each.  The 
nature  of  the  land  determines  the  age  and  kind  of  stock  to  be  reared  upon  it ;  for  it  is  found  that 
some  land  will  not  suit  breeding-ewes,  and  others  are  unsuitable  for  hoggs.  If  the  pasture  con- 
sist chiefly  of  soft,  rough  land,  hoggs  are  best  adapted  for  it;  but.  if  short  and  bare,  ewes  will 
thrive  best  upon  it.  That  farm  is  best  which  contains  both  conditions  of  pasture,  to  maintain  both 
breeding  and  rearing  stock.  In  subdividing  a  farm  into  lots,  each  should,  as  much  as  possible, 
contain  within  itself  the  same  quality  of  pasture,  whether  rough  or  short ;  for,  should  fine  and 
coarse  grass  be  included  within  the  same  lot.  the  stock  will  remain  almost  constantly  upon  the 
fine,  to  the  risk  of  even  reducing  their  condition.  To  the  extent  of  1-5  of  coarse  to  fine  may  be 
permitted  within  the  same  lot,  without  apprehending  much  detriment  to  stock.  Should  a  large 
space  of  inferior  soil  lie  contiguous  to  what  is  much  better,  they  should  be  divided  by  a  fence,  and. 
if  requisite,  a  different  breed  of  sheep  reared  upon  each.  By  the.se  arrangements,  not  only  a 
greater  number  of  sheep  may  be  maintained  upon  a  farm,  but  the  larger  number  will  always  be 
in  better  condition. t 

(1094.)  The  draining  of  pastoral  farms  is  an  operation  of  great  importance,  as  a  .superior  class 
of  plants  will  thereby  be  encouraged  to  grow  in  places  occupied  by  coar.se  herbage,  nourished  by 
superabundant  and  stagnant  water.  A  plan  of  laying  out  hill-drains  may  be  seen  in  fig.  145. — 
Their  collected  waters  may  be  convened  away  to  a  contiguous  rivulet  or  hollow  in  open  main- 
drains,  like  that  in  fig.  1 46.  A  spouty  swamp,  of  whatever  e.xtent.  and  wherever  occurring,  should 
be  drained  by  coupled  stone-drains,  like  fig.  159,  cut  to  the  bottom  of  under  water;  and  the  ordi- 
nary drains  for  conveying  the  water  in  the  branches  should  be  formed  with  a  cover,  like  fig.  147. 
The  arable  portion  of  the  fiirni  should,  of  course,  be  drained  bj-  parallel  drains,  as  represented  in 
fig.  186.  of  the  form  of  coupled  drains,  like  fig.  159;  and,  if  tiles  are  near  as  well  as  stones,  like  fig. 
185.  One  means  of  keeping  part  of  the  surface  dry  is  to  have  the  channel  of  every  rivulet,  how 
ever  tiny,  that  runs  through  the  farm,  scoured  every  year  in  those  parts  where  accumulated  gravel 
causes  the  water,  in  rainy  weatler  or  at  the  breaking  up  of  a  storm,  to  overflow  its  banks;  be 
cause  the  overflowed  water,  acting  as  a  sort  of  irrigation,  sets  up  a  fresh  vegetation,  which  is  ea- 
gerly devoured  by  sheep  in  spring,  to  the  risk  of  their  health  ;  and  the  sand  carried  by  it  is  left 
on  the  grass  on  the  subsidence  of  the  water,  much  to  the  injury  of  the  teeth  and  stomachs  of  the 
sheep.  The  confinement  of  water  within  its  channels  alsj  prevents  it  leaving  the  land,  where  in- 
undated, unduly  wet. 

(1095.)  In  recommending  a  connection  of  arable  with  a  pasture  farm,  my  object  is  simply  to  in- 
sure an  abundant  supply  of^  provision  for  sheep  in  winter.  Were  our  winters  so  mild  as  to  allow 
sheep  to  range  over  the  hills  in  plenty  and  safety,  no  such  connection  need  be  formed — or,  at 
least,  to  a  greater  e.xtent  than  would  supply  provisions  to  its  inhabitants,  when  situated  far  from  a 
market.  But  when  we  are  aware  that  severe  storms  at  times  almost  overwhelm  a  whole  flock, 
and  protracted  snows  and  frosts  debar  the  u.se  of  the  ground  for  \veek8  together,  it  is  necessary 
that  provision  be  made  for  the  support  of  stock  in  those  calamitous  circumstances  ;  and,  surely, 
there  is  no  better  or  more  legitimate  mode  of  supporting  them  than  of  raising  provision  for  them 
upon  their  own  ground.  I  am  quite  aware  of  the  folly  of  trusting  to  corn  in  a  high  district  for 
rent,  and  am.  also  aware  that  stock  alone  must  provide  that ;  and  I  have  seen  too  many  instances 
of  failure  in  trusting  to  corn  and  neglecting  stock  ;  nevertheless,  it  catinot  be  denied  that  the  more 
stock  are  provided  with  food  and  shelter  in  winter,  the  less  loss  will  be  incurred  during  the  most 
inclement  season.     Let  one  instance,  out  of  many  that  could  be  adduced,  suffice  to  show  the  com- 

*  Little's  Practical  Observations  on  Mountain  Sheep. 

t  A  Lammermuir  Farmer's  Treatise  on  Sheep  in  High  Disti-icts.    The  Laramermuir  Farmer  was  the  late 
Mr.  John  Fairbaim,  Hallyburton,  a  man  of  good  sense  and  an  e-Kcellent  farmer,  and  whose  acquaintance  I 
was  happv  to  cultivate. 
(891) 


460  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

pararive  immunity  from  loss  enjoyed,  by  food  and  Rholtcr  beinir  provided  for  sheep  in  winter.  In 
the  wet  and  told  winitTH  ot  lftl6  and  Ihim,  tlie  extra — that  in,  the  more  than  usual  — loss  of  sheep 
aod  lambs  on  the  (arm  of  Crosscleuch,  Selkirkshire,  was  us  follows: 


In  1818, 


In  1816    \  '^  '"""bs.  at  8s.  each £80 

'  X    40  old  sheep,  at  SOs.  each 40 

£120 

200  lambs,  at  8s.  each £S0 

30  old  sheep,  at  208.  each 30 

£110 


Value  of  total  extra  loss £230 

whereas,  on  the  farm  of  Bowcrhope.  bclonein!»  to  the  same  farmer  and  on  which  \  more  sheep 
arc  kept,  the  extra  loss  in  those  years  was  as  follows  : 

Tn  iPifi    S~^  lambs,  at  Ss.  each £28 

'  I  10  old  sheep,  at  20a  each 10 

£38 


.50  Iambs,  at  Ss.  each £20 

8 

£28 


In  1818,  I    g  ^,j  sheep,  at  20s.  each 


Value  of  total  extra  loss £66 

Deduct  loss  on  Crossclcuch 230 

Value  saved  on  farm  of  Bowerhope £16-1* 

n096.)  Food  and  shelter  beinp  both  neces.sarj*  for  the  proper  treatment  of  sheep  in  winter  on 
paHtoral  farms,  the  means  of  supplying  them  demand  the  most  serious  attention  of  the  store-farmer. 
During  winter,  sheep  occupy  the  lower  part  of  the  farm.  Hoggs  are  netted  on  turnips  in  the 
early  part  of  the  .season,  and  ewes  and  other  sheep  subsist  on  the  grass  as  long  as  it  is  green.  The 
division  allotted  to  green  crop  in  the  arable  part  of  the  farm  contains  O.')  acres,  and,  allowing  3 
acres  for  potatoes  for  the  use  of  the  farmer  and  his  [jcople,  there  remain  22  acres  for  turnips;  and 
as  land  among  the  hills  is  generally  dry.  turnips  trrow  well  upon  it;  so  that  30  double-horse  cart- 
loads to  the  ."icrc,  of  1.5  cwt.  each,  may  be  calculutcd  on  for  a  crop.  It  is  judiciously  rerommend- 
eJ  by  Mr.  Fairbairn  to  carry  off;  about  the  end  of  October  or  beginning  of  November,  if  the 
•weather  is  open — that  is,  fresh — before  the  gi-ass  fails.  4-5  of  the  turnips,  and  store  them  in  heaps, 
as  in  fig.  213,  and  as  described  in  (1016) ;  and  allow  the  cire-Jioirfrs,  retained  to  maintain  the  nnm 
ber  of  tlie  ewe-flock  after  the  draft-ewes  have  been  disposed  of  to  eat  the  remaining  l-.l  oft  the 
pround,  with  whatever  small  turnips  left  when  the  others  were  pulled  ;  and,  to  strip  the  land  in 
that  proportion.  1  drill  should  be  left  and  4  caiTied  off".  This  is.  as  I  conceive,  an  excellent  sug- 
gestion for  adoption  on  every  hill-farm,  especially  a.s  it  secures  the  turnips  from  frost,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  gives  the  entire  conmiand  of  them  whenever  they  arc  required  in  a  storm. 

(1097.)  It  is  found  that  ho'ssf  fall  off"  in  condition  on  turnips  in  sprins.  in  a  high  district,  if  con- 
fined exclusively  upon  turnip-land;  not  certain^j'  for  want  of  food,  but  probably  from  too  much 
exposure  to  cold  from  want  of  shelter.  They  are,  therefore,  always  removed  from  the  turnips  in 
tlie  afternoon  to  their  pasture,  where  they  remain  all  night,  and  again  brought  back  lo  the  turnips 
in  the  following  morning.  It  is  obvious  that  this  ncccs.>;ary  treatment,  under  the  circumstances, 
deprives  the  lanri  of  much  of  the  manure  derivable  fmm  the  turnips ;  and  hence  farm-dung  .should 
be  put  on  the  land  befor'  the  sowing  of  the  following  grain  crop,  where  the  previous  turnips  had 
been  raised  with  bono-dust.  The  hogg.s  continue  their  daily  visit  to  the  land  until  all  the  turnips 
are  consumed;  which,  amounting  in  all  to  4i  acres,  may  last,  under  the  peculiar  treatment,  17 
score  of  lioggs — the  number  kept  for  refreshing  the  ewe-stock — about  6  or  7  weeks.  After  the 
land  has  been  cleared  of  the  turnips,  the  hoi.';:s  should  be  daily  supjilied  from  the  store  on  their 
pasture  with  1  double  cartload  to  every  8  scores,  which  will  be  consumed  in  about  4  hours;  and, 
after  i.hat,  they  depend  on  the  grass  for  the  remainder  of  the  dav.  Round  turnips,  having  no  hold 
of  the  ground,  nive  way  to  the  upward  bite  of  the  sheep  witfi  the  lower  jaw  teeth,  and  prove 
troublesome  to  them  when  laid  down  upon  gra.ss.  When  taken  out  of  a  store,  they  should  there- 
fore always  he  cut  with  a  slicer.  HogL's  are  treated  in  this  way  until  March,  or  longer  if  the 
weather  is  bleak  ;  and  the  advantages  of  it  are  that  they  are  maintained  in  their  condition,  and 
become  pnxif  against  the  many  dis(;ascs  which  poverty  engenders;  and  their  fleece  weichs  1  lb. 
more  at  clippingtime.  The  cost  of  8  acres  of  turnips  given  to  hosss.  valued  at  £3  an  acre  in  a 
high  district,  is  17d.  each,  which  is  so  far  countorbalariced  by  the  additional  pound  of  wool  which 
the  cost  iiwure.s,  and  which  is  worth  from  lOd.  to  Is.  per  lb.  The  balance  of  .Id.  ;o  7d.  a  head, 
which  is  the  true  cost  of  the  keep  of  the  sheep,  is  a  trifle  compared  to  the  advantage  of  bringing 
them  through  the  winter  in  a  healthy  state  and  in  fair  condition. 

(1098.)  As  to  the  older  sheep,  they  must  partly  depend,  in  frost  and  snow,  upon  the  14  acres  of 
turnips  yet  in  store,  and  upon  hay,  and.  of  course,  upon  pasture  in  fresh  weather.  The  hay  is  ob- 
tained from  the  2.')  acres  of  new  grass,  which  may  Ije  all  made  into  hay  ;  but  allowing  5  acres 
for  cutting-grass  given  in  suppers  to  horses  and  cows,  there  remain  20  acres  for  hay,  whicli.  at  120 
hay-stonea  (of  22  lbs.  to  the  stone)  per  acre,  civc  2,400  hay-stones,  or  3.771  stones  imperial.  The 
1,000  ewes  will  eat  1^  Ib.s.  and  the  hoijgs  \  lb.  each  every  day.  besides  the  two  cart-loads  of  tur- 
nips among  the  lot.  .\\.  this  rate,  the  hay  will  last  31  days,  which  is  a  shorter  time  than  many 
storms  continue  ;  but  if  the  whole  2.>  acres  of  new  grass  were  made  into  hay,  it  would  last  40 
days.     But  the  rale  should  be  lo  begin  with  a  full  hand  of  hay  at  the  commencement  of  farming, 

'  Napier's  Treatise  oo  Practical  Store-Farming. 

(892) 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS.  461 

and  preserve  wliat  may  be  left  over  in  a  favorable  season,  and  mix  it  with  the  new  of  the  follow- 
ing season,  for  any  subsequent  unusual  continuance  of  storm. 

(1099.)  But  in  storm,  their  provender  cannot  be  given  to  sheep  upon  snow,  safely  and  con- 
venientl}',  as  ground-drift  may  blow  and  cover  both  ;  and  no  place  is  so  suitable  for  the  purpose 
as  a  5<e//,  a  term,  according  to  Dr.  Jamieson,  literally  signifying  a  covert  or  shelter.     There 
still  many  store-farmers  skeptical  of  the  utility  of  stells,  if  we  may  judge  of  their  opinions  h 
their  practice  ;  but  I  presume  no  great  sagacitj-  is  required  to  discover  the  fact,  that  stock  si  ■ 
much  more  comfortably  lodged  in  a  drifting  storm  within  a  high  inclosure  than  upon  an  oj 
heath.     A  stell  may  be  formed  of  planting  or  high  stonewall.     Either  will  afford  shelter ;  but  ti- 
former  most,  though  most  costly,  as  it  should  be  fenced  by  a  stone -wall.     Of  this  class  I  conceiv,. 
the  form  represented  by  fig.  233  a  good  one,  and  which  may  be  characterized  an  outside  stell.    It 

Fig.  233. 


THE  OUTSIDE  STELL  SHELTERED  BY  PLANTING 

has  been  erected  by  Dr.  Howison,  of  Crossbuvn  House,  Lanarkshire,  and  proved  for  30  years. 
The  circumscribing  strong  black  line  is  a  stone-wall  6  feet  high ;  the  dark  ground  within  is  cov- 
ered ■with  trees.  Its  4  rounded  projections  shelter  a  corre.-^ponding  number  of  recesses  embraced 
between  them,  so  that,  let  the  wind  blow  from  whatever  quarter  it  may,  two  of  the  recesses  will 
always  be  sheltered  from  the  storm.  The  size  of  this  stell  is  regulated  by  the  number  of  the  sheep 
kept;  but  this  rule  may  be  remembered  in  regard  to  its  accommodation  for  stock,  that  each  re- 
cess occupies  about  J  part  of  the  space  comprehended  between  the  extremities  of  the  4  projec- 
tions ;  so  that,  in  a  stell  covering  4  acres — which  is  perhaps  the  leaxf.  size  they  should  be — every 
recess  will  contain  ^  an  acre.  "  But,  indeed,"  as  Dr.  Howison  observes,  and  which  ob.servation 
applies  to  the  general  benefit  derived  from  every  species  of  .shelter,  "  were  it  not  from  motives  of 
economy,  I  know  no  other  circumstance  that  .=hould  set  bounds  to  the  size  of  the  stells;  as  a 
small  addition  of  walls  adds  so  greatly  to  the  number  of  the  trees,  that  they  become  the  more  val- 
uable as  a  plantation ;  and  the  droppings  of  the  sheep  or  cattle  increase  the  value  of  the  pasture 
to  a  considerable  distance  around  in  a  tenfold  degree."* 

(1100.)  As  a  modified  improvement  of  this  form  of  stell.  Dr.  Howison  proposes  the  one  in  fig. 
234,  which  consists  in  giving  shelter  in  its  interior  as  well  as  on  the  outside,  and  may  therefore 
be  denominated  a  double  stell.  This  form  has  never  yet  been  tried  ;  but  if  made  on  an  adequate 
scale,  I  have  no  doubt  of  its  efficiency.  Instead  of  one  opening  into  its  interior  at  a.  I  think  it 
should  have  one  at  the  head  of  each  recess  at  b,  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  the  shifting  of  the 
sheep  from  the  outside  into  the  interior  chambers  c.  on  a  daneerous  change  of  the  wind.  The 
hay-stack  will  be  conveniently  placed  in  the  center  of  the  stell  at  d.  This  stell  should  scarcely 
occupy  less  ground  than  7  acres  to  be  really  useful ;  thus,  1  acre  in  each  of  tlie  projections, 
making  4  acres,  divided  into  \  an  acre  for  each  interior  chamber  c,  and  \  an  acre  of  wood  around 
it ;  and  each  recess  h.  with  the  one  at  a.  occupying  J  of  an  acre,  make  other  3  acres,  or  7  acres 
in  all.  But  it  would  be  better  to  occupy  even  more  ground.  The  dark  line  circumscribing  both 
the  interior  and  exterior  is  a  wall-fence,  which  would  no  doubt  make  this  form  of  stell  somewhat 
expensive,  but  it  would  have  the  great  advantage  of  accommodating  a  large  proportion  of  the 
flock  tor  a  long  time  at  one  placed  Stells  of  this  construction,  besides  affm-ding  shelter,  would 
form  embellishments  to  a  pastoral  country,  and  mieht.  moreover,  make  a  fence  betwixt  one  farm 
and  another.  For  instance,  if  it  were  desired  to  divide  a  4-.square-mile  farm  into  one  of  2  square 
miles,  which  had  been  fenced  with  a  ring-fence  planting,  a  few  of  the.se  stells,  placed  in  a  row- 
down  the  middle  of  the  farm,  with  a  single  dyke  from  stell  to  stell,  would  not  only  divide  the 


•  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agrictatural  Society,  vol.  Xii. 
(893) 


462  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

large  farm  into  two  Rinall  ones,  but  provide  stells  for  both  ;  and  being  doable,  half  the  number  of 
ordinary  oni-g  would  nulHce. 

(1101.)  In  makiui;  Biells  of  planting.  I  think  it  would  be  dcnirable  to  have  the  outside  row  of 
Boch  trees  aa  do  not  vioject  brunches  from  their  tops:  branches,  in  such  a  place,  only  serve  to 
drop  water  upon  the  sheep  lying  in  the  outside  recesses  or  inside  chambers ;  and  the  droppintr  18 
eo  far  injurious  to  the  sheep  as  to  chill  them  with  cold,  or  entangle  their  wool  with  icicle*,  before 
they  get  up  at  daybreak  to  shake  tliemselves  free  of  the  wet.  This  form  of  tree  is  found  in  the 
spruce,  which  atibrds,  moreover,  excellent  shelter  by  its  evergreen  leaves  and  closeness  of  sprays, 
descending  to  the  very  ground.  It  should  be  employed  to  back  the  inside  as  well  as  the  outM'le 
'walls  ;  and  the  space  between  them  to  be  filled  with  t>cots  fir,  larch,  or  such  hard-wood  trees  aa 
will  grovf  at  the  elevation.     It  must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind,  that  aa  every  aoil  does  not  floit 

Fig.  234. 


THE  DOUBLE  STELL  SHELTERED  BT  PLANTING. 

Bprnce,  it  is  impossible  to  follow  this  rule  implicitly.  Larch  grows  best  among  the  debris  of 
rocks  and  on  the  sides  of  ravines:  Scots  fir  on  thin  dry  soils,  however  near  the  rock  they  may  be  ; 
and  the  spruce  in  deep,  moist  soil.s. 

(1102.)  With  regard  to  the  number  of  stellsor  stone  fcnceson  a  farm.  Lord  Napier  recommends 
the  establishment  of  what  he  calls  a  "  system  of  siells,"  which  would  place  o.ne  in  the  '•  particular 
haunt  "  of  every  division  of  the  flock.  In  this  view,  he  considers  tliat  24  stells  would  be  required 
on  a  farm  maintaining  1.000  sheep  ;  that  is,  1  to  little  more  than  every  40  sheep.*  However  de- 
sirable it  may  be  to  afford  full  protection  and  shelter  to  stock,  it  is  possible  to  overdo  the  thing — 
that  is,  incur  more  trouble  and  expense  than  necessary  in  accomplishing  the  object.  On  a  farm 
where  the  practice  is  for  the  whole  hirsel  to  graze  together,  it  will  almo.'^t  be  impracticable  to  di- 
vide them  into  lots  of  40,  one  lot  for  each  stell ;  and  even  if  the  division  were  accomplished,  it 
would  be  with  great  waste  of  time,  much  bodily  fatigue  to  the  shepherd  and  his  dog,  and  con- 
siderable heating  to  the  sheep.  I  rather  agree  in  opinion  with  Mr.  William  Hogg,  shepherd  at 
Stobohope,  that  stells  should  easily  contain  200  sheep,  or  even  300  should  be  put  into  one  on 
emergency  ;  because,  in  the  bustle  necessarily  occasioned  by  the  dread  of  a  coming  storm,  a  large 
lot  of  200  could  easily  be  shed  off  from  the  rest,  and  accommodated  in  the  recesses  of  a  stell  like 
fig.  233,  which  are  accessible  from  all  quarters ;  and  5  such  stells  would  accommodate  the  whole 
hirs<-l  of  1.000  sheep. 

(1103.)  Suppose,  then,  that  5  such  stells  were  erected  at  convenient  places,  not  near  any 
natural  means  of  shelter,  such  as  a  crag,  ravine,  or  deep  hollow,  but  on  an  open  rising  plain,  over 
which  the  drift  sweeps  unobstructed,  and  on  which,  of  course,  it  remains  in  less  quantitj-  tlian  on 
any  other  place.  With  a  stack  of  hay  inside  and  a  store  of  turnips  out.^ide,  everything  would  be 
ready  for  the  emergency.  On  a  sudden  blast  coming,  the  whole  hirsel  might  "be  safely  lodged 
for  ilie  night  in  the  leeward  outsiiie  recesses  of  even  one  or  two  of  the  .stells.  and.  should  prognos- 
tics threaten  a /v'lff' »''"''".  next  day.  all  the  stells  coul<l  be  iiiliabiieii  in  a  short  time.  Such  a 
stell  as  fig.  234.  tilled  outside  and  in,  could  hold  the  whole  hirsel  at  one  time.  Lord  Napier  recom- 
mends a  stack  of  hay  to  be  placed  clo.se  to  the  outside  of  every  small  circular  stell ;  but  these, 
I  conceive,  would  be  a  great  means  of  arresting  the  drift  which  would  otherwise  pass  on. 

(1104.)  Mr.  Fairbairn  recommends  a  form  of  stell  soniethine  like  fig.  233,  without  the  planting, 
having  4  concave-sides,  and  a  wall  running  out  from  each  salient  angle,  as  in  fig.  235;  each  stell 


•Napier's  Treatise  on  Practical  Store-Farmuig. 
(894) 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


463 


to  occapy  J  an  acre  of  ground,  to  be  fenced  with  a  stone-wall  6  feet  high,  if  done  by  the  landlord; 
but  if  by  the  tenant,  3  feet  of  the  wall  to  be  built  with  stone,  and  coped  other  3  feet  with  turf; 
which  last  construction,  if  done  by  contract,  would  not  cost  more  than  2b.  per  rood  of  6  yards. 


Fig.  235. 


THE  FORM  OF  STELL  RECOMMENDED  BY  MR.  FAIRBAIRN. 

An  objection  to  this  form  of  stell  without  a  planting  is,  when  the  wind  strikes  into  any  of  the  re- 
cesses, it  is  arrested  in  its  progress  by  coming  against  the  perpendicular  face  of  the  wall,  from 
which  it  strikes  upward,  and  then  throws  down  the  snow  immediately  beyond  it ;  where,  in  this 
particular  form,  the  drift  would  be  deposited  in  the  inside  of  the  stell ;  and  hence  it  is,  I  presume, 
that  Mr.  Fairbairn  objects  to  sheep  being  lodged  in  the  inside  of  a  stall*  This  form,  though  af- 
fording more  shelter,  seems  open  to  the  same  objections  as  may  be  urged  against  the  forms  of  the 
ancient  stells,  a,  b,  or  c,  fig.  236,  the  remains  of  many  of  which  may  be  observed  among  the  hills, 
and  might  yet  screen  sheep  from  a  boisterous  blast  in  summer. 

Fig.  236. 


THE  ANCIENT  STELLS. 

(1105.)  There  is  much  difference  of  opinion  regarding  the  utility  o^  sheep-cots  on  a  store-farm. — ' 
These  are  rudely-formed  houses  in  which  sheep  are  put  under  cover  in  wet  weather,  especially  at 
lambing  time.  Lord  Napier  recommends  one  to  be  erected  beside  every  stell,  to  contain  the  hay 
in  winter,  if  necessary ;  and  Mr.  Little  even  advises  them  to  be  built  to"  contain  the  whole  hirsel 
of  sheep  in  wet  weather.  It  seems  a  chimerical  project  to  house  a  large  flock  of  sheep  for  days, 
and  perhaps  weeks;  and,  if  even  practicable,  it  could  not  he  done  but  at  great  cost.  1  agree  with 
those  who  object  to  sheep-cots  in  high  farms,  because,  when  inhabited  in  winter,  even  for  one 
night,  by  as  many  sheep  as  would  fill  them,  an  unnatural  bight  of  temperature  is  occasioned. — 
Cots  may  be  serviceable  at  night  when  a  ewe  becomes  sick  at  lambing,  or  when  a  lamb  has  to  be 
mothered  upon  a  ewe  that  has  lost  her  own  lamb,  because,  these  cases  being  few  at  a  time,  the 
cot  never  becomes  overheated. 

(U06.)  In  an  unsheltered  store-farm  it  is  found  requisite  to  have  2  paddocks,  and  the  number  is 
sufficient  to  contain  all  the  invalid  sheep,  tups,  and  twin  lambs,  until  strong  enough  to  join  the 
hirsel.  Hay  should  be  stacked  within,  and  the  turnips  stored  around  the  outside  vvalls,  or  in  the 
planting  of  the  stells.  Tups  may  graze  with  the  hirsel  in  the  early  part  of  the  summer  ;  but,  as 
no  ordinary  dyke  will  confine  them  in  autumn,  they  should  be  penned  in  one  of  the  stells,  on  hay 
or  turnips,  until  put  to  the  ewes. 

(1107.)  Where  a  rivulet  passes  through  an  important  part  of  the  farm,  it  will  be  advisable  to 
throw  bridges  across  it  at  convenient  places  for  sheep  to  pass  along  without  danger,  either  to  bet- 
ter pasture  or  better  .shelter  on  the  opposite  bank.  Bridges  are  best  constructed  of  stone,  and, 
though  rough,  if  put  together  on  correct  principles,  will  be  strong ;  but,  if  stones  cannot  be  found 
fit  for  arches,  they  may  do  for  buttresses,  and,  across  these,  trees  may  be  laid  close,  and  held  to- 
gether by  transverse  pieces  6  feet  long,  which,  when  covered  with  tough  turf,  will  form  a  broail 
and  safe  roadway. 

(1108  )  These  are  all  the  remarks  that  occur  to  me  in  reference  to  the  management  of  a  low 
pastoral  farm  in  winter  ;  and,  although  many  of  them  are  equally  applicable  to  a  high  store-farm, 
yet  their  circumstances  are  so  far  different  as  to  warrant  modifications  of  management.  There  is 
one  circumstance  which  obviously  renders  modifications  in  manacement  necessary,  and  that  is  the 
difference  in  habit  betwixt  the  Black-faced  and  Cheviot  breeds  of  sheep,  the  former  being  the  beet 
suited  for  a  high  farm.  Some  of  the  hill-farms  extend  to  the  highest  points  of  our  mountain  ranges, 
to  4.000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  embracing  many  thousand  acres;  and,  as  land  at  that 

*  A  Laramermuir  Farmer's  Treatise  on  Sheep  in  High  Districts. 
(895)  ^  ^ 


464  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

elevation  cannot  be  expected  to  yield  much  nutritious  vegetation,  many  acres  in  some  places  are 
required  to  support  a  single  sheep,  so  that  a  farm  containing  1,000  shot-p  may  retjuire  from  2,000 
to  5,000  acres ;  but  there  are  lew  hill-farmers  who  possess  only  1,000  sheej).  The  circumstance 
of  elevation  and  seclusion  fn)rn  roads  also  imposes  modifications  in  the  feedini;  fn)m  that  pursued 
in  the  lower  country.  The  store-farmers  of  the  lower  country  wll  what  lambs  they  can  spare, 
after  retaining  as  many  as  will  keep  their  ewe-stock  fresh.  They  thus  dispose  of  all  their  wcther- 
boggs,  the  smaller  ewe-hoggs,  and  draft-ewe.s — which,  if  parted  with  at  an  early  age,  say  3  year^ 
become  more  easily  fattened  on  turnips  in  the  low  country  than  wethers  of  the  same  ape.  Sap- 
pose  that  1,000  ewes  wean  1,000  lambs,  'MO  of  these  will  be  wether  and  .'iOO  ewe-hoggs;  of  which 
fatter  17  si-ore,  or  .1-10,  will  be  retained,  and  the  remaining  ICO  disposed  of  It  is  the  practice  of 
the  hill  store-fanner,  on  the  other  hand,  to  purcha.se  these  lambs — rear  them  until  fit,  as  wethera, 
to  go  to  the  low  country  to  be  fed  fat  on  turnips — and.  being  a  purchaser  of  lambs,  keeps  fewer 
breeding-ewes  than  wethers. 

(1109.)  It  -seems  impracticable  to  have  arable  land  on  a  hill-farm — at  least,  hill-farmers  are  un- 
willing to  admit  that  turnips  are  the  best  food  for  their  stock  in  winter.  Whatever  may  prompt 
them  to  oliject  to  any  arable  culture  on  their  farms,  it  would  require  very  cogent  reasons  to  prove 
that  Black  faced  sheep  would  not  thrive  well  on  turnips  in  the  hills,  if  these  could  be  raised  in 
sufficient  (juaiitity  upon  the  spot.  Doubtless  on  many  farms,  far  removed  from  the  great  thorough- 
fares of  the  country,  it  would  be  \cry  difficult  to  bring  even  a  favorable  spot  into  culture,  and  es- 
pecially to  raise  green  crops  upon  ihera  as  they  should  be  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  many 
glens  among  the  hills,  not  far  removed  from  tolerable  roads,  in  which  culture  nuLrbt  be  practiced 
to  great  advantage,  the  produce  of  which  would  assist  to  maintain  the  condition  of  the  flock  through 
a  stormy  period  of  6  weeks  or  2  months. 

(IIIO.)  As  a  corroborative  proof  of  the  ntility  of  some  culture  on  hill-farms,  it  is  the  practice  of 
many  hill-farmers  to  take  either  turnips  or  a  rough  grazing  for  their  stock  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
country,  as  nearly  adjacent  to  their  homes  as  food  can  be  procured ;  and  many  lowland -farmers, 
•who  possess  hill-farms  besides,  bring  down  their  young  sheep  to  the  low  country  in  winter,  and 
put  them  on  turnips.  When  turnips,  however,  are  taken  for  this  purpose,  a  considerable  expense 
18  incurre<i,  and  a  rough  pa.sture.  though  less  efficacious  than  turnips,  may  bring  the  stock  through 
the  dreary  part  of  winter  tolerably  well ;  but  the  conveniences  of  home  are  wanting  here,  and 
when  snow  falls  deep,  and  covers  the  ground  for  weeks  together,  little  provision  has  been  made 
to  get  at  the  turnips  in  the  fields ;  and  then  whins  and  bushes  afTord  the  only  food  where  there  is 
no  hay.  but  where  there  is,  it  is  of  course  given  them :  but  then,  in  this  case,  there  was  no  use  of 
iticurring  the  expen.se  and  enduring  the  fatiirue  of  the  flock  going  from  home,  when  hay  could  be 
given  them  in  their  own  haunts.  Hence  the  necessity,  wherever  turnips  are,  of  storing  a  large 
proportion  to  be  n.sed  in  emergencies.  Where  a  Scots-fir  plantation  is  near  a  haunt  of  sheep,  they 
need  not  starve;  for  a  daily  supply  of  branches,  fre.sh  cut  from  the  trees,  will  not  only  support 
them,  but  make  them  thrive  as  heartily  as  upon  hay  alone  ;  and.  if  a  small  quantity  of  hay  is  given 
along  with  the  fir-leaves,  they  will  thrive  better  than  on  hay  alone.* 

(1111.)  One  inducement  may  make  some  hill-farmers  send  their  stock  to  a  lower  country  in 
winter — namely,  the  want  of  adequate  shelter  at  home.  Their  hills  arc  bare  of  wood,  the  few^ 
trees  being  confined  to  the  glens,  and  of  course  sheej)  can  find  no  shelter  in  their  usual  grounds; 
and  it  is  surpri-sing  how  susceptible  of  cold  even  Black-faced  sheep  are  when  the  atmosphere  is 
becoming  moist.  They  will  cover  down,  creep  into  corners  and  beside  the  smallest  bushes  for 
•  shelter,  or  stand  hanging  their  heads  and  grinding  their  teeth,  having  no  appetite  for  food.  If  a 
piercing  bla.st  of  wind  follows  such  a  cold  day,  the  chances  arc  that  not  a  few  of  them  perish  in 
the  night;  and,  if  thick  snow-drift  comes  on,  they  drive  before  it,  apparently  regardless  of  conse- 
quences, and  get  into  .some  hollow,  where  they  are  overwhelmed.  Thus  the  ntility  of  stells  be- 
comes apparent,  and  many  hearty  wishes  are  no  doubt  expressed  for  them  by  the  farmer  and  his 
shepherd,  when  too  late  to  save  the  flock. 

(1112.)  Much  diversity  of  opinion  exists  ia  regard  to  the  best  form  of  stell  for  high  pastures, 
where  wood  seldom  grows.  At  such  a  bight  the  spruce  will  not  thrive;  and  the  larch,  being  a 
deciduous  tree,  alTords  but  little  shelter  with  its  spear-pointed  top.  There  is  no  tree  but  the  ever- 
green Scots-fir  fit  for  the  purpose  ;  and,  when  surrounding  a  circular  >tell,  such  as  is  represented 
by  fig.  2.'!7,  it  aftbrds  very  acceptable  shelter  to  a  largo  number  of  sheep.  In  reference  to  this 
particular  form  of  stell,  it  consists  of  2  concentric  circles  of  wall,  represented  by  the  dark  lines  in 
the  figure,  inclosini;  a  planting  of  Scots-fir.  and  having  a  circular  space  a  in  the  center  for  sheep, 
which  cat'  be  inaiie  as  largo  as  to  contain  any  number.  This  may  be  denomiinited  an  inxiilr  stell, 
in  contradistinction  to  that  in  fig.  233,  and  has  been  proved  efficient  by  the  experience  of  Dr.  How- 
ison.  Its  entrance,  however,  is  erroneously  made  wider  at  the  mouth  than  next  the  interior  circle 
a.  which  has  the  effect  of  increasing  the  velocity  of  the  wind  into  the  circle,  or  of  squeezing  the 
sheep  when  thev  enter  the  passage  in  numbers.  Were  the  pa.ssage  parallel  it  would  be  better, 
but  if  wider  at  tlie  inner  end  it  would  be  of  still  better  construction. 

(1113.)  But.  where  trees  cannot  be  planted  with  any  prosi»cct  of  success,  stells  may  be  formed 
•without  them,  and  indeed  usually  are  ;  and.  of  all  the  forms  that  have  been  tried,  the  circular  ha.s 
obtaine<t  the  preference  on  hill  farms;  hut  the  diflicully  of  determining  their  size  as  the  best  is 
atill  a  matter  of  dispute  among  hill-farmers.  Lord  Napier  thinks  that  7  yards  diameter  is  a  good 
size,  and  that  the  largest  should  not  exceed  10  yards,  inside  measure  ;  while  Mr.  William  Hogg 
approves  of  li*  yards.  I  am  inclined  to  agree  with  Mr.  Hogg.  In  the  first  place,  the  circular  form 
ie  better  than  a  square,  a  parallelogram,  or  a  cross ;  because  the  wind  striking  against  a  curved 
surface,  on  coming  Irom  any  quarter,  is  divided  into  two  column-^,  each  weaker  than  the  undivided 
ma.ss;  whereas,  on  striking  au'ainst  a  straight  surface,  though  its  velocity  is  somewhat  checked,  it 
is  still  undivided,  and  its  force  still  great,  when  it  rebounds  upward  with  increased  force,  and, 
curling  over  the  top  of  the  wall,  throws  down  the  snow  a  few  yards  only  beyond  it — that  is,  into 
the  interior  of  the  figure.     Any  one  \n  ho  has  noticed  the  position  of  drifts  of  snow  on  each  side 


Little's  Practical  Observations  on  Mountain  Sheep. 
(696) 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


465 


of  a  straight  stoncdykc,  will  vemetnber  that  the  leeward-side  of  the  dyke  is  completely  filled  up. 
and  that  on  the  windward  a  hollow  is  left  often  clear  to  the  ground  between  the  snow  and  the 
dyke.     Every  form  of  stall,  therefore,  that  presents  a  straight  face  to  the  drift,  will  be  filled  up  be- 


THE  INSIDE  CIRCULAR  STELI.  SURROUNDED  WITH  PLANTING. 

hind  the  front  wall,  and  can  be  no  protection  to  sheep  against  being  blown  over  with  snow  0( 
two  curves,  that  which  has  the  larger  diameter  will,  it  is  obvious,  divide  the  drift  the  farther  asun- 
der. A  stell  of  small  diameter,  such  as  7  yards,  dividing  a  mass  of  drift,  the  current  of  air  imme- 
diately over  the  stell  is  suddenly  cut  in  two,  but  to  so  small  a  hight  that  the  snow  from  the  air 
above  falls  between  them  into  the  stell.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  a  stell  of  large  diameter,  as 
of  18  yards,  divides  a  column  of  air,  this  is  so  much  deflected  on  each  side  that  the  current  above 
the  stell  is  widely  divided  to  a  considerable  hight,  and,  long  before  it  regains  its  former  state,  it 
hag  passed  over  the  stell.  where  it  deposits  its  snow ;  and  hence,  near  such  a  stell  the  snow  \s 
found  to  accumulate  in  a  triangular  shape,  with  its  apex  away  from  the  stell  quite  to  leeward  of 
the  most  distant  part  of  the  wall,  and  of  course  leaves  the  interior  free  of  snow.    Fig.  238  repre- 


THK  CIRCULAR  STELL  FITTED  UP  WITH  HAY-RACKS. 

sents  one  of  18  yards  diameter  inside,  surrounded  by  a  wall  of  6  feet  high,  the  first  3  feet  of  which 
nmy  be  of  stone,  and  the  other  3  feet  of  turf,  and  will  cost  2s.  4d.  per  rood  of  6  yards,  if  erected  by 
the  tenant,  but  if  by  the  landlord,  and  wholly  of  stone  and  coped,  will  cost  7s.  per  rood :  this  size 
gives  9^  roods,  which  at  7s.  makes  its  cost  £3  5s.  4d.,  including  the  quarrying  and  carriage  of  the 
stones — a  trifling  outlay  compared  to  the  permanent  advantage  derived' from  it  on  a  bill-farm. — 
The  opening  into  the  stell  should  be  from  the  side  toward  the  rising  ground,  and  its  width  3  feet, 
and  of  the  whole  hight  of  the  wall,  as  .seen  in  the  figure;  or  it  is  sometimes  a  square  of  3  or  4  feet, 
on  a  level  with  the  ground,  in  which  case  the  stell  is  entered  by  stile-steps  over  the  wall.  Such  a 
structure  should  supersede  the  use  of  every  antiquated  form  that  has  been  tried,  such  as  the  single 
crescent  a,  fig.  236,  double  crescent  b,  or  double  T  c;  and  it  will  easily  contain  10  score  of  sheep 
for  weeks,  and  even  15  or  16  score  may  be  put  into  it  for  a  night  without  being  too  much  crowded 
together. 

(897) 30 


466  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

(1114.)  Stclls  slioald  be  fitted  up  with  hai/mcJcit  all  roand  llie  inside,  as  Jn  ficr.  238,  not  in  the 
expensive  fomi  of  the  circle,  but  of  a  many-sided  regular  polypoD.  It  is  a  bad  plan  to  make  sheep 
eat  hay  by  rotation,  aa  recommended  by  Lord  Napior  and  Mr.  Little,  but  condemned  by  Mr. 
Fairbaira,  for  the  timid  and  weak  will  be  kept  constantly  back,  and  suHor  much  i>rivation  for 
days  at  a  time.  Let  all  liave  room  and  liberty  to  eat  at  one  time,  and  a.<  often  as  they  choose. 
The  hay-stack  should  be  built  in  the  center  of  the  stell,  as  in  fip.  O.TP,  where  it  should  be  placed 
on  a  basement  of  stone,  raised  6  inches  above  the  croond.  A  small  stack.  5  yards  in  diameter  at 
the  baae,  6  feet  hiph  in  tlie  stem,  with  a  top  of  6  feet  in  hicrht,  will  contain  alxiut  •l.')0  hay  ."tones 
of  hay.  which  will  last  200  sheep  33  days,  about  the  averace  duration  of  a  long  storm ;  but  upon 
the  same  base  a  much  greater  quantity  of  hay  could  be  built.  The  interior  circumference  of  the 
Btell  measures  ICO  feet  round  the  hay-racks,  and  if  8  or  9  six-feet  flukes  were  put  round  the  stack, 
at  once  to  protect  the  hay  and  serve  as  additional  hay-racks,  that  would  give  47  feet  more,  which 
together  afford  1  foot  of  standing  room  to  each  of  200  sheep  at  one  time,  and  supersede  the  objec- 
tionable i>lan  of  feeding  them  in  rotation. 

(111.').)  Stells  fonu  an  excellent  and  indispensable  shelter  for  sheep  in  a  snow  storm,  when  de- 
prived of  their  pasture  ;  but  it  has  occaiTed  to  me  that,  in  want  of  stoncstell.-',  very  good  stells  or 
chambers  might  be  made  of  snow  of  any  form  or  size  desired.  Even  around  the  space  occupied 
bj'  sheep,  after  a  heavy  fall  of  snow,  a  stell  might  bo  constructed  of  the  snow  itself  taken  from  ita 
interior  and  piled  into  walls  as  wide  and  high  as  required.  Such  a  construction  would  remain 
as  long  as  the  storm  endured,  a  new  storm  could  be  nia<ie  available  for  repairs,  and  even  after 
the  grt)uud  was  again  clear,  the  enow-walls  would  remain  as  screens  for  some  time  after.  A 
small  drain  or  two,  in  case  of  a  thaw,  would  convoy  away  the  water  as  the  snow  melted.  As 
long  as  the  ground  continues  green,  natural  shelter  is  as  requisite  as  stells ;  these  con.sist  of  rocks, 
crags,  braes,  bushes,  heather,  and  such  like.  To  render  the.«e  as  available  to  sheep  as  practicable, 
the  ground  should  be  cleared  of  all  obstmctions  around  them,  and  bushes  planted  in  places  most 
suited  to  tlieir  growth,  such  as  the  whin  (Ulex  europtraj.  in  poor  thin  clay,  and  it  is  a  favorite 
food  of  sheep  in  winter;  the  broom  (Genisf  a  ncoparia  J,  on  rich  light  soil;  the  juniper  fjunipcrns 
communis  J,  in  sandy  soil ;  the  common  elder  { Sombiicns  nisraj.  in  any  soil,  and  it  grows  well 
in  exposed,  windy  situations;  the  mountain  ash  fPi/rna  avcvparia ),  a  hardy  grower  in  any  soil; 
and  the  birch  when  bushy  (Bettila  alba),  grows  in  any  .soil,  and  forms  excellent  clumps  or  hedges 
for  shelter,  as  well  as  the  hazel  fCoryhis  avcUana),  and  the  common  heaths  (Erica  riUgaris  aad 
tetralijcj,  when  they  get  leave  to  grow  in  patches  to  their  natural  bight  in  peaty  earth. 

(1116.)  Since  hay  is  the  principal  food  given  to  sheep  in  snow  or  in  black  frost,  it  is  matter  of 
importance  to  procure  them  this  valuable  provender  in  the  best  state  and  of  the  best  description. 
It  has  long  been  known  that  irrigation  promotes,  in  an  extraordinary  degree,  the  growth  of  the 
natural  grasses ;  and  perhaps  there  are  few  localities  which  possess  greater  facilities  for  irriga- 
tion, though  on  a  limited  scale,  tlian  the  Highland  glens  of  Scotland.  Rivulets  meander  there 
through  haughs  of  richest  alluvium,  which  bear  the  finest  description  of  natnnil  pasture  plants, 
and  j-et  irrigation  is  entirely  neglected  in  those  regions.  Were  the  rivulets  in  winter  subdivided 
into  irrigating  rills,  the  produce  of  these  haughs  might  be  multi[>lied  many  fold.  It  is  not  my 
purpose  here  to  describe  the  management  of  irrigating  meadows — that  1  will  do  ere  all  the 
winter  operations  terminate ;  nor  is  it  my  intention  to  describe  the  best  mode  of  converting 
natural  grass  into  hay,  for  that  will  form  part  of  our  occupation  in  the  summer  season  :  all  that  is 
requisite  to  be  said  in  this  place  on  the  subject  of  irrigated  meadows  is,  that,  as  they  might 
be  formed  with  great  advantage  to  stock  in  many  places  where  they  arc  at  present  neglected, 
I  cannot  too  earnestly  draw  the  attention  of  hill-farmers  to  their  utility  ;  and  although  the  locali- 
ties in  which  they  can  be  constructed  are  limited  in  extent,  they  will  not  be  the  less  valuable  on 
that  account.  One  obstruction  to  their  formation  is  the  neces.sary  fencing  required  around  them, 
to  prevent  the  trespass  of  .stook  while  the  gra.ss  is  growing  for  hay.  Besides  places  for  irrigation, 
there  are  rough  patches  of  pasture  frequently  found  in  the  hills,  probably  stimulated  to  growth 
by  latent  water  performing  a  sort  of  under-irrigation  to  the  roots  of  the  plants,  which  should  be 
mown  for  hay  ;  and  to  save  farther  trouble,  thin  hay  should  be  ricked  on  the  spot,  and  surrounded 
by  small  hurdles,  through  which  the  sheep  could  feed  in  fro.sty  weather  from  the  rick,  and  keep 
themselves  in  fair  condition.  They  would  assemble  round  the  stacks  at  stated  hours,  and,  after 
filling  tljemselves  with  dry  food,  again  wander  over,  it  may  be.  the  bare  but  green  sward  for  the 
remainder  of  the  day,  until  severe  black  frost  make  them  frequent  the  stacks;  and  when  snowr 
come-s,  the  stells  would  be  their  place  of  refuse  and  support.  As  the  hay  in  the  stacks  is  eaten 
in,  the  flukes  should  be  drawn  closer  around  them,  to  allow  it  to  approach  again  within  reach  of 
the  sheep. 

(1117.1  [Sheep-flakes  or  hurdles. — Flakes  arc  constructed  in  two  different  forms.  The  one  rep- 
resented by  fig.  21G  is  the  strongest  and  most  durable,  but  is  also  the  most  expensive  in  fir.'*!  cost. 
The  fiffure  exhibits  2  flakes  joined  and  supported,  in  the  way  they  are  jilacrd,  to  form  a  tence. 
Each  flake  of  this  construction,  with  its  fi.Mures,  consists  of  14  pieces,  viz.  2  side-i)osts  ^.4  rails  ft, 
and  3  braces  cdd.  which  go  to  lorm  the  sinsrie  Hake  ;  and  1  stay/,  1  stake  e  ore,  and  3  pegs  h  or 
t,  which  are  required  for  the  fixing  up  of  each  flake.  The  scantling  of  the  parts  are  the  side-posts 
4J  feet  long,  4  inches  by  2  inches.  The  rails  9  leet  lontr.  3i  inches  broad  by  1  inch  thick.  The 
braces,  2  diagonals  .">  feet  2  inches  lonu',  2i  inches  broad  by  J  inch  thick,  and  1  upright  4  feet  lone, 
and  of  like  breadth  and  thickness.  The  stay  is  4i  feet  long,  4  inches  broad,  and  2  inches  thick, 
and  bored  at  both  ends  for  the  pegs;  the  stake  IJ  leet  long,  pointed  and  bored.  The  pegs  1  foot 
long,  1^  inch  diameter. 

(1118.)  The  preparation  of  the  parts  consists  in  mortising  tlie  side  posts,  tlie  mortises  being 
nsuall}'  left  round  in  the  ends,  and  they  are  bored  at  equal  distances  from  the  joining  and  stay 
pegs.  The  ends  of  the  rails  are  roughly  roundeil  on  the  eiiccs,  which  completes  the  preparation 
of  the  parts;  and  when  the  flake  is  completed,  its  dimensions  are  9  feet  in  length,  and  3  feet  4 
inches  in  breadth  over  the  rails ;  the  bottom  rail  being  9  inches  from  lbs  foot  of  the  po.st,  and  the 
apper  rail  .">  inches  from  the  head. 

(1119.)  The  other  form  of  flake,  which  is  by  far  more  extensively  employed,  though  by  no 
(898) 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


467 


means  the  best,  consists  of  the  same  parts,  except  that  it  has  always  five  rails,  and  the  only  mate- 
rial difference  in  the  scantling  is,  that  the  rails  are  all  1|  inches  square.  An  essential  difference 
also  occurs  in  the  preparation  or  manufacture  of  this  kind  of  flake.  The  ends  of  the  rails  are  all 
turned  round  by  machinery,  and  the  side-posts  are  bored  for  their  reception,  as  well  as  for  the 
pegs  by  like  machinery.  The  five  rails  in  the  flake  are  divided  in  hight  as  follows :  The  bottom 
rail  9  inches  from  the  foot  of  the  posts ;  the  spaces  between  the  first  and  second  and  the  second 
and  third  rails,  are  each  7  inches,  and  the  two  upper  spaces  are  respectively  8  and  9  inches  leav- 
ing, as  before,  5  inches  of  the  post  above  the  upper  rail. 

(1120.)  Flakes  of  this  last  description  are  extensively  manufactured  in  Perthshire,  where  young 
larches  are  abundant,  for  of  that  wood  they  are  generally  made.  Their  price,  when  sold  in  re- 
tail by  fifties  or  hundreds,  is  Is.  9d.  to  2s.  each  flake,  including  all  the  parts,  sold  in  pieces ;  the 
expense  of  putting  the  parts  together  is  usually  2d.  each  flake,  including  nails.  The  bar-flake 
first  described  is  not  generally  to  be  found  in  the  market,  and  is  chiefly  made  to  order;  the  price 
about  2s.  6d.  each  flake,  with  fixtures. — J.  S.] 

■■(1121.)  As  hurdles  in  England  are  somewhat  diflPerently  put  together,  as  well  as  made  of  a  dif- 
ferent sort  of  wood  ;  and  as  the  folding  of  sheep  on  turnips  is  diftereutly  managed  in  that  coun- 
try from  what  is  given  above,  it  seems  proper  to  advert  for  a  little  to  both  these  subjects;  and 
first  as  to  the  .structure  of  hurdles. 

(1122.)  Where  the  common  crack-willow  ( Salix  fragilii;)  will  grow,  every  farmer  may  have 
poles  enough  every  year  for  making  2  or  3  dozen  hurdles  to  keep  up  his  stock.  To  establish  a 
plantation,  large  cuttings  9  or  10  feet  long  should  be  pushed,  not  driven,  into  moist  soil,  and  on 
being  fenced  from  cattle,  will  soon  shoot  both  in  the  roots  and  head,  the  latter  being  fit  to  be  cut 
every  seventh  year.  Where  soil  for  a  willow-plantation  does  not  naturally  exist,  the  farmer  can 
buy  his  hurdles  readj'-made  at  16s.  the  dozen  ;  when  made  at  home  they  cost  4d.  each,  and  when 
the  shepherd  makes  them  they  cost  only  his  time.  Hurdle-makers  go  the  round  of  the  country 
and  make  at  4d.  and  mend  at  2d.  each,  finding  their  own  tools. 

(1123.)  "  A  hurdle-maker's  tools,"  says  Mr.  Main,  "are  a  hand-saw,  light  hatchet,  draw-shave 
flamard.  a  center-bit  and  stock,  a  tomahawk,  and  gimlet.  He  has  also  a  rending-frame,  which  ill 
a  common  tressel  a,  fig.  239,  on  which  2  strong  poles,  b,  are  laid,  leaning  and  connected  by  a 


Fig.  239. 


THE  RENDING-FRAME  IN  HURDLE-MAKING. 


piece,  c,  called  a  brid.ge.  Besides  this,  he  has  a  contrivance  for  shaving  the  poles,  tec.  In  doing 
this,  2  auger-holes  are  bored  in  a  post,  to  admit  2  stout  square  iron  stubs,  having  ears  to  assist 
in  withdrawmg  them  when  done  with.  The  stubs  project  from  the  surface  of  the  post  about  6 
inches,  let  in  about  3  feet  from  the  ground,  and  8  inches  from  each  other,  though  not  exactly  hori- 
zontally, the  one  nearest  the  workman  being  higher  than  the  other,  as  seen  at  a,  fig.  240.    The 


Fig.  240. 


THE  POSITION  OP  THESTUBS  AND  STANDARD  IN  HURDLE-MAKINO. 

use  of  these  Stubs  is  to  hold  the  poles  while  they  are  shaved  ;  being  at  the  same  time  supported 
by  a  standard,  b,  about  3  feet  from  the  post,  and"  having  a  sharp  short  spike  on  the  top  to  steady 
Oie  pole  c  under  the  action  of  the  draw-shave.     In  the  same  post  a  square  staple,  a,  fig.  241,  la 
driven,  to  hold  the  feet  of  the  heads  while  they  are  mortised,  assisted  by  a  low  stool,  b. 
(899)  •'  >  J  ' 


468 


THE   BOOK   OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


(1124.)  "  All  ibeic  things  beini:;  roady.  the  j)olc8  arc  jirupared  for  the  difTercnt  purposes  to  whidi 
they  can  be  converted.     The  buii-ond  of  the  polo  is  Hrsi  sawed  off;  4 J  feel  lengilia  make  a  pair 

Fig.  au. 


P  0 


THE  SQU.^KE  ST.\rLE  A.NO  STuoL  l.V   HUUDI.K-M AKI.SC. 

of  beads,  n,  fig.  242  ;  9feet  lengths  make  a  pair  of  slots,  b  ;  5-feet  lengths  make  a  pair  of  stay-slot4 
c:  and  3i-feet  lengths  make  a  pair  of  uprights,  d. 

o  Fig.  242. 


Kig.  213. 


THE  HURDLE. 

(1125.)  "The  next  proceeding  is  rending  the  different  pieces,  which  is  done  at  the  rending. 
fraiiDC.  fig.  239.  The  piece  is  put  over  the  bridge  c,  with  llie  butt-end  upward.  The  flamard  a, 
fie.  243 — an  edge-tool  of  iron,  with  a  wooden  handle — is 
pfaccd  across  the  pith,  and  driven  down  with  a  wooden 
baton  b.  When  entered  down  1  or  2  feet,  the  polo  is 
broaght  up  to  bear  upon  the  bridtje.  and  at  the  same  time 
on  the  under  side  of  the  lop  of  the  tre.ssel.  The  polo  being 
kejit  down  by  the  left  hand,  while  the  tlamard  is  guided 
by  the  right,  by  bending  and  turning  the  [lole.  the  cleavage 
is  performed  from  end  to  end  with  great  c.xartnc.ss.  They 
next  undergo  a  little  chopping  or  hewing  with  the  hatchet, 
to  cut  oil'  the  knobs  on  the  outside,  keeping  the  inside  as 
sqaare  as  i)o.ssible.  The  next  operation  is  shaving  off  the 
bark  and  all  irregularities,  and  giving  each  mombur  of  the 
hurdle  its  proi)er  form. 

(1126.)  '•  The  maker  next  proceeds  to  form  the  hurdle; 
4  low  stumps  are  driven  into  the  ground  to  mark  the  length, 
and  4  other  to  mark  the  distance  between  the  upper  and 
lower  slots  ;  a  pair  of  heads,  one  at  each  end.  arc  laid  down 
in  their  '■ight  position,  the  flat  or  pith  side  upward  ;  the  fi 
slots  are  then  laid  at  due  distances  upon  the  heads,  and  the 
latter  are  xrribed  to  the  size  of  each  slot,  to  regulate  the  mortises.  The  hurdle-maker  uses  no  foot- 
rale  in  his  operation*,  he  having  rods  cut  to  the  different  lengths  of  the  respective  pieces:  and 
the  entire  distances  between  the  slots  arc  arranged  by  the  eve.  the  lower  ones  being  gradually 
closer  together,  as  seen  i:i  tig.  242  ;  and  the  strongest  pair  of  slots  are  usually  chosen  lor  the  high- 
est and  lowest  of  the  hurdle.  One  of  the  heads  is  then  placed  on  the  staple  a.  fig.  241,  and  rest- 
ing on  the  top  of  the  mortisinL'-stool  /;,  to  which  it  is  fixed  in  an  opening  bj-  a  wedge  The  cen- 
ter-bit and  stock  drills  out  a  hole  at  each  end  of  the  mortises,  and  al.<o  one  for  the  diagoiialbracc 
Blot,  about  2  inches  below  the  lowest  slot,  and  a  little  out  of  the  line  of  the  mortises  above.  It 
will  be  ob.servcd  that  mortises  made  by  a  center-bit  leave  an  intenncdiate  piece  between  the  ap- 
ertures, which  is  taken  out  by  the  tomahawk  c,  fig.  2-13,  a  tool  made  for  the  purpose.  One  end  is 
a  sharp  stflutpoiuted  knife,  which  cuts  t.-acli  side  of  the  middle  piece  left  in  the  moni.se.  and  the 
Other  end  hooks  out  the  piece  not  dislodged  by  the  knife.  The  mortising,  which  with  a  mallet 
(900j 


THE    FI.AMARP,    BATON,  AND    TOMA- 
HAWK, I.N    HI.IIDLE-MAKI.NO. 


d 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS.  469 

and  chisel  would  take  up  1  Iioui*,  is  done  with  the  center-bit  and  hawk  in  5  minutes.  This  head 
is  now  hammered  on  to  the  slots,  and  the  other  head  is  prepared  and  hammered  on  in  the  same 
way.  The  top  and  bottom  slots  are  next  nailed  to  the  heads,  and  then  the  upright  slot  exactly  in 
ihe  middle.  The  2  stay-slots  are  cut  with  a  bend  at  the  bottom,  and  rather  sharply  pointed  ;  the 
points  are  driven  throuc^h  these  oblique  mortises,  and  their  heads  bronpht  up  to  bear  on  the  top 
of  the  upright,  and  nailed  to  each  slot  from  top  to  bottom.  The  hurdle  is  then  raised  on  its  feet, 
»nd  the  nails  clenched,  which  finishes  the  business.  The  gimlet  is  used  for  every  nail,  and  a  small 
block  of  wood  placed  under  each  slot  while  the  nail  is  driven.  The  nails  used  are  of  the  best  iron, 
and  what  are  caMcd  Jine-drawn — not  square,  but  rather  flattened,  to  facilitate  clenching,  on  which 
much  of  the  strength  of  the  hurdle  depends  ;  the  head  of  the  nail  is  somewhat  large.  Their  price 
is  fid.  per  lb.;  100  poles  at  18s.  make  36  hurdles,  which,  including  nails  and  workmanship,  cost 
£l  lis.  6d.,  or  10s.  6d.  per  dozen.  Although  the  horizontal  slots  are  cut  9  feet  long,  the  hurdle, 
when  finished,  is  only  somevs^hat  more  than  8  feet,  the  slot-ends  going  through  the  heads  1  or  2 
inches ;  2  hurdles  to  1  rod  of  16  feet,  or  8  to  1  chain  of  22  yards,  are  the  usual  allowance." 

(1127.)  A  larger  kind  of  hurdle,  called  park  hiirdlex,  worth  2s.  eacli,  is  made  for  subdividing 
meadows  or  pastures,  and  are  a  sufficient  fence  for  cattle.  From  all  this  it  is  obvious  that,  when 
the  small  hurdles  are  used  for  sheep,  the  larger  class  must  be  obtained  to  fence  cattle ;  whereas 
the  Scotch  flake  described  above  (1117),  and  in  fig.  216,  answer  both  purposes  at  once,  and  are 
therefore  niore  economical. 

(1128.)  "  The  hurdles  being  carted  to  the  field,"  continues  Mr.  Main,  "are  laid  down  flat,  end  to 
end,  with  their  heads  next  to,  but  clear  of,  the  line  in  which  they  are  to  be  set.  A  right  handed 
man  generally  works  with  the  row  of  hurdles  on  his  left.  Having  made  a  hole  in  the  hedge,  or 
close  to  the  dyke,  for  the  foot  of  the  first  hurdle,  with  the  fold-pifcher,  fig.  244 — which 
is  a  large  iron  dibber,  4  feet  long,  having  a  well-pointed,  flattened  bit,  in  shape  simi- 
lar to  the  feet  of  the  hurdles— he  marks  on  the  ground  the  place  where  the  other  foot 
is  to  be  inserted,  and  there  with  his  dibber  he  makes  the  second  hole,  which,  like  all 
tlie  others,  is  made  9  inches  deep.  With  the  left  hand  the  hurdle  is  put  into  its  place, 
and  held  upright  while  lightly  pressed  down  by  the  left  foot  on  the  lowest  slot.  This 
being  done,  the  third  hole  is  made  opposite  to,  and  about  6  inches  from,  the  last.  The 
dibber  is  then  put  out  of  hand,  by  being  stuck  in  the  ground  near  where  the  next  hole 
is  to  be  made  -,  the  second  hurdle  is  next  placed  in  position,  one  foot  on  the  open  hole, 
and  the  other  foot  marks  the  place  for  the  next  hole,  and  .so  on  throughout  the  whole 
row.  When  the  place  of  the  second  foot  of  a  hurdle  is  mnrked  on  the  ground,  the 
hurdle  itself  is  moved  out  of  the  way  by  the  left  hand,  while  the  hole  is  made  by  both 
hands.  When  the  whole  row  is  set,  it  is  usual  to  go  back  over  it,  giving  each  head  a 
slight  rap  with  the  dibber,  to  regulate  their  hight.  and  give  them  a  firmer  hold  of  the 
ground.  To  secure  the  hurdles  steady  against  the  rubbing  of  the  sheep,  couplings, 
or,  as  they  are  commonly  called,  copses,  are  put  over  the  heads  of  each  pair  where  the  foi,d- 
they  meet,  which  is  a  sufficient  security.  These  couplings  are  made  of  the  twigs  of  pitcher  m 
willow,  hoUj',  beech,  or  any  other  tough  shoots  of  trees,  wound  in  a  wreath  of  about  hurdle- 
5  inches  diameter.  setting. 

(1129.)  "  The  number  of  hurdles  required  for  feeding  sheep  on  turnips  is  one  row  the  whole 
length  of  the  ridges  of  an  inclosed  field,  and  as  many  more  as  will  reach  twice  across  2  eight-step 
lands  or  ridges,  or  4  four-step  lands — that  is,  48  feet,  or  3  or  4  ridges  of  15  feet.  This  number, 
whatever  it  may  be,  is  sufficient  for  a  whole  quadrangular  field,  whatever  nnmber  of  acres  it  may 
contain.  The  daily  portions  are  given  more  or  less  in  length,  according  to  the  number  of  the  flock. 
Two  of  these  portions  are  first  set,  the  sheep  being  let  in  on  the  first  or  corner  piece.  Next  day 
they  are  turned  into  the  second  piece,  and  the  cros,s-hurdles  that  inclosed  them  in  the  first  are  car- 
ried forward,  and  set  to  form  the  third  piece.  These  removes  are  continued  daily  till  the  bottom 
of  the  field  is  reached  ;  both  the  cross-rows  are  then  to  spare,  and  are  carried  and  set  to  begin  a 
new  long-row.  close  to  the  off-side  of  a  furrow,  and  the  daily  folding  carried  back  over  2  or  4  lands 
as  at  first.  It  is  always  proper  to  begin  at  the  top  of  a  fiehl,  if  there  be  any  difference  of  the  level, 
in  order  that  the  flock  may  have  the  driest  lair  to  retire  to  in  wet  weather. 

(1130.)  "  When  there  is  a  mi.xed  flock — that  is,  couples,  fattening  and  store  sheep — two  folds  or 
pens  are  always  being  fed  off  at  the  same  time,  which  only  require  an  extra  cross-row  of  hurdles. 
The  couples  have  the  fresh  pens,  while  the  lambs  are  allowed  to  roam  over  the  unfolded  turnips, 
by  placing  the  feet  of  the  hurdles,  here  and  there,  far  enough  apart,  or  by  lamb  hurdles  made  with 
open  panels  *br  the  purpose.  The  fattening  sheep  follow  the  couples,  and  have  the  bulbs  picked 
up  for  them  by  a  boy.  The  stores  follow  behind  and  eat  up  the  shells."*  It  is  never  the  practice 
IB  Scotland  to  put  ewes  with  their  lambs  upon  turnips,  as  new  grass  is  considered  much  better 
for  them,  but  the  only  ewe  and  lamb  that  can  be  seen  on  turnips  in  winter  are  of  the  peculiar 
breed  of  Dorsetshire.  The  .store-sheep  in  Scotlund — that  is,  the  ewe-hoggs — are  always  fed  as 
fully  as  the  wether-hoggs  which  are  intended  to  be  fattened.  In  England  the  entire  turnip  stock 
— ewes,  lambs  and  wethers — are  all  intended  for  the  butcher,  and  even,  if  possible,  sold  before 
the  turnips  are  ended.  The  whole  have  hay  or  trough-meat,  either  in  the  field  or  in  the  nheep- 
house,  on  wet  or  stormy  nights.     An  acre  of  good  turnips  maintains  5  score  of  sheep  for  1  week. 

(1131.)  Nets,  by  which  sheep  are  confined  on  turnips  in  winter,  are  made  of  good  hempen 
twine,  and  the  finer  the  quality  of  the  material,  and  superior  the  workmanship  be.stowed  on  the 
manufacture  of  the  twine,  the  longer  will  nets  last.  Being,  however,  necessarily  much  exposed 
to  the  weather,  they  soon  decay,  and.  if  guided  carelessly,  can  scarcely  be  tru  ted  more  than  a 
season.  No  treatment  destroys  them  so  rapidly  as  laying  them  by  for  the  season  in  a  damp  state  ; 
and  if  rolled  up  wet,  even  for  a  few  days,  they  become  mildewed,  after  being  affected  with  which 
nothing  can  prevent  them  rotting.  They  should  never  be  laid  by  either  damp  or  dirty,  but  washed 
and  thoroughly  dried  in  the  open  air  before  being  rolled  up  and  stowed  away.  It 'is  alleged  by 
shepherds  that  nets  decay  faster  in  drouth  and  exposure  to  dews  and  light  in  summer,  than  in 

*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  iii. 
(901) 


470 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


h 


winter.  Several  expeilicntfl  liave  l>ci-n  tried  to  j»n*«crve  nets  from  decay — among  others,  tanning, 
in  imitation  of  fifthcrnu'n ;  but,  liowi-v.-r  well  tliat  process  nmy  suit  nets  used  in  the  sea,  it  raakea 
them  too  hard  for  the  sliepherd's  use  in  lying  the  knots*  around  the  makes.  Perhaps  a  stooping  in 
Kyan's  solution  mijjht  render  them  durable,  and  preserve  their  pliability,  at  liie  same  time.  The 
Company's  charge  is  Ss.  per  cwt.  for  nets  and  cordage.  It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  nets  made 
of  twine  bleached  by  acids,  or  oilier  chemical  process,  should  not  be  submitted  to  Kyan's  eola- 
tion. 

(1132.)  Shrep-netx  arc  wrought  by  hand,  at  least  I  have  never  heard  of  machinery  being  yet 
applied  to  their  manufacture.  They  are  simply  made  of  dead  !wt/in^,  as  it  is  lechBically  called, 
which  cousisLs  of  plain  work  in  regular  rows,  and  is  wrought  by  women  as  well  as  men.  A  shep- 
herd ought  to  know  how  to  make  nets  as  well  as  mend  them,  which  he  will  not  do  well  nulesshe 
understand,  in  the  first  place,  how  to  make  them. 

(113.1.)  All  the  instruments  required  in  this  sort  of  net  making  are  a  needie  and  spool.  "  Needles 
are  of  two  kinds — those  made  alike  at  each  en<l  with  open  forks,  and  those  made  with  an  eye  and 
tongue  at  one  end  and  a  fork  at  the  other.  In  both  needles  the  twine  is  wound  ou  them  nearly  in 
the  same  manner — namely,  by  passing  it  alternaiely  between  the  fork  at  each  end,  in  the  first 
case,  or  between  the  fork  at  the  lower  end  and  round  the  tongue  at  the  upper  end,  in  the  second 
■:ase ;  so  that  the  turns  of  the  string  may  lie  parallel  to  the  length  of  the  needle,  and  be  kept  on 
by  the  tongue  an«l  fork.  The  tongue  and  eye  needle  is  preferable  both  for  niaking  and  mending 
nets,  inasmuch  as  it  is  not  so  liable  to  be  hitched  into  the  adjoining  ineshes  in  working;  but  some 
neltcrs  prefer  the  other  kind,  as  being  capable  of  holding  more  twine  in  proportion  to  their  size." 
An  8inch  needle  does  for  making  nets,  but  a  4  inch  one  is  more  convenient  for  mending  them. — 
Spools,  being  made  as  broad  as  the  length  of  the  side  of  the  mesh,  are  of  ditferent  breadths.  Tbey 
'•consist  of  a  flat  piece  of  wood  of  any  given  width — of  .5/01//  wood,  so  as  not  to  warp — with  a  por- 
tion cut  away  at  one  end,  to  admit  the  finger  and  thumb  of  the  left  hand  to  grasp  it  conveniently. 
The  twine  in  netting  embraces  the  spool  across  the  width  ;  and,  each  time  that  a  loop  is  pulled 
taut,  half  a  mesh  is  completed.  Large  meshes  may  be  made  on  small  spools,  by  giving  the 
twine  two  or  more  turns  round  them,  as  occasion  may  require.''  "  In  charging  your  needle,  take 
the  twine  from  the  hutidc  of  the  ball.  This  prevents  tangling,  which  is  at  once  recommendation 
enough.  When  you  charge  the  needle  with  double  twine,  draw  from  2  separate  balls."*  It  is 
almost  impossible  to  describe  the  art  of  netting  by  words,  so  as  to  render  it  intelligible,  and  I  shall 
not  therefore  attempt  it ;  but  it  may  be  learned  from  any  shepherd.  In  joining  the  ends  oitvine 
together — which,  in  mending,  is  necessary  to  be  done — tlie  lend  or  iccarer's  knot  is  used ;  and  in 
joining  top  and  bottom  ropes  together,  in  setting  nets,  the  reef-knot  is  best,  as  the  tighter  it  is 
drawn  the  firmer  it  holds. 

(1134.)  Sheep-nets  run  about  50  yards  in  length  when  set.  and  weigh  about  14  lbs.  Hogg-nets 
Bland  3|  feet  in  hight,  and  dinmonts  3  feet  3  inches,  and  both  are  set  3  inches  above  the  ground. 
Sukes,  to  have  a  hold  of  9  inches  of  the  ground,  bear  the  net  3  inches  from  the  ground,  and  be  3 
inches  above  the  net-cord,  .should  be  4  J  feet  in  length  for  the  dinmont,  and  4  feet  9  inches  for  the 
hogg-net.  The  mesh  of  the  hogg-nct  is  3^  inches  in  the  side,  and  of  the  dinmont  i\  inches;  the 
former  requires  9\  meshes  in  the  hight,  the  latter  8J.  The  twine  for  the  hogg-net  is  rather  smaller 
than  tliat  for  the  diumont,  but  the  tup  and  bottom  rope  of  both  are  alike  strong.  A  hogg-net  costs 
12s.,  or  under  3d.  per  yard  ;  a  dinmont  lO.*.,  or  under  2id.  per  yard,  on  the  Border,  as  at  Berwick- 
npon-Twced  and  Coldstream;  but  they  are  now  sol<l  in  the  jiristin  of  Edinburgh,  being  the  work 
of  the  prisoners,  at  7s.  Gd.,  or  under  2d'  per  yard  ;  while  in  London  the  charge  is  4jd.  per  yard. 

(113.j|  It  is  generally  imagined  that  nets  are  not  suitable  for  confining  Black  laced  sheep  on 
tumip.s,  chiefly  because  they  are  liable  to  be  entangled  in  them  by  their  horns  ;  but  this  objection 
against  the  use  of  nets,  is  not  insuperable,  as  the  following  circumstance  will  show.  A  farmer,  a 
very  extensive  feeder  of  Black-faced  sheep,  on  seeing  my  Leicester  hoggs  on  turnips  confined 
by  nets,  expressed  a  willingness  to  try  the  same  method  of  confining  his  own  sheep,  adducing  the 
great  expense  of  hurilles  as  a  reason  for  desiring  a  change.  After  getting  a  pattern  net  from  me 
to  stand  4  feet  high,  he  got  others  made  like  it ;  and  so  successful  was  his  experiment  the  first 
season,  that  he  ever  after  incloscil  a  large  proportion  of  his  Black-faced  sheep  by  nets.  There 
occurred  a  few  cases  of  entanglement  for  some  days  at  first,  but  as  his  shepherd  was  constantly 
employed  among  his  large  flock,  and  having  none  else  to  attend  to,  no  harm  arose  either  to  sheep 
or  net,  and  in  a  short  time  tlie  sheep  became  aware  of  the  trap  and  avoided  it.  They  never  at- 
tempted to  overleap  the  nets,  though  they  would  never  have  hesitated  to  do  so  over  a  much  higher 
wall. 

(1136.)  [Turnip- Slicer/t for  Sherp. — Machines  for  slicing  roots,  and  particularly  for  the  turnip, 
are  constructed  in  a  great  variety  of  form.s,  but  may  be  classed  under  two  leading  groups — those 
that  cut  the  turnip  simply  into  circular  disk.s  as  generally  adopted  for  the  feeding  of  cattle,  and 
those  that  cut  at  one  operation  into  oblong  rectangular  pieces  or  parallelopipedons,  commonly 
practiced  for  feeding  sheep  ;  forming  a  somewhat  more  complicated  class  of  machine.  This  last 
class,  as  coming  first  in  the  order  of  application,  I  shall  first  describe.  Turnip  .slicers  for  sheep 
may  be  again  subdivided  into  lever  and  revolving  machines:  and  of  the  many  varieties  under 
these  forms,  there  are  the  stationary,  the  portable,  the  wheelbarrow,  and  what  may  be  called  the 
locomotive  machine.  This  last  being  rendered  so  bv  its  attachment  to  a  cart,  and  by  its  own  mo- 
tion thus  communicated,  performs  the  operation  of  slicing  while  it  travels  over  llie  field. 

(1137.;  The  first  introduction  of  the  tumip-slicer  is.  like  many  other  equally  us«?ful  inventions, 
lost  in  obscurity,  but  it  is  most  probable  that,  like  the  cultivation  of  the  rcKit  itself,  it  originated  in 
England  ;  and  it  is  likewise  probable  that  the  first  attempt  was  th<,'  simple  chopper  still  used  to 
chop  turnip  for  cattle.  It  appears  uncertain  whether  the  lever  or  the  revolving  slicer  came  first 
into  use,  as  does  also  the  time  of  their  introduction.  But  we  have  an  authentic  record  of  a  pre- 
mium having  been  off'ered  in  lt<06  by  the  Boanl  of  Trustees  for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts  and 
Manufactures  in  Scotland,  for  a  revolving  tumip-slicer.     This  was  awarded  to  John  Blaikie  car- 

*  Batburst's  Notes  on  Nets. 
(9021 


FEEDING   SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


471 


penter  to  the  late  Lord  Polwarth,  then  Mr.  Scott  of  Harden,  which  is  believed  to  have  been  tho 
earliest  application  of  that  form  of  the  machine  in  Scotland. 

(1138.)  Lever  TurnipSlicer  for  Sheep. — The  first  of  the  sheep  turnip-cutters  that  I  shall  no- 
tice, is  one  of  the  lever  form,  but  in  its  mechanical  construction  may  be  very  aptly  called  the 
gridiroa  turnip-cutter,  and  is  represented  in  an  entire  form  in  fig.  245,  which  is  a  perspective  view 


Fig  245. 


THE  LETER  TURNIP-3LICEH  FOR  SHEEP. 

of  the  machine.  It  consists  of  a  wooden  frame  supporting  a  trough,  together  with  the  cutting  ap- 
paratus. The  frame  is  formed  of  the  four  posts  a,  a,  a,  a.  which  are  2^  inches  square.  The  front 
pair  stand  15  inches  in  width,  over  all  at  top.  the  hind  pair  19  inches :  in  both  they  spread  a  little 
below,  and  are  separated  to  a  di.«tance  of  about  34  niches.  Each  pair  is  connected  by  cross-rails 
b,  b.  and  they  are  connected  londtudinally  bv  the  bars  d,  d,  il  feet  long,  which  form  also  the 
handles  of  the  wheelbarrow  ;  being  bolted  to  the  posts  at  a  suitable  bight  for  that  purpose  ;  their 
Bcantling  is  2  by  Ij  inches.  A  pair  of  wheels,  c  c,  of  cast-iron.  9  to  12  inches  diameter,  fitted  to 
an  iron  axle,  which  is  bolted  to  the  front  posts,  gives  it  the  conveniency  of  a  wheelbarrow.  The 
trough  e,  into  which  the  turnips  are  laid  for  cutting,  is  4  inches  deep,  and  Z\  feet  long,  besides  the 
sloping  continuation  of  it  in  front  of  the  cutters,  for  throwing  off  the  sliced  turnips.  The  cutting 
apparatus  consists  of  a  grooved  frame  of  iron  f,  in  which  the  compound  cutter  moves  up  and 
down  by  means  of  the  lever  handle  "-.  A  forked  support,  h,  is  bolted  by  a  palm  lo  the  farther 
Bide  of  tiie  wooden  frame,  and  at  the  extremity,  i.  of  the  fork,  a  .swing  link  is  jointed.  The  lower 
end  of  the  link  is  jointed  to  the  extremity  of"  the  lever,  which  is  likewise  forked,  forming  its  ful- 
crum ;  and  the  gridiron-cutter,  k  I,  is  also"jointed  by  its  top-bar  to  the  lever  at  /.  While  the  point 
I.  therefore,  of  the  cutter  moves  in  a  parallel  line  by  its  confinement  in  the  grooves  of  tlie  frame/, 
the  fulcrum  is  allowed  to  vibrate  on  the  joint  /  of  the  swing:  link— thus  allowing  an  easy  vertical 
motion  to  the  cutter  through  the  full  range  of  its  stroke.  For  the  better  illustration  of  the  cutting 
apparatus  the  following  figures  are  given  on  a  larger  scale.  Fig.  246  is  a  front  view  of  the  cutter- 
frame,  and  fig.  217  a  horizontal  .section  of  the  same,  including  that  of  the  grooved  frame./'.  In  fig. 
247,  a  ft  e  is  a  section  of  the  grooved  frame,  with  the  cutter-frame  set  in  the  grooves.  The  grooves 
are  \  inch  wide,  and  the  cheeks  of  the  frame  1^  inches  by  \  inch,  makini?  the  parts  ah  c\\  inches 
square ;  a  d  a  is  the  bottom  bar  of  the  ciitting-frame,  1  inch  broad,  and  |  inch  thick,  kneed  at  the 
ends  to  receive  the  lower  ends  of  the  cuttinc-frame  :  e  is  the  ed^e  view  of  the  slicing-knife,  as 
fixed  in  the  cutter-frame,  4  inches  broad  by  I  inch  thick,  and  t'fffff  are  the  vertical  or  cross 
cutting-knives,  also  as  seen  from  above.  In  fie.  246,  d  again  marks  the  bottom  bar  of  the  cutter- 
frame,  e  is  the  slicing-knife,  and  ffffff  the  shanks  of  the  cross  cutting-knives— these  are  rivet- 
ed at  top  into  e,  and  at  boUom  into  d;  o-  o-  are  the  side  bars  of  the  cutter-frame,  J  inch  by  J  inch, 
into  which  the  knife  e  is  riveted,  and  to  which  the  bar  d  is  attached  by  screw-nuts.  The  top  bar 
h  welded  to  g  sr  swells  out  in  the  middle,  where  it  is  perforated  for  the  joint-bolt  of  the  lever,  as 
seen  at  /  in  fig.  245.  and  forms  as  a  whole  the  sfridiron-cutter. 

(1139.)  Figs.  248  and  249  are  views  of  the  knives  on  a  still  larger  scale.  In  the  first  fig.,  248,  to- 
gether with  the  portion /broken  off,  a  a  h  is  a.  cross  section  of  the  slicing-knife.  and  ^rf  e/a  cross 
cutting-knife,  with  its  shank;  here  a  d  \s  the  cuttina:  edse,  c  being  the  body,  and  t'J  the  shank  ot 
the  knife.  The  length  of  the  cutting  edse  n  d  mav  varv  from  J  to  1  inch,  accordine  to  the  prac- 
tice of  the  feeder,  the  shank  ef  bein-  about  \  inch  broad,  and  the  whole  ^  inch  thick,  except  tha 
catling  edge,  that  alone  being  sharpened  and  steeled,  as  well  as  the  edge  of  the  slicing-knUe. 
(903) 


472 


THE  DOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


The  second  fig.,  249,  i«  a  section  of  a  cross  cutting  knife  on  the  line  x  J  of  fig.  248.  together  with  ■ 
jiart  of  the  shaok  i: 

(1140.)  The  v^hole  length  of  the  cutter  frame,  fi^'.  046,  is  about  00  inches,  apportioned  thus:  from 
the  bottom  bar,  d,  to  the  edpe  of  tlic  (iliciiigknile.  10  inclicH ;  breadth  of  the  knife.  a«  before.  4 
inches;  and  from  the  back  of  the  knife  to  ihu  top  of  the  frame,  4  inches.     The  width  o(  the  framo 


Fig.  246. 


Fig.  249. 


Fig.  248. 


V^ 


-.- 


-^ 


Fig.  247. 


,d 


THE  rRO.VT  AND  SIDE   VIEWS  OF  THE  CUTTERS  l)F  THE  LEVEIl  TURNIP-SLICEll. 

orer  all  may  be  9  inches,  and  the  cros.scntters  set  at  from  1  to  IJ  inches  apart.  The  grooved 
frame  must  of  course  be  construc'cd  to  receive  and  admit  of  the  range  of  stroke  of  the  cutter- 
frame.  It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  slicing  and  cross-cutting  is  performed  with  this  machine  by 
one  operation,  the  slicing  edge  being  onlj'  J  inch  in  advance  of  the  cro.«s-cutters,  as  at  h  in  fig.  048. 

(1141.)  In  operating  with  this  machine,  the  trough  is  filled  with  turnips,  and  the  operator  lays 
hold  of  the  lever  p.  fig.  245,  with  the  richt  hand,  while  in  his  left  he  holds  a  short  baton.  Having 
raised  the  lever,  and  with  it  the  cutlerfriime,  he  pushes  a  tuniip  with  the  baton  against  the  grid- 
iron, and  bringing  down  the  Icvi-r.  the  knives  cut  ofl' a  slice,  and  divide  it  into  oblong  pieces; 
these  mav  partly  remain  between  the  backs  of  the  cross-cutters,  until  the  succeeding  stroke  is  ef- 
fected, wlicn  the  several  portions  of  this  slice  will  discharge  those  of  the  first,  and  so  on. 

(1140.)  The  principle  of  the  gridiron  slicer  is  not  confined  to  tliis  particular  mode  of  constnic- 
tion,  nor  even  to  a  rcciprocntine  action.  Its  application  to  a  revolving  disk  machine  was  brought 
forward  some  years  ago  by  Mr.  Hay  ;  but  owing  probably  to  its  greater  expense,  has  been  bat 
partially  adopted. 

(1143.)  The  gridiron  has  also  been  applied  in  combination  with  a  revolving  crank  motion ;  the 
gridiron  reciprocatinir.  and  that  in  a  horizontal  position.  This  modification  appears  to  have  ori- 
ginated in  Roxburu'ht'hire.  and  appears  to  possess  some  advantai.'es,  the  chief  of  which  is,  that, 
as  the  roots  lie  directly  upon  the  gridiron,  they  are  more  likely  to  be  regularly  sliced  than  in  those 
machines  machines  where  the  roots  lie  only  nn""">''  the  cutters,  aw  in  the  common  vertical  disk 
machines.  This  macliinc  is  <'s.«eiitially  a  gridiron  turnipslicer,  with  a  reciprocating  motion,  do. 
rived  from  a  rotary  motion.  The  latter  is  produced  by  turning  a  winch  handle,  the  axle  of  which 
carries  a  fly-wheel  and  two  crank  levers,  or,  more  properly,  the  crank  of  the  winch  serves  for 
both  ;  the  throw  of  the  handle  being  15  inches,  while  that  of  the  crank  is  only  7  inches  from  the 
(904) 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS. 


473 


axis.  A  connecting-rod  on  each  side  of  the  machine  connects  the  cranks  with  the  gridiron-cut- 
ter, producing  the  reciprocating  motion,  which  is  in  the  horizontal  direction  ;  and  to  render  the 
motion  as  easy  as  possible,  the  frame  of  the  gridiron  moves  upon  slide-rods.  From  the  cirtum- 
stance  of  the  motion  of  the  cutter  being  horizontal,  and  the  turnips  lying  directly  upon  the  grid- 
iron, it  can  be  easily  constructed  to  cut  both  ways,  that  is,  with  the  out  as  well  as  the  in  stroke; 
the  gridiron  for  this  purpose  being  furnished  at  both  ends  with  the  slicing-knife  and  the  crosu- 
cuttingknives,  as  described  in  (1138)  fig.  246.  The  machinery  here  described  is  mounted  on  a 
wooden  frame,  4  feet  6  inches  long.  22  inches  wide,  and  34  inches  high,  and  over  the  gridiron  is 
placed  a  square  hopper  of  wood  or  of  sheet  iron,  into  which  the  turnips  are  thrown  by  an  as.sist- 
ant,  the  machine  being  driven  by  a  man.  A  bar  of  division  is  placed  across  in  the  middle 
of  the  hopper,  serving  as  the  point  of  resistance  against  which  the  turnips  are  pressed  while 
tlie  slice  is  being  made ;  and  as  the  turnips  lie  on  the  bars  of  the  gridiron  with  their  full 
•weight,  tliey  will  for  the  mo.st  part  be  in  a  position  to  secure  a  slice  of  uniform  thickness  being 
removed.  A  siight  modification  has  been  made  on  this  machine  by  placing  the  gridiron  on  ra- 
dius bars,  making  the  cutter  move  in  an  arc  of  about  two  feet  radius,  instead  of  moving  in  a  slide 
as  above  described.  The  radius  bars  produce  a  lighter  motion,  but  have  no  effect  on  the  cutting 
principle. 

(1144.)  With  a  view  to  economy,  the  regular  slicing  of  turnips  is  of  more  importance  than  many 
farmers  are  aware  of.  When  a  part  of  the  turnip  is  cut  into  very  thin,  and  even  into  fragments 
of  slices,  a  very  considerable  proportion  of  it  goes  to  waste.  In  choosing  a  tumip-slicer,  therefore, 
one  of  its  points  should  always  be,  that  it  should  cut  as  far  as  possible  to  a  uniform  size,  whatever 
that  size  may  be,  and  not  pass  a  large  proportion  of  the  sliced  turnips  iu  thin-edged  slices,  or  thin 
and  small  fratjments  of  slices. 

(1145.)  Wheel  Turnipsticer  for  Sheep. — This  machine,  alluded  to  in  (1136),  has,  since  its  intro- 
duction, undergone  many  modifications.  From  being  made  entirely  of  wood,  it  came  to  be  made 
entirely  of  iron ;  but  this  last  being  less  convenient  for  moving  about,  has  induced  the  more  gen- 
eral introduction  of  a  disk  of  cast-iron,  carrying  the  cutters,  mounted  on  a  wooden  frame,  which  is 
generally  again  mounted  on  wheels  like  a  wheelbarrow.    Fig.  250  is  a  perspective  of  this  ma- 


Fig.  250. 


THE  WHEELBARROW  TURNIP-6LICER  FOR  SHEEP. 

chine ;  the  wooden  frame,  which  is  36  inches  long  and  15  inches  wide  over  the  posts  at  toj  btit 
Rpreads  a  little  wider  below,  is  formed  with  four  posts,  a  a  a  a,  one  of  whiqh  is  only  partially  seen 
in  the  figure;  they  are  2j  inches  square,  and  stand  about  32  inches  in  hight.  The  posts  an-  con- 
jected  on  the  sides  by  top  rails  b  b,  and  two  brace- rails  c  c  below,  one  of  which  serves  to  sc  pport 
the  spout  d,  which  discharges  the  sliced  turnips.  The  sides  of  the  frame  thus  formed  are  co>inect- 
ed  by  cross-rails  above  and  below,  ee  e,  and  is  there  furnished  with  the  handle-bars  ff,  bolted  to 
tht!  posts,  and  projecting  a  convenient  length  beyond  them  at  one  end.  The  barrow-wheels  g  g, 
of  '2  inches  diameter,  are  fitted  to  an  iron  axle,  which  is  bolted  to  the  posts  in  front.  The  hopper 
h  is  fixed  upon  the  top-rail  by  means  of  a  cast-iron  sole  bolted  upon  the  rail,  and  is  farther  sup- 
ported by  a  wooden  bracket  at  each  side,  as  seen  at  i,  and  by  the  iron  stay  k.  The  slicing-wheel 
(905) 


474 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


Z  is  a  disk  of  cast-iron,  carryinor  three  sou  of  cutters.  The  disk  is  monnted  on  an  axle  passing 
throuj^h  its  center,  where  it  is  fixed,  ami  \%  liich  is  supported  on  bennDRs  placed  on  the  top  rails, 
and,  when  worked,  it  is  turned  by  the  winch  handle  m,  fixed  upon  the  axle.     Fig.  251  is  a  section 

Fig.  251. 


[the  section  of  the  disk  and  hopper  of  the  WHEKLBARROW  TCRNIP-3LICER. 

of  part  of  this  machine,  cutting  it  thronph  the  hopper,  and  the  disk,  Ac,  to  exhibit  some  of  the 
parts  more  in  di'tail.  a  a  are  parts  of  two  of  the  posts,  h  b  the  top-rails,  and  c  one  of  tjie  end-rails 
of  the  frame,  covered  by  the  boarding  d  of  the  spout,  /is  one  of  the  pillow-block  l)i'arinf.'8  of  the 
axlo,  the  other  heint,'  kept  out  of  view  by  the  hopper,  and  the  winch-handle  is  applied  at  c.  g  g 
is  the  disk  .shown  also  in  section.  The  sole  of  the  hopper  is  represented  at  h  ;  it  has  a  flange  be- 
tween h  and  f/.  hy  which  it  is  bolted  to  the  top-rail  b ;  and  the  sole  itself  is  a  cylindrico-concave 
plate  of  I'J  incju-s  in  lemjth  at  the  bottom  of  the  concavity,  9  inches  in  breadth,  and  is  placed  at 
an  angle  of  4.")^.  It  is  al.so  furni.shcd  will)  a  flange  at  each  side,  whereby  the  sides  /  of  the  hopper 
are  attached  to  ihc  sole  A-  is  tlu;  foot  of  one-  of  the  brackets  referred  to  in  fig.  a.^O,  rising  in  the 
position  of  tlir  iloited  lines,  for  supportiiii,'  the  hopper;,  and  i  is  a  light  ticbar,"cut  by  tjie  section, 
which  is  applied  also  to  bind  the  sides  of  the  hopper. 

_  (IHii.l  Till-  disk  ()r  wheel  tr  -r  is  a  plate  of  cast  iron,  32  inches  in  diameter  and  J  inch  thick,  en- 
circled by  .t  heavy  rinir  of  the  same  metal,  to  eive  it  momentum 

when  in  action.     The  face  of  the  disk  is  divided  into  three  seg-  F'6-  252. 

mental  conipartmcnls  around  a  |)lain  and  central  j)ortion,  which 
is  9  inches  dianieier.  This  central  part  lies  in  the  treneral  plane 
of  the  disk,  while  the  segmental  portions  diverge  from  the  plane 
in  the  direction  of  the  circle,  causing  them  to  take  the  form  of 
portions  of  three  separate  heli.-al  or  sjiiral  surfaces  of  9  inches 
m  breadth.  Their  clivergence  from  the  plane  of  the  di.sk  does 
not,  however,  excei'd  j  of  an  inch  at  the  termination  of  a  seg- 
ment, or  such  other  space  as  may  be  determined  upon  for  the 
thickness  of  the  slices.  By  this  construction,  three  slits  are 
formed  in  the  disk,  passing  oblirpiely  throuirb,  one  at  the  term- 
ination of  each  wginent ;  and  iIh'  steel  slicin^'■knife.  12  inches 
in  length  and  IJ  inches  in  brcjidlh.  is  H.xed  by  bolts,  so  as  to 
ibrm  the  entering  edgt'of  each  segment,  as  seen  in  fig.  '2M — the 
flat  face  of  the  knife  Ivimr  in  the  peneral  plane  of  the  disk.—  thk  cross-cutters  of  the  disk  of 
The  terminal  edge  of  each  .seu-ment  lies  exactly  behind  the  lead-  "'*=  «"EEi-BAiiBow  tuhmp-slickb. 
in^  edge  of  the  next,  so  that,  when  the  slicing-knife  is  afKxed  to  a  heading  edge,  the  edge  of  the 
kmfe  covers  li  inches  of  the  length  of  the  preceding  segment.  Into  the  border,  which  is  thiu 
(900) 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS.  475 

covered  by  the  slicingknife,  are  placed  from  6  to  10  lancet  shaftcvuters,  their  length  being  just 
eqaal  to  the  width  of  the  slit,  and  their  distance  apart  proportioned  to  the  number  employed,  or 
the  breadth  at  which  the  turnips  are  required  to  be  cross-cut  The  cross-cutters  are  formed  as 
represented  in  fie:.  252,  where  a  is  an  edge,  and  b  a  side  view  of  a  cutter,  with  its  tail  and  screw- 
nut,  by  which  it  is  fixed  into  the  disk. 

(1147.)  It  will  be  seen  that  the  action  of  those  compound  cutters  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
gridiron,  the  slicing  and  cross-cutting  knives  acting  together,  though  the  slicing-knife  is  here  also 
about  {  inch  in  advance  of  the  cross  cutters ;  and  from  the  construction  of  the  disk,  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  feeding-hoppers,  the  turnip  is  applied  with  great  regularity,  and  in  close  contact  with 
the  spiral  surface  of  the  segments  of  the  disk.  The  slope  of  the  sole-plate  in  the  hoppers  gives 
the  turnip  a  constant  tendencj-  to  keep  in  contact  with  the  surface  and  the  cutters,  thereby  secur- 
insr  regular  and  good  performance  by  the  machine. 

(1148  )  The  wheel  turnipslicer  has  been  applied  in  a  variety  of  forms,  such  as  cutting  on  a  hori- 
zontal direction,  the  turnips  being  placed  in  a  hopper  right  above  the  disk  ;  and  both  vertically 
and  horizontally  it  has  been  adopted  on  the  locomotive  principle,  attached  iu  various  modes  to  a 
cart.  Perhaps  the  most  successful  of  these  modes  is  that  produced  at  the  late  Show  of  Imple- 
ments at  Edinburgh,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland,  by 
Mr.  Kirkwood,  Tranent.  It  is  a  common  slicing  disk,  mounted  on  a  carriage  with  two  wheels, 
from  the  axle  of  which,  and  by  their  own  resistance,  motion  is  communicated  to  the  disk  by  means 
of  a  beveled  gearing.  The  carriage  is  simply  hooked  on  to  a  cart  which  conveys  the  turnips. — 
The  cutting  process  can  be  stopped  at  pleasure  by  means  of  the  common  clutch  and  lever ;  and 
the  whole  machine,  being  constructed  of  iron,  will  be  very  durable. 

(1149.)  Ci/Under  Turnip-Slicens. — Turnipslicers  for  sheep  have  been  also  constructed  in  a  va- 
riety of  forms  with  the  cutters  set  in  the  surface  of  a  cylinder,  and  been  in  use  for  many  years. — 
In  Roxburghshire  it  has  been  long  and  successfully  employed  in  the  locomotive  principle — not 
driven  by  anj-  machinery  from  the  cart  to  which  it  is  attached,  but,  being  simply  hooked  to  the 
cart,  is  drawn  forward  ;  and  the  machine  being  of  some  weight,  and  moving  upon  wheels  of  3  feet 
or  more  in  diameter,  armed  with  spikes  on  their  tires  to  prevent  them  sliding  over  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  these  give  motion  to  the  cutting  cylinder ;  while  a  boy,  sitting  on  the  cart  which  con- 
tains the  turnips  that  are  to  be  cut,  throws  them  into  the  hopper  of  the  machine,  from  which  they 
are  dropped  over  the  surface  of  the  grass  on  which  the  sheep  are  feeding. 

(1150.)  A  modification  of  the  cj-linder-slicer  was  patented  in  1839  by  Mr.  Gardner,  Banbury  ; 
the  principle  of  the  patent  lies  in  the  fonn  and  arrangement  of  the  cutters,  which  are  set  in  three 
divisions  upon  the  surface  of  the  cylinder.  The  arranirement  of  the  cutters  is  peculiar,  and  difB- 
cult  to  describe  without  the  aid  of  a  figure.  The  cylinder  on  wliich  the  cutters  are  placed  is  15 
inches  in  diameter  and  12  inches  long.  Its  periphery  is  divided  into  3  compartments,  each  form- 
ing a  portion  of  a  spiral,  so  that  the  commencement  of  one  and  the  termination  of  the  next  leaves 
a  slit  across  the  periphery,  corresponding  in  some  degree  with  that  described  on  the  disk  of  the 
wheel  turnip-cutter.  The  origifial  cylindrical  slicers  had  the  slicing-knife  extending  in  an  un- 
broken edge  across  the  surface  of  the  cylinder,  and  the  cros.s  cutters  placed  under  and  behind  it. 
The  improvement  on  which  the  patent  is  based  may  be  described  as  cutting  the  slicing-knife  into 
a  number  of  sections,  say  of  1  inch  each  in  length.  The  two  extreme  sections  remain  in  the  orig- 
inal position  on  the  cylinder.  The  section  ue.xt  to  that  on  each  side  is  removed  backward  upon 
the  surface  of  the  cylinder,  say  \\  inches,  and  there  fixed.  The  .section  on  each  side  next  to  those 
ia  in  like  manner  set  back,  and  so  on  till  the  whole  are  placed  on  the  surface  of  the  cylinder.  By 
this  arrangement,  the  slicing-cutters  form  two  converging  lines,  en  ccltcUen.  and  this  is  repeated 
three  times  on  the  periphery  of  the  cylinder.  The  cross-cutters  ar^;  formed  by  a  part  of  the  sliciug- 
cutter  beinff  bent  to  a  right  angle  with  the  former. 

(1151.)  This  cylinder  machine,  by  reason  of  the  cutters  acting  in  succession  from  their  position, 
en.  echellen,  works  with  great  ease  and  cuts  regularly,  but,  withal,  makes  the  slices  too  small,  and 
has  a  tendency  to  produce  waste,  though  this  fault  could  be  easily  rectified  by  enlarging  the  sec- 
tions of  the  knife,  and  leugthoninar  the  cross-cutters.  The  cylinder  is  mounted  iu  a  wooden  frame, 
and  the  hopper  is  so  arranged  that  the  turnip,  while  being  cut,  tends  always  to  apply  itself  to  the 
surface  of  the  cylinder. — J.  S.] 

(1152.)  There  is  a  mode  of  preserving  corn  for  sheep  on  turnips  which  has  been  tried  with  suc- 
cess in  Fife.  It  consists  of  a  box  like  a  hay-rack,  as  in  fig.  253,  in  which  the  corn  is  at  all  times 
kept  closely  shut  up.  except  when  sheep  wish  to  eat  it,  and  then  they  get  to  it  by  a  simple  con- 
trivance. The  bo.K  a  b  contains  the  corn,  into  which  it  is  poured  through  the  small  hinged  lid  y. 
The  cover  c  d,  concealing  the  corn,  is  also  hinged,  and  when  elevated  the  sheep  have  access  to 
the  corn.  Its  elevation  is  effected  by  the  pressure  of  the  sheep's  forefeet  upon  the  platform  ef, 
which,  moving  as  a  lever,  acts  upon  the  lower  ends  of  the  upright  rods  s;  and  h,  raises  them  up, 
and  elevates  the  cover  c  d,  under  which  their  heads  then  find  admittance  into  the  box.  A  similar 
apparatus  gives  them  access  to  the  other  side  of  the  box.  The  whole  machine  can  be  moved 
about  to  convenient  places  by  means  of  4  wheels.  The  con.struction  of  the  interior  of  the  box  be- 
ing somewhat  peculiar,  another,  fig.  254.  is  given  as  a  vertical  section  of  it,  where  b  is  the  hinged 
lid  by  which  the  corn  is  put  into  the  bo.x.  whence  it  is  at  once  received  into  the  hopper  d,  the  bot- 
tom of  which  bein?  open,  and  brought  near  that  of  the  bo.x,  a  siaall  space  only  is  left  for  the  com 
to  pass  into  the  box,  the  hopper  formins^  the  corn-.store ;  a  is  the  cover  of  the  box  raised  on  its 
hinges  by  the  rod  /,  acted  upon  by  the  platform  e  f,  fig.  253  ;  and.  when  iq  this  position,  the  sheep 
put  their  heads  below  a  at  c,  and  eat  the  corn  at  i.  Machines  of  similar  construction  to  this  have 
also  been  devised  to  serve  poultry  with  com  at  will.*  It  is  a  .safer  receptacle  for  corn  in  the  field 
than  the  open  oilcake  trough,  fig".  230  ;  but  animals  require  to  be  made  acquainted  with  it  before 
they  will  use  it  with  confidence. 

(1153.)  It  is  not  my  purpose  to  dilate  fully  on  the  dixeasea  of  animals,  the  symptoms  and  treat- 
in  nt  of  which  you  will  find  satisfactorily  described  in  the  published  works  of  veterinarians ;  bu^ 

•  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agriculttiral  Society,  vol.  vii. 

(907) 


476 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


nevertncless,  ii  in  iiorcsiiurv  you  i<liould  know  something  of  the  various  diseases  animals  are  liable 
to,  when  subjccteil  to  the  usual  treatment  of  the  farm.  Were  you  not  warned  of  tlie  consequences 
of  tbiii.  you  would  not  know  how  to  check  the  progress  of  diseaac,  but  allow  it  tu  proceed,  until 


Fig.  2o3. 


Fig.  254. 


.:^ 


THE  VKRTICAL   SECTION  OF  THE 
I.NTERIOR  OK  THE  COKS-BOX. 


THE  CORS-BOX  FOR   SHEEP  O.V  TURNIPS. 


the  life  of  the  animal  were  endiinpered.  It  is,  however,  not  desirable  that  vou  should  conBider 
yourself  as  a  veteriiiari.in,  because,  not  being  a  professional  man,  your  practical  knowledge  will 
necessarily  be  confined  to  the  ca«>s  arisini;  fi-om  the  casualties  of  your  own  stock,  and  hence  your 
experience  will  never  enable  you  to  become  so  well  acquainted  with  any  disease,  nor  «>  many, 
as  the  profcs.-jional  man,  while  you  would  rely  so  much  upon  your  own  knowledge,  crude  as  it 
must  be.  as  to  undertake  the  treatment  of  every  case  of  illness  that  occurred  on  your  own  farm  ; 
and  thus  be  prompted  to  try  experiment;?  which  may  prove  dangerous  to  the  safety  of  the  animal, 
but  it  is  very  desirable,  because  much  conducive  to  your  own  interest  that  you  should  be  ac- 
quainted with  the  most  easily  recognized  symptoms  of  the  commonest  disea.'ses  incidental  to  do- 
mesticated animals,  and  with  the  general  princii)les  of  their  treatment.  If  you  but  knew  how  tc 
distinguish  between  local  and  general  affections,  and  to  apply  the  proper  preliminary  treatment, 
you  would  place  ilie  afflicted  animal  in  such  a  state  of  safety  until  the  arrival  of  the  veterinary 
surgeon,  as  the  <iisea.se  might  be  easily  overcome  by  him.  and  your  animal  restored  to  health  in  a 
short  time.  Farther  than  this  you  have  no  right  to  aspire  as  an  amateur  veterinarian  ;  f<ir  it  can- 
not be  too  strondy  impressed  upon  you  that,  before  you  can  be  competent  to  learn  the  art  of 
healing,  you  must  have  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  anatomical  structure  and  the  physiology  of 
the  domestic  animals.  At  the  same  time,  as  a  branch  of  general  knowledge,  veterinary  science 
ought  to  have  your  regard,  and  more  especially  as  your  profession  places  you  in  a  position  to  oc- 
cupy the  field  which  affords  the  mo.sl  numerous,  varied,  and  interesting  cases  for  veterinary  prac- 
tice. And  besides,  you  should  have  "  some  insight,"  as  Professor  Dick  suggests,  "into  a  subject 
with  which  all  wl-io  have  any  pretension  to  a  knowledge  of  horseflesh  oiisht  In  hove  some  ac- 
quaintance. And  if  you  bear  in  mind  that,  in  a  compendious  view  of  the  principles  upon  which 
alone  the  discasi-s  of  domestic  animals  can  be  properly  treated,  you  will  find  an  antidote  to  the 
quackery  by  which  many  valuable  animals  arc  sacrificed,  and  serious  expense  and  vexation  oc- 
casioned."* 

(1154.)  On  this  8ugt:cstion,  1  would  notice  the  complaints  of  sheep,  with  the  view  of  letting  yoa 
see  their  interesting  ii.iture,  and  of  the  expediency  of  your  beeojniiig  acquainted  \vith  their  prin- 
ciples. The  first  which  presents  itself  on  sheep,  in  the  low  country  in  winter,  \8  puri^ini^.  occa- 
sioned by  eatini;  t(X)  henrtily  of  the  top.s,  when  fir.«t  confined  on  turnips.  At  first,  the  complaint 
is  not  alarming,  and  the  pliysicing  may  do  good  ultimately  ;  but  should  it  increase,  or  continue 
beyond  the  existence  of  tlie  exciting  cause,  it  may  pass  into  diarrhn-a.  causing  prostration  of 
strength,  and  at  last  terminate  in  dysentery.  When  the  purging  is  moderate,  the  pain  is  incon- 
siderable; but  wIkmi  aL'gravated.  the  mucous  membrane,  whicli  is  the  sea/  of  the  di.s«>:i.se.  ac- 
quires a  tend<Micy  to  inlliimmation,  and  grijiing  an<l  coliey  pains  are  the  con.sequence.  The  dis- 
ease should  not  he  th<)Ui;ht  liyhtly  of,  but  sneedily  checked.  When  the  preen  food,  as  in  this 
caj»e,  is  obviously  at  fault,  the  sheep  should  be  removed  to  dry  pasture  until  the  .symptoms  disap- 
pear. One  year.  I  remember,  the  white  turnip  tops  erew  so  lu.xuriantly  that  when  Leicester 
noggs  were  putoii  in  October,  they  were  very  soon  seized  with  purging,  and  the  symptoms  were 
much  aggravated  by  alternate  fulls  of  rain  and  raw  frosts.  The  sheep  were  removed  to  a  rough, 
moory  pasture,  whieh  had  been  reserved  for  the  ewes;  and  while  there,  I  caused  the  field-work- 
ers to  switch  off  the  turnip  tops  with  sickles,  and  thus  got  rid  of  the  cause  nl  complaint.  In  a 
short  time,  the  hogps  were  restored  to  the  turnips,  and  throve  apace;  thouu'h  the  wool  behind 
was  much  injured  by  the  fa'eal  discharge  And  this  is  one  of  the  losses  incuired  by  such  a  com- 
plaint ;  anil  at  a  sea.son.  ttni.  when  it  would  be  improper  to  clip  the  soiled  wool  away,  to  the  risk 
of  making  the  sheep  too  hare  below  to  lie  with  comfort  upon  the  cold  ground. 

(115.').)  Sheep  are  som("timcs  infested  with  a  species  of /o'/.«c.  the  Trtchodeclei;  uphtrroccphalxts, 
characterized  by  Mr.  Denny  as  having  the  head  nearly  orbicular,  the  clypeus  rugulose  and  cili- 
ated with  stiffhairs,  and  the  third  joint  of  the  antenme  lonccst  and  clavate. 

(llo6.)  This  animal  is  perhajis  induced  to  make  its  appearance  by  an  increase  of  condition  after 
a  considerable  period  of  poverty.  It  is  st^ldom  seen  on  Leicester  sheep.  becau.«e,  perhaps,  they 
■re  seldom  in  the  state  to  induce  it ;  b>it  hill-shccp  arc  not  unfrequcutly  infested  by  it,  and  when 

*  Dick's  Manual  of  Veterinary  Scii  nee,  Preface. 
(908) 


FEEDING  SHEEP  ON  TURNIPS.  477 

so,  it  is  amazing  what  numbers  of  the  vermin  may  be  seen  npon  a  single  sheep,  its  powers  of  re- 
production seeming  prodigious.  It  lodges  chiefly  upon  and  below  the  neck,  where  it  is  most  ef- 
fectually destroyed  by  mercurial  ointment,  which  should  not,  however,  be  applied,  in  quantity, 
in  very  cold  or  in  very  wet  weather  ;  and  in  these  circumstances,  tobacco-juice  and  spirit  of  tar 
may  be  safely  used.  A  quart  bottle  of  decoction  of  tobacco-leaf,  containing  a  wine  glass  of  spirit 
of  tar,  is  a  useful  lotion,  for  many  purposes,  tor  a  shepherd  to  have  constantly  in  his  pos.session. 
Professor  Dick  says  that,  in  slight  visitations  of  the  louse,  a  single  dressing  of  olive-oil  will  cause 
its  disappearance. 

(1157.)  Another  disease  to  which  sheep  are  subject  on  passing  from  a  state  of  poverty  to  im- 
proved condition  is  »cab,  and  hoggs  are  most  susce|)tible  of  it.  This  disease  indicates  its  exist- 
ence by  causing  sheep  to  appear  uneasy  and  wander  about  without  any  apparent  object ;  to  draw 
out  locks  of  wool  with  its  mouth  from  the  affected  parts,  as  the  disease  increases;  and,  lastly,  to 
rub  its  sides  and  buttocks  against  everj-  p.orainent  object  it  can  find,  such  as  a  stone,  a  tree,  a 
gate  post,  the  nets,  and  such  like.  Mr.  Youatt  says  that  it  arises  from  an  insect,  a  species  of  aca- 
rus  ;*  but  whether  this  be  the  case  or  not,  one  remedy  is  efficacious,  namely,  mercurial  ointment ; 
a  weak  one  of  1  part  of  the  ointment  with  5  of  lard  for  the  first  stage,  and  the  other  a  stronger,  of 
1  part  of  ointment  and  3  of  lard,  fur  an  aggravated  ca.se.  The  ichorous  matter  from  the  pustules 
adheres  to  and  dries  upon  the  wool,  and  gets  the  name  of  sci/rf,  which  should  first  be  washed  off 
with  soap  and  water  before  applying  the  ointment.  The  scab  is  a  very  infectious  disease,  the 
whole  flock  soon  becoming  coutarainaied  ;  but  the  infection  seems  to  spread  not  so  much  by  di- 
rect contact  as  by  toucliing  the  objects  the  animals  infected  have  rubbed  against.  Its  direct  ef- 
fects are  deterioration  of  condition,  arising  from  a  restlessness  preventing  the  animal  feeding,  and 
loss  of  wool,  large  portions  not  only  falling  off;  but  the  remainder  of  the  broken  fleece  becoming 
almost  valueless  ;  and  its  indirect  effects  are  propai:ation  of  the  disease  constitutionally,  and  hence 
the  loss  to  the  owner  in  having  a  scabbed  flock,  for  no  one  will  purchase  from  one  to  breed  from 
that  is  known  to  be.  or  to  have  been,  affected  by  scab.  With  regard  to  the  very  existence  of  this 
disease,  it  is  held  disgraceful  to  a  shepherd  not  to  be  able  to  detect  its  existence  at  a  very  early 
stage,  and  more  so  to  allow  it  to  make  head  in  his  Hock,  however  unobservant  he  may  have  been 
of  its  outbreak.  When  it  breaks  out  in  a  standing  flock,  it  must  have  been  latent  in  its  constitu- 
tion or  in  the  ground,  when  the  shepherd  took  charge  of  it,  for  some  shepherds  have  only  the  skill 
to  suppress,  not  eradicate  it ;  but  it  is  his  duty  to  examine  every  sheep  of  his  new  charge,  and  of 
every  one  newly  purcha.sed ;  before  they  are  allowed  to  take  to  their  hirsel,  and  also  to  make  in 
quiry  regarding  the  previous  state  of  the  ground. 

(1158.)  On  .soft  ground  sheep  are  liable  to  be  affected  whh  foot-rot,  when  on  turnips.  The  first 
symptom  is  a  slight  lameness  in  one  of  the  fore-feet,  then  in  both,  and  at  length  the  sheep  is 
obliged  to  go  down,  and  even  creep  on  its  knees,  to  get  to  its  food.  The  hoof,  in  every  case,  first 
becomes  softened,  when  it  grows  misshaped,  occasioning  an  undue  pressure  on  a  particular  part; 
this  sets  up  inflammation,  and  causes  a  slight  separation  of  the  hoof  from  the  coronet;  then  ulcers 
are  formed  below  where  the  hoof  is  worn  away,  and  then  at  length  comes  a  discharge  of  fetid 
matter,  if  neglected,  the  hoof  will  slough  off",  and  the  whole  foot  rot  oft";  which  would  be  a  dis- 
tressing termination  with  even  only  one  sheep,  but  the  alarming  thing  is,  that  the  whole  flock  may 
be  similarly  affected,  and  this  circumstance  has  led  to  the  belief  that  the  disease  is  very  conta- 
gious. There  is,  however,  much  difference  of  opinion  among  store  farmers  and  shepherds  on  this 
point,  though  the  opinion  of  contagion  preponderates.  For  my  jiart,  I  never  believed  it  to  be  so, 
and  there  never  would  have  been  such  a  belief  had  the  disease  been  confined  to  a  few  sheep  at  a 
time ;  but  though  numbers  are  affected  at  one  time,  the  fact  can  be  explained  from  the  circum- 
stance of  all  the  sheep  being  similarly  situate  ;  and  as  it  is  the  nature  of  the  situation  which  is  the 
cause  of  the  disease,  the  wonder  is  that  any  escape  affection,  rather  than  that  so  many  are  affect- 
ed. The  first  treatment  for  cure  is  to  wash  the  ii)ot  clean  with  .soap  and  water,  then  pare  away 
all  superfluous  hoof  dressing  the  diseased  surface  with  some  caustic,  the  spirit  of  tar  and  blue 
vitriol  being  most  in  vogue,  but  Professor  Dick  recommends  butter  of  antimony  as  the  best :  the 
aff"ected  part  being  bound  round  with  a  rag.  to  prevent  dirt  getting  into  it  asain ;  and  removing 
the  sheep  to  harder  ground,  upon  bare  pasture,  and  there  supplying  ihem  with  cut  turnips.  The 
cure  indicates  the  prevention  of  the  disease,  which  is  careful  examination  of  every  hoof  before 
putting  sheep  upon  red  land,  and  paring  away  all  extraneous  horn  ;  and  should  their  turnips  for 
the  season  be  upon  soft,  moist  ground,  let  them  be  entirely  sliced,  and  let  the  sheep  be  confined 
Bpon  a  small  break  at  a  time,  and  thus  supersede  the  necessity  of  their  walking  almost  at  all  upon 
it  for  food.  I  may  mention  that  sheep  accustomed  to  hard  ground,  when  brought  upon  that  which 
is  comparatively  much  softer,  are  most  liable  to  foot-rot,  and  hence  the  necessity  of  frequent  in- 
spection of  the  hoof  when  on  soft  ground  ;  and  as  some  farms  contain  a  large  proportion  of  this 
state  of  land,  frequent  inspection  should  constitute  a  prominent  duty  of  the  shepherd. 

(1159.)  Erysipelatous  complaints  occur  in  winter  among  sheep.  "  Wildfire,  it  is  said,"  remarks 
Professor  Dick,  -'generally  shows  itself  at  the  beginning  of  winter,  and'  first  attacks  the  breast 
and  belly.  The  skin  inflames  and  rises  into  blisters,  containing  a  reddish  fluid,  which  escapes 
and  forms  a  dark  scab.  The  animal  sometimes  fevers.  Venesection  (blood-letting)  should  be 
used,  the  skin  should  be  washed  with  a  solution  of  sugar  of  lead,  or  with  lime-water,  and  physic 
given,  such  as  salts  and  sulphur  ;  afterward  a  few  doses  of  nitre."* 

(1160.)  There  is.  perhaps,  no  circumstance  upon  which  an  argument  could  be  better  founded  in 
favor  of  arable  land  being  attached  to  a  hill-farm,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  food  to  be  consumed 
in  stormy  weather,  than  on  the  fatality  of  the  disea.se  commonly  called  braxy.  It  affects  young 
sheep,  and  chiefly  those  of  the  Black-faced  breed,  which  subsist  upon  the  most  elevated  pasture. 
Indigestion  is  its  primary  cause,  exciting  constipation,  which  .sets  up  acute  inflammation  of  the 
bowels,  and  death  ensues.  The  indigestion  is  occasioned  by  a  sudden  change  from  succulent  to 
dry  food,  and  the  suddenness  of  the  change  is  impo.sed  by  the  sudden  occurrence  of  frcst  and 
enow,  the  latter  concealing  the  green  herbage  which  the  sheep  have  been  eating  ;  and  obliging 

*  Youatt  on  Cheep.  f  Dick's  Manual  of  Veterinary  Science. 

(909j  ' 


478  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

them  to  subftiflt  upon  the  tops  of  old  heather,  and  twig*  and  leaven  of  bushes  that  o\*ertop  the 
snow.  By  lliis  account  of  the  orifjin  of  the  disease,  it  is  obvious  that,  wore  stells  provided  for 
shelter,  and  lumips  for  fiwd,  the  brnxy  would  never  atrect  jounf;  hill-Hheep,  at  least  under  the 
circumstances  which  usually  pive  rise  "to  it.  The  Kttrick  Sliepherd  thus  describes  its  sj-mptoms : 
"  The  loss  of  cud  is  the  first  token.  As  the  distemper  advanci-s,  the  afroiiy  which  the  animal  Is 
Buttering  becomes  more  and  more  visible.  When  it  etunds,  it  brings  all  its  four  feet  into  the  com- 
pass of  a  foot ;  and  sometimes  it  continues  to  rise  and  lie  down  iilternately  every  two  or  thn-c 
minutes.  The  eyes  are  heavy  and  <lull.  and  <leeply  expres.sive  of  its  distress.  The  ears  hai'g 
down,  and.  when  more  narrowly  inspected,  the  mouth  and  tongue  are  dry  and  parched,  and  the 
white  of  the  eve  inflamed.  .  .  .  The  belly  is  prodigiously  swelled,  even  so  much  tliat  it  sometimes 
bursts.  All  the  dillerent  apartments  of  the  stomach  are  inflamed  in  some  degree."*  Violent  in- 
flammation succeeds,  with  a  tendency  to  mortificaiion  and  sinking,  so  that,  after  speedy  death,  the 
touch  of  the  viscera,  and  even  of  the  carca.'ss,  is  intolerable.  Its  eflecls  are  .o  sndden,  that  a  bogg 
apparently  well  in  the  evening  will  be  found  dead  in  the  morning.  Cure  thus  seems  almost  una- 
vailable, and  vet  it  may  be  effected,  provided  the  sym|iloms  of  the  disease  arc  observed  in  time ; 
when,  if  blood"  is  drawn  freely  from  any  part  of  the  bodj'.  such  as  by  notches  made  across  the  un- 
der side  of  the  tail,  from  the  vein  under  the  eye,  and  that  behind  the  fcrearm,  and  a  dose  of  salts 
administered  in  warm  water,  the  animal  will  most  probably  recovcr.t  But  the  grand  object  is 
prevention  of  the  di.siiase  by  a  timely  supply  of  succulent  food  ;  and  if  tnrnips  cannot  bcobtjiined, 
U  may  be  worth  the  storcma.>iter'8  consideration  whether  oil  cake  should  not  be  given  to  the  sheep 
along"  with  bay,  during  a  storm.  The  laxative  property  of  oil  cake  is  well  established,  and 
its  carriage  to  the  remotest  hill-farm  comparatively  easy.  Mr.  Fairbairn  recommends  salt  to  be 
given  to  young  sheej),  when  shifted  suddenly  from  fresh  to  dry  food  ;  and  no  doubt,  as  a  condi- 
ment in  support  of  the  healthy  action  of  the  stomach,  it  would  prove  useful ;  and  more  especially 
in  the  case  of  cattle  and  sheep,  the  structure  of  whose  digestive  organs  renders  them  peculiarly 
liable  to  the  eflecls  of  indigestion  ;  and  on  this  account  it  would  be  a  valuable  asi<istant  to  the 
more  nutritious  oil-cake.  And  instead  of  entirely  acquiescing  in  the  Ettrick  Shepherd's  recom- 
mendation '•  to  pasture  the  young  and  old  of  the  flocks  all  together,"  as  has  been  done  in  Peebles- 
shire, to  the  eradication,  it  is  said,  of  the  braxy — as  being  in  manj'  cases  impracticable  and  at- 
tended with  no  profit,  Sir.  Fairbairn  rather  observes,  "  Let  the  pasture  for  a  hirsel,  as  was  ob- 
served before,  be  as  nearly  as  possible  of  one  soil.  To  overlook  tliis  is  a  mighty  error,  and  the 
surest  means  of  making  the  flock  unequal.  The  heath  should  also  be  regularly  burned,  and  the 
sheep  never  allowed  to  pasture  to7ifr  vpon  xofl  praxK."  And  as  a  lust  resource  in  an  attempt  to 
eradicate  the  disease  everywhere,  he  would  have  the  sheep  put  on  turnips,  as  "  an  infallible  anti- 
dote against  the  progress  of  the  malady  ;"  and  which  he  has  "  inviiriably  found  gives  a  settling 
stroke  to  the  disease."!  This  last  remedy  doubtless  being  effective,  I  would  recommend  its  adop- 
tion rather  as  a  preventive  than  a  cure  of  the  disease. 

(1161.)  The  Ettrick  Shepherd  mentions  the  existence  of  4  kinds  of  braxy — namely,  the  bovel 
sickness,  the  xicktiess  in  the  Jlcxh  and  blond,  the  dry  braxy,  and  the  water  braxy — all  originating 
in  the  same  cause,  producing  modified  effects — namely,  a  sudden  change  of  food  from  succulent 
to  dry,  inducing  constipation  of  the  bowels  and  consequent  inflammation  ;  and  they  are  all  a  clasa 
of  diseases  allied  in  their  nature  to  hovcn  in  cattle,  and  flatulent  colic  or  bolts  in  horses. 


31.     DRIVING  AND  SLAUGHTERING  SHEEP. 

"Pierced  by  Roderick's  ready  blade, 
Patient  the  sickenins  victim  eyed 
The  life-blood  ibb  in  crimeon  tide 
Down  his  clo(;cc(i  beard  and  slispgy  limb, 
1111  darkness  glazed  his  eye-balls  dim." 

Scott. 

(1162.)  Althoitoh  it  is  unusual  for  farmers  who  possess  a  xtayidlng  flock 
— and  most  farmers  who  practice  the  mixed  husbandry  have  one — to  dis- 
pose of  their  fat  sheep  in  winter — that  is,  before  the  turnips  are  all  con- 
sumed— yet  as  farmers,  who,  havincj  no  standing  flock,  purchase  a  flying 
one  every  year,  of  sheep  in  forward  condition,  and  in  such  numbers  as  to 
consume  the  turnips  allotted  to  them  in  a  short  time,  do  dispose  of  their 
fat  sheep  in  winter,  it  is  proper  that  you  should  be  made  accjuainted  here 
with  the  driving  of  shicp  upon  roads,  and  tliti  general  practice  of  the  mut- 
ton-trade. The  slieep  most  forward  in  condition  in  autumn  are  yeld  ewes 
and  wethers,  the  tup-eill  ewes  being  already  fat  and  sold. 

(1163.)  Sheep  are  purchased  from  farmers  both  by  dealers  and  butchers. 

■*  Hogg's  Shepherd's  Ouide.  t  Tim  Moiininin  Shepherd's  Manual, 

t  A  Lamniermuir  Panner'B  TrealUe  oo  Sheep  in  High  Districts. 
(910) 


DRIVING  AND  SLAUGHTERING  SHEEP.  479 

Dealers  buy  from  farmers  in  wholesale,  and  sell  to  butchers  in  retail ;  so 
they  constitute  a  sort  of  middle-men ;  but,  unlike  most  middle-men,  their 
avocation  is  fully  as  useful  to  both  parties  as  to  themselves,  inasmuch  as 
they  purchase  at  once  the  whole  disposable  stock  of  the  farmer,  and  they 
assort  that  stock,  and  present  it  at  the  markets  which  the  different  classes 
of  their  customers,  the  butchers,  are  in  the  habit  of  frequenting,  in  the 
most  suitable  form.  They  thus  act  the  part  which  the  wool-staplers  do,  in 
assorting  the  different  qualities  of  wool  between  the  grower  and  the  man- 
ufacturer. They  buy  either  at  fairs,  or  on  the  farmer's  own  premises.  In 
the  former  case  they  pay  ready  money,  and  lift  the  stock  immediately ;  in 
the  latter  they  pay  at  the  time  the  stock  is  lifted  by  agreement.  In  lifting 
their  bargains,  they  appoint  one  time  among  all  the  places  they  have  pur- 
chased, to  make  up  their  entire  drove  ;  for  it  is  less  costly  for  their  people 
to  drive  a  large  one  than  a  small.  Dealers  chiefly  buy  at  the  country  fairs, 
where  they  have  ample  choice,  and  only  purchase  on  the  farmer's  prem- 
ises when  stock  happens  to  be  scarce,  and  prices  likely  to  advance.  Butch- 
ers purchase  chiefly  in  the  market-towns  in  which  they  reside,  though 
they  also  attend  fairs,  and  pick  up  a  few  fat  lots  which  will  not  bear  the 
long  journeys  of  the  dealers ;  and  in  this  case  they  pay  ready  money  and 
lift  immediately,  as  dealers  do.  But  when  they  purchase  on  the  farmer's 
premises,  they  usually  lift  so  many  at  a  time,  according  to  agreement,  and 
pay  only  for  what  they  lift.  Every  farmer  should  avoid  this  practice,  as 
every  time  the  butcher  comes  for  his  lot  the  sheep  have  to  be  gathered, 
and  the  whole  handled,  that  he  may  take  away  only  those  which  suit  his 
present  purpose  ;  and  this  commotion  is  made  most  probably  every  week, 
the  whole  stock  being  disturbed  by  the  shouting  of  men  and  the  barking 
of  dogs,  among  whom  those  of  the  butcher  are  not  the  least  noisy  or  the 
least  active.  Farmers  take  their  stock  either  to  fairs  or  market-towns,  and 
there  meet  the  respective  sorts  of  purchasers,  the  dealers  never  appearing 
as  purchasers  in  towns,  the  butchers  there  ruling  paramount. 

(1164.)  "When  a  dealer  purchases  on  the  farmer's  premises,  he  lifts  his 
lot  at  any  time  of  day  that  best  suits  his  outi  arrangements.  He  begins 
to  lift  the  first  lot  in  the  more  distant  part  of  the  country,  and,  proceeding 
on  the  road  in  the  direction  of  their  destination,  he  lifts  lot  after  lot  until 
the  whole  are  gathered,  to  the  amount  of  many  hundreds.  In  this  way  he 
may  lift  a  lot  in  the  forenoon  on  one  farm,  and  another  in  the  afternoon  on 
another;  and  this  is  a  much  more  satisfactory  way  for  the  farmer  to  dis- 
pose of  his  stock  than  the  one  he  allows  the  butcher  to  adopt.  But  when 
a  farmer  is  to  drive  his  own  sheep  to  market,  he  starts  thein  at  a  time  when 
the  journey  \vill  do  them  the  least  injury.  Sheep  should  not  begin  their 
journey  either  when  too  full  or  too  hungry ;  in  the  former  state  they  are 
apt  to  purge  on  the  road,  in  the  latter  they  will  lose  strength  at  once. — 
The  sheep  selected  for  market  are  the  best  conditioned  at  the  time ;  and, 
to  ascertain  this,  it  is  necessary  to  handle  the  whole  lot,  and  shed  the  fat- 
test from  the  rest ;  and  this  is  best  done  about  midday,  before  the  sheep 
feed  again  in  the  afternoon.  The  selected  ones  are  put  into  a  field  by 
themselves,  where  they  remain  until  the  time  appointed  them  to  start.  If 
there  be  rough  pasture  to  give  them,  they  should  be  allowed  to  use  it,  and 
get  quit  of  some  of  the  turnips  in  them.  If  there  is  no  such  pasture,  a  few 
cut  turnips  on  a  lea-field  will  answer.  Here  all  their  hoofs  should  be  care- 
fully examined,  and  every  unnecessary  appendage  removed,  though  the 
firm  portion  of  the  horn  should  not  be  touched.  Every  clotted  piece  of 
wool  should  also  be  removed  with  the  shears.  The  sheep  should  also  be 
marked  with  keil,  or  ruddle,  as  it  is  called  in  England — the  ochrey-red  iron- 
stone of  mineralogists,  which  occurs   in  abundance  near  Platte,  in  Bohe- 

(911) 


480  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WJ.NTER. 

mia.*  The  keil-mark  is  put  on  the  wool,  and  on  any  part  of  the  body  you 
choose — the  purjiose  being  to  identify  your  own  sheep  in  case  of  any  being 
lost  in  the  fair.  The  parts  usually  chosen  for  marking  Leicester  sheep  are 
top  of  shfdilder,  back,  rump,  far  and  near  ribs.  The  mark  is  made  in  thifl 
way :  Take  hold  of  a  small  tuft  of  wool  at  any  of  the  above  parts  with 
the  right-hand  fingers,  and  seize  it  between  the  fore  and  middle  fingers  of 
the  left  hand,  with  the  palm  upward  ;  then  color  it  with  the  keil,  which 
requires  to  be  wetted,  if  the  wool  itself  is  not  damp.  Short-wooled  sheep 
are  usually  marked  on  the  head,  neck,  face  and  rump,  or  with  a  bar  across 
the  shoulders,  and  generally  too  much  keil  is  put  upon  them.  The  sheep 
being  thus  prepared  should  have  food  early  in  the  morning,  and  be  started 
on  their  journey  about  midday — the  season,  you  will  remember,  l>eing  win- 
ter. Let  them  walk  gently  away ;  and,  as  the  road  is  new  to  them,  they 
will  go  too  fast  at  first — to  prevent  which,  the  drover  should  go  before 
them,  and  let  his  dog  bring  up  the  rear.  In  a  short  distance  they  will 
assume  the  proper  speed,  about  1  mile  the  hour.  Should  the  road  they 
travel  be  a  green  one,  the  sheep  will  proceed  nibbling  their  way  onward 
at  the  grass,  along  both  sides ;  but  if  a  turnpike,  especially  a  narrow  one, 
the  drover  will  require  all  his  attention  in  meeting  and  being  passed  by 
every  class  of  vehicle,  to  avoid  injury  to  his  charge.  In  this  part  of  their 
business,  drovers  generally  make  too  much  ado,  both  themselves  and  their, 
dogs ;  and  the  consequence  is  that  the  sheep  are  driven  more  from  side  to 
side  of  the  road  than  is  requisite.  On  meeting  a  carriage,  it  would  be 
much  better  for  the  sheep  were  the  drover  to  go  forward,  instead  of  send- 
ing his  dog,  and  point  off,  with  his  stick,  the  leading  sheep  to  the  nearest 
side  of  the  road  ;  and  the  rest  will  follow,  as  a  matter  of  course,  while  the 
dog  walks  behind  the  flock,  and  brings  up  the  stragglers.  Open  gates  to 
fields  are  sources  of  great  annoyance  to  drovers,  the  stock  invariably  mak- 
ing an  endeavor  to  go  through  them.  On  observing  an  open  gate  before, 
the  drover  should  send  his  dog  behind  him  over  the  fence,  to  be  ready  to 
meet  the  sheep  at  the  gate.  When  the  sheep  incline  to  rest,  let  them  lie 
down.  Before  night-fall  the  drover  should  inquire  of  lodging  for  them  for 
the  night,  as  in  winter  it  is  requisite  to  put  them  in  a  grass-field,  and  supply 
them  with  a  few  turnips  or  a  little  hay,  the  road-sides  being  bare  at  that 
season.  If  turnips  or  hay  are  laid  down  near  the  gate  of  the  field  they  oc- 
cupy, the  sheep  will  be  ready  to  take  the  road  in  the  morning  ;  but,  before 
doing  this,  the  drover  should  ascertain  whether  the  road  is  infested  with 
stray  dogs;  if  which  be  the  case,  the  sheep  should  be  taken  to  the  safest 
spot  and  watched.  Many  dogs  thit  live  in  the  neijjhborhood  of  drove- 
roads,  and  more  especially  village  dogs,  are  in  the  habit  of  looking  out  for 
sheep  to  worry,  at  some  distance  from  their  homes.  The  chief  precaution 
that  can  be  used  under  such  an  apprehension  is,  for  the  drover  to  go  fre- 
quently through  the  flock  with  a  light,  and  be  late  in  retiring  to  rest,  and 
up  again  early  in  the  morning.  This  apprehension  regarding  dogs  is  not 
solely  in  rofjard  to  the  loss  sustained  by  worrj'ing,  but,  when  sheep  have 
been  disturbed  by  them,  they  \\'ill  not  settle  again  upon  the  road.  The 
first  day's  journey  should  be  a  short  one,  not  exceeding  4  or  5  miles. — 
Upon  drove-roads,  farms  will  be  found  at  stated  distances  with  food  and 
lodging  for  the  drover  and  his  flock,  at  a  moderate  charge.  Allowing  8 
miles  a  day  for  a  winter-day's  travel,  and  knowing  tlie  distance  of  your 
market  by  the  destined  route,  the  sheep  should  start  in  good  time,  allow- 
ance being  made  for  unforeseen  delays,  and  one  day's  rest  near  the 
market. 


JamcKon's  Mineralogy,  toL  iii. 
(913) 


DRIVING   AND   SLAUGHTERING  SHEEP.  481 

(1165.)  The  farmers'  drover  may  either  be  his  shepherd,  or  a  profes- 
sional drover  hired  for  the  occasion.  The  shepherd  knowing  the  flock 
makes  their  best  drover,  if  he  can  be  spared  so  long  from  home.  A  hired 
drover  gets  2s.  6d.  a  day  of  wages,  besides  traveling  expenses,  and  he  is 
intrusted  with  cash  to  pay  all  the  necessary  dues  incidental  to  the  road  and 
markets,  such  as  tolls,  forage,  ferries,  and  market  custom.  A  drover  of 
sheep  should  always  be  provided  with  a  dog,  as  the  numbers  and  nimble- 
ness  of  sheep  render  it  impossible  for  one  man  to  guide  a  capricious  flock 
along  a  road  subject  to  many  casualties ;  not  a  young  dog,  who  is  apt  to 
work  and  bark  a  great  deal  more  than  necessary,  much  to  the  annoyance 
of  the  sheep,  but  a  knowing,  cautious  tyke.  The  drover  should  have  a 
walking-stick,  a  useful  instrument  at  times  in  turning  a  sheep  disposed  to 
break  off"  from  the  rest.  A  shepherd's  plaid  he  will  find  to  afford  comfort- 
able protection  to  his  body  from  cold  and  wet,  while  the  mode  in  which  it 
is  worn  leaves  his  limbs  free  for  motion.  He  should  carry  provision  with 
him,  such  as  bread,  meat,  cheese  or  butter,  that  he  may  take  luncheon  or 
dinner  quietly  beside  his  flock  while  resting  in  a  sequestered  part  of  the 
road,  and  he  may  slake  his  thirst  in  the  first  brook  or  spring  he  finds,  or 
purchase  a  bottle  of  ale  at  a  roadside  ale-house.  Though  exposed  all  day 
to  the  air,  and  even  though  he  feel  cold,  he  should  avoid  drinking  spirits, 
which  only  produce  temporary  wai'mth,  and  for  a  long  time  after  induce 
chilliness  and  languor.  ]\Iuch  rather  let  him  drink  ale  or  porter  during  the 
day,  and  reserve  the  allowance  of  spirits  he  gives  himself  until  the  evening, 
when  he  can  enjoy  it  in  warm  toddy  beside  a  comfitrtable  fire,  before  re- 
tiring to  rest  for  the  night.  The  injunction  to  refrain  from  spirits  during 
the  day  I  know  will  sound  odd  to  the  ear  of  a  Highland  di'over  ;  but  though 
a  dram  may  do  him  good  in  his  own  mountain-air,  and  while  taking  active 
exercise,  it  does  not  follow  that  it  will  produce  equally  good  effects  on  a 
drove-road  in  the  low  country  in  winter,  in  raw  and  foggy  weather.  I  be- 
lieve the  use  of  raw  spirits  does  more  harm  than  good  to  all  drovers  who 
indulge  in  the  practice.  He  should  also  have  a  good  knife,  by  which  to 
remove  any  portion  of  horn  that  may  seem  to  annoy  a  sheep  in  its  walk ; 
and  also  a  small  bottle  of  a  mixture  of  tobacco-liquor  and  spirit  of  tar,  with 
a  little  rag  and  twine,  to  enable  him  to  smear  and  bandage  a  sheep's  foot, 
so  as  it  may  endure  the  journey.  He  should  be  able  to  draw  a  little  blood 
from  a  sheep  in  case  of  sickness.  Should  a  sheep  fail  on  the  road,  he 
should  be  able  to  dispose  of  it  to  the  best  advantage ;  or,  becoming  ill,  he 
should  be  able  to  judge  whether  a  drink  of  gi'uel,  or  a  handful  of  common 
salt  in  warm  water,  may  not  recover  it  so  as  to  proceed  ;  but,  rather  than 
a  lame  or  jaded  sheep  should  spoil  the  appearance  of  the  flock,  it  should 
be  disposed  of  before  the  flock  is  presented  in  the  market. 

(1166.)  The  many  casualties  incidental  to  sheep  on  travel,  more  espe- 
cially in  winter,  require  consideration  from  the  farmer  before  undertaking 
to  send  his  stock  to  a  distant  market-town,  in  preference  to  taking  them  to 
a  fair,  or  accepting  an  offer  for  them  at  home.  A  long  journey  in  winter 
will  cost  at  least  Is.  a  head,  and  their  jaded  appearance  may  have  the  effect 
of  lowering  their  market  price  2s.  or  3s.  a  head  more.  Under  any  circum- 
stances, when  you  have  determined  on  sending  your  sheep  to  a  market- 
town,  it  is,  I  believe,  the  best  plan,  after  the  journey,  to  intrust  them  to  a 
salesman,  rather  than  stand  at  market  with  them  yourself,  as  you  cannot 
know  the  character  of  the  buyers  so  well  as  he  does,  nor  can  you  know 
what  class  of  purchasers  your  lot  may  best  suit.  The  convenience  attend- 
ing the  employment  of  a  salesman  is  now  generally  felt,  because  it  not 
only  saves  the  personal  annoyance  of  attending  a  market,  but  your  money 
is  remitted  to  you  through  a  bank  in  the  course  of  the  day.     The  only  pre- 

(961) 31  J  J  e: 


482  THE  BOOK  OF  THE   FARM WINTER. 

caution  requisite  in  the  matter  is  to  become  acquainted  with  a  salesman 
of  judgment;  for  as  to  honesty,  if  lie  have  not  tluit^  he  is  of  course  quite 
worthless.  In  attending  countrj'  fairs,  the  case  is  otherwise ;  there  being 
no  salesman,  you  yourself  must  stand  by  y(iur  lot.  Before  attending  the 
fair,  you  should  make  up  your  mind  what  to  ask  for  your  stock,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  cunent  market  prices ;  but,  notwithstanding  this,  you  may 
come  away  with  more  or  less  cash  than  you  anticipated,  because  the  actual 
state  of  that  market  will  he  regulated  by  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the 
stock  brought  forward,  and  by  the  paucity  or  numbers  of  buyers  who  may 
appear.  After  your  sheep  are  fairly  placed,  you  should  inquire  of  friends 
of  the  state  of  prices  before  you  sell,  and  on  doing  this  you  will  frequently 
find  the  market  in  a  most  perplexing  state  from  various  causes.  Thus, 
there  may  be  too  many  sheep  for  the  buyers,  when  the  market  will  be  dull, 
and  remain  so  all  day.  On  the  other  hand,  the  stock  may  be  scanty  for 
the  buyers,  when  a  briskness  may  start  in  the  morning  and  continue  even 
till  the  whole  stock  are  sold  off.  There  may  be  briskness  in  the  morning, 
the  buyers  purchasing  ;  dullness  at  midday,  buyers  declining ;  and  brisk- 
ness again  in  the  afternoon,  buyers  again  purchasing.  There  may  be  ex- 
cessive dullness  in  the  morning,  occasioned  by  the  buyers  lying  off  and 
beating  down  prices,  and,  finding  they  cannot  succeed,  buy  briskly  all  the  aft- 
ernoon. There  may  be  dullness  in  the  morning,  arising  from  the  dealers 
finding  the  condition  of  the  stock  below  their  expectation.  The  markets 
are  never  better  for  the  farmer  than  when  they  begin  brisk  early  in  the 
morning,  and  the  stock  are  all  sold  off  early.  These  are  the  vicissitudes 
of  a  market ;  they  are  interesting,  demand  attention,  and  are  woith  exam- 
ination. You  will  frequently  obsene  a  trifling  circumstance  give  a  decided 
tone  to  a  market.  A  dealer,  for  instance,  who  generally  buys  largely,  and 
having  bought  for  many  years  respectably  in  that  particular  fair,  will  mark 
the  prices  of  the  day  by  his  purchases  ;  so  that  other  people,  particularly 
sellers,  observing  the  prices  given  by  him,  will  sell  briskly  and  with  confi- 
dence- There  is  no  use,  at  any  time,  of  asking  a  much  higher  price  than 
the  intrinsic  value  of  your  stock,  or  than  you  will  willingly  take ;  for,  al- 
though your  stock  may  be  in  particularly  fine  condition,  and  of  good  qual- 
ity, and  therefore  worth  more  than  the  average  price  of  the  market,  still 
their  value  must  conform  to  the  rate  of  the  market,  be  it  high  or  low,  and 
it  is  not  in  your  power  to  control  it ;  though,  if  prices  dissatisfy  you,  you 
have  it  in  your  power  to  take  your  stock  home  again.  There  is  a  common 
saying  applicable  to  all  public  markets,  and  is  now  received  as  a  maxim, 
because  indicating  the  truth,  that  "  the  first  oiler  is  the  best,"  that  is,  the 
first  offer  from  a  bona  fiile  buyer ;  for  there  are  people  to  be  found  in  all 
markets  who,  having  no  serious  intention  of  buying  at  market  price,  make 
a  point  of  offering  considerably  below  it,  with  the  view  of  catching  a  bar- 
gain from  a  greenhorn,  or  from  one  tried  of  standing  longer  in  the  fair, 
and  they  sometimes  succeed  in  their  wishes  ;  but  such  people  are  easily 
discovered,  and  therefore  cannot  deceive  any  but  inexperienced  sellers. 

(1167.)  There  are  certain  rw/^'.v  which,  by  tacit  consent,  govern  the  prin- 
ciples upon  which  all  public  markets  of  stork  are  conducted,  and  they  are 
few  and  simple.  There  is  a  custom  payable  for  all  stock  presented  at  fairs, 
exigible  by  the  lord  of  the  manor,  or  other  recognized  authority.  After 
entering  the  field,  your  stock  can  take  up  any  unoccuyiied  position  vou 
choose,  appointed  for  the  particular  kind  of  stock  you  have  to  show.  No 
one,  on  pretence  of  purchasing,  has  a  right  to  interfere  with  a  lot  which  is 
under  inspection  by  another  party.  Neither  have  you  any  right  to  show 
your  lot  to  more  than  one  party  at  a  time,  imless  each  ]iarty  consent  to  it. 
Wlien  a  bargain   is  made,  there  is  no  necessity  for  striking  hands,  or  ex- 

(962) 


DRIVING  AND  SLAUGHTERING  SHEEP.  483 

changing  money,  as  an  earnest  of  it.  When  a  bargain  is  made,  a  time 
may  be  stipulated  by  the  purchaser  for  lifting  the  stock  ;  and,  until  they 
are  delivered  to  him  or  his  accredited  agents,  they  continue  at  the  risk  of 
the  seller.  When  counted  over  before  the  purchaser,  the  price  becomes 
immediately  due.  When  the  money  is  paid,  there  is  no  obligation  on  the 
seller  to  give  a  discount  ofF'the  price,  or  a  luch-pcnny ,  as  it  is  termed ;  but 
purchasers  sometimes  make  offers  in  a  way  to  humor  the  prejudices  of  the 
seller — that  is,  they  offer  the  price  demanded,  on  condition  of  getting  back 
a  cei-tain  sum,  or  amount  of  luck-penny,  to  bring  the  price  down  to  their 
own  ideas  ;  in  such  a  case,  when  such  an  offer  is  accepted,  the  seller  must 
return  the  luck-penny  conditioned  for,  when  he  receives  the  money.  Some- 
times, when  parties  cannot  agree  as  to  price,  the  offerer  proposes  to  abide 
by  the  decision  of  a  third  party  ;  but,  in  doing  this,  you  virtually  relinquish 
your  power  over  your  own  stock.  Sometimes  bills  and  bank-postbills  are 
tendered  by  dealers  in  part  or  entire  payment  of  what  they  purchase  ;  but 
it  is  in  your  power  to  refuse  any  form  of  cash  but  the  legal  tender  of  the 
country,  such  as  Bank  of  England  notes,  or  gold,  or  silver.  If  a  bill  of 
exchange  or  promissory  note  is  proffered  instead  of  ready  money,  you  are 
quite  entitled  to  refuse  the  bargain  ;  for  the  usage  of  trade  in  a  fair  implies 
the  condition  of  ready  money  ;*  or  you  may  demand  a  higher  price  to  cover 
the  risk  of  the  bill  being  dishonored.  The  notes  of  any  bank  you  know  to 
be  good,  you  will,  of  course,  not  refuse.  After  the  stock  are  delivered, 
they  are  at  the  risk  of  the  purchaser.  Some  dealers'  top^s-men — that  is, 
the  men  who  take  charge  of  their  master's  lots  after  delivery — demand  a 
gratuity  for  their  trouble,  which  you  are  at  liberty  to  refuse.  All  these 
rules,  in  as  far  as  relates  to  money  and  the  delivery  of  stock,  apply  to  the 
stock  purchased  by  dealers  on  your  own  farm.  When  you  purchase  stock 
at  a  fair,  people  will  be  found  on  the  ground  willing  to  render  your  drover 
assistance  in  taking  them  out  of  it,  and  of  setting  them  fairly  on  the  road. 
Such  people  are  useful  on  such  occasions,  as  it  may  happen,  especially  in 
the  case  of  sheep,  that  one  or  more  may  break  away  from  their  own  flock 
and  mix  with  another,  when  there  may  not  only  be  difficulty  in  shedding 
them  out,  but  those  into  whose  lot  yours  have  strayed  may  show  unwilling- 
ness to  have  their  stock  disturbed  for  your  sake,  though  it  is  in  your  power 
to  follow  your  strayed  stock,  and  claim  it  anywhere  by  the  wool-mark. 

(1168.)  The  way  that  fat  is  laid  on  sheep  while  on  turnips,  and  the  mode 
of  judging  of  a  fat  sheep,  are  these  ;  Hoggs,  when  put  on  turnips  in  win- 
ter, are  generally  lean  ;  for  although  they  had  been  in  good  condition  as 
lambs  when  weaned  from  their  mothers  in  summer,  their  growth  in  stature 
afterward  is  so  rapid  that  their  flesh  is  but  little  intermixed  with  fat.  For 
the  first  few  weeks  on  turnips,  even  in  the  most  favorable  circumstances  as 
to  quality  of  food,  warmth  of  shelter,  dryness  of  land,  and  pleasantness 
of  weather,  they  make  no  apparent  advancement  in  condition  ;  nay,  they 
rather  seem  to  fall  off,  and  look  clapped  in  the  wool,  and  indicate  a  ten- 
dency to  delicacy,  in  consequence,  I  suppose,  of  the  turnips  operating 
medicinally  on  their  constitution  as  an  alterative,  if  not  as  a  laxative  ;  but 
immediately  after  that  trying  period  of  young  sheep,  especially  trying  in 
bad  weather,  is  past,  when  the  grass  has  completely  passed  through  them, 
and  the  stomach  and  intestines  have  become  accustomed  to  the  more  solid 
food  of  the  turnip,  their  improvement  is  marked,  the  wool  seeming  longer 
and  fuller,  the  carcass  filled  out,  the  eyes  clear  and  full,  and  the  gait  firm 
and  steady.  They  then  thrive  rapidly,  and  the  more  rapidly  the  drier  the 
weather. 


The  Farmer's  Lawyer. 
(963) 


484  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

(1169.)  The  formatif)!!  of  fat  in  a  sheep  destined  to  be  fattened,  com- 
mences in  the  inside,  the  nvt  of  fat  which  envelops  the  intestines  being 
first  formed,  and  a  little  deposited  around  the  kidneys.  After  that,  fat  is 
seen  on  the  outside,  and  first  upon  the  end  of  the  rump  at  tlie  tail-head, 
which  continues  to  move  on  along  the  hack,  on  both  sides  of  the  spine  or 
back-bone  to  the  bend  of  the  ribs,  to  the  neck.  Then  it  is  depcsited  be- 
tween the  muscles,  parallel  with  the  cellular  tissue.  Meanwhile,  it  is  cov- 
ering the  lower  round  of  the  ribs  descending  to  the  flanks,  until  the 
two  sides  meet  under  the  belly,  whence  it  proceeds  to  the  brisket  or 
breast  in  front,  and  the  shaw  or  cod  behind,  filling  up  the  inside  of  the 
arm-pits  and  thighs.  While  all  these  depositions  are  proceeding  on  the 
outside,  the  ])rogres3  in  the  inside  is  not  checked,  but  rather  increased,  by 
the  fattening  disposition  encouraged  by  the  acquired  condition  ;  and  hence, 
simultaneously,  the  kidneys  become  entirely  covered,  and  the  space  be- 
tween the  intestines  and  lumbar  region  or  loin  gradually  filled  up  by  the 
net  and  kidney  fat.  By  this  time,  the  cellular  spaces  around  each  fibre  of 
muscle  is  receiving  its  share,  and  when  fat  is  deposited  there  in  quantity, 
it  gives  to  meat  the  term  ?narblrd.  These  inter-fibrous  spaces  are  the  last 
to  receive  a  deposition  of  fat ;  but  after  this  has  begun,  every  other  part 
simultaneously  receives  its  due  share,  the  back  and  kidneys  receiving  the 
most,  so  much  so  that  the  former  literally  becomes  rtichcd,  as  it  is  termed  ; 
that  is,  the  fat  is  felt  through  the  skin  to  be  divided  into  two  portions,  from 
the  tail-head  along  the  back  to  the  top  of  the  shoulder,  the  tail  becoming 
thick  and  stiff",  the  top  of  the  neck  broad,  the  lower  part  of  each  side  of  the 
neck  toward  the  breast  full,  and  the  hollows  between  the  breast-bone  and 
the  inside  of  the  fore-legs,  and  between  the  cod  and  the  inside  of  the  hind 
thighs,  filled  up.  When  all  this  has  been  accomplished,  the  sheep  is  said 
to  he  fat  or  rij^e. 

(1170.)  When  the  body  of  a  fat  sheep  is  entirely  overlaid  with  fat,  it  is 
then  in  the  most  valuable  state  as  mutton  ;  but  few  sheep  lay  on  fat  en- 
tirely over  their  body,  one  laying  the  largest  proportion  on  the  rump,  an- 
other on  the  back  ;  one  on  the  ribs,  another  on  the  flanks  ;  one  on  the 
parts  adjoining  the  fore-quarter,  another  on  those  of  the  hind-quai1er  ;  one 
more  on  the  inside,  and  another  more  on  the  outside.  Taking  so  many 
parts,  and  combining  any  two  or  more  of  them  together,  you  may  expect 
to  find,  in  a  lot  of  fat  sheep,  a  considerable  variety  of  condition,  and  yet 
any  one  is  as  ripe  in  its  way  as  any  other. 

(1171.)  Taking  these  data  for  your  guide,  you  will  be  able  to  detect,  by 
handling,  the  state  of  a  sbeej)  in  its  progress  toward  ripeness.  A  ripe  sheep, 
however,  is  easily  known  by  the  vi/e,  by  the  fullness  exhibited  in  all  the 
external  j)arts  of  the  particular  animal.  It  may  exhibit  wants  in  some 
parts  when  compared  with  others,  but  you  easily  see  that  these  parts  would 
never  become  so  ripe  as  the  others ;  and  this  arises  from  some  coristitu- 
tional  defect  in  the  animal  itself,  because,  if  this  were  not  so,  there  is  no 
reason  why  all  the  parts  should  not  be  alike  ripe.  Whence  this  defect 
arises  remains  to  be  considered  afterward.  The  state  of  a  sheep  that  is 
obviously  not  rijie  cannot  altog(>ther  be  ascertained  by  the  eye;  it  must  be 
havdicd,  that  is,  it  must  be  subjected  to  the  scrutiny  of  the  hand.  Now, 
even  in  so  palpable  an  act  as  handling  discretion  is  requisite.  A  full-look- 
ing sheep  need  hardly  be  handled  on  tlie  nimp,  for  he  would  not  seem  so 
full  unless  fat  had  been  first  deposited  there.  A  thin-looking  sheep,  on 
the  other  hand,  should  be  handled  on  the  rump,  and  if  there  be  no  fat 
there,  it  is  useless  handling  the  rest  of  the  body,  for  assuredly  there  will 
not  be  so  much  as  to  deserve  the  name  of  fat.  But  between  these  two 
extremes  of  condition  there  is  every  variety  to  be  met  with  ;  and  on  that 

(964) 


DRIVING  AND  SLAUGHTERING  SHEEP.  485 

account  examination  by  the  hand  is  the  rule,  by  the  eye  alone  the  excep- 
tion ;  but  the  hand  is  much  assisted  by  the  eye,  whose  acuteness  detects 
deficiencies  and  redundancies  at  once.  In  handling  a  sheep  the  points  of 
the  fingers  are  chiefly  employed,  and  the  accurate  knowledge  conveyed  by 
them  through  practice  of  the  true  state  of  condition  is  truly  surprising,  and 
settles  a  conviction  in  the  mind  that  some  intimate  relation  exists  between 
the  external  and  internal  state  of  an  animal.  And  hence  this  practical 
maxim  in  the  judging  of  stock  of  all  kinds,  that  no  animal  will  appear  r2^e 
to  the  eye,  unless  as  much  fat  had  previously  been  laid  on  in  the  inside  as 
his  constitutional  habit  will  allow.  The  application  of  this  rule  is  easy. 
Thus,  when  you  find  the  rump  nicked  on  handling,  you  may  expect  to  find 
fat  on  the  back  ;  when  you  find  the  back  nicked,  you  would  expect  the  fat 
to  have  proceeded  to  the  top  of  the  shoulder  and  over  the  ribs ;  and  when 
you  find  the  top  of  the  shoulder  nicked,  you  would  expect  to  find  fat  on 
the  under  side  of  the  belly.  To  ascertain  its  existence  below,  you  will 
have  to  turn  him  up,  as  it  is  termed  ;  that  is,  the  sheep  is  set  upon  his 
rump  with  his  back  down  and  his  hind-feet  pointing  upward  and  outward. 
In  this  position  you  see  whether  the  breast  and  thighs  are  filled  up.  Still, 
all  these  alone  would  not  let  you  know  the  state  of  the  inside  of  the  sheep, 
which  should,  moreover,  be  looked  for  in  the  thickness  of  the  flank  ;  in  the 
fullness  of  the  breast,  that  is,  the  space  in  front  from  shoulder  to  shoulder 
toward  the  neck ;  in  the  stiffness  and  thickness  of  the  root  of  the  tail,  and 
in  the  breadth  of  the  back  of  the  neck.  All  these  latter  parts,  especially 
with  the  fullness  of  the  inside  of  the  thighs,  indicate  a  fullness  of  fat  in 
the  inside  ;  that  is,  largeness  of  the  mass  of  fat  f>n  the  kidneys,  thickness 
of  net,  and  thickness  of  layers  between  the  abdominal  muscles.  Hence 
the  whole  object  of  feeding  sheep  on  turnips  seems  to  be  to  lay  fat  upon 
all  the  bundles  of  fleshy  fibres,  called  muscles,  that  are  capable  of  ac- 
quiring that  substance ;  for  as  to  bone  and  muscle,  these  increase  in 
weight  and  extent  independently  of  fat,  and  fat  only  increases  their  mag- 
nitude. 

(1172.)  I  have  spoken  of  the  turning  up  of  a  fat  sheep;  it  is  done  in  this 
way  :   Standing  on  the  near  side  of  the  sheep,  that  is,  at  its  left  side,  put 
your  left  hand  under  its  chin,  and  seize    the  wool  there,  if  rough,  or  the 
skin,  if  otherwise ;  place  your  knees,  still  standing,  against  its  ribs,  then 
bowing  forward  a  little,  extend  your  right  arm  over  the  far  loin  of  the 
sheep,  and  get  a  hold  of  its  flank  as  far  down  as  you  can  reach,  and  there 
seize  a  large  and  firm  hold  of  wool  and  skin.     By  this,  lift  the  sheep  fairly 
off"  the  ground,  and  turning  its  body  toward  you  upon  your  left  knee  under 
its  near  ribs,  place  it  upon  its  rump  on  the  ground  with   its  back  to  you, 
and  its  hind  feet   sticking  up   and  away  from  you.      This  is  an  act  which 
really  requii-es  strength,  and  if  you  cannot  lift  the   sheep  off"  the   ground, 
you  cannot  turn  it;   but  some  people  acquire  a  sleight  in  doing  it,  beyond 
their  physical  powers.     I  believe  the  art  consists  in  jerking  the  sheep  off 
its  feet  at  once,  before  it  suspects  what  you  are  going  to  do  ;  for  if  you  let 
it  feel  that  you  are  about  to  lift  it  as  a  dead  weight,  the  probability  is,  that 
you  will  not  be  able  to  make  it  lose  hold  of  the  ground,  as  it  is  surpricii " 
how  dexterously  sheep  contrive,  in   the    circumstances,  to  retain  hol'^ 
the  ground  with  the  point  of  the  hoof  of  the  near  hind-foot,  which,  if 
cannot  force  away,  you  cannot  turn  the  sheep,     I  remember  seeing  4  t. 
herds  defeated  in  the  attempt  to  turn  5  dinmonts  belonging  to  the  late 
Edward  Smith,  Marledown,  Northumberland.     None  of  the   shephei. 
even  the  longest  and  strongest,  could  turn  all   the  5  sheep,  and  one  of 
them,  a  short  though  stout  man,  could  not  turn  one  of  them,  they  were  so 
broad  in   the  back,  so  round  and  heavy.      The  ability  to  turn  a  sheep  is 

(965J 


480  TIIK   HOOK   OF  THE   FARM WINTER. 

not  to  be  regarded  as  a  feat  in  a  shepherd,  but  a  necessary  act  in  connec- 
tion with  many  important  operations,  as  yon  shall  see  afterward. 

(1173.)  Sheep  are  easily  slaughtcrctl,  and  the  operation  is  unattended 
wiih  cruelty.  They  recjuire  some  preparation  before  being  deprived  of 
life,  which  consists  of  food  being  withheld  from  them  for  not  less  than  24 
hours,  according  to  the  season.  The  rea.s«in  f<u-  fastnig  sheep  before 
slaughtering,  is  to  give  time  for  the  paunch  and  intestines  to  eni])ty  them- 
selves entirely  of  food,  as  it  is  found  when  an  animal  is  killed  wiih  a  full 
stomach,  the  meat  is  more  liable  to  putiely,  and  not  so  well  flavored;  and 
as  ruminants  always  retain  a  large  quantity  of  food  in  their  intestines,  it  is 
reasonable  they  should  fast  somewhat  longer  to  get  cpiit  of  it  than  animals 
with  single  stomachs.  Sheep  are  placed  on  their  side  on  a  stool,  called 
a  killing  stool,  to  be  slaughtered,  and  refjuiring  no  fastening  with  cords, 
are  deprived  of  life  by  a  thrust  of  a  straight  knife  through  the  neck,  be- 
tween its  bone  and  the  windpipe,  severing  the  carotid  artery  and  jugular  vein 
of  both  sides,  from  which  the  blood  flows  freely  out,  and  the  animal  soon 
dies.  The  skin,  as  far  as  it  is  covered  with  wool,  is  taken  ofl',  leaving  that 
on  the  legs  and  head,  which  are  covered  with  hair,  tlie  legs  being  disjoint- 
ed by  the  knee.  The  entrails  are  removed  by  an  incision  along  the  belly, 
after  the  carcass  has  been  hung  up  by  the  tendons  of  the  houghs.  The 
net  is  carefully  separated  from  the  viscera,  and  rolled  up  by  itself;  but 
the  kidney  fat  is  not  then  extracted.  The  intestines  are  jilaced  on  the  in- 
ner side  of  the  skin  until  divided  into  the  pluck,  containing  the  heart, 
lungs,  and  liver  ;  the  hag,  containing  the  stomach  ;  and  the  pvdilivgs,  con- 
sisting of  the  viscera  or  guts.  The  bag  and  guts  are  usually  thrown  away, 
that  is,  buried  in  the  dunghill,  unless  when  the  bag  is  retained  and  cleaned 
for  haggis.  The  pluck  is  either  fiied  or  made  into  haggis.  The  skin  is 
hung  over  a  rope  or  pole  under  cover,  with  the  skin-side  uppermost,  to 
dry  in  an  airy  place.* 


[*  By  the  Abbe  Cornea,  a  man  of  great  learning  and  observation,  it  was  remarked  that  the 
people  of  the  United  States  possessed  "  iaco«-8tomachs."  Their  want  of  relish,  not  to  say  their 
distaste — more  especially  females — for  mntlon,  is  one  of  the  obstacles  to  the  extension  of  sheep  hus- 
bandry in  the  United  States.  An  opinion  generally  prevails — borrowed,  as  many  of  our  opinions 
arc,  from  England — that  mutton  does  not  attain  perfection  in  juiciness  and  flavor  under  four  or 
five  years ;  but  we  are  disposed  to  believe,  with  an  experienced  victualer  of  our  acquaintance, 
and  a  good  judge  of  mutton,  alike  in  the  field  and  the  shambles,  that  this  is  a  mistake,  and  that 
well-fed  and  fatted  mutton  is  never  better  than  when  it  gets  its  full  growth,  in  its  second  year; 
nor  can  the  farmer  afford  to  keep  it  longer,  unless  the  wool  would  pay  for  the  keep.  We  have 
not  the  epicures  and  men  of  wealth  who  would  pay  the  butcher  the  extra  price,  which  he  must 
have,  that  would  enable  him  to  pay  a  remunerating  price  to  the  grazier  for  keeping  his  sheep  two 
or  three  years  over. 

The  common  mistake  in  the  msinagement  of  mutton  in  our  country  is  that  we  eat  it  exncllt/  at 
the  wron/r  time  nfter  it  in  killed.  It  should  be  eaten,  as  a  fried  chicken  should,  immediately  after 
being  killed,  and,  if  pos8il)le,  before  the  meat  has  time  to  get  cold  ;  or,  if  not,  then  it  should  be 
kept  a  week  or  more — in  tlie  ice-house,  if  the  weather  require — until  the  time  is  just  at  hand  when 
the  fibre  passes  the  state  of  toughness  which  it  takes  on  at  first,  and  reaches  that  incipient  or  pre- 
liminary point  in  its  progress  toward  putrefaction  when  the  fibres  begin  to  give  way  and  the  meat 
becomes  tender. 

We  were  gratified  lately  to  see,  in  a  large  smokert/  of  Mr.  Clements,  in  Philadelphia,  quite  a 
large  number  of  corned  lefr^  of  mutton,  which  had  been  sent  in  from  Ohio.  If  mutton  can  be 
brought  into  vogue  in  that  shape,  it  will  be  an  additional  induceni»-nt  for  rearing  sheep  in  n)any 
situations  removed  from  availiible  markets. 

Who  need  complain,  at  a  watering-place,  if  he  can  sticure  for  his  breakfast  or  his  dinner  a  good 
mutton-chop,  such  as  is  to  be  had  at  Caldwell's  White  Sulphur  Spring,s,  peppered,  and  broiled, 
and  Bcrved  up  hot,  icith  no  gravy  but  its  own  ?     Can  anything  be  more  toothful — more  whole- 
some J  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 
(966) 


DRIVING  AND  SLAUGHTERING  SHEEP. 


487 


(1174.)  The  carcass  should  hang  24  hours  in  a  clean,  cool,  airy,  dry 
apartment,  before  it  is  cut  down.  1  say  cool  and  dnj,  for  if  warm  the  meat 
will  not  become  firm,  and  if-  damp  a  clamminess  will  cover  it,  and  will 
never  feel  dry,  and  have  afresh,  clean  appearance.  The  carcass  is  divided 
in  two  by  being  sawed  right  down  the  back-bone.  The  kidney-fat  is  then 
taken  out,  being  only  attached  to  the  peritoneum  by  the  cellular  mem- 
bx'ane,  and  the  kidney  is  extracted  from  the  suet — the  name  given  to  sheep 
tallow  in  an  independent  state. 

(1175.)  In  almost  every  town  there  is  a  diffei'cnt  way  of  cutting  up  a 
carcass  of  mutton  ;  and,  it  being  here  impossible  to  advert  to  them  all,  I 
shall  select  those  of  Edinburgh  and  London,  and  distinguish  them  as  the 
Scotch  and  English  modes.  Although  the  English  mode  is  upon  the  whole 
preferable,  having  been  adopted  to  suit  the  tastes  of  a  people  long  acquaint- 
ed with  domestic  economy,  it  must  nevertheless  be  admitted  that  meat  is 
cut  up  in  Scotland  in  a  cleanly  and  workmanlike  manner ;  but  on  the  other 
hand,  it  will  not  be  denied  by  those  who  have  observed  for  themselves, 
that  the  beauty  and  cleanliness  of  meat,  as  exhibited  in  London,  call  forth 
the  admiration  of  every  connaisseur.  The  Scotch  mode  is  represented  in 
fig.  255,  where,  in  the  hind-quarter,  a  is  the  jigot  and  h  the  loin,  and,  in 
the  fore-quarter,  c  the  back-ribs  and  d  the  breast.  It  will  be  observed  that 
the  jigot  is  cut  with  a  part  of  the  haunch  or  rump,  and  the  fore-quarter 
right  through  the  shoulder  into  2  pieces.  The  English  mode  is  represent- 
ed in  fig.  256,  where,  in  the  fore-quarter,  a  is  the   shoulder,  b  aiid  b  the 


Fig.  255. 


Fig.  256. 


THE  SCOTCH  MODE  OF  CUTTING  UP 
A.  CARCASS  OF  MUTTON. 


THE  ENGLISH  MODE  OF  CUTTING  UP 
A  CARCASS  OF  MUTTON. 


neck,  and  c  the  breast  after  the  shoulder  is  removed ;  and,  in  the  hind- 
quarter,  d  is  the  loin  and  e  the  leg.  The  leg  here  is  cut  short,  without  any 
of  the  haunch,  like  a  hara  ;   and  the  shoulder  is  preserved  whole. 

(1176.)   The  jigot  a,  fig.  255,  is  the  handsomest  and  most  valuable  part 
of  the  carcass,  and  on  that  account  fetches  the  hiahest  price.     It  is  either 

(967;  ^  '■ 


488  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

a  r(5asting  or  a  Itoiling  piece.  Of  Hlack-faceJ  mutton  it  makes  a  line  roast, 
and  tlie  piece  of  fat  in  it  called  the  Pope's  ei/e  is  considered  a  delicate  mor- 
ceau  by  epicures.  A  jigot  of  Leicester,  Cheviot  or  South-Down  mutton 
makes  a  beautiful  "  boiled  leg  of  mutton,"  which  is  jirized  the  more  the 
fatter  it  is,  as  this  part  of  the  carcass  is  never  overloaded  with  fat.  The 
loin  b  is  almost  always  roasted,  the  flap  of  the  flank  being  skewered  up, 
and  it  is  a  juicy  piece.  For  a  small  family,  the  Black-faced  multim  is 
preferable;  for  a  large,  the  South-Down  and  Cheviot.  Many  consider 
this  piece  of  Leicester  mutton  roasted  as  too  rich,  and,  when  warm,  this 
is  probably  the  case  ;  but  a  cold  roast  loin  is  an  excellent  summer  disli. — 
The  back-rib  c  is  divided  into  two,  and  used  for  very  difl^erent  purposes. 
The  fore-part,  the  neck,  is  boiled,  and  makes  sweet  barley-broth  ;  and  the 
meat,  when  well  boiled,  or  rather  the  whole  pottage  simmered  for  a  con- 
siderable time  beside  the  fire,  eats  tenderly.  The  back-ribs  make  an  ex- 
cellent roast ;  indeed,  there  is  not  a  sweeter  or  metre  varied  one  in  the 
carcass,  having  both  ribs  and  shoulder.  The  shoulder-blade  eats  best  cold, 
and  the  ribs  warm.  The  ribs  make  excellent  chops.  The  Leicester  and 
South-Downs  afford  the  best  mutton-chops.  The  breast  d  is  mostly  a  roast- 
ing piece,  consisting  of  rib  and  shoulder,  and  is  pailicularly  good  wlien 
cold.  When  the  piece  is  large,  as  of  South-Down  or  Cheviot,  the  gristly 
part  of  the  ribs  may  be  divided  from  the  true  ribs,  and  helped  separately. 
The  breast  is  an  excellent  piece  in  Black-faced  mutton,  and  suitable  to 
small  families  ;  the  shoulder  being  eaten  cold,  while  the  ribs  and  brisket 
are  sweet  and  juicy  when  warm.  This  piece  also  boils  well ;  or,  when 
corned  for  8  days,  and  served  with  onion  sauce,  with  mashed  turnip  in  it, 
there  are  few  more  savoiy  dishes  at  a  farmer's  table.  The  shoulder  a,  fig. 
256,  is  separated  before  being  dressed,  and  makes  an  excellent  roast  for 
family  use,  and  may  be  eaten  warm  or  cold,  or  corned  and  dressed  as  the 
breast  mentioned  above.  The  shoulder  is  best  from  a  large  carcass  of 
South-Down,  Cheviot  or  Leicester,  the  Black-faced  being  too  thin  for  the 
purpose  ;  and  it  was,  probably,  because  English  mutton  is  usually  large, 
that  the  practice  of  removing  it  originated.  The  neck-piece  b  b  is  partly 
laid  bare  by  the  removal  of  the  shoulder,  the  fore-part  being  fitted  for  boil- 
ing and  making  into  broth,  and  the  best  end  for  roasting  or  broiling  into 
chops.  On  this  account  this  is  a  good  family  piece,  and  in  such  request 
among  the  tradesmen  of  London  that  they  prefer  it  to  any  part  of  the  hind- 
quarter.  Heavy  mutton,  such  as  the  Leicester,  South-Down  and  Cheviot, 
supply  the  most  thrifty  neck-piece.  The  breast  c  is  much  the  same  sort 
of  piece  as  in  the  Scotch  method,  but  the  ribs  are  here  left  exposed  at  the 
part  from  which  the  shoulder  has  been  removed,  and  constitute  what  are 
called  the  spare  ribs,  which  may  be  roasted,  or  broiled,  or  corned.  The 
back  end  of  the  breast  makes  a  good  roast  for  ordinary  use.  The  flap  of 
the  loin  left  attached  to  this  piece  may  be  used  in  making  broth.  The 
loin  (/  is  a  favorite  roast  in  a  family;  and  when  cut  double,  forming  the 
chine  or  saddle,  it  may  grace  the  head  of  the  table  of  any  public  dinnei-. 
Any  of  the  kinds  of  mutton  is  large  enough  for  a  saddle  ;  but  the  thicker 
the  meat,  of  course  the  larger  the  slice.  The  leg  c  is  cut  short  and  roasted. 
When  cut  long,  taking  in  the  hook-bone,  it  is  similar  to  a  haunch  of  veni- 
son, and  roasted  accordingly.  A  fat  Black-facod  wether  yields  a  good 
haunch. 

(1177.)  The  different  sorts  of  mutton  in  common  use  differ  as  well  in 
quality  as  in  quantity.  The  flesh  of  the  Leicester  is  large,  though  not 
coarse-grained,  of  a  lively  red  color,  and  the  cellular  tissue  between  the 
fibres  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  fat.  When  cooked  it  is  tender 
and  juicy,  yielding  a  red  gravy,  and  having  a  sweet,  rich  taste  ;  but  the  fat 

(968) 


DRIVING  AND  SLAUGHTERING  SHEEP.  489 

is  rather  too  much  and  too  rich  for  some  people's  tastes,  and  can  be  pu: 
aside  ;  and  it  must  be  allowed  that  the  lean  of  fat  meat  is  far  better  than 
lean  meat  that  has  never  been  fat.  Leicester  sheep  generally  attain  to 
heavy  weights — ^hoggs  reaching  IS  lbs.  or  20  lbs.,  and  dinmonts  30  lbs.  per 
quarter;  but  the  5  dinmonts  which  I  mentioned  before  as  having  defeated 
the  shepherds  in  turning  up,  were  5o  lbs.  a  quarter  t)verhead,  when  killed 
at  Newcastle  in  November,  a  few  weeks  after  they  were  shown. 

(1178.)  Cheviot  mutton  is  smaller  in  the  grain,  not  so  bright  of  color, 
with  less  fat,  less  juice,  not  so  tender  and  sweet,  but  the  flavor  is  higher 
and  the  fat  not  so  luscious.  The  weight  attained  by  a  hogg  may  be  taken 
at  14  lbs.  or  15  lbs.,  and  by  a  wether  at  22  lbs. ;  but  Mr.  Fairbairn  men- 
tions having  fattened  5  wethers  in  1818  which  aA'eraged  30  lbs.  a  quar- 
ter.* 

(1179.)  Black-faced  mutton  is  still  smaller  in  the  grain,  of  a  darker  color, 
with  still  less  fat,  but  more  tender  than  the  Cheviot,  and  having  the  high- 
est flavor  of  all.  The  ordinary  weight  of  a  fat  wether  is  about  18  lbs.  or 
20  lbs.  a  quarter;  but  I  remember  seeing  a  lot  of  •5-year-old  Black-faced 
wethers,  exhibited  at  the  first  Show  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural 
Society  at  Perth,  belonging  to  Lord  Panmure,  that  averaged  40  lbs.  a 
quarter. 

(1180.)  The  mutton  of  South-Downs  is  of  medium  fineness  in  grain, 
color  pleasant  red,  fat  well  intermixed  with  the  meat,  juicy,  tenderer  than 
the  Cheviot,  and  of  pleasant  though  not  of  so  high  a  flavor  as  the  Black- 
faced.  The  ordinary  weight  may  be  from  16  lbs.  to  22  lbs.  a  quarter,  but 
3  wethers  exhibited  by  Mr.  Grantham,  at  the  Show  of  the  Smithfield  Club 
in  1835,  weighed,  on  the  average,  41^  lbs.  a  quarter.t 

(1181.)  Tup-mutton  of  any  breed  is  always  hard,  of  disagreeable  flavor, 
and  in  autumn  not  eatable.  The  mutton  of  old  ewes  is  dry,  hard  and  taste- 
less, but  of  young  well  enough  flavored,  but  still  rather  dry.  Hogg-mut- 
ton is  sweet,  juicy  and  tender,  but  flavorless.  And  wether-mutton  is  the 
meat  in  perfection,  according  to  its  kind. 

(1182.)  The  average  quantity  of  fat  afforded  by  each  sheep  of  every 
class,  sold  in  any  given  market  in  Scotland,  is  perhaps  not  great.  Li  Glas- 
gow, for  example,  where  heavy  animals  of  all  sorts  are  generally  sold,  the 
fat  afforded  by  all  the  sheep — consisting  chiefly,  I  presume,  of  Cheviot  and 
Black-faced — exclusive  of  lambs,  amounting  to  57,520  hend,  sold  in  1822, 
was  only,  on  the  average,  4  lbs.  13  oz.  per  head.|  From  8  lbs.  to  12  lbs, 
is  the  ordinary  quantity  obtained  from  Leicester  sheep  slaughtered  on  farms 
of  good  land  ;  and  in  Edinburgh  I  find  that  7  lbs.  is  considered  an  average 
from  Black-faced  and  Cheviot  sheep,  which  shows  that  the  quality  of  mut- 
ton sold  there  is  better  than  that  in  Glasgow. 

(1183.)  iVs  you  may  frequently  hear  it  remarked  in  the  course  of  your 
experience  as  a  farmer,  that  5-year-old  mutton  is  the  best,  it  is  worth 
while  considering  whether  the  case  can  be  so.  Two  subjects  of  inquiry 
immediately  present  themselves  on  heainng  this  remark  :  one,  whether 
sheep  require  5  years  to  put  them  in  condition  for  use  1  and  the  other  is, 
whether  it  is  treating  them  properly  to  postpone  putting  them  in  condi- 
tion for  use  until  they  shall  attain  the  age  of  5  years  %  If  truth  is  implied 
in  the  first  inquiry,  then  that  breed  of  sheep  must  be  very  unprofitable 
Avhich  takes  five  years  to  attain  its  best  state  ;  but  there  is  no  breed  of 
sheep  in  Great  Britain  which  requires  5  yocirs  to  bring  it  to  perfection. 
Therefore,  if  truth  is  implied  in  the  second  inquiry,  then  it  must  be  folly 
to  restrain  sheep  coming  to  perfection  until  they  have  attained  the  age  of 

*  A  Lamtnermuir  Farmer's  Treatise  on  Sheep  in  High  Districts.  t  Youatt  on  Sheep. 

t  Cleland'8  Account  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society's  Show  at  Glasgow,  in  1828. 
(969) 


490  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

5  years.  It  is  not  alleged  hy  the  lovers  of  5-year-old  mutton  that  it  be- 
stows profit  on  the  farmer,  for  the  allegation  only  insists  on  its  being  best 
at  that  age.  But  such  an  allegation  involves  one  of  two  absurd  conditiong 
in  Agriculture  ;  namely,  the  keeping  a  breed  of  sheep  that  cannot,  or  the 
keeping  (tf  one  that  you  should  not  allow  to  attain  to  perfection  before  it  is 
5  years.  Either  of  these  conditions  makes  it  obvious  that  mutton  cannot 
be  in  its  hist  state  at  5  years.  The  fact  is,  the  idea  of  5-year-old  mutton 
being  super-excellent,  is  founded  on  a  prejudice,  which  probably  arose 
from  this  circumstance  :  Jiefore  winter  foinl  which  could  maintain  the  con- 
dition on  stock  that  had  been  accjuired  in  summer,  was  discovered,  sheep 
lost  much  of  their  summer-condition  in  winter,  and  of  course  an  oscilla- 
tion of  condition  occurred  year  after  year  until  they  attained  the  age  of 
5  years  ;  when  their  teeth  beginning  to  fail,  would  cause  them  to  lose 
their  condition  the  more  rapidly.  Hence,  it  was  expedient  to  slaughter 
them  not  exceeding  5  years  of  age  ;  and,  no  doubt,  at  that  age  mutton 
would  be  high  flavored  that  had  been  exclusively  fed  on  natural  pasture 
and  natural  hay.  But  such  treatment  of  sheep  cannot  now  be  justified  on 
the  principles  of  modern  practice  ;  because  both  reason  and  taste  concur 
in  mutton  being  at  its  best  whenever  sheep  attain  their  j)erfcct  state  of  growth 
and  condition,  not  their  largest  and  heaviest ;  and  as  one  breed  attains  its 
perfect  state  at  an  earlier  age  than  another,  its  mutton  attains  its  best  lie- 
fore  another  breed  attains  its  best  state,  although  its  sheep  may  be  older ; 
but  taste  alone  prefers  one  mutton  to  another,  even  when  both  are  in  their 
best  state,  from  some  peculiar  property.  The  Black-faced  sheep,  for  in- 
stance, it  is  prefeiTed  by  many,  because  of  the  flavor  of  its  mutton  ;  and 
this  property  it  has  most  probably  actjuired  from  the  heathy  pasture  upon 
which  it  is  brought  up.  But  if  flavor  alone  is  to  decide  the  point,  the 
Welch  mutton  is  much  the  superior.  So  far  as  juiciness  is  concerned,  a 
Leicester  hogg  has  more  of  it  than  any  Black-faced  sheep  ;  and  the  darkness 
of  the  flesh  of  the  latter  arises  solely  from  the  breed,  as  it  seems  to  fonn 
the  connecting  link,  in  this  country,  between  the  sheep  and  the  goat,  the 
latter  of  which  always  has  dark-colored  flesh.  Judged  by  the  scale  of 
perfection  of  growth,  Leicester  mutton  is  best  in  the  dinmont ;  and  as  it 
may  require  five  years  to  bring  a  Black-faced  wether  to  that  state  when 
constantly  confined  upon  the  hills,  Black-faced  mutton  may  then  be  con- 
sidered in  its  best  state,  because  it  is  5-year-old,  but  so  far  from  being  in 
the  condition  it  would  have  attained  had  it  been  brought  down  to  the  low 
country  when  a  lamb  and  fed  upon  the  best  food,  it  would  still  be  lean, 
and,  of  course,  not  in  a  state  of  perfect  growth  ;  whereas,  in  the  low  coun- 
try, it  would  attain  perfection  of  growth  at  3  years,  and  then  its  mutton 
must  be  at  its  brst  ;  for  beyond  that  age — that  is,  if  kept  to  5  years  on  such 
food — it  would  become  too  fat,  and  lose  much  of  its  delicacy.  The  cry  for 
5-year-old  mutton  is  thus  based  on  very  untenable  grounds. 

(1184).  Markets  for  sheep  are  held  in  all  large  towns,  and  the  butchers 
in  the  small  ones  sujiply  themselves  from  the  farmers.  The  Edinburgh 
weekly  market,  on  Wednesday,  supplies  the  Black-faced  mutton  in  perfec- 
tion, and  the  Cheviot  is  also  very  good.  In  Morjieth,  on  Wednesdays,  are 
to  be  seen  Leicesters  in  the  higliest  state  of  condition,  which  are  brought 
up  with  avidity  for  the  colliers  around  Newca.stle.  In  London,  on  Mon- 
days, the  South-Downs  are  seen  in  great  perfection,  this  being  the  favorite 
mutton  of  the  Capital; 

(1185).  A  great  trade  in  the  transmission  of  live-stock  and  meat  from  the 
east  coast  of  Scotland  to  London,  has  arisen  since  the  establishment  of 
steam  navigation.  From  inquiry,  I  found  that,  in  the  year  ending  May 
1837,  there  were  shipped  4,221  old  sheep,  and  11,672  barrel-bulk  of  meat, 

(970) 


DRIVING  AND  SLAUGHTERING  SHEEP.  491 


chiefly  mutton,  which,  at  21  cwt.  per  harrel-bulk,  give  29,1751  cwt*  The 
meat  is  sent  by  butchers  at  the  different  shipping  ports,  and  the  live-stock 
by  dealers,  butchers  and  farmers.  When  you  determine  to  send  your  stock 
to  London,  you  should,  in  the  first  place,  establish  a  correspondence  with 
a  live-stock  salesman,  who  will  pay  all  charges  on  board  ship  and  at  mar- 
ket, and  remit  the  balance  in  course  of  post.  The  charges  consist  of 
freight,  which  for  sheep  is  3s.  6d.  a  herd,  commission,  hay  or  grass  on 
board,  dues  and  wharfage,  hay  or  grass  on  shore,  and  driving  to  market. 
You  will,  of  course,  never  ship  meat,  but  you  should,  nevertheless,  be  well 
acquainted  with  all  the  pieces  into  which  a  carcass  of  beef  or  mutton  is 
cut  up,  that  you  may  know  whether  your  stock  is  of  the  description  to 
supply  the  most  valuable  pieces  of  meat ;  for,  without  this  knowledge,  un- 
less, in  short,  you  know  the  wants  of  a  market,  you  cannot  know  whether 
you  are  supplying  its  requirements,  or  whether  your  stock  ought  to  realize 
the  top  prices. 

(1186.)  On  the  supposition  that  you  send  sheep  to  London  by  steam  on 
your  own  account,  they  should  be  of  the  following  description,  to  com- 
mand the  best  prices,  and  unless  they  are  so  you  had  much  rather  dispose 
of  them  at  home.  They  should  be  ripe,  compact,  and  of  light  weight; 
caiTying  a  large  proportion  of  lean  on  the  back,  loins,  and  shoulders,  with 
a  full,  round  leg  and  handsome  carcass.  Such,  from  14  lbs.  to  20  lbs.  a 
quarter,  will  take  readily,  but  they  will  draw  the  most  money  at  from  16 
lbs.  to  18  lbs.  The  nearer  in  their  form  and  quality  they  approach  the 
South-Downs,  the  more  likely  to  command  top  prices.  True-bred  Cheviots 
and  the  Black-faced  Linton  breed  approach  very  near  to  the  South-Down, 
and  command  as  high  a  price.  Half-breds,  between  Leicester  tups  and 
the  above  sorts  of  Cheviot  and  Black-faced  ewes,  form  valuable  sheep. 
The  old  Black-faced  breed  are  too  tJiin,  and  therefore  styled  goaty  in 
Smithfield,  and  when  only  half-fat,  or  lialf-mcatcd,  as  the  condition  is  there 
termed,  fetch  middling  prices,  however  good  their  flavor  may  be.  Pure- 
bred Leicesters  are  too  fat,  unless  sent  young,  and  not  exceeding  20  lbs. 
a  quarter,  but  abeve  that  weight,  fetch  inferior  prices,  so  much  so  that  a 
difference  of  only  Id.  per  lb.  may  perhaps  constitute  all  the  difference  be- 
tween a  profit  and  loss  on  their  export.  This  last  remark  applies  to  every 
other  breed,  and  shows  the  expediency  of  only  exporting  the  best  form  of 
sheep. 

(1187.)  Never  attempt  to  drive  stock  on  foot  on  your  own  account  to  a 
distant  market,  when  you  have  steam-conveyance  to  the  place  of  destina- 
tion. A  simple  comparison  of  the  results  of  the  two  methods  of  travelino- 
will  show  you  at  once  the  advantage  of  steam-conveyance.  It  has  been 
ascertained  that  a  journey  of  400  miles  on  land  causes  a  loss  of  6  stones 
out  of  40  stones,  or  12  per  cent. ;  whereas  the  loss  by  steam  is  only  2 
stones  out  of  50.  But  besides  this  great  difference  in  the  loss  itself,  the 
state  in  which  the  remainder  of  the  flesh  is  left,  it  is  worth  6d.  a  stone  less 
after  land  travel ;  and  when  stock  are  sent  to  graze  in  that  state,  they  re- 
quire a  month  to  take  with  the  pasture,  whereas  the  steam-carried  will 
thrive  again  at  the  end  of  a  fortnight.  Besides  all  these  disadvantages  of 
land  travel,  the  juices  of  the  meat  of  fat  stock  never  I'ecover  their  natural 
state,  while,  by  being  carried  by  steam,  they  do.  \Vere  heavy  and  high- 
conditioned  stock  to  be  traveled  by  land,  they  would  inevitably  sink  under 
the  attempt,  while  by  steam   any  degree   of  condition  may  be  conveyed 


*  See  an  article  on  the  preparation  of  live-stock  and  meat  for  exportation  by  steam,  in  vol.  viii.  of  the 
Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  drawn  up  by  me  on  information  derived  from  Mr.  James  Dickson,  in 
Orkney,  who  has  had  great  ^perience  in  every  matter  relating  to  meat  and  live-stock ;  and  also  from 
other  sources. 
(971) 


492 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


%vith  comparative  case.  The  time,  too,  spent  on  a  land  journey  is  of 
consideration,  when  a  more  expeditious  mode  of  traveling  is  in  your  op- 
tion. 

(use.)  With  regard  to  the  relative  weights  of  o&'al  and  meat  afforded  by  sheep,  there  are 
recorded  instances  of  their  proportions,  and  of  a  fat  South-Down  wether  they  were  these, 
namely : 

Live  tceiehJ,  13  $1.,  10  lit. 


Meat.                                                    Lbs.  Oz. 
Fore  quarter 29     0 

do 28  12 

Hbd-quarter 33     8 

do 32     0 


Ofpau  Lb*.  Oz. 

Blood  and  entrails 13     0 

Caul  and  loose  fat 21     4 

Headand  pluck 8  12 

Pelt 15  12 

Total 58  12  Total 113     4* 

I  mav  mention  that  the  carcn$t  consists  of  the  entire  useable  meat  of  the  body,  which,  when 
e^we'd  down  the  middle  of  die  backbone,  is  divided  into  two  xiWc*,  which,  when  again  divided 
bv  tl)e  5th  rib.  mak(.-.'<  tlie  carcass  to  consist  of  4  quarlers.  The  remainder  of  the  animal  consists 
of  offal — namoly,  of  fat,  entrails,  head  and  skin.  In  purcliasinar  fat  livestock,  the  butcher  is  sup- 
posed to  pay  the  market  value  of  the  carcass,  bone  and  meal  to  the  farmer,  reserving  the  offal  to 
himself  for  his  profit  and  risk.  The  relative  proportions  of  mutton  and  offal  have  probably  never 
been  absolutely  a.«certained.  as  they  must  differ  in  diflerent  breeds  nf  sheep;  but  there  is  little 
doubt  that,  in  the  Leicester  breed,  the  meat  bears  a  liiahcr  proportion  to  tlie  offal  than  in  any  other 
breed.  In  the  above  case,  the  meat  is  about  3  and  oHal  i  of  the  whole  weight ;  or.  more  nearly, 
the  meat  is  as  12.TJ  :  182.  and  the  offal  as  58J  :  182.  And  in  the  same  breed  it  has  been  said  that 
the  proportion  of  bone  is  as  low  as  1  oz.  to  1  lb.  flc.«h ;  but  I  much  doubt  this,  because  Mr.  Dono- 
van found  in  a  leg'  of  mutton,  which  is  the  most  fleshy  part  of  the  carcass  in  proportion  to  the  bone 
in  it,  weiching  9i  lbs.,  16  oz.  of  bone  ;  another  of  9  lbs.  6  oz.,  15  oz. ;  and  a  leg  of  small  Scotch 
mutton,  of  only  6  lbs.  weight,  afforded  lOJ  oz.  of  bone. 

(1189.)  There  is  a  rule  mentioned  by  Mr.  EUman.  of  Glyndc,  in  Sussex,  bv  which  the  age  of 
mutton  may  be  a-scertained  by  certain  marks  on  the  carcass,  and  it  i.«  an  infallible  one.  He  saj-e: 
"  Observe  the  color  of  the  breaai-bone  when  a  sheep  is  dre.«sod — that  is,  where  the  breastbone  is 
separated — which,  in  a  lamb,  or  before  it  is  1  year  old,  will  be  quite  red ;  from  1  to  2  years  old, 
the  upper  and  lower  bone  will  be  changing  to  white,  and  a  small  circle  of  white  will  appear  round 
tlie  edires  of  the  other  bones,  and  the  middle  part  of  the  breast  bone  will  yet  continue  red  ;  at  3 
years  old,  a  vcn,-  small  streak  of  red  will  be  seen  in  the  middle  of  the  4  middle  bones,  aad  tlie  oth- 
ers will  be  white  ;  and  at  4  years,  all  the  breast-bone  will  be  of  a  white  or  gristly  color.'*t 

(1190.)  The  experiments  of  Mr.  Donovan  prove  that  meat  of  all  kinds  loses  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  weight  on  being  cooked.  His  results  on  mutton  were  :  The  average  loss  on  boiling 
legs  of  mutton  is  10  per  cent.;  so  that,  if  the  butchers'  price  were  fid.  per  lb.,  the  boiled  mutton 
would  cost  7jd.  The  average  loss  of  roaslim:  legs  of  mutton  is  27  7-10  per  cent. ;  so  that,  at  the 
butcher's  price  of  6d.  per  lb.,  the  roasted  mutton  would  cost  83d.  per  lb.  The  average  loss  of 
roa.stin^  shoulders  of  mutton  is  28  per  cent. ;  and,  were  the  butcher's  price  5d.  per  lb.,  the  roasted 
shoulder  would  cost  fi  9-10il.  per  lb.  Tlie  average  lo.«s,  therefore,  in  boiling  mutton  is  10  per  cent., 
and  in  roasting  it  27  85100  per  cent  These  results  differ  considerably  from  tliose  obtained  by 
Professor  Wallace,  who,  in  the  case  ofboilirtfr  100  lbs.  of  mutton,  delected  a  loss  of  21 J  per  cent., 
instead  of  10  per  cent.;  and  in  that  o( roafting  100  lbs.,  the  loss  was  31 J  instead  of  28  per  cent. — 
These  discrepancies  miirlit,  perhaps,  be  easily  explained  were  we  acquainted  with  everj-  partic- 
ular connected  with  both  sets  of  experiments,  such  as  the  state  of  the  meat  before  and  after  being 
cotiked.  In  these  respects,  in  his  own  experiments.  Mr.  Donovan  says:  "  I  used  meat  of  suffi- 
cient but  not  unprofitable  fatness,  such  as  is  preferred  by  families  ;  the  meat  was,  in  all  cases,  a 
little  rare  at  its  center,  and  the  results  were  determined  with  the  uinio.st  care.'J 

(1191.1  Good  ham  may  be  made  of  any  part  of  a  carcass  of  mutton,  though  the  leg  is  preferred, 
and  for  this  purjiose  it  is  cnt  in  the  English  fashion.  It  should  be  rubbed  all  over  ^v^lh  good  Liv- 
erpool salt,  and  a  little  saltpetre,  for  10  minutes,  and  then  laid  in  a  dish  and  covered  with  a  cloth 
for  8  or  10  days.  After  that  it  should  be  rubbed  again  slightly  for  about  5  minutes,  and  then  hung 
op  in  a  dry  place,  say  the  roof  of  the  kitchen,  until  used.  "VVether  mutton  is  used  for  hams,  be- 
cause it  is  fat,  and  it  may  be  cured  any  time  from  November  to  May ;  but  tup  mutton  makes  the 
large.'-t  and  highest  flavored  ham,  provided  it  be  cured  in  spring,  because  it  is  out  of  season  in 
autumn. 

(1192.)  There  is  an  economical  way  of  using  fat  mutton  well  adapted  for  the  laboring  people  of 
a  farm.  The  only  time  Scotch  farm-ser%-ant8  indulge  in  butcher-meat  is  when  a  sheep  falh.  as  it 
is  termed — that  is,  when  it  is  killed  before  being  affected  with  an  unwholesome  disoa»e,  and  the 
mutton  is  ft  lid  at  a  reduced  price.  Shred  down  the  suet  small,  removing  any  flesh  or  cellular 
membrane  adhering  to  it ;  then  mix  among  it  intimately  \  oz.  of  salt  and  a  tea-spoonful  of  pepper 
to  even,-  pound  of  suet :  put  the  mixture  into  an  earthen  jar,  and  tie  up  tightly  with  bladder.  One 
table-spoonful  of  seasoned  suqj  will,  at  any  time,  make  good  barley-broth  or  potato  soup  for  two 
persons.  The  lean  of  the  mutton  may  be  shred  down  small,  and  seasoned  in  a  similar  manner, 
and  used  when  required  ;  or  it  may  be  conied  with  salt,  and  used  as  a  joint 

(1193.)  Where  Leicester  sheep  are  bred,  and  the  farmer  kills  his  own  mutton,  suet  will  accu- 
mulate beyond  what  can  be  used  for  domestic  purposes.  As  long  as  it  is  fre.sh  it  should  be  rynd- 
ed  or  rendered,  as  it  is  termed — that  is,  prepared  for  preservation — because  the  fibrous  and  fleshy 
matter  mixed  with  it  soon  promotes  putrefaction.  It  should  be  cnt  in  small  pieces,  removing  only 
fleshy  matter.     It  is  then  put  in  an  earthem  jar,  which   is  placed  within  a  pot  containing  warm 


*  Sussex  Agricultural  Report.       t  British  Husbandry,  rdl  iL      |  Donovan's  Domestic  Economy,  vol  ii. 
(972) 


DRIVING  AND   SLAUGHTERING   SHEEP.  493 

water,  at  the  side  of  the  fire,  merely  to  simmer,  and  not  to  boil.  As  every  portion  put  in  is  melt 
ed.  another  succeeds,  until  the  whole  is  melted  ;  and  the  melted  mass  should  be  very  frequently 
stirred.  Suet  melts  at  from  98^  to  104^  Fahr.  After  being  fused  a  considerable  time,  the  mem- 
braueous  matter  comes  to  the  lop,  and  is  taken  off;  and  when  obtained  in  quantity,  and  squeezed, 
this  scum  constitutes  the  cracklhisrs  which  are  sometimes  used  for  feedinir  dogs.  The  purified 
suet  may  then  be  poured  through  a  cullender,  into  a  dish  containing  a  little  water,  upon  which  it 
consolidates  into  a  cake  ;  and  the  cakes  are  either  sold  to  the  candle-makers  or  candles  taken  in 
exchange.  "  Many  plans  for  purifying  fats,''  says  Ure,  '•  have  been  proposed.  One  of  the  best 
is  to  mix  2  per  cent,  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  with  a  quantity  of  water,  in  which  the  tallow  is  heat- 
ed for  some  time  with  much  stirring,  to  allow  the  materials  to  cool,  to  take  off  the  supernatant  fat, 
and  re-melt  it  with  abundance  of  hot  water.  More  tallow  will  thus  be  obtained,  and  that  consid- 
erably whiter  and  harder  than  is  usually  procured  bj-  the  melters."*  Some  people  melt  suet  in 
a  potover  the  fire,  where  it  is  apt  to  be  burnt ;  and  some  even  fry  it  in  a  frj-ing-pan,  which  may 
answer  for  culinary  purposes,  but  cannot,  of  course,  be  disposed  of  to  the  candle-makers. 

(1194.)  Mutton  suet  consists  of  about  77  parts  of  stearine  and  23  of  oleine  in  every  100  parts. — 
The  former  is  solid,  the  latter  fluid.  The  specific  gravity  of  suet  is  0936.  When  a  piece  of  solid 
suet  is  bix)ken,  innumerable  minute  granules  separate  from  the  mass;  and  these,  when  examined 
by  the  microscope,  exhibit  definite  forms,  being  polyhedral,  bounded  within  the  limits  of  a  sphere, 
or  oblong,  of  very  firm  consistence,  and.  when  measured,  give  dimensions  varying  in  length  from 
1  400  to  1-900,  and  in  breadth  from  1-200  to  1-.500  part  of  an  iuch.t  The  constituent  parts  of  suet, 
according  to  Chevreul,  are  carbon  78  996,  hydrogen  11-700.  and  oxygen  9-304.| 

(1195.)  Fat  is  very  generalh*  distributed  in  the  animal  frame.  It  is  "  abundant  under  the  skin, 
in  what  is  called  the  cellular  membrane,  round  the  kidneys,  in  the  folds  of  the  omentum,  at  the 
base  of  the  heart,  in  the  mediastinum,  the  mesenteric  web,  as  well  as  upon  the  surface  of  the  in- 
testines, and  among  manj-  of  the  muscles.  It  varies  in  consistence,  color  and  smell,  according  to 
the  animal  from  which  it  is  obtained.  Thus,  it  is  generally  fluid  in  the  cetaceous  tribes,  soft  and 
rank-flavored  in  the  carnivorous,  solid  and  nearly  scentless  in  the  ruminants  ;  usually  white  and 
copious  in  well-fed  young  animals,  yellowish  and  more  scant}-  in  the  old.  Its  consistence  varies 
also  according  to  the  organ  of  its  production,  being  firmer  under  the  skin  and  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  kidneys  than  among  the  movable  viscera.  Fat  forms  1-20  of  the  weight  of  a  healthy  ani- 
mal ;  but  as  taken  out  bj'  the  butcher  it  is  not  pure,  for,  being  of  a  ve.sicular  structure,  it  is  always 
inclosed  in  membranes,  mixed  with  blood,  blood-ves.sels.  lymphatics,  <5cc.''|| 

(1196.)  Sheep  is  one  of  the  mo.st  useful,  and  therefore  one  of  the  most  valuable,  of  onr  domestic 
animals  ;  it  not  only  supports  our  life  by  its  nutritious  ilesli,  but  clothes  our  bodies  with  its  com- 
fortable wool.  All  writers  on  diet  have  agreed  in  de.scribinc:  mutton  as  the  most  valuable  of  the 
articles  of.huraan  food.  "Pork  maybe  more  stimulating,  beef  perhaps  more  nutritious,  when  the 
digestive  povvers  are  strong;  but.  while  there  is  in  mutton  sufficient  nutriment,  there  is  also  that 
degree  of  consistency  and  readine.^s  of  assimilation  which  renders  it  most  congenial  to  the  human 

stomach,  most  easy  of  digestion,  and  most  coutributable  to  he-dlth Of  it,  almost  alone, 

can  it  be  said  that  it  is  our  food  in  sickness  as  well  as  in  health;  its  broth  is  the  first  thing  that  an 
invalid  is  permitted  to  taste,  the  first  thing  that  he  relishes,  and  is  his  natural  preparation  for  a  re- 
turn to  his  common  aliment.^  In  the  same  circumstances,  it  appears  that  fresh  mutton,  broiled  or 
boiled,  takes  3  hours  to  digest ;  fre.sh  mutton,  roasted,  3^  hours ;  and  mutton-suet,  boiled,  4J 
hours.H 

(1197.)  But  the  products  of  sheep  are  not  merely  useful  to  man,  they  also  promote  his  luxuries. 
The  skin  of  sheep  is  made  into  leather,  and.  when  .so  manufactured  with  the  fleece  on,  makes 
comfortable  mats  for  the  doors  of  our  rooms,  and  rugs  for  our  carriages.  For  this  purpose  the  best 
skins  are  selected,  and  such  as  are  covered  with  the  longest  and  most  beautiful  fleece.  Tanned 
sheepskin  is  used  in  coarse  book-binding.  White  sheep-.skin.  which  is  not  tanned,  but  so  manu- 
factured by  a  peculiar  process,  is  used  as  aprons  by  many  classes  of  artisans,  and,  in  Agriculture, 
as  gloves  in  harvest :  and,  when  cut  into  strips,  as  twine  for  sewing  together  the  leathern  cover- 
ings and  stuffings  of  horse-collars.  Morocco  leather  is  made  of  sheep  skins  as  well  as  of  croats,  and 
the  bright-red  color  is  given  to  it  by  cochineal.  Russia  leather  is  also  made  of  .sheep-skins,  the 
peculiar  odor  of  which  repels  insects  from  its  vicinity,  and  resists  the  mould  arising  from  damp — 
the  odor  being  imparted  to  it  in  curry inq-,  by  the  empyreumatic  oil  of  the  bark  of  the  birch  tree. 
Besides  soft  leather,  sheep-skins  are  made  into  a  fine,  flexible,  thin  substance,  known  by  the  name 
of  parchment ;  and,  thousfh  the  skins  of  all  animals  might  be  converted  into  writing  materials,  only 
those  of  the  sheep  and  she-goat  are  used  for  parchment.  The  finer  quality  of  the  substance  called 
vellum  is  made  of  the  skins  of  ki<ls  and  dead-born  lambs,  and  for  the  manufacture  of  which  the 
town  of  Strasburgh  has  long  been  celebrated. 

(1198.)  Mutton-suet  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  common  candlex,  whh  a  proportion  of  ox-tal- 
low. Minced  suet,  subjected  to  the  action  of  high-pressure  steam  in  a  digester  at  2.50^  or  260^ 
Fahr.,  becomes  so  hard  as  to  be  sonorous  when  struck,  whiter,  and  capable,  when  made  into  can- 
dles, of  giving  verj-  superior  light.  Stearic  candles,  the  late  invention  of  the  celebrated  Guy-Lu.s- 
sac,  are  manufactured  .solely  from  mutton  suet. 

(1199.)  Besides  the  fat,  the  intestines  of  sheep  are  manufactured  into  various  articles  of  luxury 
and  utility,  which  pass  under  the  absurd  name  of  catgut.  "All  the  intestines  of  sheep,"  says  Mr. 
Youatt,  "are  composed  of  4  coats  or  layers,  as  in  the  horse  and  cattle.  The  outer  or  periloncal 
one  is  formed  of  that  membrane  by  which  every  portion  of  the  belly  and  its  contents  is  invested, 
and  confined  in  its  natural  and  proper  situation.  It  is  highly  smooth  and  polished,  and  it  secretes 
a  watery  fluid  which  contributes  to  preserve  that  smoothness,  and  to  prevent  all  friction  and  con- 
cussion during  the  diSereut  motions  of  the  animals.     The  second  is  the  muxciilar  coat,  by  means 


*  Ure's  Dictionary  of  the  Ana,  art.  Fat.  t  Raspail's  Organic  Chemistry, 

t  Liebig's  Animal  Chemistry.  ||  Ure's  Dictionar}-  of  the  Arts,  art.  Fai. 

§_  Edinburgh  Encyclopfeclia,  art.  Aliments,  as  quoted  by  Youatt  on  Sheep. 
T[  Combe  on  Digestion  and  Dietetics. 
(973) 


494 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


of  which  the  contenta  of  the  intestines  are  gradually,'  propelled  from  the  stomach  to  the  rectam, 
thence  to  be  expelled  when  all  the  useful  nutriment  is  extracted.  The  muscles,  as  in  all  the  other 
intestines,  are  disposed  in  two  layers,  the  fibres  of  the  outer  coat  taking  a  longitudinal  direction, 
and  the  inner  layer  being  circular ;  an  arrangement  diHcreut  from  that  of  the  muBclcs  of  the  (rso- 
phagus,  and  in  both  l)eautilully  adapted  to  the  n-epcctive  functions  of  the  tube.  The  submucous 
coat  comes  next.  It  is  composed  of  numerous  glands,  surrounded  by  cellular  tissue,  and  by  w  liich 
the  inner  coat  is  lubricated,  so  that  there  may  be  no  obstruction  to  the  passage  of  the  food.  The 
mucous  coat  is  the  soft  villous  one  lining  the  intestinal  cavity.  In  its  healuiy  state,  it  is  always 
covered  with  mucus  ;  and  when  the  glands  beneath  are  stimulated — as  under  the  action  of  pin  >.c 
— the  quantity  of  mucus  is  increased  ;  it  becomes  of  a  more  watery  character  ;  the  contents  of  ilu^ 
intestines  are  softened  and  dissolved  by  it ;  and  by  means  of  t)ie  increased  action  of  the  muscular 
coat,  which,  as  well  as  the  mucous  one,  feels  the  stimulus  of  the  physic,  the  fajces  are  hurried  on 
more  rapidly  ami  discharged."*  In  the  manufacture  of  some  sorts  of  cords  from  the  intestines  of 
Bheep,  the  outer  peritoneal  coat  is  taken  oiTand  manufactured  into  a  thread  to  sew  intestines,  and 
make  the  cords  of  rackets  and  battledores.  Future  washings  cleanse  the  guts,  which  are  then 
twisted  into  diftbrentsizi'd  cords  for  various  purposes.  Some  of  the  best  known  of  those  purposes 
are  whip-cords,  hatters'  cords  for  bow-strings,  clock-makers'  cord,  bands  for  spinning-wneels 
(which  have  now  almost  become  obsolete),  and  fiddle  and  harp  strings.  Of  this  last  class  of  cords 
— the  source  of  one  of  our  highest  pleasures — it  has  long  been  subject  of  regret  that  those  manu- 
factured in  England  should  be  so  inferior  in  goodness  and  sireiiv'ih  to  those  of  Italy  ;  and  the  rea- 
son assigned  is  that  the  sheep  of  Italy  are  both  smaller  niid  leaner  than  those  of  this  country. — 
The  difficulty  lies,  it  seems,  in  making  the  treble  strings  from  the  fine  peritoneal  coat,  their  chief 
fault  being  weakness,  whence  the  smaller  ones  are  hardly  able  to  bear  the  stretch  retjuired  for 
the  higher  notes  in  concert-pitch — maintaining,  at  the  same  time,  in  their  form  and  construction, 
that  tenuity  or  smallness  of  diameter  which  is  required  to  produce  a  brilliant  and  clear  tone.t — 
However  contemptible  this  subject  may  appear  in  the  estimation  of  some,  it  is  worth  attending  to 
by  those  interested  in  enhancing  the  profits  of  our  native  products,  and  more  especially  when  it 
is  considered  that  harp-strings  sell  as  high  as  from  6d.  to  28.  apiece. 

(1200.)  While  adverting  to  the  uses  of  the  skin  of  the  sheep,  it  may  be  useful  to  give  an  idea 
of  its  physical  structure,  a  knowledge  of  \\  hich  being  requisite  for  an  acquaintance  of  the  ration- 
ale of  its  di.sea.ses.  "  It  is  composed  of  3  textures.  Extenially  is  the  aiticic  or  scarf-skin,  which 
is  thin,  tough,  devoid  of  feeling,  and  pierced  by  innumerable  minute  holes,  tlirough  which  pass 
the  fibres  of  the  wool  and  the  insensible  perspiration.  It  seems  to  be  of  a  scaly  texture  ;  but  this 
is  not  so  evident  in  the  sheep  as  in  many  other  animals,  on  account  of  a  peculiar  substance,  the 
yolk,  which  is  placed  on  it  to  nourish  and  protect  the  roots  of  the  wool.  It  is,  however,  plainly 
enough  to  be  seen  in  the  scab  and  other  cutaneous  eruptions  to  which  the  sheep  is  liable.  Below 
tliis  is  the  rete  niiicosum,  a  soft  .structure,  its  fibres  having  scarcely  more  consistence  than  mucil- 
age, and  being  with  great  difficulty  separated  from  the  skin  beneath.  This  seems  to  be  placed  as 
a  defence  to  the  termination  of  the  bloodvessels  and  nerves  of  the  skin,  and  these  are  in  a  manner 
enveloped  and  covered  by  it.  The  color  of  the  skin,  and  probably  that  of  the  hair  or  wool  also,  is 
determined  by  the  re/c  miicosiim,  or  at  least  the  hair  and  wool  are  of  the  same  color  as  this  sub- 
stance. Beneath  is  the  cii/ix  or  true  skin,  composed  of  innumerable  minute  fibres  crossing  each 
other  in  every  direction — highly  elastic,  in  order  to  fit  clo.sely  to  the  parts  beneath,  and  to  yield  to 
the  various  motions  of  the  body  ;  and  dense  and  firm  in  its  .structure,  that  it  may  resist  external 
injury.  Blood-vessels  and  nerves,  countless  in  number,  pierce  it,  and  appear  on  its  surface  under 
the  form  of  pnpiUfC,  or  minute  eminences;  while,  through  thousands  of  orifices,  the  exhalant  ab- 
sorbents pour  out  the  superfluous  or  redundant  fluid.  The  true  skin  is  composed  principally  or 
almost  entirely  of  gelatine  ;  so  that,  although  it  may  be  dissolved  by  long  continued  boiling,  it  is 
insoluble  in  water  at  the  common  temperature.  This  organization  seems  to  have  been  given  to  it 
not  only  for  the  sake  of  its  preservation,  while  on  the  living  animal,  but  that  it  may  become  after- 
ward useful  to  man."  It  would  appear  that  there  are  cireum.stances  which  materially  limit  the 
action  of  the  power  of  excretion  and  absorption  in  the  skin  of  the  sheep.  It  is  surrounded  by  a 
peculiar  secretion,  adhesive  and  impenetrable  to  moisture,  the  yolk,  destined  chiefly  to  preserve 
the  wool  in  a  soft,  pliable  and  healthy  state.  On  this  account  there  can  be  little  perspiration  go- 
ing forward  from  the  skin,  and  hence  few  diseases  are  referable  to  change  in  that  excretion.  Al.so, 
there  is  little  radiation  of  animal  heat,  both  on  account  of  the  interposition  of  the  yolk,  and  of  the 
non  conducting  power  of  the  wool.  The  caloric  disengaged  from  a  sheep  is  only  1-7  part  of  that 
froin  man.  though  the  weight  of  the  animal  is  \  of  that  of  man — that  is,  only  half  the  animal  heat 
radiates  from  a  sheep,  from  a  given  surface,  that  does  from  a  man.  This  it  is  which  enables  the 
ewe  and  its  lamb  to  endure  the  colds  of  spring  without  detriment;  and  also,  when  sheep  are 
crowded  together  in  an  open  fold,  no  unnatural  or  diuigerous  state  of  heat  is  tliereby  produced.^ 

*  Youatt  on  .''hccp. 

t  Ure's  DicliouHiy  of  tho  Arts,  art.  Calgut ;  nleo,  Leather,  Parchment.  J  Youatt  on  Sheep. 


(974) 


REARING  AND  FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS.      495 


32.  REARING  AND  FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS  IN  WINTER. 

"  The  cattle  from  th'  untasted  fields  retura, 
And  ask,  with  meaning  low,  their  wonted  Btalls, 
Or  ruminate  in  the  contiguous  shade." 

Thomson. 

(1201.)  The  first  thing  to  be  done  with  the  courts  in  the  steading,  before 
being  taken  possession  of  by  the  cattle,  is  to  have  them  littered  plentifnlly 
with  straw.  The  first  Uttering  should  be  abundant,  as  a  thin  layer  of  straw 
upon  the  bai'e  ground  makes  an  uncomfortable  bed  ;  whereas  a  thick  one 
is  not  only  comfortable  in  itself,  but  the  lower  part  of  it  acts  as  a  drainer 
to  the  heap  of  manure  above  it.  There  is  more  of  comfoit  for  cattle  in- 
volved in  this  little  affair  than  most  farmers  seem  to  be  aware  of;  for  it  is 
obvious  that  the  first  layer  of  litter,  when  thin,  will  soon  get  trampled 
down,  and  in  rainy  weather  soon  become  poached — that  is,  saturated  with 
wet  and  pierced  with  holes  by  the  cattle's  feet — so  that  any  small  quantity 
of  litter  that  is  afterward  laid  upon  it  will  but  absorb  the  moisture  below 
it,  and  never  afford  a  dry  laii  to  the  cattle.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the 
first  layer  is  thick,  it  is  not  poached  even  in  wet  weather,  because  it  is 
with  difficulty  pierced  through  by  feet,  and  it  instantly  drains  the  moisture 
that  falls  upon  it,  and  of  course  keeps  the  bedding  comparatively  dry. 

(1202.)  There  is,  however,  sometimes  a  difficulty  of  obtaining  sufficient 
straw  at  this  season,  from  various  causes,  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
a  dislike  in  farmers  to  thresh  a  stack  or  two  of  the  new  crop  at  so  early  a 
period,  even  when  there  is  no  old  straw  or  old  stack  of  com  to  thresh  ;  but 
however  recently  formed  the  stacks  may  be,  and  inconvenient  to  thresh 
their  produce  at  the  time,  it  should  be  done  rather  than  stint  the  cattle  of 
bedding ;  and  should  bad  weather  immediately  set  in — an  event  not  un- 
likely to  happen — the  cattle  may  be  so  chilled  in  their  ill-littered  quarters 
as  not  entirely  to  recover  from  it  during  the  winter ;  and  hence  may  arise 
a  serious  reduction  of  profit. 

(1203.)   It  may  happen,  on   the  other  hand,  with   plenty  of  old   stacks, 
there  may  be  want  of  water  to  drive   the  threshing-machine  ;   and  this  is 
no  uncommon  predicament  at  the  commencement  of  winter  on  many  farms 
which  depend  upon  surface-water  for  their  supply  ;  and  a  windmill   is  in 
no  better  plight  in  want  of  wind.     Where  such  contingencies  may  happen, 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  litter   should   be  provided   for  in  good   time,  and 
there  are  various  ways  of  doing  this.     Those  who  still   use  the  flail   may 
employ  it   at    any   season;    and  those   having  horse   threshing-mills    are 
equally  independent.     Access   to  bog-land   gives  the  command  of  making 
coarse  hei'bage  into  hay  during  summer  ;  but  in  regard  to  the  use  of  other 
products  of  bog-land  for  litter,  precaution  is  requisite,  for  the  turfy  mattp^^ 
on  the  top   on  being  used  as  a  bottoming  for  courts,  with  the  view  of 
sorbing  their  moisture,  will  inevitably  become  as  a  sponge  of  watei  a 
the  first  fall  of  rain,  and   the  cattle  will  soon  render  the  whole  beddir 
poached  mass.     I  once  tried  the  experiment  under  the  most  favorable 
cumstances  of  getting  the  turf  well  dried,  and  yet  could  not  get  rid  of 
inconvenience  of  poaching  until  the  courts  were  entirely  cleared  of  tl 
contents.     Those  who  are  annoyed  with  ferns  in  their  pastures  should 
them  down  and  won  them  for  fitter,  and  a  most  excellent  foundation  t 

(975) 


496  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

make  for  straw.  Those  who  can  cut  grass,  or  gather  dry  leaves  in  woods, 
should  do  so  in  summer,  or  immediately  after  harvest,  for  a  day  or  two, 
with  the  harvest  people.  By  attending  to  one  or  all  of  these  provident 
measures,  a  comfortable  lied  may  be  j)r<jvided  for  cattle  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  season,  under  the  most  unfavorable  circumstances  in  regard  to 
a  coremand  of  straw. 

(1204.)  Suj)pose,  then,  that  all  the  courts  and  hammcls  are  plentifully 
littered  f(»r  the  reception  of  tiie  cattle,  the  next  step  is  to  arrange  the  dif- 
ferent classes  of  cattle  in  their  respective  places.  The  different  classes  of 
cattle  are  cows,  calves  of  the  year,  1-year-olds,  2-year-olds,  bulls,  heifers 
in' calf,  and  any  extra  cattle. 

(12Uo.)  Cou-s  occupy  the  byre  Q,  fig.  3,  Plate  III.  (42.)  Each  should  al- 
ways occupy  the  stall  she  has  been  accustomed  to,  and  all  will  then  go  and 
come  into  their  stalls  without  interfering  with  one  another.  They-  thus 
learn  to  become  very  quiet  in  the  stall,  both  to  the  cattle-man  who  feeds 
them,  and  the  dairy-maid  who  milks  them.  Each  stall  should  have  a 
manger  c,  fig.  10  (47),  elevated  20  inches  above  the  floor,  lined  with  wood 
or  stone,  and  having  an  edging  of  plank  8  inches  in  depth,  t(»  keep  in  the 
food.  The  usual  plan  is  to  place  the  mangers  of  byres  on  a  level  with  the 
floor,  down  to  which  the  cow  has  to  stretch  her  neck  to  get  to  the  turnip, 
or  other  food,  and  in  doing  this  she  is  obliged  to  suppcut  herself  almost 
wholly  on  one  leg.  This  awkwardness  of  position  is  itself  a  certain  proof 
that  the  animal  is  ill  at  ease  while  eating.  There  should  be  as  much  room 
behind  the  manger  to  the  gutter  as  to  allow  the  cow  to  lie  at  ease,  whatever 
be  her  size,  like  a  horse  in  a  stall  with  a  low  hay-rack.  Each  stall  should 
have  a  travis-board  to  separate  it  from  the  next  (149),  Some  people  are 
gi-eat  advocates  for  double  stalls,  both  in  byres  and  stables,  to  hold  a  pair 
of  animals  each.  In  a  byre,  that  plan  is  objectionable  for  several  reasons  ; 
a  cow  is  a  capricious  creature,  and  not  always  friendly  to  her  neighbor, 
and  one  of  them,  in  that  case,  must  be  bound  to  the  stake  on  the  same 
side  as  she  is  milked  from  ;  to  avoid  which  inconvenience  to  the  dairy-maid, 
the  cow  must  be  put  aside  nearer  her  neighbor  in  the  same  stall,  which 
may  prove  unpleasant  to  both  parties,  or  her  neighbor  in  the  adjoining 
stall  be  put  aside  nearer  her  neighbor,  which  may  prove  equally  inconve- 
nient. Neither  is  it  a  matter  of  indifference  to  the  cow  fnmi  which  side 
she  is  milked,  for  many  will  not  let  down  their  milk  if  the  milk-maid  sits 
down  to  the  unaccustomed  side.  The  safest  plan,  therefore,  in  every  re- 
spect, is  for  each  cow  to' have  her  own  stall.  The  floor  of  the  stall  should 
be  causewayed  only  as  far  as  shown  at  ?n,  fig.  10,  and  the  remainder  at  J" 
should  be  of  beaten  earth,  and  this  plan  is  intended  to  save  the  fore- 
knees  of  cows  from  injury.  Cattle  lie  down  and  rise  up  by  resting  on  the 
fore-knees,  and  when  they  have  to  do  so  on  a  hard  pavement,  injury  will 
likely  arise  to  the  knees,  if  the  pavement  is  not  always  covered  with  litter. 
I  remember  seeing  a  valuable  Short-Horn  cow,  in  Ireland,  get  injured  in 
the  knees  from  this  cause  ;  they  swelled  so  much  and  continued  so  long  in 
a  tender  state  that  she  would  not  lie  down  at  all ;  and  all  the  while  her 
owner  was  not  aware  of  the  cause  until  I  suggested  it.  On  the  removal  of 
the  pavement,  and  proper  treatment  of  the  parts  aflected,  they  recovered. 
Cows  are  bound  to  the  stake  ?i,  fig.  10,  either  by  seal  c  il,  fig.  11,  or  Laikie, 
e  k  g,  fig.  12,  and  either  secures  the  animal  suftiriently.  The  seal  is  made 
entirely  of  iron  chain,  and  slides  up  and  down  the  inclined  stake  //  by 
means  of  the  iron  ring  d  ;  the  baikie  is  made  partly  of  wood  e,  and  partly 
of  rope  1c  and  g.  Of  the  two  modes  of  ligature  I  jircfer  the  seal,  because 
its  construction  permits  the  animal  turning  its  head  so  much  round  as  to 
be  able  to  lick  herself  as  far  as  the  loin,  whereas  the  baikie  only  admits  of 


REARING  AND  FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS.      497 

a  constrainetl  up  and  clown  motion  along  a  perpendicular  stake  (48) ;  and, 
besides,  it  is  an  impracticable  mode  of  binding  in  connection  with  the  use 
of  a  manger,  because  it  prevents  the  animal  stepping  back  to  avoid  it. 

(1206.)  Calves  of  the  year  should  occupy  court  K,  fig.  3,  Plate  III.  (62. ^ 
In  such  receptacles  they  are  put  together  male  and  female,  strong  and  weak, 
but  having  plenty  of  trough  room  around  two  of  the  walls,  they  can  all  be 
amply  provided  with  food  at  the  same  time,  without  the  danger  of  the 
stronger  buffeting  about  the  weaker.  The  openings  into  the  shed  in 
which  they  take  up  their  abode  at  night  is  at  D,  and  in  the  center  of  the 
court  stands  the  straw-rack  o,  formed  like  fig.  19  where  straw  is  scarce,  as 
on  gi-avelly  soils,  or  like  figs.  20  and  21  where  it  is  plenty.  The  troughs 
for  the  tuniips  are  fitted  up  as  in  fig.  18,  which  is  there  represented  as  a 
short  one,  to  show  the  finishings  of  the  ends,  but  which,  of  course,  may  be 
extended  to  any  length,  as  may  be  seen  hy  z  in  K,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  There 
is  a  water-trough  w  in  the  same  court,  it  being  essential  for  young  stock  to 
have  water  at  will,  and  especially  when  they  do  not  get  as  many  turnips  as 
they  can  eat.  When  they  do,  cattle  do  not  feel  the  want  of  water,  the 
juice  of  the  turnip  supplying  them  with  sufficient  liquid.  In  the  same 
Plate  IV.  may  be  seen  the  shed  D,  under  the  granary,  connected  with  the 
court  K,  having  a  straw-rack  h'  fitted  up  at  one  end.  The  tuniip-store  for 
this  court  is  at  g  ;  and  x  is  the  mouth  of  the  liquid-manure  drain,  to  carry 
off  any  superfluous  watei".  In  the  calves  of  the  year  occupying  this  court 
K,  where  there  is  a  good  deal  of  traffic  in  going  to  and  from  the  corn-baiTt 

C,  the  young  creatures  will  become  familiarized  with  the  people,  and  have 
a  chance  of  getting  pickings  of  com  from  the  bam. 

(1207.)  The  court  I  is  fitted  up  precisely  with  the  same  conveniences  of 
feeding-troughs  z,  water-trough  w,  straw-racks  h'  and  o,  and  turnip-store  ?, 
as  the  other  court  for  the   1-year-olds.     It  will   be  observed  that  the  shed 

D,  in  both  courts,  has  two  entrances,  which  is  the  usual  plan ;  but,  in  my 
opinion,  the  comfort  of  the  cattle  is  more  secured  with  only  one  entrance, 
inasmuch  as  all  draft  is  prevented  ;  and  although  the  object  of  two  en- 
trances is  a  laudable  one  in  affording  a  means  of  escape  to  a  beast  that  may 
be  ill-used  by  the  rest,  that  advantage  to  one  is  dearly  bought  at  the  sacri- 
fice of  comfort  to  the  others,  and  after  all  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  contin- 
gency can  be  avoided  in  this  way. 

(1208.)  As  I  have  said  before  (62),  I  prefer  hammels  to  large  courts,  for 
young  beasts ;  because  the  heifers  could  be  separated  from  the  steers,  and 
each  of  the  classes  subdivided  to  suit  color,  strength,  age,  temper,  or  any 
other  point  in  which  a  few  agree,  and  differ  from  the  rest ;  and  it  is  sur- 
prising how  much  better  the  same  beasts  look  when  assorted.  In  a  large 
court,  all  are  put  together,  and,  if  there  be  plenty  of  room  for  every  one 
to  do  as  it  likes,  no  harm  may  accrue  ;  but  where  too  many  are  croWded 
together,  which  is  almost  always  the  case  on  farms  where  winterings  are 
bought,  some  will  be  knocked  about  and  kept  back  from  their  meat,  and 
obliged  to  eat  it  at  untimeous  hours  ;  and  in  either  plight  will  be  stinted 
in  their  growth  and  condition.  Only  one  beast  so  used  makes  a  serious 
drawback  on  the  value  of  the  lot,  for  it  must  be  drafted  from  the  rest  and 
sold  separately,  at  a  reduced  price,  to  the  vexation  of  the  owner,  whin  too 
late  to  retiieve  the  loss.  Now,  no  such  occurrence  can  take  place  in  ham- 
mels, where  every  difference  in  character,  age,  and  strength  of  animals, 
can  be  nicely  assorted ;  and  this  is  the  more  requisite  in  beasts  that  hare 
been  bought  in  to  be  fed,  than  those  brought  up  together  at  home. 

(1209.)   The  2-7/^ar-oM5,  intended  to   he  fattened  for  the  butcher,  occupy 

the  hammels   M,   where  are  inner  sheds   at   M,  feedinor-trouo-hs  c,  liquid- 

rams  x,  in  the  courts,  and  where  fodder  is  supplied  in  the  mside 
(977) 3*  ^^ 


498  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

of  the  sheds,  in  racks,  in  three  of  the  comers,  and  tlie  tuniip-stores  of 
which  are  at  e  andy^  The  sheds  being  14  feet  wide  and  IS  feet  long,  and 
the  courts  30  feet  long  Ity  IS  feet  in  width,  each  hammel  will  accommo- 
date 4  steers,  not  merely  at  the  beginning  of  the  feeding  seastjn,  but  at  its 
end,  when  tlicy  shall  have  attained  the  weight  of  at  least  70  stones  each 
imperial. 

(1210.)  Occasionally  the  cow  stock  requires  to  be  renewed,  one  or  two 
at  time,  by  i/oung  hcij'crs  ;  and  as  these,  when  in  calf,  should  not  of  course 
be  fattened,  they  not  be  put  in  the  hammels  of  the  feeding-stock  of  their 
own  age,  namely,  the  2-year-()lds,  but  have  hammels  to  themselves  at  N, 
which  are  tilted  up  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  at  M,  with  feeding- 
troughs  r,  straw-racks  in  the  corner  of  the  sheds,  liquid-manure  drains  x, 
and  turnip-stores  y>  and  q.  Their  size,  inside  the  shed,  is  17  feet  long  by 
14  feet  wide,  and  the  court  20  feet  long  by  17  feet  wide,  so  that  each  can  ac- 
commodate 3  heifers  in  calf.  The  old  cuus  which  these  heifers  are  intend- 
ed to  supersede  have  to  be  fattened,  and  they  can  be  accommodated  with 
one  of  the  hammels  at  N. 

(1211.)  The  servants'  coivs  are  accommodated  in  the  byre  Y,  fitted  up  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  other  byre  Q,  having  an  outer  court  r,  water-trough 
w,  li(|uid-manure  drain  x,  and  turnip-store  //. 

(1212.)  When  oxen  are  fattened  in  byres  instead  of  hammels,  they  are 
accommodated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  cows  are  in  either  Q  or  Y  ;  but 
instead  of  each  having  a  stall,  they  are  usually  bound  up  in  pairs  in  double 
stalls,  with  a  partition  in  the  turiiip-ti-ough,  placed  on  the  ground,  and  a 
travis  between  every  pair.  Stalls  of  this  construction  are  often  as  narrow 
as  7  feet,  but  S  feet  is  the  more  common  width.  I  have  already  con- 
demned the  crowded  state  in  which  oxen,  fed  in  byres,  are  usually  placed 
(49),  and  shall  not  again  advert  to  the  subject  here.  When  cattle  are  bound 
to  the  stake  for  the  first  time,  for  the  season,  they  are  apt  to  be  restless  un- 
til reconciled  to  their  confinement,  which  they  will  be  ere  long,  if  provided 
with  plenty  of  food. 

(1213.)  Bulls  occupy  the  hammels  X,  which  are  fitted  up  with  feed- 
ing-troughs z,  water-troughs  w,  liquid-manure  drains  x,  and  racks  in  the 
corners  of  the  sheds  X.  More  than  one  Inill-calf  may  be  put  together  ; 
but  more  than  one  bull  that  have  served  cows  are  never  intrusted  to- 
gether. 

(1214.)  Having  thus  accommodated  all  the  cattle,  according  to  their 
kinds  and  ages,  in  their  respective  places  in  the  t.teading,  for  the  winter,  let 
us  now  attend  to  the  treatment  which  each  class  should  daily  receive  dur- 
ing their  confinement. 

(1215.)  And  to  begin  with  the  coivs.  The  first  piece  of  work  connect- 
ed with  the  treatment  of  cows  in  winter,  is  to  milk  them  at  day-break, 
which  cannot  be  at  a  very  early  hour  this  season.  On  farms  on  which  cows 
are  bred,  they  are  heavy  in  calf  in  winter ;  so  most  of  them  will  be  diy, 
and  those  still  yielding  milk,  being  the  latest  to  calve,  will  give  but  a 
scanty  supply.  It  is,  therefore,  not  as  ini/t/i-cn\vs  they  are  treated  at  this 
season.  After  milking  is  finished  by  the  dairy-maid,  the  usual  practice  is 
to  give  the  cows,  though  heavy  in  calf,  a  feed  of  cold  turnips,  on  an  empty 
stomach,  which  I  have  always  considered  an  injudicious  practice  ;  and  its 
injudiciousness  is  evinced  by  the  fact  of  the  fdotus  .showing  unequivocal 
symi)toms  of  its  existence  in  the  womb,  in  the  same  manner  as  after  a 
drink  of  cold  water  in  the  morning.  I  would,  therefore,  give  them  a 
mouthfuU  of  fresh  oat-sti"aw,  to  prepare  the  stomach  for  the  turnips. 
While  amusing  themselves  with  this  fodder,  the  cattle-man,  whose  duty  it 
is  to  take  charge  of  all  the  cattle  in  the  steading  in  winter,  cleans  out  the 

(978J 


REARING  AND  FEEDING  .  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS. 


499 


byre  of  its  litter  and  dung  with  the   graip,  fig.  257,    and  shovel  (fig.  149), 
and  wheelbarrow,  and  spreads  it  equally  over  the  couit,  sweep  the  gutter 
and  causeway  clean  with  a  birch    or  broom-besom.       Having 
shut    the    byre-door    and  left    the  half-door  into    the     court      ^'g-  257. 
open  for  fresh  air,  the  cattle-man  leaves  the  cows  until  he  has 
supplied  the  fattening  and  young  beasts  with  turnips,  which 
having  done,  he  returns  to  the  cow-byre,  bringing  litter-straw 
with  him,  and  gives  them  their  allowance  of  turnips  for  the  first 
meal.     Cows  in   calf  never  get  as  many  turnips  as  they   can 
eat,  the  object  being  not  to   fatten,  but  support  them  in  a  fair 
condition  for  calving ;  for  were   they  fed  fat,  they  Avould  run 
the  risk  of  life  at  calving  through  inflammation,  and  the  calves 
would   be    small.     It  is  not  easy  to   specify  the  number  or 
weight  of  turnips   that   should  be  given  to  cows  ;  but  I   con- 
ceive that  ^  of  what  a  feeding  ox  would  consume  will  suffice. 

(1216.)  There  are  three  ways  of  supplying  cows  with  tur- 
nips, either  thi'ough  the  openings  of  the  wall  at  their  heads, 
as  at  0,  fig.  10,  and  through  the  dooi",  fig.  9,  fi'om  the  store  in 
the  shed  s,  into  the  trough  c  ;  or  with  basketfulls,  carried  by 
the  stall ;  or  with  barrow-loads,  wheeled  along  a  passage  at 
their  head,  as  described  in  (45),  and  emptied  into  the  same 
trough  c  from  the  same  store  s,  as  seen  in  plan  at  /«,  fig.  4, 
Plate  IV.,  by  the  back-door  into  the  byre. 

(1217.)  With  the  willow-basket   or  skull,  is  the  most  com- 
mon way  of  serving  cows  or  cattle  in  byres   with  tuniips.     It 
is  about  2  feet  in  diameter,  with  holes  wi'ought  into  each  side, 
under  the  rim,  for  handles,  and  costs  about  Is.  6d. ;  but  they    the  graip. 
are   apt  to  become  rotten    or  broken  after  the  natural  sap  is 
dried  out  of  the   willows,  which  is  generally  in  a  few  months'  time,  and 
then  they  become  very  brittle.     In  short,  a  skull  seldom  lasts  more  than  a 
year   or   two  ;  and   as   a  number  of  them  are  required    about  a  steading 
where  a  variety  of  beasts  are  fed  on  turnips,  their  cost,  though  individually 
trifling,  becomes  in  the  aggregate  so  considerable  as  to  make  its  avoidance 
desirable.     A   basket  of  wire  or  small  iron  rods   has  been  substituted  in 
some  places.     A  wire  basket  is  represented  by  fig.  258,  where  the  rim  a  b 
c,  which  forms  its  mouth,  is  a  flat  slip  of  iron  about  |  of  an  inch  in  breadth, 
and  the  keel  or  bottom  a  d  c'\&  of  the  same  dimensions  and  materials.  Holes 
are  punched  through  them,  at  about  3  inches  apart  from  each  other.     The 
small  iron  rods  are  inserted  through 
them,  receiving  a  bend   to  suit    the 
form  of  the  basket,  and  the  ends  of 
those  attached  to  the   rim  a  b  c  are 
shouldered    below,    and    made    fast 
with    a    counter-sink    rivet    above.    ' 
The   spaces   left  at  the  ends  of  the 
keel,  under  the  rim,  at  a  and  c,  form 
the  handles.     The   cost  is  about  2s. 
6d.  each,  and  with  due  care — such 
as  the  replacement  of  a  rod  now  and 
then,  when  broken — will  last  from  5 
to   10  years.     Were  the  keel  made  straight   at  d,  the  basket  would  stand 
steadier  to  be  filled.* 

(1218.)  Before  the  turnips  are  put  into  the  troughs,  the  remains  of  the 


THK  WIRE  TURNir-BASKET. 


Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  xi. 
(979! 


500  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

fodder  given  in  the  morning  should  be  strewed  down  for  litter,  and  the 
troughs  cleaned  out.  The  turiiijjs  should  always  be  put  into  the  troughs 
in  a  regular  order,  beginning  at  the  same  end  of  the  byre,  and  finishing  at 
the  other  ,  and  after  the  turnips  have  been  given,  the  rows  should  be  per- 
mitted to  eat  them  in  quiet,  for  nothing  initates  animals  more  than  to  be 
handled  and  worked  about  when  feeding.  The  turnips  consumed,  and 
the  stalls  comfortably  littered  with  straw,  the  cows  will  lie  down  and  chew 
the  cud  until  mid-day,  when  they  should  be  turned  into  the  court  to  enjoy 
the  fresh  air,  lick  themselves  and  one  another,  drink  water  from  the  trough, 
and  bask  in  the  sun.  They  should  go  out  a  while  every  day,  in  all  weath- 
ers, until  they  calve,  except  perhaps  in  a  very  cold,  wet  day.  One  hour 
may  be  long  enough  at  a  time.  In  loosening  cows  from  their  stalls,  a  plan 
requires  to  be  pursued  to  prevent  confusion.  In  the  first  place,  every  cow, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  season,  should  be  put  in  the  stall  she  has  occupied 
since  she  first  became  an  inmate  of  the  byre  ;  aud  she  will  always  go  to 
it,  and  no  other,  avoiding  the  least  collision  with  the  rest.  In  loosening 
them  from  the  stalls,  they  should  be  so  one  by  one,  always  beginning  at 
the  same  end  of  the  byre,  and  finishing  at  the  other,  and  not  indiscrimi- 
nately. This  will  prevent  collision  on  the  floor  and  jamming  in  the  door- 
way on  going  out — accidents  ijijuriousto  animals  with  young.  After  their 
return,  they  should  also  be  bound  in  the  same  regular  order  from  one  end 
of  the  byre  to  the  other,  and  this  will  prevent  any  one  being  forgotten  to 
be  bound  ,  and  to  remove  every  temptation  from  even  a  greedy  cow  run- 
ning up  into  another  one's  stall  for  the  sake  of  snatching  a  little  of  her 
food,  n(j  food  should  be  lying  in  the  troughs  when  they  return  to  their 
stalls  ;  and  no  food  that  they  like — such  as  tuniips,  mangel-wurzel,  and 
the  like — should  be  given  them  immediately  on  returning  to  the  byre,  be- 
cause the  expectation  of  receiving  it  will  not  only  render  them  impatient 
to  leave  the  court,  but  make  them  restless  in  the  stall  until  they  receive  it. 
This  plan,  contrary  to  usual  practice,  will,  it  is  obvious,  suppress  all  anx- 
iety, and  thereby  prevent  violation  of  discipline,  and,  of  course,  necessity 
for  correction.  When  subjected  to  this  regular  form  of  discipline,  they 
will  soon  obey  it,  and  make  no  confusion,  but  conduct  themselves  peace- 
ably. On  their  return  to  the  byre,  let  a  little  fodder  be  given  ;  and  after  a 
lapse  of  time,  say  at  3  P.  M.,  give  them  their  evening  meal  of  turnips,  after 
which  they  should  be  littered  for  the  night. 

(1219.)  The  treatment  o^  o.ren  in  a  byre  is  different  from  that  of  cows; 
they  get  as  many  turnijis  as  they  can  eat,  and  are  not  permitted  to  leave 
their  stalls  until  sold  off  fat.  As  it  is  not  usual  for  oxen  to  be  fed  in  byi'es 
and  hammcls  on  the  same  faiTn,  what  I  have  to  say  in  regard  to  feeding  in 
the  byre  should  be  considered  in  lieu  of  the  plan  of  what  I  shall  have  to 
say  on  feeding  them  in  hammels.  After  the  cow-byre  doors  have  been 
opened,  and  the  stalls  cleared  into  the  gutter  of  any  dung  that  might  annoy 
the  dairy-maid,  the  cattle-man  goes  to  the  feeding-byre,  and,  fii-st  removing 
any  fodder  that  may  have  been  left  from  the  previous  niLrht,  and  any  re- 
fuse of  turnips  or  other  dirt,  from  the  troughs,  gives  the  cattle  a  leed  of  tur- 
nips at  once.  The  quantity  to  be  given  at  this  time  should  be  ^  of  what 
they  can  eat  during  the  day  ;  for  they  should  be  fed  3  times  a  day — in  the 
morning,  at  noon,  and  at  sunset ;  and  in  distributing  the  food,  the  same  regu- 
larity should  be  observed  as  in  the  case  of  the  cows,  that  is,  the  same  ox 
should  always  be  the  first  supplied,  and  the  same  ox  the  last  to  receive  his 
portion.  When  cattle  find  their  food  given  them  in  regular  order,  they 
never  become  impatient  for  their  turn.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  begin 
serving  at  the  farthest  end  of  the  byre,  because  then  the  cattle-man  has  no 
occasion  to  pass  and  disturb  those  which  have  been  served  ;  and  in  the  case 

'980) 


REARING    AND  FEEDING  CATTLE   ON    TURNIPS.  501 

of  what  is  called  a  douhle-lieaded  byre,  in  which  cattle  stand  on  both  sides, 
tail  to  tail,  both  sides  should  be  served  simultaneously  by  alternate  beasts, 
thus  still  leaving  those  which  have  been  served  undisturbed.  With  the 
half-door  left  open  for  the  admission  of  fresh  air,  and  the  expulsion  of 
heated  air  through  the  ventilators  (fig.  8),  the  cattle-man  leaves  them  to 
enjoy  their  meal  in  quietness. 

(1220.)  Much  has  been  said  on  the  expediency  of  wisping  and  cuiTying 
cows  and  fattening-beasts  in  the  byre  ;  and  no  doubt  many  satisfactory 
reasons  could  be  urged  in  favor  of  the  practice,  when  they  are  entirely 
confined.  But,  as  it  occurs  to  me,  animals  that  are  allowed  to  be  at  lib- 
erty at  one  part  of  the  day  do  not  require — or  at  least  to  a  much  smaller 
degree — any  artificial  dressing,  inasmuch  as  they  can  dress  their  own  skin, 
when  at  liberty,  much  better  than  any  cattle-man.  Nevertheless,  where 
cattle  are  constantly  confi.ned  in  the  byre,  as  is  the  case  of  all  beasts  fat- 
tened in  a  byre,  it  seems  indispensable  for  their  good  health  to  rub  their 
skin  every  day  by  some  process;  and  I  believe  there  are  no  better  instru- 
ments for  the  purpose  than  a  simple  cuiTy-comb  and  a  wisp  of  straw.  In 
performing  this  operation,  however,  it  should  only  be  done  when  the  cat- 
tle are  not  at  food  ;  and  you  should  see  to  this,  for  there  is  a  strong  pro- 
pensity in  people  who  have  charge  of  animals  to  dress  and  fondle  vritYi 
them  when  at  food  ;  from  no  desire,  I  am  sure,  of  tormenting  them,  but 
the  contrary.  Still  it  is  a  habit  which  has  a  tendency  to  iiritate  all  animals 
unnecessai-ily,  and  should  be  prevented  ;  for  any  one  may  soon  satisfy  him- 
self, from  obsers-ation,  that  an  animal  is  never  more  jealous  of  being  ap- 
proached than  when  eating  his  food — as  witness  the  grumble  from  a  dog 
or  the  scowl  from  a  horse. 

(1221.)  Whenever  the  cattle  have  eaten  their  turnips  the  byre  should  be 
completely  cleared  of  the  dung  and  dirty  litter  with  the  graip,  shovel,  be- 
som and  baiTow  belonging  to  the  byre.  A  fresh  foddering  and  a  fresh  lit- 
tering being  given,  they  should  be  left  to  themselves  to  rest  and  chew  the 
cud,  until  the  next  time  of  feeding,  which  should  be  about  mid-day,  when 
another  \  of  turnips  is  given  to  each  ox  ;  after  finishing  which  more  fod- 
der should  be  supplied,  and  what  dung  may  prove  annoying,  drawn  into 
the  gutter.  In  the  afternoon,  before  daylight  goes,  the  dung  should  again 
be  cleared  out,  and  the  last  supply  of  turnips  for  the  day,  another  ^,  o:iven 
to  each  ox  ;  and  before  leaving  them  for  the  night,  and  after  the  turnips  are 
eaten  up,  a  fresh  foddering  should  be  given,  and  the  litter  shaken  up  and 
augmented  where  requisite.  After  eating  a  little  fodder  the  cattle  lie 
down  and  rest  until  visited  at  night. 

(1222.)  Where  cattle  are  fattened  wiliammels,  a  somewhat  different  pro- 
cedure is  adopted.  While  the  dairy-maid  is  milking  the  cows  in  the  byre, 
the  cattle-man  cleans  the  troughs  of  the  haramels  with  an  old  shovel,  and 
gives  the  first  supply  of  turnips  for  the  day  to  the  cattle  ;  and  in  doing  this 
he  should  adopt  the  same  rule  as  to  regularity  as  with  the  cows  in  the  byre, 
always  beginning  with  the  same  hammel 

(1223.)  It  is  now  well  understood  that  sliced  turnips  afford  great  facili- 
ties to  cattle  in  filling  their  stomachs  with  food  with  the  least  trouble  ;  and 
the  insti-uments  used  for  this  purpose  are  much  simpler  than  those  which 
have  been  described  for  sheep  in  (1138)  and  (1145).  Not  an  uncommon 
instrument  for  the  purpose  is  an  old  sharp  spade,  with  which  turnips  are 
broken  in  as  many  pieces  as  desired  ;  but  it  is  objectionable,  in  as  far  as 
it  breaks  them  into  unequal  pieces,  the  round  turnips  rolling  away  from  its 
strokes,  and  it  scatters  the  hard  ones  in  splinters.  ^Iuch  better  instruments 
will  be  found  in  the  two  hand  turnip-choppers  described  below,  figs.  263 
and  264.     A  single  perpendicular  stroke  with  either  of  these  instruments 

(981) 


502  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

cuts  a  turnip  into  a  certain  niimber  of  pieces ;  but  in  using  fig.  263  a  little 
dexterity  is  recjuired  to  save  its  cutting  edges  from  being  injured  against 
the  bottom  of  the  trough.  The  de.xterity  consists  in  first  getting  a  hold  of 
the  turnip  with  the  instniment  by  a  gentle  tap,  and  then  lift  up  the  turnip, 
striking  it  against  the  bottom  of  the  trough  with  a  smart  stroke,  when  it 
will  fall  into  pieces  before  the  knives  touch  the  trough  ;  but  the  constant 
exercise  of  dexterity  is  scarcely  to  be  looked  for  in  an  ordinary  cattle- 
man, and,  therefore,  fig.  264  may  be  pronounced  the  more  useful  instru- 
ment of  the  two,  for  the  studs  serve  to  guard  the  cutting  surface  from  in- 
jury. But  where  a  cattle-man  has  charge  of  a  large  number  of  cattle  re- 
ceiving cut  turnips,  a  more  expeditious  j)rocess  of  slicing  them  is  required, 
and  this  will  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  the  lever  tuniip-slicer,  described 
below  in  fig.  259.  This  machine  is  placed  beside  the  turnip-store,  where 
it  slices  the  turnips  into  the  skull  placed  under  it,  and,  being  light,  can 
easily  be  carried  from  store  to  store,  unless  where  the  distance  is  great,  when 
another  machine  should  be  provided.  It  will  be  observed  that  all  these  im- 
plements cut  turnips  into  large  pieces,  which  are  sufficiently  small  for  cat- 
tle, sheep  requiring  theirs  cut  into  long  narrow  slips,  to  suit  the  form  of 
their  mouth. 

(1224.)  Cattle  naturally  feeling  more  appetized  in  the  morning  than 
during  the  dav,  their  morning  meal  should  be  large,  and  while  employed 
at  it  the  cattle -man  should  furnish  their  racks  with  fresh  oat-straw,  to  which 
they  will  repair  from  the  tuniips,  and  lie  down  in  the  open  court  or  with- 
in the  shed,  according  to  the  state  of  the  weather,  and  chew  their  cud 
with  composure.  At  mid-day  their  troughs  should  again  be  replenished 
with  turnips,  and  again  before  daylight  is  gone.  The  quantity  given  at 
the  evening  meal  partly  depends  upon  the  state  of  the  moon  ;  for  cattle, 
as  well  as  sheep,  will  always  feed  during  the  night  in  moonlight,  a  habit 
which  I  have  frequently  obsened  in  both  animals  ;  and  from  this  fact  I 
conclude  that  if  light  were  placed  beside  cattle  in  the  byre,  they  would 
also  feed  during  the  long  winter  nights,  and,  of  course,  fatten  quicker.* 
The  last  foddering  of  straw  is  given  after  the  evening  meal  of  turnips  ; 
and,  during  the  day,  whenever  the  shed  or  court  requires  litter,  the  refuse 
straw  of  the  foddering  may  be  spread  abroad,  and  in  rainy  weather  it 
should  be  brought  direct  from  the  straw-barn. 

(1225.)  The  younger  cattle  in  the  courts  next  receive  their  turnips,  and 
of  these  the  calves  should  have  the  precedence,  as  they  take  longer  time 
to  finish  their  meal  than  their  older  compeers.  They  occupying  the  court 
K,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.,  the  turnips  are  wheeled  from  the  store  g  to  the 
troughs,  and  there  broken  with  one  of  the  hand  turnip-choppers,  fig.  263 
or  264,  or  sliced  in  the  store  with  the  lever-slicer,  fig.  259.  Their  fodder 
is  put  both  in  the  open  straw-rack  o  and  that  under  the  shed  at  h' ,  and 
their  litter  strewed  after  the  young  beasts  in  the  other  large  court  have 
been  served  with  turnips. 

(1226.)  Immediately  after  the  calves,  the  year-olds  in  the  court  I  are 
served  with  turnips,  fodder  and  litter,  in  the  same  order.  All  young 
beasts  should  get  as  many  turnips  as  they  can  eat  ;  but  should  the  crop 
prove  insuflicient  for  this,  let  the  calves  have  their  full  share,  and  the  year- 
olds  rather  put  on  short  allowance  ;  but  in  a  case  of  this  kind  occurring, 
the  most  prudent  plan,  perhaps,  would  be  to  purchase  oil-cake  for  the  fat- 
tening beasts,  to  be  given  along  with  some  turnips,  and  let  all  the  young 


*  That  hiphly-prizpd  bird  in  Frunce,  the  ortolRn.  feeds  at  dawn,  and  when  confined  for  the  purpose  ot 
being  fattoiied,  an  aniScial  dawn  is  produced  every  three  hours  during  the  night  by  artificial  light,  when 
it  eats  its  food,  and  thereby  becomes  much  sooner  fat. 
(982) 


REARING  AND  FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS.       503 

beasts  have  their  full  share  of  turnips.     To  insure  them  still  farther  with 
this,  the  cows  might  also  have  oil-cake. 

(1227.)  The  young  heifers  in  the  hammels  N,  and  the  bulls  in  the  ham- 
mels  X,  next  receive  their  turnips,  and  as  neither  of  them  get  as  many  as 
they  can  eat,  their  proportion  is  divided  into  two  small  meals,  one  served 
after  all  the  rest  in  the  morning,  and  the  other  before  the  rest  in  the  even- 
ing. Both  these  classes  depending  much  upon  fodder  for  food,  it  should 
be  of  the  sweetest  and  fi-esfiest  straw,  and  supplied  at  least  3  times  a  day, 
morning,  noon  and  evening  ;  and  having  water  at  command,  and  liberty 
to  move  about,  they  will  maintain  a  fair  condition.  The  heifers  are  sup- 
plied from  their  own  turnip-stores  p  or  q,  and  the  bulls  from  that  belong- 
ing to  the  servants'  cow-byre  h. 

(1228.)  With  regard  to  the  supply  of  turnips  to  the  servants'  cows, 
much  depends  on  the  terms  of  the  agreement  made  with  the  servants. 
Where  a  specified  number  of  cart-loads  are  given,  the  servant  may  choose  to 
give  them  to  his  cow  during  the  earlier  part  of  the  winter  or  not,  because, 
when  she  is  dry,  it  is  not  usual  to  give  her  turnips  ;  but  if  in  milk,  the 
servant's  family  may  give  what  they  choose  from  their  own  store.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  the  farmer  has  agreed  to  treat  the  servants'  cows  in  the 
same  manner  as  his  own,  then  the  cattle-man  takes  charge  of  them  in  the 
manner  I  have  already  described  (1215). 

(1229.)  From  the  beginning  of  the  season  until  the  end  of  the  year, 
white  turnips  alone  are  used,  after  which,  to  the  end  of  the  winter  season, 
the  yellows  are  brought  into  requisition,  or  Swedes  where  these  are  not 
cultivated.  When  turnips  are  brought  fi'ora  the  field  in  a  very  dirty  state, 
which  will  inevitably  be  the  case  in  wet  weather  from  clayey  soil,  they 
ought  to  be  washed  in  tubs  of  water,  and  when  they  are  so  as  long  as  the 
earth  is  fresh,  they  will  be  the  more  easily  cleansed  ;  and  this  is  not  so 
troublesome  and  expensive  a  business  as  may  at  first  sight  appear.  A 
large  tub  of  water,  placed  at  a  store  when  about  to  be  filled  with  turnips, 
a  field-worker,  taking  a  small  fork,  picks  up  a  turnip  with  it,  and  dashing 
it  about  in  the  water  for  an  instant,  pulls  it  off  against  the  edge  of  the 
store  or  barrow  ;  and  in  this  way  cleanses  a  great  number  in  a  short  time, 
much  faster  than  the  cattle-man  can  wheel  them  away  and  serve  and  break 
them  to  the  beasts.  A  friend  of  mine  used  a  very  curious  mode  to  wash 
tui-nips.  Whenever  any  of  the  fields  of  his  farm,  along  which  was  the 
lead  that  conducted  the  water  from  the  dam  to  the  threshing-mill,  were  in 
turnips,  he  filled  the  lead  pretty  full  of  water,  by  keeping  down  the  sluice 
at  the  mill.  He  then  topped  and  tailed  the  turnips  in  the  field,  and 
emptied  them  into  the  lead,  from  a  cart  when  the  distance  to  the  turnips 
was  considerable,  and  from  a  hand-barrow,  carried  by  field-workers,  when 
they  were  near.  The  sluice  at  the  mill  was  then  opened  a  little,  and  the 
gentle  current  thereby  created  in  the  water  floated  the  turnips  to  the 
steading,  where  they  were  taken  out  and  carried  to  the  stores  in  barrows. 
When  the  turnips  were  very  dirty,  they  were  washed  in  the  lead  by  a  per- 
son pushing  them  about  with  a  pole.  That  some  provision  for  cleaning 
turnips  is  sometimes  necessary,  is  obvious  to  me,  for  1  have  seen  very  fine 
cattle  getting  turnips  to  eat  in  such  a  state  that  the  dirt  actually  bedaubed 
them  to  the  very  eyes,  the  tops  being  left  on  to  make  the  matter  worse. 
Surely  no  one  will  say  that  filth,  in  any  shape,  is  beneficial  to  cattle  ;  not 
that  they  dislike  to  lick  earth,  but  then  they  do  so  only  when  they  feel 
they  require  it  to  rectify  acidity  in  the  stomach. 

(1230.)  When  turnips  have  not  been  stored,  and  are  brought  from  the 
field  as  required,  it  is  highly  probable  that  they  will  be  in  a  frozen  state 
at  times,  when,  even  if  broken  by  the  instruments  in  use,  they  will  be 

(933) 


504  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

masticated  by  cattle  with  ilifficulty,  besides  the  danger  they  run  of  being 
chilled  by  them  ;  for  cattle  always  have  a  staring  coat  after  eating  frozen 
turnips.  This  being  the  case,  means  should  be  taken  to  thaw  them,  and 
the  most  available  is  to  put  them  in  tubs  of  cold  water  for  some  hours 
before  being  given  to  the  cattle.  Such  cx])edient8,  to  avoid  greater  evils, 
of  course  always  incur  expense,  and  it  will  be  much  greater  than  the 
comparatively  trifling  one  of  storing  the  same  quantity  of  turnips  at  the 
proper  season,  which,  when  done,  every  such  petty  source  of  vexation 
will  be  removed. 

(1231.)  It  is  suppo.sed  that  a  fattening  ox,  which  will  attain  70  stones 
imperial  at  the  end  of  the  season,  consumes  on  an  average,  during  the 
season,  a  double  horse  load  of  turnips  per  week,  and,  as  carts  are  usually 
loaded  in  field  work  in  winter,  their  weight  may  be  estimated  at  about  12 
cwt. ;  so  each  ox  will  consume  about  Ij  cwt.  or  14  stones  a  day,  or  4^ 
stones  of  each  3  meals,  and  about  IG  tons  during  the  season  of  2G  weeks. 
The  calves  may  consume  i  or  7  stones,  and  the  2-year-olds  -J,  or  10^ 
stones  a  day.  These  comparative  statements  are  given  from  no  authen- 
ticated data,  for  I  suppose  that  no  c()mj)arative  trials  with  different  ages 
of  cattle  have  ever  been  made,  but  only  fntm  what  I  imagine  to  be  near 
the  truth  ;  and  some  such  estimate,  at  the  beginning  of  the  season,  is  use- 
ful to  be  made,  that  you  may  know  whether  your  turnips  will  answer  the 
stock.  It  has  been  correctly  ascertained,  however,  by  Mr.  Stephenson, 
Whitelaw,  East  Lothian,  in  a  careful  experiment  of  17  weeks,  that  an  ox, 
yielding  under  30  stones  of  beef,  consumes  1  cwt.,  or  8  stones  every 
day  ;*  and  if  cattle  consume  food  somewhat  in  proportion  to  their  live 
weight,  in  similar  circumstances,  as  is  believed,  the  above  ratios  may  be 
pretty  connect.  And  yet  Mr.  Boswell  of  Kingcausie's  four  2-year-olds, 
fed  entirely  on  turnips,  and  which  increased  in  live  weight,  in  four  months, 
from  40  to  45  cwt.,  only  consumed  a  little  more  than  27  tons  of  yellow 
bullock  turnips,  or  8^  stones  each  day.t  So  that  Mr.  Boswell's  cattle,  of 
from  45  to  50  stones  each,  consumed  only  a  very  few  more  turnips  than 
Mr.  Stephenson's,  of  28  stones  each.  Such  discrepancies  show  how  little 
we  can  yet  anticipate  when  we  undertake  to  fatten  cattle.  But  there  is 
this  that  may  be  said  in  explanation  of  this  difference,  which  is,  however, 
merely  conjectural,  that  Mr.  Stephenson's  lightest  lot  experimented  on 
may  have  been  West  Highlanders,  Mr.  Boswell's  Aberdeenshires,  and  my 
supposition  is  made  in  reference  to  well-bred  Short-Horns.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  cows  receiving  ^  of  oxen,  namely,  4^  stones  a  day,  each  skull- 
ful  will  contain  rather  more  than  32  lb. 

(1232.)  The  most  personally  laborious  part  of  the  duty  of  a  cattle-man 
in  winter  is  carnjing  straw  in  large  hundlcs  on  his  hack  to  ever  if  part  of 
the  steading.  A  convenient  means  of  carrying  it  is  with  a  soft  rope  about 
the  thickness  of  a  finger,  and  3  yards  in  length,  furnished  at  one  end  with 
an  iron  ring  through  which  the  other  end  slips  easily  along  until  it  is  tight 
enough  to  retain  the  bundle,  when  a  simple  loop-knot  keeps  good  what  it 
has  got.  Provided  with  3  or  4  such  ropes,  he  can  bundle  the  straw  at  his 
leisure  in  the  barn,  and  have  them  ready  to  lift  when  required.  The  iron 
ring  permits  the  rope  to  free  itself  readily  from  the  straw  when  the  bun- 
dle is  loosened. 

(1233.)  The  dress  of  a  cattle-man  is  worth  attending  to,  in  regard  to  its 
appropriateness  for  his  business.  Having  so  much  straw  to  carry  on  his 
back,  a  bonnet  or  low-crowned  hat  is  most  convenient  for  him  ;  but  what 
is  of  moi-e  importance,  when  he  has  charge  of  a  bull,  is  to  have  the  color 


•  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  Yil.  xii.  t  Ibid.,  toI.  xl. 

(984) 


REARING  AND  FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS.       505 


of  his  clothes  of  a  sombre  hue,  free  of  all  gaudy  or  strongly-contrasted 
colors,  especially  red,  because  that  color  from  some  cause  is  peculiarly 
offensive  to  bulls.  It  is  with  red  cloth  that  the  bulls  in  Sj^ain  are  irritated 
at  their  celebrated  bull-baits.  Instances  are  in  remembrance  of  bulls  turn- 
ing upon  their  keepers,  not  perhaps  because  they  were  habited  in  red 
clothes,  but  probably  because  there  was  some  red  color  about  them,  or 
that  they  contrasted  strongly  with  what  their  keepers  usually  wore.  It 
was  stated  at  the  time,  that  the  keeper  of  the  celebrated  bull'  Sirius,  be- 
longing to  the  late  Mr.  Robertson  of  Ladykirk,  had  on  a  red  night-cap 
when  he  was  killed  by  him.  One  day,  when  walking  with  a  lady  across 
a  field,  for  a  short  cut  to  a  road,  my  own  bull,  the  one  represented  in  the 
plate  of  the  Short-Horn  bull,  than  which  a  more  gentle  and  generous  crea- 
ture of  his  kind  never  existed,  made  toward  us,  and  seemed  unusually 
excited.  This  conduct  did  not  arise  from  the  circumstance  of  a  strano-er 
being  in  the  field,  for  many  strangers,  both  male  and  female,  visited  him 
in  the  field.  I  could  asci-ibe  his  extraordinary  excitement  to  no  other 
cause  than  to  the  red  shawl  worn  by  the  lady  ;  for  when  she  left  the  field 
he  resumed  his  wonted  quietness  of  conduct.  I  remember  observino-  him 
more  than  usually  excited,  on  another  occasion,  in  his  hammel,  when  his 
keeper,  an  aged  man  who  had  attended  him  for  years,  was  beside  him  on 
a  Sunday  afternoon,  I  ascribed  his  excited  state  to  the  new  red  night- 
cap, instead  of  the  usual  black  hat,  which  his  keeper  wore  on  the  occa- 
sion ;  and  on  my  desiring  him  to  throw  it  away,  the  animal  became  again 
quite  quiet.  Be  the  rationale  of  the  thing  what  it  may,  it  is  prudential  in 
a  cattle-va?ii\  to  be  always  habited  in  a  sober  suit  of  clothes. 

(1234.)  Regularity  in  regard  to  time  is  the  chief  secret  in  the  successful 
treatment  of  cattle.  Cattle,  dumb  creatures  though  they  be,  soon  under- 
stand your  plans  in  regard  to  what  affects  themselves,  and  there  is  none 
with  which  they  reconcile  themselves  more  quickly  than  regularity  in  the 
time  of  feeding;  and  none  on  the  violation  of  which  they  will  more  readily 
show  their  discontent.  No  cattle-man  can  keep  regular  time  without  a 
watch  ;  and  if  he  has  not  one  of  his  otrn,  lend  him  one  that  will  keep  time 
well.  His  day's  work  in  winter  may  be  divided  thus  :  Let  him  be  astir 
and  have  his  breakfast  over  by  daybreak,  which  cannot  be  very  early 
at  that  season.  The  first  thing  he  should  do  is  to  go  to  the  cow-byre,  and 
remove  with  the  graip.  into  the  gutter,  any  dung  that  would  immediately 
interfere  with  the  dairy-maid  in  milking  the  cows.  She  should  be  at  the 
byre  in  time  for  this  purpose.  Leaving  her  there,  he  goes  to  the  fattenino- 
beasts  in  the  hammels,  and  first  cleans  out  the  same  trough,  always  begin- 
ning at  the  same  end,  of  all  refuse,  with  his  shovel;  and  immediately  as 
he  cleans  one  trough  he  replenishes  it  with  turnips  from  the  store  at  hand, 
and  breaks  them  with  any  of  the  instruments  used.  He  thus  proceeds 
from  one  hammel  to  another  until  the  six  are  gone  over,  or  as  many  as 
are  occupied.  It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  say  exactly  how  long  time  this 
should  take  in  doing,  but  say  half  an  hour,  30  minutes.  He  then  proceeds 
immediately  to  the  calves  in  the  large  court,  cleans  out  the  dirt  from  the 
troughs,  replenishes  them  with  fresh  turnips  from  the  store,  and  breaks 
them  ;  and  he  does  this,  having  long  troughs  and  fewer  turnips,  say  in  15 
minutes.  He  next  goes  to  the  2-year-old  court,  and  does  the  same  in  it ; 
and,  having  a  few  more  turnips  to  wheel  out  of  the  store  and  break,  he 
will  take  a  little  more  time,  say  20  minutes.  The  bulls  in  the  hammels 
may  take  10  minutes  to  clean  out  their  troughs  and  supply  them  with  their 
small  quantity  of  tui'nips.  And  the  same  time,  10  minutes,  may  suffice  to 
give  the  heifers  a  little  fresh  fodder,  for  they  should  not  get  cold  turnips 
on  empty  stomachs,  more  than  cows  ;  with  another  10  minutes  to  supply- 

(985) 


o06  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

ing  the  old  cows,  or  extra  beasts,  with  turnips.  Having  thus  given  all  the 
cattle  that  are  at  liberty  something  to  do  for  some  time,  he  returns  to  the 
cow-byre  with  a  bundle  of  fodder  of  fresh  oat-straw,  which  he  distributes 
among  the  cows,  and  which  they  ])ick  during  the  time  he  is  clearing  the 
byre  of  litter  and  dung ;  and  to  do  all  this  may  require  30  minutes. 
Shutting  the  princij)al  door  of  the  byre,  and  leaving  the  half-door  to  the 
court  open  for  air,  he  leaves  the  cows  with  the  fodder,  and  cleans  out  the 
servants'  cow-byre,  and  fodders  the  cows,  which  may  take  other  30  minutes. 
Taking  then  a  bundle  of  litter,  he  goes  again  to  the  byre,  and  spreading 
any  refuse  fodder  as  litter,  and  cleaning  out  the  troughs,  he  su])plies  the 
cows  with  tliiir  allowance  of  turnips,  and  shaking  up  the  straw  which  he 
has  just  broutflit  as  litter,  he  leaves  them  again  to  eat  and  rest  awhile.  All 
this  may  rc(|uire  otiier  30  minutes;  and  10  minutes  may  suffice  to  give  the 
heifers  their  small  (juantity  of  turnips,  and  the  old  cows  their  foddei  ,  and 
10  minutes  more  to  litter  the  servants'  cows,  the  servants  themselves  hav- 
ing su])j)lied  the  turni})s  as  they  choose.  All  the  cattle  having  now  been 
once  fed,  brings  the  time  to  25  minutes  past  10  A.  M.,  if  the  operations 
began  at  7  o'clock.  The  next  step  to  be  taken  is  to  supply  those  which 
get  as  many  turnips  as  they  can  eat,  with  fodder  and  litter,  and  for  this 
purpose  he  takes  the  fodder  fresh  from  the  straw-barn,  and  fills  all  the 
straw-racks  in  the  large  courts,  whether  in  the  open  air  or  under  the  shed. 
The  old  fodder  should  be  pulled  out  before  the  fresh  is  put  in  ;  but  this  is 
seldom  attended  to.  He  then  strews  the  open  courts  and  sheds  with  litter 
where  it  is  chiefly  required ;  namely,  along  the  side  of  the  troughs  where 
the  beasts  stand  to  eat  the  turnips,  and  where  they  have  lain  under  the 
sheds.  The  hammels  are  then  supplied  with  fodder  and  litter,  the  refuse 
fodder  probably  being  sufficient  for  the  latter  purpose,  as  long  as  the 
weather  in  dry.  The  l)ulls  and  heifers  should  also  have  fodder  and  litter. 
All  this  business  with  the  straw,  and  making  it  up  into  bundles  for  the  af- 
ternoon, may  take  up  /JO  minutes,  and  bring  the  time  to  1  past  11  A.  M. 
What  with  cleaning  out  the  troughs  and  supplying  the  hammels  and  courts 
again  with  turnips  of  the  midday  meal,  and  letting  out  all  the  cows — in- 
cluding those  of  the  servants — into  their  respective  courts,  12  o'clock  will 
have  arrived,  which  is  the  lutur  of  dinner  for  all  the  work-people.  The 
people  have  an  hour  to  themselves,  to  1  P.  M.,  to  refresh  and  rest.  At  1 
JP.  M.  the  cattle-man  resumes  his  labors  by  bunching  up  tciyulllngs  of  straw, 
which  are  .small  Imndles  having  a  twisted  form,  of  10  lbs.  weight  or  more 
each,  for  each  of  the  cows'  sujiper,  and  also  larger  bundles  in  the  ropes  for 
fodder.  Having  prepared  these  just  now  or  at  any  other  leisure  moment, 
he  takes  a  bundle  of  fodder  to  the  byre,  supplies  the  troughs,  and  brings 
the  cows  in  from  the  court,  and  ties  them  to  their  stakes.  He  does  the 
same  with  the  servants'  cows.  He  then  replenishes  the  straw-racks  in  the 
courts  and  hammels  with  what  little  fodder  is  required.  He  then  litters 
the  sheds  comfortalily  for  the  night.  He  lays  the  windlings  of  straw  in  a 
corner  of  the  servants'  cow-byre  for  the  night's  supjiering,  and  he  does  the 
same  in  the  other  byre  ;  and  the  reason  he  does  this  in  preference  to  let- 
ting them  remain  in  the  straw-barn  is,  to  avoid  the  dantjer  of  taking  a  light 
into  the  straw-barn  when  the  windlings  are  to  be  used.  By  the  time  al' 
this  business  with  the  straw  has  been  done,  it  is  time  to  give  the  cows 
their  second  meal  of  turnips,  so  that  they  may  have  them  eaten  up  before 
the  milk-maid  comes  again  at  dusk  to  niilk  them.  The  feeding  beasts  in 
the  hammels  are  then  supj)lied  with  turnips  broken  for  them,  then  the 
calves,  then  the  young  beasts  in  the  other  court,  and  then  the  bulls  and 
heifers,  in  the  same  order  as  formerly.  He  then  litters  the  servants' 
cows    for  the   night,  by  which  time   it  will   be  time  for  the  other  cows 

(986) 


REARING  AND  FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS.      507 

to  be  milked  ;  immediately  after  which  they  are  littered  for  the  night, 
and  the  doors  closed  upon  them,  and  thus  the  labors  of  the  day  are 
finished. 

(1235.)  In  thus  minutely  detailing  the  duties  of  the  cattle-man,  my  ob- 
ject has  been  to  show  you  rather  how  the  turnips  and  fodder  should  be 
distributed  relatively  than  absolutely;  but  at  whatever  hour  and  minute 
the  cattle-man  finds,  from  experience,  he  can  devote  to  each  division  of 
his  work,  you  should  see  that  he  performs  the  same  operation  at  the  same 
hour  and  minute  every  day.  By  paying  strict  attention  to  time,  the  cattle 
will  be  i-eady  for  and  expect  their  wonted  meals  at  the  appointed  times, 
and  will  not  complain  until  they  arrive.  Complaints  from  his  stock 
should  be  distressing  to  a  farmer's  ears  ;  for,  he  may  depend  vipon  it,  they 
will  not  complain  until  they  feel  hunger;  and  if  allowed  to  hunger,  they 
are  not  only  losing  condition,  but  rendering  themselves,  by  discontent,  less 
capable  of  acquiring  it,  even  should  their  food  happen  to  be  regularly 
given  them  for  the  future.  Whenever,  therefore,  you  hear  petitioning 
and  impatient  lowings  from  cattle  at  any  steading,  you  may  safely  con- 
clude that  matters  there,  in  so  far  as  regards  the  cattle,  at  least,  are  con- 
ducted in  a  very  irregular  manner.  The  rule,  then,  simply  is.  Feed  and 
fodder  cattle  at  fixed  times,  and  disj^ense  their  food  and  fodder  in  a  fixed 
routine.  I  had  a  striking  instance  of  the  bad  effects  of  irregular  attention 
to  cattle.  An  old  staid  laborer  who  was  appointed  to  take  charge  of  the 
cattle,  was  quite  able  and  very  willing  to  undertake  the  task.  He  was  al- 
lowed to  take  his  own  way  at  first  ;  for  I  had  observed  that  many  laboring 
men  display  great  ingenuity  in  arranging  their  work.  Lowings  from  the 
stock  were  heard  in  all  quarters,  both  in  and  out  of  doors  ;  and  they  inti- 
mated that  my  ancient  cattle-man  was  not  endowed  with  the  organ  of  or- 
der, while  I  observed  that  the  poor  creature  himself  was  constantly  in  a 
state  of  perspiration.  To  put  an  end  to  tliis  disorderly  state  of  things,  I 
apportioned  his  whole  day's  work  by  his  own  watch  ;  and  on  his  implicitly 
following  the  plan,  he  was  not  only  soon  able  to  satisfy  the  wants  of  every 
creature  committed  to  his  charge,  but  had  abundant  leisure  besides  to  lend 
a  hand  at  anything  else  that  required  temporary  assistance.  His  heart 
overflowed  with  gratitude  when  he  found  he  could  easily  make  all  the  ob- 
jects of  his  charge  happy  ;  and  his  kindness  to  them  all  was  so  sincere, 
that  they  would  have  done  whatever  he  liked.  A  man  better  suited  for 
this  occupation  I  never  saw. 

(1236.)  Now,  you  may  consider  that  all  these  minute  details  regarding 
the  treatment  of  cattle  are  frivolous  and  unnecessary.  But  the  matter  is 
really  not  so  ;  and  it  is  of  importance  for  your  own  interests  to  tell  you  so, 
for  you  will  admit  that  where  a  number  of  minutiae  have  to  be  attended 
to,  unless  taken  in  some  order,  they  are  apt  either  to  be  forgotten  alto- 
gether, or  attended  to  in  a  hasty  manner  ;  and  none  of  these  conditions, 
you  will  also  admit,  are  conducive  to  correct  management.  Observe, 
then,  the  number  of  minute  things  the  cattle-man  has  to  attend  to.  He 
has  various  classes  of  cattle  under  his  charge — cows,  fattening  beasts, 
young  steers,  calves,  heifers,  bulls,  and  perhaps  extra  beasts  besides  ;  and 
he  has  to  keep  all  these  clean  in  their  various  places  of  abode,  and  supply 
them  all  with  food  and  fodder  3  times  in  a  short  winter's  day  of  7  or  8 
hours.  Is  it  possible  to  attend  to  all  these  particulars,,  as  they  should  be, 
without  a  matured  plan  of  operations  1  The  cattle-man  requires  a  plan  for 
his  own  sake,  for  were  he  to  do  one  thing  just  when  the  idea  struck  him, 
his  mind,  being  guided  by  no  fixed  rule,  would  be  as  apt  to  forget  as  to 
remember  anything  he  had  to  do.  And  besides,  the  injurious  effects  which 
irregularity  of  attendance  tends  to  produce  upon  the  condition  of  animals, 

(987, 


608  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

seem  to  rentier  a  plan  f»f  operations  absolutely  necessary  to  be  adopted, 
Before  you  can  see  the  full  force  of  this  ol»servation,you  require  to  be  told 
that  food  given  to  cattle  in  an  irregular  manner — such  as  too  much  at  one 
time  and  too  little  at  another,  fretjuently  one  day  and  seldom  in  another — 
and  the  same  with  fodder  and  litter,  thus  surfeiting  tliem  at  one  time,  hun- 
gering them  at  another,  and  keeping  them  neither  clean  nor  dirty,  never 
ffuls  to  prevent  them  acquiring  that  fine  condition  which  better  manage- 
ment insures.  And  still  farther  to  show  you  its  force,  you  may  not  be 
sensible  of  any  deficiency  of  condition  ujider  the  most  inegular  manage- 
ment, from  the  want  of  the  means  of  comparing  your  beasts  with  others ; 
but  an  appeal  to  figures  will  show  you  the  risk  of  loss  you  are  uncon- 
sciously incurring.  Suppose  you  have  3  sets  of  beasts,  of  different  ages, 
which  should  get  as  many  turnips  as  they  can  eat,  and  each  set  to  contain 
20  beasts  ;  that  is,  60  beasts  in  all.  Suppose,  more<jver,  that,  by  iiregular 
management,  each  of  these  beasts  acquires  only  ^  lb.  less  of  bve  weight 
every  day  than  they  would  under  proper  management,  this  would  make  a 
loss  of  30  lbs.  a  day  of  live  weight,  which,  over  ISO  days,  the  duration  of 
the  fattening  season,  will  make  5,400  lbs.  of  live  weight,  or  (according  to 
the  common  rules  of  computation)  3,240  lbs.,  or  231  stones  of  beef,  which, 
at  6s.  the  stone  (not  a  high  price),  show  a  deterioration  of  c£69  6s.  in  the 
value  of  the  whole  herd  at  the  end  of  the  season.  The  question,  then,  re- 
solves itself  into  this.  Whether  it  is  more  for  your  interest  to  lose  this  sum 
annually,  or  make  your  cattle-man  attend  to  your  beasts  according  to  a 
regular  plan,  any  form  of  which  it  is  in  your  own  power  to  adopt  and 
pursue  ] 

(1237.)  What  I  have  narrated  above  applies  to  the  ordinary  mode  of 
feeding  cattle,  but  extraordinary  means  are  sometimes  applied  to  attain  a 
particular  object.  You  may  have,  for  instance,  a  pair  of  very  fine  oxen 
which  you  are  desirous  of  exhibiting  at  a  particular  show,  not  altogether 
for  the  sake  of  gaining  the  premium  offered,  but  partly  for  the  honor  of 
carrying  off  the  prize  from  contemporaries.  In  this  case  they  should 
have  a  hammel  comfortably  fitted  up  for  themselves  ;  that  is,  possessing 
all  the  means  of  satisfying  their  wants,  both  of  food  and  shelter.  Your 
ingenuity  should  be  taxed  to  devise  means  that  will  anticipate  every  de- 
sire ;  and  this  you  will  be  the  better  able  to  do  after  you  have  determined 
on  the  sort  of  food  you  wish  to  support  them  upon.  If,  regardless  of  ex- 
pense, you  will  present  a  choice  of  food,  there  should  be  a  trough  for 
sliced  Swedish  turnips — a  manger  for  bean-meal — another  for  bruised 
oats — a  third  for  broken  oil-cake* — a  rack  for  hay — and  a  trough  for  wa- 


[*  The  parta  of  this  disquisition  on  rearing  and  feeding  cattle  on  turnips  which  may  seem  not 
to  possess  nraotical  information  or  value  for  the  American  husbandman,  may  yet  be  read  with 
entertainment  as  affording  a  familiar  view  of  the  details  of  the  most  important  branch  of  agricul- 
tnral  economy  in  a  country  famed  for  its  advancement  in  the  arts  as  well  of  tillage  as  of  mana- 
facturo. 

Few  problems  can  be  of  more  consequence  to  a  great  number  of  farmers,  than  the  cheapest  and 
best  mode  of  fattening  stock.  There  is  a  sufficient  number  of  our  farmers  engaged  in  it  render  it 
a  matter  of  national  importance.  It  opens,  as  observed  by  an  able  writer  and  practical  fanner,  a 
wide  field  for  calculation  and  inquirj*  as  to  the  cost  per  pound,  of  putting  on  weight  according  to 
the  food  the  animal  is  fed  on. 

There  is,  no  doubt,  a  vast  difference  in  the  action  of  food,  in  producing  increased  weight,  de> 
pending  upon  its  quality  and  description,  the  mode  in  which  it  is  administered,  the  temper  and 
breed  of  the  animal,  and,  above  all,  whether  the  creature  is  placed  in  a  cold,  damp,  and  exposed 
situation,  (to  which  many  of  our  farmers  give  little  or  no  attention.)  or  in  nice,  comfortable,  dry 
and  warm  quarters. 

On  this  subject  we  particularly  recommend  the  reader  to  be  on  the  look-out  for,  and  to  read 
(988) 


REARING  AND  FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS.       509 

ter ;  for  water  at  will  I  conceive  essential  when  so  much  dry  food  is  ad- 
ministered. Then  there  should  be  abundance  of  straw  for  litter  and 
warmth,  and  a  regular  dressing  of  the  skin  every  day,  to  keep  it  both 
clean  and  healthy,  as  Jat  oxen  can  reach  but  very  few  parts  of  their  bodies 
with  their  tongue.  So  much  for  winter  treatment.  In  summer  they  should 
get  cut  clover  in  lieu  of  the  turnips  and  hay,  and  all  the  other  auxiliaries 
to  the  dry  materials  and  straw,  as  already  stated.  But  all  these  will  not 
avail  to  attain  your  object,  if  constant  attention  be  not  given,  and  every- 
thing conducted  with  the  utmost  regularity  in  regard  to  time.  True,  they 
get  as  much  as  they  can  eat,  but  then  what  they  eat  should  be  adminis 
tered  with  judgment.  It  will  not  suffice  to  set  an  adequate  portion  of 
each  sort  of  food  daily  before  them,  to  be  taken  at  will ;  one  or  more 
kinds  should  be  given  at  stated  times,  that  each  may  possess  the  freshness 
of  novelty  and  variety — not  all  at  one  time,  but  every  one  at  such  a  time 
as  one  or  both  the  animals  may  incline  most  to  have.  All  these  considera- 
tions demand  attention,  and  afford  exercise  to  the  judgment.  Oxen,  when 
thus  fattened,  cannot  travel  any  distance  on  foot ;  they  must  be  conveyed 
on  carriages  built  for  the  pui-pose,  and  even  on  these,  if  the  distance  is 
gi-eat,  they  will  fall  off  in  condition,  as  the  confinement  in,  and  motion  of, 
the  carriage  proving  irksome,  prevent  animals  taking  their  food  so  heartily 
as  they  would  do  at  home.  I  knew  a  3-year-old-off' bull  that  lost  30  stones 
live  weight  on  being  carried  partly  by  steam-ship  and  partly  by  railway  to 
a  show. 

(1238.)  The  names  given  to  cattle  at  their  various  ages  are  these  :  A 
new-born  animal  of  the  ox  tribe  is  called  a  calf,  a  male  being  a  bull-calf, 
and  a  female  a  quey-calf,  heifer-calf,  or  cow-calf,  and  a  castrated  male  gets 
the  name  of  stot-calf  or  more  commonly,  simply  a  calf.  The  term  calf  is 
applied  tci  all  young  cattle  until  they  attain  a  year  old,  when  they  are 
called  year-olds  or  yearlings,  saying  year-old  bull,  year-old  quey  or  heifer, 
year-old  stot  ;  stirk  is  applied  to  both  a  young  ox  and  quey,  and  stot  in 
some  places  means  a  bull  of  any  age.  In  another  year  they  are  named 
2-year-old  bull,  2-year-old  quey  or  heifer,  2-year-old  stot  or  steer.  In  Eng- 
land females  are  called  stirks  from  calves  to  2-year-old,  and  the  males 
steers.  The  next  year  they  are  called  2-year-old  bull  ;  females,  in  Eng- 
land, from  2  to  3-year-old,  heifers,  in  Scotland  'i-year-old  queys,  and  when 
they  are  kept  for  breeding,  and  bear  a  calf  at  that  age,  they  get  the  name 
of  cows,  the  same  as  in  England,  and  the  males  3-ycar-old  stots  or  steers. 
Next  year  the  bulls  are  aged,  the  coios  retain  that  name  ever  aftei",  and  the 
stots  or  steers  are  oxen,  which  they  continue  to  be  to  any  age  they  are  kept. 
A  cow  or  quey  that  has  been  served  by  the  bull  is  said  to  be  bulled,  and 
are  then  in  calf  and  from  that  cii"cumstance  are  called  in  England  in  calvers. 

attentively,  a  Pkize  Essay  on  Fat  and  Muscle,  that  we  shall  g^ive  in  an  early  number,  perhaps 
in  our  next,  which  will  be  the  last  of  the  Second  Volume. 

An  important  point  of  the  question,  says  the  writer  referred  to,  and  one  to  ■which  Mr.  Stephens 
does  not  seem  to  have  adverted,  is  the  comparative  worth  of  the  manvre  from  the  various  materi- 
als used  for  feeding'.  It  seems  to  be  admitted,  that  there  is  a  well  grounded  preference  for  that 
from  richly  fed  animals,  and  we  doubt  not  that  in  the  farther  progress  of  the  application  of  science 
to  the  .subject,  we  shall  have  an  accurately  graduated  scale  of  the  intrinsic  value  of  manures,  from 
every  kind  of  food,  vegetable  and  animal — from  dry  wheat  straw  to  oil  cake,  and  from  fish  to  fat 
mutton. 

The  extent  to  which  oil  cake  is  used  as  food  for  beasts  in  England  is  entirely  justified  on  the 
ground  of  the  additional  value  it  imparts  to  the  manure.  This  is  one  of  the  resources  for  feeding 
our  animals  and  our  land  that  American  Farmers  seem  as  yet  not  to  have  .studied  or  understood 
WTth  the  care  we  may  suppose  it  deserves  from  the  extent  to  which  it  is  practiced  in  other 
countries.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.\ 

'989\ 


510  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

A  cow  that  has  either  missed  being  in  calf,  or  has  slipped  calf,  is  said  to  be 
eill  ;  and  one  that  has  gone  dry  of  milk  is  called  a  ycld-corc.  A  cow  giv- 
ing milk  is  a  milch  cow.  When  2  calves  are  bora  at  one  birth,  they  are 
twins  ;  if  three,  trins.  A  twin  bull  and  quey  calf  are  called  free  7nartins, 
in  which  case  the  quey  never  produces  young,  but  has  no  marks  of  a 
hybrid  or  mule.  Cattle,  black  cattle,  horned-cattle,  and  neat-cattle,  are  all 
generic  names  for  the  ox  tribe,  and  the  term  beast  is  used  as  a  synonym. 
An  ox  that  has  no  horns  is  said  to  be  doddcd  or  humbled.  An  aged  bull 
that  is  castrated  is  called  a  segg  ;  and  a  quey  that  has  had  the  ovaries  ob- 
literated, to  prevent  her  breeding,  is  called  a  spayed  heifer  or  quey. 

(1230.)  Cows  are  kept  on  everj'  epecios  of  farm,  thougli  for  very  different  purposes.  On  carae 
and  pos/ortil  farms  thev  are  merely  useful  in  supplying  milk  to  the  farmer  and  his  servants.  On 
dairy  farms,  they  afford  butter  and  cheese  for  sale.  On  eovac  farms  near  large  loirnn,  they  chiefly 
supply  milk  for  sale.  And  on  farms  of  mixed  husbandry ,  ihey  are  kept  for  the  purpose  of  breed 
inp  young  stock. 

(l"j40.)  On  carse  and  pastoral  farms,  cows  receive  only  a  few  turnips  in  winter,  when  they 
are  dry.  and  are  kcjit  on  from  year  to  year  ;  but  where  the  farmer  supplies  milk  to  his  work  people, 
as  a  part  of  wages,  they  are  disposed  of  in  the  yeld  stale,  and  others  in  milk,  or  at  the  calving, 
bought  in  to  supply  llioir  place,  and  these  receive  a  large  allowance  of  turnips,  with  perhaps  a 
little  hay.  On  these  farms,  little  regard  is  paid  to  the  breed  of  the  cow,  the  fact  of  being  a  good 
milker  being  the  only  criterion  of  excellence. 

(1241.)  On  true  dairy  farms,  the  winter  season  is  not  a  favorable  one  for  making  butter  and  cheese 
for  sale  ;  for  do  what  you  like  to  neutralize  the  effect  of  the  usual  rooted  green  crops  on  these  pro- 
ducts}, and  especially  butter,  they  remain  unpalatable  to  the  taste.  The  cows  are  therefore  in 
calf  during  tliis  season,  and  receive  the  treatment  described  above  until  the  period  of  calving  in 
spring. 

(1242.)  In  and  near  large  towns,  the  dairy-man  must  always  have  milk  to  supply  his  customers, 
and  it  is  his  interest  to  render  the  milk  as  palatable  as  possible.  For  the  purpose  of  maintaining 
the  supph-,  he  buj-s  cows  at  all  seasons,  just  calved  or  about  to  calve.  He  disposes  of  the 
calves,  without  attempting  to  fatten  them;  and  to  render  the  milk  he  sells  palatable,  he  cooks  all 
the  food  partaken  of  by  the  cows.  When  tlie  cows  run  dry,  they  are  fattened  for  the  butcher, 
and  not  allowed  to  breed  again. 

(1243.)  The  cosvs  in  the  public  dairies  in  Edinburgh  are  supported  in  winter  on  a  variety  of 
substances,  namely,  turnips,  brewers'  and  distillers'  grains  called  draff,  dreg,  malt  comins,. barley, 
oats,  hayseeds,  chaff,  cut  hay.  One  or  more  of  these  substances,  with  turnips,  are  cooked  to- 
gether, and  the  usual  process  in  doing  this  and  administering  the  cooked  food,  is  as  follows: — 
Turnips,  deprived  of  tops  and  tails,  and  washed  clean,  arc  put  into  the  bottom  of  a  boiler,  and 
covered  near  its  top  with  a  quantitj-  of  malt  comins.  cut  hay,  hay-seeds,  chaff,  or  barley,  or  more 
than  one  of  these,  as  the  articles  can  be  procured.  Water  is  then  poured  into  the  boiler  sufficient 
to  boil  them,  and  a  lid  placed  upon  it.  After  being  thoroughly  boiled  and  simmered,  the  mess  is 
put  into  tubs,  when  a  little  pounded  rock-salt  is  strewed  over  it,  and  chopped  into  a  mash  with  a 
spade.  As  much  dreg  is  then  poureii  upon  the  mash  as  to  make  it  lukcw  arm,  and  of  such  a  con- 
sistence as  a  cow  may  drink  up.  From  1  to  IJ  siable-pailfuUs  of  this  mixture — from  40  to  CO 
pints  imperial — according  to  the  known  appetite  of  the  cow,  is  then  poured  into  the  trough  be- 
longing to  each.  The  trough  is  afterward  removed  and  cleaned,  and  the  manger  is  ready  for  the 
reception  of  fodder — hay  or  straw.  This  mc.ss  is  given  3  times  a  day,  after  the  cows  have  been 
milke<l,  for  dairy-men  understand  that  animals  should  not  be  disturbed  while  eating  their  food. 
The  limes  of  milking  are  6  A.  M.,  12  noon,  ami  7  P,  M.  The  sweet  milk  and  ci"eam  obtained  by 
these  means,  and  received  direct  from  the  dairy,  are  i>retty  good.  The  former  sells  in  Edinburgh 
at  Id.,  and  the  latter  at  Is.  the  imperial  pint.  Dr.  Cleland  states  the  price  of  sweet  milk  in  Glas- 
gow at  IJd.  the  imperial  pint. 

(1244.)  It  will  be  ob.sorved  that  none  of  the  articles  usually  given  to  cows  are  so  expensive  as 
oil-cake,  cabbages,  kohl-rabi,  or  cole-seed.  These  products  were  cmi>loycd  by  the  late  Mr.  Cur- 
wen  in  his  e.xperiments  to  ascertain  thecost  of  raising  milk  for  supplying  the  poor,  and  the  results 
show  they  left  him  very  little  profit." 

(124.').)  There  is  litile  milk  in  winter  on  a  farm  which  supports  cows  for  breeding  stock,  being 
only  derived  from  one  or  two  cows  that  are  latest  of  calving  in  spring.  All  the  spare  milk  may 
probably  be  eagerly  bought  by  cotters  who  have  no  cows;  but  should  that  not  be  the  case,  a  little 
butter  may  he  made  once  in  ten  days  or  a  foi'tnight,  w  liich  if  not  jialatable  for  the  table  may  be 
used  in  making  paste,  and  other  culinary  purposes.  A  little  saltpetre,  dissolved  in  water,  certainly 
modifies  the  rank  taste  of  turnips  in  both  butter  and  milk. 

(124ti.)  Cattle  are  fed  nn  otlier  substances  than  turnips,  either  with  themselves  or  in  conjunc- 
tion with  turnips.  Oil  cake  and  potatoes  are  the  most  common  substances  used  for  this  purpose. 
Linseed-oil  and  linseed  have  been  recommended,  and  many  arc  fed  at  distilleries  on  draff  wai 
dreg,  as  the  refuse  of  distillation  are  termed  ;  and  these'  are  sold  to  the  farmers  for  the  pur- 
no.se  of  feeding.  Oats,  barley-meal,  and  bean-meal,  have  al.so  been  pressed  into  the  service  of 
feeding  cattle. 

(1247.)  The  potatoes  used  in  feeding  cattle  are  either  the  common  kinds  known  in  human  food, 
or  others  rai.sed  on  purpose,  such  as  the  yam  and  ox-noble  ;  and  they  are  given  either  alter- 
nately witli  turnips,  or  together.    In  feeding  cattle  with  potatoes  of  any  kind,  and  in  any  way, 


Curwen's  Agricultural  Hinu. 
(990) 


REARING  AND  FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS. 


511 


there  is  considerable  risk  of  flatulency  and  choking.  To  prevent  the  latter,  the  potatoes  should 
be  smashed  with  a  hammer,  or  with  an  instrument  like  a  pavior's  rammer,  and  though  juice 
should  come  out  in  the  operation,  no  loss  is  incurred,  as  it  is  considered  of  no  service  in  feeding. 
To  prevent  flatulence  from  potatoes  is  no  easy  matter;  but  a  friend  of  mine  used  a  plan  which 
completely  answered  the  purpose,  which  was.  mixing  cut  straw  with  the  broken  potatoes.  The 
straw  obliging  the  cattle  to  chew  every  mouthfull  before  being  swallowed,  may  prevent  such  4 
large  quantity  of  gas  being  generated  in  the  paunch  as  bruised  potatoes  alone  would  do,  and  it 
is  this  gas  which  occasions  that  distressing  complaint  called  hoven.  A  farm-steward,  who  had  con- 
siderable experience  in  feeding  cattle  on  potatoes  on  a  led-farm,  always  placed  as  many  potatoes, 
whole,  before  cattle  as  they  could  consume,  and  they  never  swelled  on  eating  them,  because,  as  he 
conjectured,  and  perhaps  rightly,  they  do  not  eat  them  so  greedily  when  in  their  power  to  take  them 
at  will,  as  when  doled  out  in  small  quantities.  This  fact  confirms  the  propriety  of  mixing  cut 
straw  among  potatoes  that  are  given  in  small  quantities,  in  order  to  satisfying  the  appetite,  and 
filling  the  paunch  with  unfermentable  matter.  The  only  precaution  required  in  giving  a  full 
supply  of  potatoes  is  to  give  only  a  few  and  frequently  at  first,  and  gradually  to  increase  the 
quantity. 

(1248.)  Oilcake  has  been  long  and  much  employed  in  England  for  the  feeding  of  cattle,  and  it 
is  making  its  way  in  that  respect  into  Scotland  It  consists  of  the  compressed  husks  of  linseed 
after  the  oil  has  been  expressed  from  it,  and  is  formed  into  thin  oblong  cakes.  The  cakes  are 
broken  into  pieces  by  a  machine  described  in  fig.  264.  Cattle  are  never  entirely  fed  on  oil-cake, 
bLit  in  conjanciion  with  other  sub^tan^es,  as  turnips,  potatoes,  cuthay,  or  cut  straw.  When  given 
with  cut  hay  or  straw,  an  ox  will  eat  from  7  to  9  lbs.  of  cake  aday,  and  the  hay  or  straw  induces 
rumination,  which  the  cake  itself  is  not  likely  to  do.  When  given  with  other  substances,  as  tur- 
nips or  potatoes,  3  lbs.  or  4  lbs.  a-day  will  suffice.    A  mixture  of  oil  cake  and  cut  meadow-hay 

Fig.  259. 


THE  LEVER  TURNIP-SLICER  FOR  CATTLE. 

forms  a  very  palatable  and  nutritious  food  for  oxen,  and  is  a  favorite  one  in  England.     Oil-cake 
costs  from  £7  to  £10  a  ton. 

(1249.)  [Turnip-dicers  for  Cattle.  In  the  description  formerly  givenof  machines  for  cutting  tur 
nips  tor  sheep,  that  described  in  (1145)  may  be  again  adverted  to,  fig.  250,  the  wheel  turnip  cutter. 
Ihis  machine  is  equally  well  adapted  to  slice  for  cattle  as  for  sheep,  and  is  frequently  fitted  up  to 
slice  tor  cattle  only.  More  frequently  it  is  fiui.shed  as  described  with  the  cross-cutters,  fig.  258, 
and  when  wanted  to  slice  for  cattle,  the  croxR-cntters  are  removed.  This  is  easily  accomplished, 
by  hrst  Utting  the  slicing-knives  from  the  disk  of  fig.  250,  then  unscrewinijall  the  nuts  of  the  cross- 
cutters,  and  removing  them  from  their  places.  The  slicing-knives  are  then  as-ain  placed  as  be- 
tore,  and  the  machine  is  prepared  to  cut  the  turning  into  plain  .slices.  This  machine  costs  from  £4. 
48.  to  £5. 

(991) 


512 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


Fig.  260 


(1250.)  Lever  Tttrnip-tlicer.  One  of  the  cheapest  and  most  efficient  turnip-slicers  Is  represent- 
ed in  fifj-  2."i9.  It  was  brou^fht  before  the  Higliland  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland  by  Mr 
Wallace  of  Kirkcoiinell.  as  an  iaiprovcment  on  a  prei-xistinf^  machine  of  the  same  kind.'  It  haa 
since  undergone  some  farther  improvements  in  the  hands  of  James  Slight  and  Company,  Edin- 
bargh  ;  and  for  the  purpose  of  regular  and  perfect  slicing  of  turnips,  it  niaj'  be  held  as  as  the  beat 
and  cheapest  now  employed.  The  machine  as  produced  by  Mr.  Wallace,  is  represented  in  fig. 
259  ;  where  a  h  is  the  stock  or  sole  of  the  machine,  about  34  inches  long.  6  inches  broad,  and  2 
inches  in  thickness.  The  sole  is  in  2  pieces,  connected  by  an  iron  bar  or  strap  a  c,  whioh  is 
repeated  on  the  opposite  side,  and  the  whole  bolted  together,  as  in  the  fisiure.  The  2  pieces 
forming  the  sole  are  separated  longitudinally  from  each  other,  so  as,  with  the  two  side-straps  of 
iron,  to  form  a  rectangular  opening  of  9  inches  by  6  inches,  bounded  on  the  two  ends  by  the  part* 
of  the  sole,  and  on  the  two  sides  by  llie  side  straps,  which,  to  the  extent  of  the  openinc,  are 
thinned  off  to  a  sharp  edge,  and  thus  liurra  the  two  exterior  cutters  d.  c,  as  seen  in  tig.  260,  whick 
is  a  transverse  section  through  the  cradle  of  the  machine.  The  sole  is  supported  at  a  hight  of  2 
feet  upon  4  legs,  tig.  2.')9,  and  the  lever  d  e  is  jointed  at  d  by  means  of  a  bolt  passing  through  it  and 
the  ears  of  the  side-straps,  as  seen  at  (/.  The  lever  is  4  feet  in  length,  its  breadth  and  thickneaa 
equal  to  that  of  the  sole,  but  is  reduced  at  the  end  c  to  a  convenient  size  for  the  hand.  Two  cut- 
ter blocks  /'and  y  are  appended  to  the  sole  by  mortice  and  tenon,  and 
farther  secured  by  the  bolts  which  pass  through  the  side-strap  at  that 
place.  Into  these  blocks  the  remaining  cutters  h  k  and  i  i,  fig.  260,  are  in- 
serted in  correspon<ling  pairs,  and  also  secured  by  bolts ;  the  cutters  thus 
arranged  form  a  cradle-shaped  receptacle,  into  which  the  turnip  is  laid  * 
to  be  sliced.  The  lever  d  c  is  armed  with  a  block  of  wood  m,  loosely 
fitted  to  the  cradle  ;  and  its  lower  face  is  studded  with  iron  knobs,  the 
better  to  prevent  the  turnip  sliding  from  under  it.  The  transverse  sec- 
tion d  e  f  f,  fig.  2t)0.  .shows  the  position  of  six  cutters  d  e,  h  h,  and  j  i, 
as  inserted  in  the  wooden  block  d  e  ff;  and  k  I  is  the  lever,  seen  in 
section,  with  the  block  m  attached. 

(12.il.)  The  late  improvement  by  Me.ssr-s.  Slight  and  Companj'  con- 
sists in  the  application  of  ca.st-iron  knife-blocks,  which  give  greater 
strength  to  the  machine,  and  a  more  ready  and  secure  fixture  of  the  '^f, 
interior  knives,  and  of  introducing  8  cutters  instead  of  6,  which  makes 
a  more  convenient  size  of  slice.  Fig.  261  is  a  section  of  the  cradle,  as 
it  appears  with  the  cast-rron  knife-block ;  a  is  the  body  of  the  block 
which  is  attached  to  the  sole  through  the  medium  of  a  flange  behind, 
and  fixed  by  bolts.  The  external  cutters  A  b  are  a  part  of  the  side 
straps,  as  before ;  and  the  interior  cutters  are  fixed  in  pairs,  c  c,  d  d, 
and  c  e,  by  their  respective  bolts  passing  through  the  cutters  and  the 
block. 

(1252.)  In  using  this  machine,  the  workman  takes  hold  of  the  lever 
at  e,  fig.  259,  with  the  right  hand,  and  having  raised  it  sufficiently  high, 
he.  with  the  left  hand,  throws  a  turnip  into  the  cradle.     The  lever  is    transverse        section 
now  brought  down  by  the  right  hand,  which,  with  a  moderate  ini-    showing  the   positiok 
petus,  and  by  meansof  the  block  m,  sends  the  turnip  down  upon  the  cut-    of  the  cutters. 
ters,  through  the  openings  of  which  it  pa.sses  while  the  cutters  are  di- 
viding it.  and   the  whole  falls  away  in  perfectly  uniform  slices.    In  most  cases,  it  is  found 
more   convenient   to  have  u  boy  to   throw   in   the  turnips, 
and  this  will  .somewhat  expedite  the  work.     One  advantage 
of  this  turnip-slicer — and  it  is  an  important  one — is  that,  with 
unerring  certainty,  it  cuts  every  slice  of  uniform  thickness ; 
the  slab-slices,  indeed,  may  of  course  vary,  but  all  are  free 
of  the  smallest  portion  of  waste.     Its  cheapness  also  is  of  im- 
portance, especially  when  it  is  considered  that,  in  a  given 
lime,  it  will  slice  weight  for  weight  of  turnips  with  the  most 
elaborate  machine  in  use,  the  power  applied  being  also  equal. 
The  price  is  28s.  to  30s.     It  is  also  extremely  portable,  and 
can   be  carried  about  by  one    person.      An   objection   has 
been  urged  to  this  8licer,'namely,  f]u.t  the  turnips  must  all  be 
put  into  it  one  by  one  ;  and  it  is  p^haps  unnecessary  to  re- 
mark that  this  olijeciion  applies  to  all  turnii>  slicers.      For 
though  the  hopper  of  some  may  be  capable  of  containing  a 
number  of  turnips  at  one  time,  yet  that  number  may  be  con- 
sidered as  having  been  deposited  there  individually.     The 
price  of  the  lever  turnip  slicer  for  sheep,  as  in  fig.  245,  is  £3  108. 

(1253.)  Crofx  Tiirnipciiltrr.  There  is  another  verj'  simple  and  useful  turnip-cutter,  which  is 
frequently  used  when  thin  slicing  is  thoutiht  of  less  importance,  but  is  more  especially  useful 
where  the  cooking  system  is  adopted  for  either  cows  or  horses,  thin  slicing  being  in  such  cases 
not  called  for.  This'instrument  is  represented  in  fig.  262.  The  cutting  part  of  it  consists  of  2 
steel-edged  blades,  8  inches  in  length  and  4  inches  in  depth.  They  are  slit  halfandhalf  at  their 
middle  point,  so  as  to  penetrate  each  other,  standing  at  right  angle«,  forming  the  crossrxt/er.  a  a 
m  a.  They  are  then  embraced  in  a  four-split  palm,  and  riveted.  The  |),ilm  ternnnates  in  a  short 
shank  c,  which  is  again  inserted  into  the  hooped  end  of  a  wooden  handle  /'.  3  feet  in  length, 
which  is  finished  with  a  cros-shcad  c.  The  price  of  this  instrument  is  8s.  6d.  The  mode  of  using 
it  is  obvious.    It  is  held  by  the  hand  iu  a  vcitical  position  ;  and  when  ]>laced  upon  a  turnip,  one 


Fig.  261. 


THE  SECTli 


IN  OK  THE   IMPROVED 
CRAIM.E. 


Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society. 
(992) 


REARING  AND  FEEDING  CATTLE   ON  TURNIPS. 


513 


rnip 
Fig.  263. 


portions. 
Fig.  263. 


ihrast   downward  cuts  it  into  quarters.     This  instrument  is  also  varied  in  its  construction,  being 
sometimes  made  with  .3  and  even  with  4  blades,  dividing  the  turnip  into  6  or  into  8  portions. 

(125-1.)  Another  individual  form  of  the  same  spe- 
cies is  represented  by  fi^r.  263.  It  has  two  blades 
a  a;  but  they,  instead  of  crossing^,  stand  parallel  to 
each  other,  and  therefore  divide  the  turnips  into 
three  portions,  resembling  slices,  ot'  considerable 
thickness,  the  middle  one  being  1^  inches  thick.  In 
the  construction  of  this  cutter,  a  blunted  stud  is 
formed  at  the  extremities  of  each  blade,  and  there 
projects  below  the  cutting  edge  about  i  inch,  serv- 
ing as  guards  to  save  the  cutting  edges  from  re- 
ceiving injury  when  they  have  passed  through  the 
turnip,  or  otherwise  striking  any  hard  surface. 
These  guards,  it  may  be  remarked,  would  form  a 
useful  addition  to  all  this  class  of  cutters.  The  arms 
b  of  the  blades  rise  to  a  hight  of  9  inches,  widening 
upward  to  3|  inches,  to  give  freedom  to  the  midille 
slice  to  fall  out.  The  two  arms  coalesce  above,  and 
are  then  formed  into  the  socket  c,  to  receive  the  han- 
dle, which — as  in  the  cross  cutter,  fig.  262 — termi- 
nates in  a  crosshead. 

(12,i5.)  Oil-cake  Breaker. — Machines  for  prepar- 
ing oil  cake  for  more  easy  mastication  by  cattle  or 
sheep  are  made  in  a  variety  of  forms.  One  of  those 
forms  is  similar  in  principle  to  that  of  the  early  bone- 
crtjshing  machines  ;  namely,  a  revolving  axle,  arm- 
ed with  several  series  of  teeth,  whicli  are  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  pass  in  succession  through  the  intersti- 
ces of  a  line  of  strong  teeth  or  prong.?,  against  which 
the  cakes  lies,  and  is  reduced  to  fragments  by  the 
successive  action  of  the  revolving  teeth.  Of  this 
form  there  are  various  modifications,  all  serving  the 
same  purpose  with  nearly  equal  success. 

(1256.)  A  different  form  of  the  machine,  and  which 
is  held  superior  in  the  principle  of  its  construction,  >- 
is  here  exhibited  in  fig.  264,  which  is  a  view  of  the  -: 
machine  in  perspective,  wherein  a,  a.  a,  a,  are  the 
four  posts  of  a  wooden  frame,  on  which  the  ma- 
chinery is  supported.  The  frame  is  39  inches  in 
length  and  20  inches  in  width  over  the  posts  at  top, 
the  hight  being  33  inches,  b  b  are  two  top-rails, 
34  inches  in  length,  and  the  scantling  of  their  timbers  should  not  be  less  than  2j  inches  square. 
The  posts  are  supported  toward  the  bottom  by  the  four  stay-rails  c,c,c;  and  the  top-rails 
are  held  in  position  by  cross-rails  d,  one  only  of  which  is  seen  in  the  figure.  Of  the  machinery, 
the  acting  parts  consist  of  2  rollers,  studded  all  over  with  pyramidal  knobs  or  teeth.  These 
are  arranged  in  zones  upon  each  roller,  and  having  a  smooth  "space  or  zone  between  each  of 
ibejinobbod  zones;  the  knobs  of  the  one  roller  corresponding  to  the  smooth  space  in  the  other. 
The  rollers  e  and/ are  constructed  with  an  axle  or  shaft,  that  of  the  first  e  being  25  inches  long, 
and  of  the  second/23  inches,  and  each  l^  inches  square.  Journals  are  formed  upon  these  shafts, 
to  run  in  the  bearings  which  are  placed  on  the  top-rails  b  b,  as  afterward  described.  In  this 
figure,  e-g-  are  two  pinching  screw.s,  which  serve  to  regulate  the  distance  at  which  the  rollers  are 
to  work  and,  consequently,  the  degree  of  coarseness  to  which  the  cake  is  to  be  broken.  The 
wheel  //,  of  20  int:he.s  diameter,  is  placed  upon  the  .shaft  of  the  roller  e,  and  the  pinion  i,  of  3  in- 
ches diameter,  with  its  shaft,  and  the  winch-handle  k.  act  upon  the  wheel  h,  giving  a  very  consid- 
erable mechanical  advantage  to  the  power  which  is  jipplied  to  the  machine.  The  fly-wheel  I  is 
likewise  placed  upon  the  shaft  of  the  pinion  i,  and  is  requisitejn  this  machine  to  enable  the  pow- 
er to  overcome  the  unequal  resistance  of  the  work.  On  thewther  end  of  the  shaft  of  each  of 
tlie  rollers,  there  is  mounted  a  wheel  of  4i  inches  diameter,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  both  roll- 
ers at  the  same  speed.  These  wheels,  one  of  which  is  seen  at  m,  are  formed  witli  long  teeth,  to 
admit  ol  the  roller/  approat;hing  to  or  receding  from  the  other,  which  is  stationary  in  place.  A 
feeding  hopper  n  is  placed  over  the  line  of  division  of  the  two  rollers;  it  is  16^  inches  long,  3  in- 
ches wide,  and  14  inches  deep.  In  torming  the  hopper,  two  upright  nieces.  3  inches  by  2  in- 
ches, are  boiled  to  the  inside  of  the  top-rail,  their  position  being  between  the  .shafts  of  the  2  rollers, 
and  these  form  the  ends  of  the  hopper.  They  are  then  boarded  on  each  side,  which  completes 
the  machmo.  The  hopper  is  here  represented  in  section,  the  near  portion  of  it  bemg  supposed 
entirely  removed,  in  order  to  exhibit  more  distinctly  the  construction  of  the  rollers. 
_  (1257.)  Fig  265  is  a  farther  illustration  of  the  construction  of  the  rollers  being  a  transverse  sec- 
tion of  the  two,  a  a  are  the  shafts,  the  shaded  part  b  one  of  the  plain  disks  which  §o  to  form  the 
smooth  zones  on  the  body  of  the  roller  ;  it  is  4  inches  diameter  and  1  inch  thick  ;  c  is  one  of  the 
knobbed  disks,  its  body  being  of  the  same  diameter  and  thickness  as  the  fonuer ;  but  having  the 
4-sided  pyramidal  knobs  set  around  it,  the  diameter,  measuring  to  the  apex  of  the  knobs,  is  ex- 
tended to  6  inches.  One  roller  for  the  machine  here  described  requires  5  plain  and  6  knobbed 
disks,  beginning  and  ending  with  a  knobbed  disk.  In  the  other  the  arrangement  is  reversed, 
bringing  out  the  alternation  of  the  plain  and  knobbed  zones  before  alluded  to  as  more  distinctly 
represented  in  fig.  266,  which  is  a  plan  of  part  of  the  rollers,  c  c  being  two  of  the  knobbed  disks, 
and  bb  b  three  of  the  plain. 
(993) 33 


THE  HAND  TURNIP-    THE  HAND  TURNIP- 
CHOPPER,  WITH  CROSS   CHOPPER,  WITH 

BLADES.         PARALLEL  BLADES. 


614 


THE   DOOK  OF  THE   FARM. — WINTER. 


(1258.)  Fip.  267  represenU  one  of  thn  bearings  or  filummer  blocks  for  the  joamnls  of  the  rollera, 
a  is  the  bed  of  the  plummer  block,  b  aixi  c  the  bra».i  bushes,  and  d  the  cover.  The  bush  b,  which 
corresponds  to  tlie  roller  e,  tig.  264.  is  uiways  stationary,  while  c,  which  is  acted  upon   by  ibe 


Fig.  264. 


THE  OIL-CAKE  BREAKER. 


■crew,  is  advanced  tov,-ard,  or  withdrawn  from,  h,  as  the  size  to  which  the  cake  is  to  be  broken 
may  require.  These  plummerblocks  are  bolted  down  to  the  top-rails  of  the  frame,  to  which  also 
the  separate  bearings  of  the  pinig^^tft  are  likewise  bolted. 

Fig.  265.  Fig.  266. 


,\/    . 


THE  TRANSVERSE  SECTION  OF  THE  ROf.LEns. 


THE  PLAN  OF  TAUT  OF  A  ROLLER. 


11959.1  It  may  be  proper  to  remark  here  that  the  machine  now  described  is  of  a  good  mediam 
size,  and  with  a  man  to  drive  and  a  boy  to  fond  in  the  cakes,  it  will  break  about  half  a  ton  in  an 
hour.  The  price  is  from  £i  to  i.'4  10s.  The  amount  of  its  performance  can  be  augmented  or 
diminished  to  only  a  small  extent,  for  as  its  feed  in  noresHarily  confined  to  one  cake  at  a  lime,  the 
only  chanpe  that  can  be  made  on  it.s  production  mu.«it  depend  upon  tlio  celerity  of  its  motions. 
Hence  it  is  one  of  those  machines  that  cannot  easily  be  adapted  to  lar^c  and  to  smail  establish- 
(994) 


REARING    AND  FEEDING    CATTLE    ON    TURNIPS. 


515 


ments  with  any  view,  in  this  latter  case,  to  amelioration  of  form ;  for  the  almost  only  means  of 
doing  so  must  be  by  giving  it  a  quicker  or  slower  motion,  which  can  only  affect  the  expense  of 
construction  to  a  very  small  amount,  so  small  as  hardly  to  be  appreciable.    In  addition  to  what  is 


Fig.  267. 


1 


_ei 


■T^r- 


"C^ 


PART    OF    THE    TOP-RAIL,    WITH    PLUMMER   BLOCK. 

shown  of  this  machine  in  fig.  264,  the  rollers  are  frequently  covered  with  a  movable  wooden 
case,  which  gives  a  more  tidy  appearance  to  it,  and,  moreover,  it  is  always  desirable  that  the 
frame  below  should  contain  a  shoot  formed  of  light  boarding,  that  will  receive  the  broken  cake 
from  the  rollers,  and  deliver  it  at  one  side  of  the  machine  into  a  basket  or  other  utensil  in  which 
it  can  be  removed  to  the  feeding  stations. — J.  S.] 

(1260.)  Mr.  Brodie,  Abbey  Mains,  East  Lothian,  made  an  experiment  on  feeding  cattle,  from 
October,  1836,  to  June,  1837,  on  different  kinds  of  food.  There  were  4  lots  of  cattle,  consisting 
sf  5  each.  The  first  lot  was  fed  on  turnips  and  straw,  which,  being  the  usual  treatment,  formed 
the  standard  of  comparison.  The  second  lot  had  half  the  weight  of  turnips  and  30  lbs.  of  oil-cake 
a  day.  A  third  lot  was  fed  on  the  last  quantity  of  turnips  and  bean-meal  and  bruised  oats.  And 
the  fourth  had  distillery  grains  and  ground  beans.  The  value  of  the  cattle,  when  put  up  to  feed, 
was  jCl  1  a  piece,  and  tliey  were  of  the  Aberdeenshire  polled  breed.  This  is  a  summary  of  the 
cost  of  feeding : 

Lot  1.  White  turnips  at  8s.  4d.,  Swedes  at  128.  6d.  per  ton,  cost £53     9  10 

Average  cost  of  each  beast  per  week 0    6    3 

Lot  2.  Turnips  as  above,  oil-cake,  £7  15.s.  per  ton.  cost £48  16     0 

Average  cost  of  each  beast  per  week 0     5     9 

Lot  3.  Turnips  as  above,  bean-meal  5s.,  bruised  oats  3s.  6d  per  bushel,  cost £58  8  1 

Average  cost  of  each  beast  per  week 0  6  8 

Lot  4.  Turnips  and  bean-meal,  as  above,  draff  4s.  6d.  per  quarter,  dreg  Ss.  6d.  per 

puncheon,  cost £63  3  2 

Average  cost  of  each  beast  per  week 0  7  2 

The  ultimate  results  are  as  follows : 


Lots. 

Live  weight. 

Beef. 

Tallow. 

Hide. 

sts. 

sts.     lbs. 

sts.     lbs. 

sts      lbs. 

1. 

536 

283       3 

36     10 

27     13 

2. 

552 

295     10 

41       6 

29       6 

3. 

517 

280       7 

37       2 

26     13 

4. 

545 

280       0 

36     11 

25       7 

"  Upon  the  whole,"  concludes  Mr.  Brodie,  "  it  is  evident,  by  these  experiments,  that  feeding  with 
turnips  as  an  auxiliary  has  been  the  most  advantageous  mode  of  using  turnips,  as,  by  the  above 
statement,  it  is  apparent  that  if  the  cattle  of  the  first  lot  had  only  been  allowed  half  the  quantity 
of  turnips  which  they  consumed,  and  had  got  oil-cake  in  lieu  of  the  other  half,  as  was  given  to 
the  second  lot,  the  expense  of  their  keep  would  have  been  lessened  £4  13s.,  and  from  superior 
quality  of  beef,  their  value  would  have  been  increased  £10,  making  together  £14  ISs."*  Three 
remarks  occur  to  me  to  make  on  the  progress  of  this  expdl^ent ;  the  first  is,  that  if  the  cattle 
had  been  sold  on  the  7th  April,  1837,  when  they  were  adjudged  by  competent  farmers,  they 
would  not  have  repaid  the  teeder  his  expenses,  as  the  prime  cost  of  lot  first,  with  the  cost  of 
feeding  to  that  time,  amounted  to  £95  Is.  8d.,  and  they  were  only  valued  at  £82  ;  lot  second  cost 
£90  128.,  and  they  were  valued  at  £88  10s.  ;  lot  third  cost  £93  48.,  and  were  valued  at  £77 ; 
and  lot  fourth  cost  £97  4s.  5d.,  and  their  value  was  only  £81  10s.  And  this  is  almost  always  the 
result  of  feeding  cattle,  because  ripeness  only  exhibits  itself  toward  the  end  of  the  feeding  sea- 
son, and  it  is  only  after  that  state  of  condition  is  indicated  that  the  quality  of  the  meat  improves 
80  rapidly  as  to  enhance  its  value  so  as  to  leave  a  profit.  As  with  sheep  so  with  cattle  ;  with 
good  beasts  the  inside  is  first  filled  up  before  the  outside  indicates  fineness.  Another  remark  is, 
that  this  result  should  be  a  useful  hint  to  you  to  weigh  well  every  consideration  before  disposing 
of  your  fattening  bea.sts  in  the  middle  of  the  feeding  season.  The  last  remark  I  have  to  make  is, 
that  the  cattle  of  lot  first,  continuing  to  receive  the  same  sorts  of  food  they  had  alwaj's  been 
accustomed  to,  throve  more  rapidly  at  first  than  the  beasts  in  the  other  lots,  but  afterward  lost 
their  advantage  ;  thereby  corroborating  the  usual  experience  of  stock  not  gaining  condition  im- 
mediately on  a  change  of  food,  even  of  a  better  kind,  such  as  from  turnips  to  grass. 

(1261.)  Mr.  Mowbray  of  Cambus,  in  Clackmannanshire,   made  experiments  in  the  winter  of 
1839-40  on  feeding  cattle  with  other  than  the  ordinary  produce  of  the  farm,  but  as  the  cattle  wers 

*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  viii. 
(995) 


616  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

not  all  sold  at  the  same  lime  I  need  not  relate  tlic  (h-tails ;  and  I  mention  ilic  experiments  for  the 
■ake  of  some  of  the  roncluHituiA  that  maybe  deduced  from  them.  It  would  appear  that  cattle 
maybe  fed  on  tnrnips  and  hay  as  cheaply  as  on  turnips  and  straw,  for  this  reaixin,  that  whftn 
straw  is  piven  as  fodder,  more  turnips  are  consumed,  and.  therefore,  when  turnips  arc  .scarce,  hay 
mav  be  used  with  ailvantage.  It  also  appears  that  cattle  may  be  fed  cheaper  on  lii.-'tillerv  refuse 
of  ilraff  and  drei;  than  on  tnrnips  and  straw,  but  then  the  food  obtained  from  the  di.stillery 
requires  more  time  to  bring  cattle  to  the  same  condition,  which  in  some  circumstances  may  be  an 
inconvenience." 

(1262.)  Linnerd  oil  has  been  successfully  employed  to  feed  cattle  by  Mr.  Curtis  of  West  Rud- 
ham,  in  Norfolk.  The  mode  of  using  the  oil  is  this  :  First  ascertain  how  much  cut  straw  the  oxen, 
intended  to  be  fed,  will  consume  a  week,  then  sprinkle  the  oil,  layer  upon  layer,  on  the  cut  straw, 
at  the  rate  of  1  callon  per  week  per  ox.  The  mixture,  on  beini?  turned  over  frequently,  is  kept 
2  days  before  beine  us».'d,  when  a  slight  fermentation  takes  jilace,  and  then  the  oil  will  scarcely 
be  discerned,  having  been  entirely  ab.'iorbed  by  the  straw,  which  should  of  courst?  be  the  best 
oat  straw.  This  mixture,  when  compared  with  oil-cake,  has  stood  its  ground.  The  co.n  of  the 
oil  is  not  great,  its  averaire  price  being  about  348.  the  cwt.  of  12i  gallons,  a  gallon  of  fine  oil 
weighing  9.:)  Ih..  which  makes  the  feeding  of  an  ox  cost  only  '.Js.  lOd.  per  week.t 

(1263.1  Mr.  Curtis  has  fed  cattle  for  upward  of  20  years  upon  what  he  calls  ereen  mall,  which 
consists  of  steeping  light  barley  ••  for  48  hours  in  soft  water,  when  the  water  is  let  off  and  the 
barley  is  thrown  into  a  round  heap,  in  a  conical  form,  till  it  gets  warm  and  begins  to  sprout  freely. 
It  is  then  s[iread  out  and  turned  over  repeatedly  as  it  grows.  The  only  care  required  is,  that  the 
sprout  or  future  blade  does  not  get  cut  off,  as  the  malt  will  then  lose  much  of  its  nutritious  qual- 
ity." He  finds  this  substance,  which  costs  with  its  labor  Is.  a  stone,  preferable  to  oats  at  lOd.  in 
their  natural  stale.J 

(1264.)  A  method  of  feeding  cattle  has  been  adopted  by  Mr.  Wames,  Jr..  Triminaham,  Nor- 
folk, which,  in  a  manner,  combines  both  the  substances  used  by  Mr.  Curtis,  and  deserves  atten- 
tion. The  substances  consist  of  linseed-meal  and  crashed  barley.  The  barley  may  either  be 
nsed  malted,  that  is.  in  a  state  of  '•  green  malt,"  as  designated  by  Mr.  Curtis,  or  rrusiied  flat  by 
braising  cjlinders.  Crushed  oaLs,  boiled  peas  and  bean  flour  may  all  be  substituted  for  the  bar- 
ley, and  used  with  the  lin.seed  nioal.  The  mode  of  making  this  compound  is  thus  recommended 
by  Mr.  Warnes :  "  Put  168  lbs.  of  water  into  an  iron  cauldron  or  copper  or  boiler,  and  as  soon  as 
it  boils,  not  before,  stir  in  21  lbs.  of  linseeii  meal  ;  continue  stirring  it  for  5  minutes;  then  let  63 
lbs.  of  the  ci-ushed  barley  be  sprinkled  bv  the  hand  or  one  person  upon  the  boiling  mucilage, 
while  another  rapidly  stirs  and  crams  it  in.  After  the  whole  has  been  carefully  incorporated, 
which  will  not  occupy  more  than  5  minutes,  cover  it  closely  down  and  throw  the  furnace  door 
open.  Should  there  be  ranch  fire,  put  it  out.  The  mass  will  continue  to  simmer,  from  the  heat 
of  the  cauldron,  till  the  barley  has  entirely  absorbed  the  mucilage.  The  work  is  then  complete, 
and  the  food  may  be  used  on  the  following  day.  When  remove<l  into  tubs,  it  must  be  rammed 
down  to  exclude  the  air,  and  to  prevent  its  turning  rancid.  It  will  be  seen  that  these  proportions 
consist  of  3  parts  of  barley  to  one  of  lin.seed.  and  of  2  parts  of  water  to  1  of  barley  and  linseed 
included.  Al.'^o,  that  the  weight  of  the  whole  is  13  stones  when  put  into  the  cauldron  ;  but  after 
it  has  been  made  into  compound  and  become  cold,  it  will  be  found  in  general  reduced  to  some- 
thing less  than  15  stone.s,  which  will  afford  1  bullock  for  a  fortnight  1  stone  per  day,  containing 
11  lbs.  of  lin.seed.  It  will  keep  a  long  time  if  properly  prepared.  The  consistency  ought  to  be 
like  that  of  clay  when  formed  for  bricks."  In  regard  to  the  nutritive  properties  of  this  com{iound 
Mr.  Warnes  testifies  thus:  •'  The  last  of  my  experimental  bullocks  for  1841  was  disposed  of  at 
Christmas  at  8s.  6d.  per  stone.  He  weighed  60  stones  5  lbs.,  of  14  lbs.  to  the  stone,  and  cost 
£l  178.  fid.  thirteen  months  previously  ;  so  that  he  paid  £11  10s.  for  little  more  than  one  year's 
keeping?.  His  common  food  was  turnips  or  grass;  14  lbs.  a  da\-  of  barley  or  peas  compound  were 
given  him  for  48  weeks,  and  an  unlimited  quantity  the  last  5  weeks;  when,  considering  the 
shortness  of  that  time,  his  progress  was  perfectly  astonishing,  not  only  to  myself,  a  constant  sb- 
server,  but  to  many  graziers  and  butchers  who  had  occasional  opportunities  of  examining  him. 
Altogether  the  weight  of  compound  did  not  exceed  2  tons  4  cwts.,  at  a  cost  of  only  .£3  168  per 
ton."|| 

(1265.)  This  successful  result  obtained  by  Mr.  Warnes  shows  that  cattle  may  be  prnfilnhly  fed 
on  prepared  food,  though  the  result.*  of  several  experiments  which  have  been  made  by  farmers 
in  Scotland  lead  to  an  opposite  conclusion  ;  yet  Mr.  Warnes's  statement  contains  no  comparison, 
for  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  ^Hkious  materials  eniployeil  by  him.  namely,  linseed-meal  and 
bruised  barley,  would  have  fed  aOHDck  equally  well  in  their  naturally  cold  .state  as  when  cold, 
after  being  cooked  warm.  As  to  the  expediency  of  cooking  fooil  for  cattle,  Mr.  Warnes  goes  so 
far  in  opinion  as  to  .say  that  "  neither  oil  nor  linseed  should  be  used  in  a  crude  state,  but  formed 
into  mucilage  by  being  boiled  in  water ;"  but  this  opinion  was  evidently  given  when  the 
results  obtained  by  Mr.  Curtis  on  feeding  cattle  with  lin.seed-oil  in  a  crude  state,  were  unknown 
to  him  ;  for  although  he  admits  "  that  linseed-oil  will  fatten  bullocks,  experience  has  placed 
beyond  a  doubt.  Amonp  the  fattest  beasts  ever  sent  to  the  London  market  from  Norfolk  was 
a  lot  of  Scotch  heifers,  grazed  (?)  on  linseed-oil  and  hay."  Yet  he  adds :  "  But  the  quantity  given 
per  day,  the  cost  per  head,  or  anything  relative  to  profit  or  loss,  I  never  hcanl."  I  should 
therefore  like  to  sec  a  conipari.son  instituted  between  the  nutritive  properties  of  linseed- meal  and 
bruised  barley,  or  peas  or  bean-meal,  in  their  ordinary  state,  and  after  they  had  been  boiled  and 
administered  either  in  a  hot  or  cold  state,  and  also  between  the  profits  arising  from  both.  Until 
this  information  is  obtained,  we  may  rest  content  with  the  results  obtained  by  some  verj-  accurate 
experiments,  conducted  by  emitjent  farmers,  on  the  same  food  administered  in  a  warm  and  in  a 
cold  state,  and  which  go  to  prove  that  food  is  M«/>ro^/nW^  administered  to  cattle  in  a  cooked 
state.     I  shall  now  lay  some  statements  corroborative  of  this  conclusion  before  j'ou. 

*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Afrricultural  Society,  vol.  xiv.     t  Ibid.,  vol.  xiv.      J  Ibid.,  vol.  tAw. 
y  Wamcs's  Suggestion!  un  Fattening  Cattle. 
(996) 


REARING  AND  FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS. 


517 


(1266.)  The  first  I  shall  notice,  though  not  in  detail,  are  the  experiments  of  Mr.  Walker,  Per- 
rygate,  East  Lothian.  He  .selected,  in  February,  1833,  6  heifers  of  a  cross  between  country  cows 
and  a  Short-Horn  bull,  that  had  been  on  turnip.?,  and  were  advancing  in  condition,  and  divided 
them  into  2  lots  of  3  heifers  each,  and  put  one  lot  on  raw  food  and  the  other  on  steamed,  and  fed 
them  three  times  a  day — at  daybreak,  noon  and  an  hour  before  sun.set.  The  food  consisted  of  as 
many  Swedes  as  they  could  eat,  with  3  lbs.  of  bruised  beans  and  20  lbs.  of  potatoes,  |  stone  of 
Btraw  and  2  ounces  of  salt  to  each  beast.     The  three  ingredients  were  mixed  together  in  a  tub 

E laced  over  a  boiler  of  water,  and  cooked  by  steaming,  and  the  bruised  beans  were  given  to  the 
)t  on  raw  food  at  noon,  and  one  half  of  the  potatoes  in  the  morning  and  another  half  in  the  after- 
noon. It  was  soon  discovered  that  the  lot  on  the  cooked  food  consumed  more  turnips  than  the 
other,  the  consumption  being  exactly  37  cwt.  16  lbs.,  while,  when  eaten  raw,  it  was  only  2.5  cwte. 
1  qr.  14  lbs.,  the  difference  being  55  lbs.  every  day,  which  continued  during  the  progress  of  the 
experiment  for  3  months. 

(1267.)  Steers  were  experimented  on  as  well  as  heifers,  there  being  2  lots  of  2  each.  They 
also  got  as  many  Swedish  turnips  as  they  could  eat,  but  had  30  lbs.  of  potatoes  and  4^  lbs.  bruised 
beans,  2  ounces  of  salt,  and  |  stone  of  straw  each,  every  day. 

(1268.)  The  cost  of  feeding  the  heifers  was  as  follows  : 
'  heifers  on  steamed  food  :  Cwts.  qrs.  lbs. 

Consumed  of  Swedish  turnips,  37       0     16,  at  4d.  per  cwt £0  12     4J 

..     Potatoes 3       3       0,  at  Is.  3d 0     4    8 

..     Beans,  1  bushel..  0       2      7 0    3     0 

..     Salt 0    0    Oj 

Coals  and  extra  labor 0    2    0 


Cost  of  3  heifers  1  week,  or  78.  4|d.  per  week  each X,l  2 

3  heifers  on  raw  food  :  Cwts.  qrs.  lbs. 

Consumed  of  Swedish  turnips,  25       1     14,  at  4d.  per  cwt £0  8 

.-     Potatoes,  beans  and  salt,  as  above 0  7 


Cost  of  3  heifers  1  week,  or  5s.  5d.  each  per  week XO  16  3 

fl  slots  on  steamed  food  :  Cwts.  qrs.  lbs. 

Consumed  of  Swedish  turnips,  28       2      0,  at  4d.  per  cwt £0  7  10 

..     Potatoes 3       3       0,  at  Is.  3d 0  4  8 

..     Beans 0       2       7 0  3  0 

. .     Salt 0  0  0  J 

Coals  and  extra  labor 0  1  6 


Cost  of  2  slots  for  1  week,  or  8s.  6|d.  each  per  week £0  16     OJ 

2  etots  on  raw  food  :  Cwts.  qrs.  lbs. 

Consumed  of  Swedish  turnips,  17       2      0,  at  4d.  per  cwt £0     5  10 

..     Potatoes,  beans  and  salt,  as  above 0     7     8^ 

Cost  of  2  stots  for  1  week,  or  6s.  9^d.  each  per  week £0  13     6 J 

(1269.)    The  following  table  shows  the  progress  of  condition  made  by  the  heifers  and  stots : 


Cattle. 


Heifers  on 
steamed   food 

Heifers  on 
raw  food. 

Slots  on 
steamed  food, 

Stots  on 
raw  food. 


.1 


Average  live 
weight  of  3  at 
commence- 
ment of 
feeding. 


iSts. 
74 


84 
90 


Average 
live  weight 
of  3  at  end 
of  feeding. 


St8.  lbs. 
90     0 

89     3 

103     4 

106     5 


Average  in 

crease  of 

live  weight 

in  3 

months. 


Sts.  lbs. 

16  0 

15  0 

19  0 

15  0 


Average 

dead 

weight  of 

beef. 


Sis.  lbs. 
50     0 

50     1 

56  19 

58     6 


Average 

weight  of 

tallow. 


Sts.  lbs. 
7  11 


Average 

weight  of 

hide. 


St8.  lbs, 

3  12 

4  4 

5  12 
5     4 


Average 

weiirht  of 

offal. 

Sis. 

lbs. 

26 

9 

26 

10 

28 

3 

30 

4 

(1270.)   The  comparative  profits  on  cooked  and  raw  food  stand  thus : 

Live  weight  of  heifers,  when  put  to  feed  on  steamed  food,  74  sts.^42  sts.  4  lbs.  beef,  at  5s.  6d.  per 

stone,  sinking  ofFal £ll  12  7 

Cost  of  keep  12  weeks  5  days,  at  7s.  4^  d.  per  week 4  19  0 

Total  cost £16  11  7~ 

Live  weight  of  the  same  heifers,  when  finished  feeding  on  steamed  food,  90  sts.=50 

sts.  9  lbs.,  at  6s.  6d.  per  stone,  sinking  offal 16     9  \\ 

Loss  on  steamed  food  on  each  heifer £0     2  6j 

Live  weight  of  1  heifer,  when  put  to  feed  on  raw  food,  74  sts.=42  st.s.  4  lbs.  beef,  at 

5fl.  6d.  per  stone,  sinking  oftal £11   12  7 

Cost  of  keep  12  weeks  5  days,  at  5s.  5d.  per  week 3     8  lOj 

Total  cost £15     1  5i 

Live  weight  of  the  snme  heifer  when  finished  feeding  on  raw  food,  89  sts.  3  lbs.=:50 

sts.  1  lbs.,  at  6s.  6d.  per  stone,  sinking  ofl!al 16     5  ^ 

Profit  on  raw  food  on  each  heifer £14  0 

(997) 


518  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

Live  weight  of  1  slot  \\  hen  pot  up  to  feed  on  tUamed  food,  84  Bta.^50  sts.  4  lbs.,  at 

5s.  6a.  per  stone,  sinking  offal £13     4    0 

Cost  of  keep  \-2  weeks  5  days,  at  Ss.  ejd.  per  week 5     8     4^ 

Total  cost XIS  12  4': 

Live  weight  of  the  same  stot  after  being  feed  on  steamed  food,  104  sis.  7  lbB.^56  sta. 

10  lbs.,  at  68.  tid.  per  slone,  sinking  offal 18  8  TJ 

Profit  on  each  stot  on  steamed  food £0  3  8| 

Live  weight  of  1  stot  when  put  on  rair  food,  90  8tfl.=51  sts.  6  lbs.,  at  Ss.  6d.  per  stone, 

sinking  the  offal Xl4  2  lOj 

Cost  of  1  -2  weeks  5  days'  keep,  at  68.  9id.  per  week 4  6  1 

Total  cost X18     8  UJ 

Live  weight  of  the  same  stot  after  being  fed  on  raw  food,  106  sts.  7  lbs.=58  sts.  6  lbs., 

at  68.  6d.  per  stone,  sinking  offal 18  19    9J 

Profit  on  each  stot  on  raw  food £0  10  10 

(1271.)  The  facts,  brought  out  in  thi.s  experiment,  are  theee:  It  appears  that  tnmips  lose 
weight  on  being  steamed.  For  example.  '>  Ions  8  cwts.  only  weighed  4  tons  4  cwts.  3  qrs.  16  lbs. 
after  being  steamed,  having  lost  1  ton  3  cwts.  12  lbs.  or  1-6  of  weight :  and  they  also  lost  1-5  of  bulk 
when  pulled  fresh  io  February  ;  but  on  bemg  pulled  in  April  the  lo.ss  of  weight  in  steaming  de- 
creased to  1-6.  Potatoes  did  not  lose  above  1-50  of  their  weight  by  steaming,  and  none  of  their 
bulk.  The  heifers  on  steamed  food  not  only  consumed  a  greater  weight  of  fresh  turnips,  in  the 
ratio  of  37  to  25,  but  after  allowine  for  the  loss  of  steaming,  they  consnmcd  more  of  tlie  steamed 
tamips.  Thus,  after  deducting  1  5  from  37  cwt-s.  16  lbs. — the  weiirht  lost  in  steaming  them— the 
balance,  29  cwts.  2  qrs.  17  lbs.,  is  more  than  the  25  cwts.  1  qr.  14  lbs.  of  raw  turnips  consumed,  by  4 
cwts.  1  qr.  3  Ib.s.  All  the  cattle,  both  on  the  steamed  and  raw  food,  relished  salt ;  so  much  so,  that 
when  it  was  withheld,  they  would  not  eat  their  food  with  the  avidity  they  did  when  it  was 
returned  to  them. 

(1272.)  Steamed  food  should  always  be  given  in  a  fresh  state — that  is,  new  made  ;  for,  if  old,  it 
becomes  .sour,  when  cattle  will  scarcely  touch  it,  and  the  sourer  it  is  they  dislike  it  the  more. 
"  In  short,"  says  Mr.  Walker.  "  the  quantity  they  would  consume  might  have  been  made  to  agree 
to  the  fresh  or  sour  state  of  the  food  when  presented  to  them.  .  .  .  We  are  quite  aware  that 
to  have  done  a  large  quantity  at  one  steaming  would  have  lessened  the  expense  of  coal  and  labor, 
and,  also,  by  getting  sour  before  being  used,  saved  a  great  quantity  of  food  ;  but  we  are  equally 
well  aware  that,  by  so  doing,  we  never  could  have  fattened  our  cattle  on  steamed  food." 

(1273.)  An  inspection  of  the  above  table  will  show  that  both  heifers  and  slots  increased  more 
in  live-weight  on  steamed  than  on  raw  food  ;  the  larger  protit  derived  from  the  raw  food  arising 
solely  from  the  extra  expense  incurred  in  cooking  the  food.  It  appears,  however,  that  a  greater 
increase  of  tallow  is  derived  from  raw  food.  The  results  appear  nearly  alike  with  heifers  and 
Blots  of  the  same  age  -,  but  if  the  slots  were  of  a  breed  posses.«ing  less  fattening  properties  than 
cross-bred  heifers — and  Mr.  Walker  does  not  mention  their  breed — then  they  would  seem  to  ac- 
quire greater  weitfht  than  heifers,  which  I  believe  is  the  usual  experience.  The  conclusion  come 
to  by  Mr.  Walker  is  this :  "  We  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that,  in  every  respect,  the  advantage 
is  in  favor  of  feedincr  with  raw  food.  But  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  difference  in  the  con- 
sumption of  food  arises  on  the  turnips  alone.  We  would  therefore  recommend  everj-  person 
wishing  to  feed  cattle  on  steamed  food  to  use  potatoes,  or  any  other  food  that  would  not  lose 
bulk  and  weight  in  the  steaming  process,  as  there  is  no  question  but.  in  doing  t-o,  they  would 
be  brought  much  nearer  to  each  other  in  the  article  of  expense  of  keep.  .  .  .  Upon  the 
whole,  we  freely  give  it  as  our  opinion  that  steaming  food  for  cattle  will  never  be  attended  with 
beneficial  results  under  any  circumstances  whatever,  because  it  requires  a  more  watchful  and 
vigilant  superintendence  during  the  whole  process  than  can  ever  be  delegated  to  the  common 
run  of  servants,  to  bring  the  cattle  on  steamed  food  even  upon  a  footing  of  equality,  far  less  a 
iui>eriority.  to  tho.sc  fed  on  raw  food."* 

(1274.)  One  of  the  slots  that  had  been  fed  on  raw  and  another  on  steamed  food  were  kept  and 
put  to  grass.  In  their  external  condition  no  one  was  capable  of  judging  how  they  had  been  fed. 
They  were  put  to  excellent  grass  on  the  20th  May,  and  the  slot  on  raw  food  gained  condition 
until  20th  July,  when,  perhaps,  the  pasture  may  have  heirun  to  fail.  That  on  steamed  food  fell 
off  to  that  time  3  stones  live  weignt.  On  20ili  August  both  were  put  on  cut  grass,  and  both 
improved,  especially  the  one  that  had  been  on  steamed  food,  until  the  18th  October,  when  both 
were  put  on  turnips,  on  which  both  became  alike  by  the  lOlh  November,  relatively  to  what  they 
were  at  the  beginnins  of  the  season  ;  that  is,  the  slot  that  had  been  on  raw  food  mcreased  from 
108  to  120  stones,  anii  the  other  from  106  to  118  stones,  live  weight 

(1275.)  Similar  results  as  to  profit  were  obtained  by  the  experimenls  of  Mr.  Howden.  Law- 
heaii,  East  Lothian.  "To  me,"  he  says,  "it  has  been  most  dccidrdly  shown  that  jirepuring  fbod 
in  this  way  [by  sti-aming]  is  anything  but  profitable.  Local  advantages — such  as  fuel  and  water 
being  at  hand — may  enable  some  others  to  steam  at  less  expense ;  but  in  such  a  situation  as 
mine,  I  am  satisfied  that  there  will  be  an  expense  of  lOs.  a  head  upon  cattle  incurred,  by  the 
practice.  A  single  horse-load  of  coals,  carriage  included,  costs  me  10s. ;  and  exactly  6  cartloads 
were  required  and  used  in  preparinir  the  fooil  for  cattle,  equal  to  68.  8d.  each,  and  probably  as  much 
more  would  not  be  an  over-estimate  for  the  additional  labor  in  the  3  months."  A  few  facta, 
worthy  of  attention,  have  been  broupht  to  light  by  Mr.  Howden's  experiment.  It  seems  that  raw 
potatoes  and  water  will  make  cattle  fat — a  point  which  has  been  questioned  by  some  of  our  best 
farmers.  Potatoes,  beans  and  oats,  taken  together,  will  feed  cheaper,  in  reference  to  time,  than 
turnips  or  potatoes  separately  ;  and  from  this  fact  may  be  deduced  these,  namely,  that  potatoes, 
when  used  alone,  to  pay  their  expense,  would  require  the  beef  fed  by  them  to  fetch  4d.  per  lb. ; 

*  1  r.z"  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  x. 
(ai^8) 


REARING  AND  FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS.      519 

turnips  alone,  Sjd. ;  and  potatoes  and  com  together,  3d.,  and  at  the  same  time  yielding  beef  of  finer 
quality.  There  is  a  curious  fact  to  be  observed  in  the  table  given  by  Mr.  Howden.  Of  6  heifers, 
1  in  a  lot  of  3  weighed  1022  lbs. ;  and  another,  in  another  lot  of  3,  weighed  al.so  1022  lbs.,  on  5th 
March,  when  both  were  put  up  to  be  experimented  on  ;  and  on  the  5th  June  following  both  were 
of  the  same  weight,  namely,  1176  lbs.,  both  showing  exactly  an  increase  of  154  lbs.;  both  being 
supplied  with  the  same  weight  of  food,  namely,  140  lbs.  of  turnips,  to  the  one  given  raw,  to  the 
other  cooked.  This  is  a  remarkable  coincidence  ;  but  here  it  ends,  and  the  superiority  of  cooked 
food  becomes  apparent;  for  the  beef  of  the  heifer  fed  on  raw^  turnips  weighed  5  sts.  12  lbs.  and  its 
tallow  5  sts.  10  lbs. ;  whereas,  the  beef  of  the  one  fed  on  steamed  turnips  weighed  44  sts.  4  lbs., 
and  its  tallow  6  sts.  22  lbs.  How  is  this  to  be  accounted  for  ?  Partly,  no  doubt,  in  the  cooking  of 
the  food  ;  but  partly,  I  should  suppose,  from  the  state  of  the  animal  indicated  by  its  hide,  the 
the  thinner  one  of  the  heifer  fed  on  steamed  turnips  weighing  3  sts.  10  lbs.,  showing  a  greater 
disposition  to  fatten — that  is.  to  lay  on  more  rapidly  the  valuable  constituents  of  beef  and  tallow^ — 
than  the  thicker  hide  of  the  other  heifer  fed  on  raw  turnips,  which  weighed  4  sts.  4  lbs.  It  is  but 
justice,  however,  to  the  raw  turnips  to  mention  a  fact  to  which  Mr.  Howden  adverts.  The  tur- 
nips appropriated  to  the  experiment  were,  it  seems,  stored  against  a  wall,  one  store  having  a 
northern  and  the  other  a  western  aspect;  but  whether  from  aspect,  or  dampness,  or  other  cause, 
tliose  intended  to  be  eaten  raiu  had  fermented  iu  the  store  awhile  before  being  observed,  and 
thus,  becoming  unpalatable,  of  the  18  tons  15  cwts.  stored,  about  2i  tons  were  left  uncon.sunied  ; 
so  that,  in  fact,  the  heifers  upon  raw  turnips  did  not  receive  so  much  food,  or  in  so  palatable  a 
state  as  those  on  the  steamed.  It  seems  steaming  renders  tainted  turnips  somewhat  palatable, 
while  it  has  a  contrary  effect  on  tainted  potatoes,  the  cattle  preferring  these  raw.  Turnips  re- 
quire a  longer  time  to  steam,  and  according  to  Mr.  Howdeii's  experience,  they  lose  \  or  1-10 
more  of  iheir  weight  than  potatoes.*  You  may  observe,  from  the  state  of  the  turnips  in  the  store, 
the  injudicioasness  of  storing  them  agoinst  a  wall,  as  I  have  before  observed  (1019). 

(1276.J  Mr.  Boswell  of  Kingcausie,  in  Kincardineshire,  comes  to  the  same  conclusion  in  regard 
to  the  unprofitableness  of  feeding  cattle  on  cooked  food.  He  says,  "  It  appears  that  it  is  not 
worth  the  trouble  and  expense  of  preparation  to  feed  cattle  on  boiled  or  steamed  food  ;  as,  al- 
though there  is  a  saving  in  food,  it  is  counterbalanced  by  the  cost  of  fuel  and  labor,  and  could  only 
be  gone  into  profitably  where  food  is  very  high  in  price  and  coal  very  low."  His  experiments 
were  made  on  10  dun  Aberdeenshire  homed  cattle,  very  like  one  another,  and  their  food  consisted 
of  the  Aberdeen  yellow  bullock-turnips  and  Perthshire  red  potatoes.  The  5  put  on  raw  food 
weighed  alive  228  stones  11  lbs.,  and  the  other  5  on  cooked  food  224  stones  6  lbs.  imperial.  When 
slaughtered,  the  butcher  considered  both  beef  and  tallow  "  to  be  perfectly  alike."  Those  fed  on 
raw  food  co.st  X32  2s.  Id.,  and  those  on  cooked  £Zi  5s.  lud.,  leaving  a  balance  of  expense  of  £2 
38.  9d.  in  favor  of  the  former.  The  opinions  of  feeders  of  cattle  are  not  alike  on  all  points.  Thus, 
Mr.  Boswell  says,  "  The  lot  on  raw  consumed  much  more  food  than  those  on  steamed,"  a  fact  di- 
rectly the  reverse  of  that  stated  by  Mr.  Walker  in  (1266).  •'  Twice  a  week,  on  fixed  days,"  he 
continues,  "  both  lots  got  a  small  quantity  of  the  tops  of  common  heath,  which  acted  in  the  way 
of  preventing  any  scouring  ;  in  fact,  turnip-cattle  seem  very  fond  of  heather  as  a  condiment."  .  .  . 
"  The  dung  of  the  steamed  lot  was  from  first  to  last  in  the  best  state,  without  the  least  appearance 
of  purging,  and  was  free  of  that  abominable  smell  which  is  observed  when  cattle  are  fed  on  raw 
potatoes,  or  even  when  a  portion  of  their  food  consists  of  that  article.  Another  fact  was  observed, 
that  after  the  steamed  lot  had  taken  to  their  food,  they  had  their  allowance  finished  sooner  than 
the  raw  lot,  anil  were  therefore  sooner  able  to  lie  down  and  ruminate."  There  is  a  curious  fact 
mentioned  by  Mr.  Boswell  regarding  a  preference  and  dislike  shown  by  cattle  for  turnips  in  dif- 
ferent states.  "  When  raw  turnips  and  potatoes  were  put  into  the  stall  at  the  same  time,  the  po- 
tatoes were  always  eaten  up  before  a  turnip  was  ta.sted  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  steamed  tur 
nips  were  eaten  in  preference  to  steamed  potatoes."! 

(1277.)  Some  curious  and  interesting  facts  have  been  arrived  at  by  Mr.  Stephenson,  Whitelaw, 
East  Lothian,  in  his  experience  of  feeding  cattle.  They  are  detailed  by  him  in  a  paper  on  feed- 
ing different  lots  of  cattle,  not  with  cooked  and  raw  food,  but  with  different  sorts  of  food  in  a  raw 
state.  He  divided  a  number  of  cattle  into  3  lots,  containing  6  in  each  lot,  and  fed  one  on  oil  cake, 
bruised  beans,  and  bruised  oats,  in  addition  to  whatever  quantity  of  turnips  they  could  eat,  and 
potatoes  for  the  last  few  days  of  the  experiment;  another  lot  received  the  same  sort  of  food, 
with  the  exception  of  the  oilcake  ;  and  the  third  lot  was  fed  entirelv  on  turnips.  The  live  weights 
of  the  lots  varied  considerably  from  486  to  346|  imperial  stone.s.  i  need  not  detail  tlie  particulars 
of  the  experiment,  which  was  conducted  from  November,  1834,  to  March,  1835,  for  17  weeks,  as 
they  present  nothing  remarkable  ;  but  their  results  are  worthy  of  your  attention. 

(1278.)  Each  beast  in  the  lot  that  got  oil-cake  cost,  in  17  weeks,  £5  2s.  7d.,  or  6.s.  per  week; 
in  the  lot  fed  on  corn,  £3  17s.,  or  4s.  6d.  per  week  ;  and  in  that  fed  etitirely  on  turnips,  £1  18s.' 
7Jd.,  or  2s.  3d.  a  week.  Estimating  the  value  of  the  fed  beef  at  6s.  6d.  per  imperial  stone,  there 
was  a  loss  of  12J  per  cent,  sustained  on  the  lot  fed  on  oil-cake  ;  a  gain  of  8^  per  cent,  on  tliat  fed 
on  corn  ;  and  a  gain  of  22  per  cent,  on  that  fed  entirely  on  turnips. 

(1279.)  This  was  the  cost  incurred  for  producing  every  1  lb.  of  increase  of  live  weight,  the  lot 
fed  on  oil  cake  increasing  from  486  to  594  stones;  that  on  corn  from  443  to  544  stones;  and  that 
on  turnips  from  346i  to  395^  stones. 

The  oil-cake  cost  4  9-10  pence  to  produce  1  lb.  of  live  weight 
..    corn  ..  3  9-10 

..   turnips      ..  4  4-10       .,  ..  ..  . . 

It  thus  appears  that  the  joint  agency  of  com  and  turnips  produces  1  lb.  of  live  weight  at  the 
cheapest  rate  of  the  three  modes  adopted. 


•  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  x.  t  Ibid.,  vol.  x. 


520  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

(1280.)  Another  conclusion  come  to  from  the  data  Bupplied  by  this  experiment  is,  that  it  took — 
90  lbs.  of  lurnips  to  produce  1  lb.  of  live  weight. 

40  11)8.  of  potatoes 

8 'i  10  lbs.  of  com 
21  8-10  lbs.  of  oilcake     .. 

And  the  cost  of  doing  this  was  aa  follows: 

90  lbs.  of  turnips,  at  4d.  per  cwt 3  2-lOd.  per  1  lb.  of  live  weight. 

40  lbs.  of  potatoes,  at  1h.  6d.  per  cwt 6  4-lOd. 

8  7-10  lbs.  of  corn  at  38.  3d.  per  bushel  of  60  lbs 5  7  lOd. 

21  8-10  lb.s.  of  oilcake,  at  Jd.per  lb.  or  X~  per  ton 16  3-lOd. 

Could  these  results  be  proved  to  be  altsolu/cli/  correct,  there  would  be  no  difficulty  of  assigning 
the  degree  of  profit  to  be  derived  from  employing  any  of  these  subs  anccs  in  the  feeding  of  cattle. 
Is  not  the  infjiiiry,  however,  of  as  much  importance,  even  in  a  national  point  of  view,  as  to  de- 
serve investigation  at  some  sacrifice  of  both  cost  ami  trouble  ? 

(1281.)  You  should  not  suppose  that  cattle  consume  food  of  any  sort  in  a  uniform  ratio  ;  for  see 
actual  results.  The  lot  that  v^as  fed  entirely  on  turnips  increased  in  the  first  32  days  of  the  ex- 
periment only  8  stones,  whereas  the  same  beasts,  in  40  days  immediately  preceding  lho.«e  on 
which  the  e.x'periment  began,  increased  48J  stones;  and  in  one  8  days  of  tlie  46  they  con.sumed 
160  8-10  lbs.  each  of  while  globe  turnips  every  day,  and  increased  1  lb.  of  live  weight  for  every 
65  4-10  lbs.  of  lurnips  consumed.  The  DO  lbs.  taken  above  as  the  quantity  of  turnips  required  to 
produce  1  lb.  of  live  weight  is  therefore  not  ab.solute,  but  a.«sumed  as  a  medium  ijuantity,  for  it 
will  happen  that  1,000  lbs.  will  not  produce  1  lb.  of  live  weight  What  the  circumstances  are 
which  regulate  the  tendencies  of  catile  to  fatten,  are  yet  unknown.  The  fact  is,  cattle  consume 
very  different  (juantilies  of  lurnips  in  different  stales  of  condition,  consuming  more  wiien  lean,  in 
proportion  to  their  weight,  than  when  fat.  A  lean  bea.st  will  eat  twice,  or  perhaps  thrice,  as  ma- 
ny turnips  as  a  fat  one,  and  will  devour  as  much  as  I  part  of  his  own  weight  every  day,  while  a 
very  fat  one  will  not  consume  1-10.  1  had  a  strikini;  e,\ainple  of  this  one  year,  when  I  bought  a 
very  lean  2-ycarold  steer,  a  cross  betwixt  a  Short-Horn  bull  and  Angus  cow,  for  i6  in  April ; 
and  he  was  a  large-boned,  thriving  creature,  but  his  bones  were  cutting  ihc  skin.  He  was  im- 
mediately put  on  Swedish  turnips  ;  and  the  few  weeks  he  was  on  them,  before  being  turned  to 
grass,  he  could  hardly  be  satisfied,  eating  three  times  as  much  as  the  fat  beasts  in  the  same  ham- 
mel.  He  was  grazed  in  summer,  and  fed  off  on  turnips  and  sold  in  April  following  for  17 
guineas.  Some  slots  of  Mr.  Stephenson's,  in  November,  eat  2  7-10  lbs.  for  every  stone  of  live 
weight  they  weighed;  the  year  after  the  quantity  decreased  to  1  9-10  lbs.,  and  after  the  experi- 
ment was  included,  when  their  live  weights  were  nearly  doubled,  they  consumed  only  1  5-10  lbs. 

(1282.)  The  object  which  Mr.  Stephenson  had  in  conducting  the  experiment  the  results  of  which 
arc  narrated  above,  were  fourfold  :  1.  To  compare  cattle  fed  partly  on  oil-cake  with  those  which 
had  none ;  2.  To  compare  those  fed  partly  on  corn  with  those  which  had  none  ;  and  3.  To  com- 
pare those  fed  solely  on  turnips  with  those  which  had  different  sorts  of  food.  The  results  were, 
that  oil  cake  is  an  unprofitable  food  for  cattle,  that  corn  yields  a  small  profit,  that  turnips  are 
profitable,  and  that  when  potatoes  can  be  sold  at  Is.  Cil.  per  cwt.  thej- are  also  unprofitable. 
•'When  any  other  food  than  turnips,"  ob.serves  Mr.  Stephenson,  '  is  desired  for  feeding  cattle, 
we  would  recommend  bruised  beans  as  being  the  most  efficient  and  least  expensive  ;  on  this  ac- 
count we  would  prefer  bruised  beans  alone  to  distillery  offal.  As  regards  linseed-cake,  or  even 
potatoes,  they  are  not  to  be  compared  to  beans."  .  .  .  '-We  give  it  as  our  opinion,  that  whoever 
feeds  cattle  on  turnips  alone  will  have  no  reason,  on  ihc  score  of  pro/it,  to  regret  their  not  having 
employed  more  expensive  auxiliaries  to  ha.sien  the  fattening  process.  This  opinion  has  not  been 
rashly  adopted,  but  has  been  confirmed  by  a  more  extended  and  varied  experience  in  the  feed- 
ing of  cattle  than  has  fallen  to  the  lot  of  most  men."  4.  Another  object  he  had  in  these  experi- 
ments was,  to  ascertain  whether  the  opinion  is  correct  or  oth»;rwi6e,  that  cattle  consume  food  in 
proportion  to  their  weights.  On  this  subject  Mr.  Stephenson  says  "  that  cattle  consume  food 
something  nearly  in  proportion  to  their  weights,  we  have  very  little  doubt,  provided  they  have 
previuiis/i/  beet:  fed  in  the  simc  viaiiner,  and  are  nearly  alike  in  condition.  Age,  sex,  and  kind 
nave  little  inHuence  in  this  respect,  as  the  quantity  of  food  consumed  depends  much  on  the  length 
of  time  the  beast  has  been  fed.  and  the  degree  ot  maturity  the  animal  has  arrived  at — hence  the 
great  difficulty  of  seleciing  animals  to  be  experim'.'nied  ui)on.  To  explain  our  meaning  by  an 
example,  we  would  say  that  2  cattle  of  the  same  weight,  and  which  had  been  previously  kept 
for  a  considerable  time  on  similar  food,  would  con.sume  about  the  same  quantity.  But,  on  the 
contrary,  should  2  beasts  of  the  same  weight  be  taken,  the  one  fat  and  the  other  lean,  the  lean 
beast  would  perha|is  cat  twice,  or  perhaps  thrice,  as  much  as  the  fat  one — more  especially  if  the 
fat  one  had  been  for  some  time  previously  fed  on  the  same  food,  as  cattle  eat  gradually  less 
food  until  they  arrive  at  maturity,  when  they  become  stationary  in  their  appetite."  .  .  .  ••  We 
shall  conclude,"  he  says,  "by  relating  a  singular  fact,"  and  a  remarkable  one  it  is,  and  worth  re- 
membering, "that  nheep  on  lurnips  will  consume  nearly  in  proportion  to  cattle,  weight  for  weight, 
that  is,  10  sheep  of  14  lbs.  a  (piarler,  or  40  stones  in  all,  will  eat  nearly  the  same  ijuanlity  of  tur- 
nips as  an  ox  of  40  stones  ;  but  turn  the  ox  to  grass,  and  6  sheep  will  be  found  to  consume  an 
equal  quantity.  This  great  difference  may  perhaps,"  says  Mr.  Stephenson,  and  1  think  truly,  "  be 
accounted  for  by  the  practice  of  sheep  cropping  tlie  grass  much  clo.serand  oftener  than  cattle,  and 
which,  of  course,  prevents  its  growing  so  rapidly  with  them  as  with  cattle."* 

(1283.)  Slill  another  iiuestion  remains  to  be  considered  in  reference  to  the  feeding  of  cattle  in 
winter,  which  is,  whether  they  thrive  best  in  hamtne/s  or  in  hi/re.i  at  the  stake?  The  determina- 
tion of  this  question  would  settle  the  t'uiurc  construction  of  steadings;  for,  of  course,  if  more  profit 
were  certainly  yielded  to  the   farmer  to  feed  his  cattle  in  hammels  than  in  byres,  not  only  would 

*  Prize  Riisayg  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xii. 
(1000) 


REARING  AND  FEEDING  CATTLE  ON  TURNIPS.      521 

■ _ 

no  more  byres  be  erected,  but  those  in  use  convened  into  liammcls;  and  tliis  circumstance  would 
so  materially  change  the  form  of  steadings,  as  to  throw  open  tlie  confined  courts,  embraced  within 
<iuailraugles,  to  tlie  influence  of  the  sun,  at  the  only  season  these  receptacles  are  required,  namely, 
in  winter.  Some  facts  have  already  been  decided  regarding  the  comparative  effects  of  hammels 
and  byres  upon  cattle.  Cattle  are  much  cleaner  in  their  persons  in  hammels  than  in  byres.  No 
doubt  they  can  be  kept  clean  in  byres,  but  not  being  so.  there  must  be  some  difficulty  "incidental 
to  byre-management,  and  it  consists,  I  presume,  in  the  cattle  man  finding  it  more  laborious  \o 
keep  the  beasts  clean  in  a  byre,  than  in  hammels  ;  otherwise  the  fact  is  not  easily  to  be  accounted 
for,  for  he  takes  no  spccinl  care  to  keep  beasts  in  hammels  clean.  Perhaps  when  cattle  have  lib- 
erty to  lie  down  where  they  please  they  may  choose  the  driest,  becau.se  the  most  comfortable 
spot;  whereas,  in  a  byre,  they  must  lie  down  upon  what  they  cannot  see  behind  them.  There 
is  another  advantage  derived  from  hammels  ;  the  hair  of  cattle  never  .scalds  off  the  skin,  and  never 
becomes  short  and  smooth,  but  remains  long  and  mossy,  and  all  licked  over,  and  wa.slied  clean 
by  rain,  until  it  is  naturally  ca.si  in  spring,  and  this  advantage  is  felt  by  cattle  when  sent  to  mar- 
ket in  winter,  where  thej'  can  with.stand  much  more  wet  and  cold  than  tho.se  which  have  been 
fed  in  byres.  A  third  advantage  is,  that  cattle  from  hammels  can  travel  the  road  without  injury 
to  their  feet,  being  accustomed  to  be  so  much  upon  their  feet,  and  to  move  about.  It  has  been 
alle.cred  in  favor  of  byres,  that  they  accommodate  more  cattle  on  the  same  space  of  ground,  and 
are  less  expensive  to  erect  at  first  than  hammels.  That  in  a  given  space  more  beast-s  are  accom- 
modated in  byres  there  is  no  doubt,  and  there  is  as  little  doubt  that  more  bea-sts  are  put  in  a  byre 
than  should  be  ;  but  I  have  great  doubts  that  it  will  cost  more  monej-  to  accommodate  a  given 
number  of  cattle  in  the  hammel  than  in  the  byre  system;  because  hammels  can  bo  constructed 
in  a  temporary  form  of  wood  and  straw,  and  make  beasts  very  comfortable  at  a  moderate  charge, 
whereas  byres  ca,nnot  be  formed  in  that  fashion  ;  and  even  in  the  more  costly  form  of  roofs  and 
walls,  the  shedding  of  hammels  requires,  comparatively  to  a  byre,  but  a  small  stretch  of  roof ;  and 
it  is  well  knoun  that  it  is  the  roof  and  not  the  bare  masonry  of  the  walls  that  constitute  the  most 
costly  part  of  a  steading.  1  have  seen  a  .set  of  hammels,  having  stone  and  lime  walls,  and  feed- 
ing troughs,  and  a  temporary  roof,  ei'ected  for  £\  for  every  beast  it  could  accommodate,  and  no 
form  of  byre  could  be  built  at  that  cost.  But  all  these  advantages  of  hammels  would  be  of  trifling 
import,  if  it  can  be  proved  by  experience  that  cattle  afford  larger  profits  on  being  fed  in  byres; 
and  unless  this  superiority  is  established  in  regard  to  either,  the  other  is  undeserving  of  prefer- 
ence. How  then,  stands  the  fact?  Has  experiment  ever  tried  the  comparative  effects  of 
both  on  anything  like  fair  terms?  Mr.  Boswell  of  Balmuto,  in  Fifeshire,  and  of  Kingcausie, 
in  Kincardineshiie,  has  done  it;  and  it  shall  now  be  my  duty  to  make  you  acquainted  with  the 
results. 

(1284.)  To  give  as  much  variety  to  this  experiment  as  the  circumstances  would  admit,  it  was 
conducted  both  at  Balmuto  and  Kingcausie,  and  the  beasts  selected  for  it  were  of  different  ages, 
namely,  2  and  3-year-olds.  At  Balmuto  4  three-year  olds  were  put  in  close  byres,  and  4  in  open 
hammels,  and  the  same  number  of  2-year-olds  were  accommodated  in  a  .similar  manner  at  King- 
causie. Those  at  Kingcausie  received  turnips  only,  and  of  course  straw  ;  at  Balmuto  a  few  pota- 
toes were  given  at  the  end  of  the  season,  in  addition  to  the  turnips.  The  season  of  experiment 
extended  from  17th  October,  1834  to  19th  February,  1835.     The  results  were  these  : — 

St.      lb. 
The  4  hammel-fed  2  year  olds  at  Kingcausie  gained  of  live  weight  45    g 

..     4       ..         ..    3-year-olds  at  Balmuto         ..  ..         ..  45    o 


4  byre-fed  2-year-olds  at  Kingcausie  gained  of  live 

weight,  32      7 

4         ..     3-year-olds  at  Balmuto  ..         ..  36      0 


91     8 


68    7 


Gain  of  live  weight  by  the  hammel-fed, 23     1 

This  is,  however,  not  all  gain,  for  the  hammel-fed  consumed  more  turnips,  the  Aberdeen  yellow 
bullock,  than  the  byre-fed. 

Tons.  cwts.  qrs.  lbs. 
Those  at  Kingcausie  consumed  more  by  17       2     6 

And  those  at  Balmuto     ..  ..  2      4      3  22 

Total  more  consumed,  ~3     ig      o     0 

In  a  pecuniary  point  of  view,  the  gain  upon  the  hammel-fed  was  this :— 23  stones  1  lb.  live 
weight,  =  .'3J  stones  beef,  at  6s.  per  stone,  gives  £4  2s..  from  which  deduct  the  value  of  the  tur- 
nips, at  4d.  per  cwt.,  £\  4s.  2d.,  leaving  a  lance  of  £2  7s.  lOd. 

(1285.)  It  is  a  prevalent  opinion  among  farmers,  that  young  cattle  do  not  lay  on  weipht  .so  fast, 
as  old.  But  this  experiment  contradicts  it;  for  the  2  year-olds  in  the  hammels  at  Kingcausie 
gained  44  stones  22  lbs.,  on  their  united  weights  of  320  stones  7  lbs.,  in  the  same  time  that  the  3- 
year-olds  in  the  hammels  at  Balmuto,  weighing  together  350  stones,  were  of  gaining  46  .stones.  Be- 
sides, the  young  beasts  in  the  hammels  at  Kingcausie  gained  over  those  in  the  byre  12  stones  15 
lbs.,  while  the  older  cattle  in  the  hammels  at  Balmuto  gained  over  those  in  the  byre  only  10  stones. 
.So  that,  in  tuber  way.  the  young  cattle  had  the  advantage  over  the  older.       '    " 

(1286.)  Mr.  Boswell  observes  that  "  hammels  ought  never  to  bo  used  unless  when  the  climate 
IS  good,  and  the  accommodation  of  courts  drv  and  well  sheltered  ;  and,  above  all,  unless  when 
there  is  a  very  large  quantity  of  litter  to  keep  the  cattle  constantly  clean  and  dry."  Shelter  is 
essential  for  all  sorts  of  stock  in  any  situation,  and  the  more  expo.sed  the  general  condition  of  the 
farm  is,  the  more  need  there  is  of  shelter;  but  be  the  situation  what  it  may,  it  is.  in  my  opinion, 
quite  possible  to  render  any  hammel  sheltered  enough  for  stock,  not  by  the  distribution  of  plant- 
ing, but  by  temporary  erections  against  its  weather-side ;  and  these  means  will  be  the  more 
(1057) 


522  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

efibctaal  when  the  haaimel  ia  placed  facing  the  meritlian  aan.  which  it  slioald  be  in  cvety  caae 
If  these  particulars  arc  attentled  to.  and  a  rain  water  spout  placed  along  the  cave  in  front  to  pre 
vent  the  rain  from  lliu  roof  falling  into  the  court,  and  an  open  drain,  with  convenient  gratings,  con 
nected  with  all  the  courts,  is  properly  made,  the  quantity  of  straw  required  will  not  bo  inordinate 
as  I  have  myself  experienced  when  farming  dry  turnip-soil.  Mr.  Boswell's  testimony  in  favor  of 
hammels  is  most  satisfactory:  it  is  this.  "  From  the  result  of  my  own  experiment,  as  well  as  thf 
unauimous  o|>iuion  of  every  agriculturist  with  whom  I  have  conversed  on  the  subject,  I  feel  con- 
vinced that  there  is  no  poiiit  more  clearly  eistablislied  than  that  cattle  improve  quicker,  or,  in  othci 
words,  tlirire  bcttiT  m  opt  a  hamme's  than  in  close  byres."* 

(1287.)  1  have  dwelt  the  longer  on  the  subject  of  leediug  cattle,  because  of  its  great  import- 
ance to  the  farmer,  and  because  of  the  uncertainty  sometimes  attending  its  practice  to  a  proKiable 
issue:  aiid  there  is  no  doubt  that  whether  it  leaves  a  profit  or  not  depends  entirely  on  the  mode 
in  which  is  pro.secuted.  Many  are  content  to  taiieu  tlieir  cattle  in  any  way,  or  because  others  do 
so,  provided  they  know  tlicy  are  not  actually  losing  money  by  it,  but  if  they  do  not  make  their 
cattle  in  the  ripest  state  they  are  capable  of  being  made,  they  are,  in  fact,  losing  part  of  their 
value.  But  how  are  they  you  may  ask,  beet  to  be  made  ripe  ?  There  lies  the  ditticulty  of 
the  case,  and  it  must  be  attended  with  much  difficulty  before  a  man  of  the  extensive  experience 
in  fattening  cattle  as  Mr.  Stephenson,  would  express  himself  in  these  words  :  "  We  have  had 
great  experience  in  feeding  stock,  and  have  conducted  iiuinbcra  of  cj-perimrnts  on  that  subject 
with  all  possible  care,  both  iu  weighing  the  cattle  alive,  and  ilie  w  hole  food  administered  to 
theui  and  in  every  experiment  we  maile  in-  discotcred  sumtthais'  ncir.  Hut  we  have  seen  enough 
to  convince  us  that,  were  the  art  <if feeding  better  understood,  a  great  deal  more  beef  and  mutton 
might  be  produced  from  the  same  quantil  y  of  food  than  is  generally  done."  So  fur  should  such  a 
declaration  deter  you  from  fattening  (tattle,  it  should  rather  be  a  proof  of  the  wideuess  of  the  field 
that  is  still  open  for  you  to  experiment  in. 

(128S.)  There  are  but  few  aixeases  incidental  to  cattle  in  a  slate  of  confinement  in  winter,  these 
being  chiefly  confined  to  the  skin,  such  as  tlie  aHection  of  lice,  and  to  accidents  in  the  administra- 
tion of  food,  as  hoven  and  obstruction  of  the  gullet  may  be  termed. 

(1289.)  I. ice.  When  it  is  known  that  almost  every  species  of  quadruped  found  in  the  countrj-, 
and  la  a  state  of  nature,  is  inhabited  by  one  or  more  pediculida;,  sonietimcg  peculiar  to  one  kind 
of  animal,  at  other  times  ranging  over  many,  it  will  not  excite  surprise  that  they  should  als^o  occur 
on  our  donie.-'tic  ox.  Indeed,  domestication  and  the  consequences  it  entails,  such  as  confinement, 
transition  from  a  low  to  a  higher  condition,  high  feeding,  and  an  occasional  deviation  from  a 
strictly  natural  kind  of  food,  seem  peculiarly  favorable  to  the  increase  of  these  parasites.  Their 
occurrence  is  well  known  to  the  breeder  of  cattle,  and  to  the  feeder  of  fat  cattle  ;  and  they  are 
not  unfrecjuentl}'  a  source  of  no  small  annoyance  to  him.  Unless  when  they  prevailed  to  a  great 
extent,  they  are  probably  not  the  cause  of  any  po.sitive  evil  to  the  animal,  but,  as  their  attacks  are 
attended  with  loss  of  hair,  an  unhealthy  appearance  of  the  skin,  and  their  presence  is  always  more 
or  less  unsightly,  and  a  source  of  personal  annoyance  to  cattle,  they  may  much  impair  the  ani- 
mal's look,  which,  when  it  is  designed  to  be  exhibited  in  the  market,  is  a  matter  of  no  small  conse- 
quence. As  an  acquaintance  with  the  appearance  and  habits  of  these  creatures  must  jirecede  the 
discoveri'  and  application  of  any  judicious  method  of  removing  or  destroying  them.  I  Miall  describe 
the  species  now  which  are  the  most  common  and  no.xious  to  the  ox.  and  afterward  to  the  other  do- 
mestic animals  of  the  farm.  They  may  be  diviiled  into  two  sections,  according  to  a  peculiarity  of 
structure,  which  detenuines  the  mode  in  which  they  attack  an  animal,  namely,  those  provided 
with  a  mouth  formed  for  sucking,  and  such  as  have  a  mouth  with  two  jaws  formed  for  gnaw- 
ing. Of  the  former  there  are  3  species,  which  are  very  common,  attacking  the  ox,  the  sow,  and 
the  ass. 

(1290.)  Oxlousc  /'Htetnatopinus  suri/itfernuxj,  fig.  268.  It  is  about  1  or  IJ  lines  in  length,  aa 
Been  by  the  line  below  the  figure,  the  head  somewhat  triangular,  and  of  a  chesnui  color, 
the  eyes  pale  brown,  antenna;  pale  ochre-yellow,  thorax  darker  dies- 
nut  than  the  head,  with  a  spiracle  or  breathing-hole  on  each  side,  and  a 
deep  furrow  on  each  side  anteriorly  ;  the  shape  ucarlv  sijuare,  the  an- 
terior line  concave,  abdomen  broadly  ovate,  grayisli-white,  or  very 
slightly  tinged  with  yellow,  with  4  longiludinous  rows  of  dusky  horny 
excrescences,  widi  2  black  curved  marks  on  the  last  segment;  legs 
long  anil  stroiii:.  particularly  the  2  fore-pairs,  the  color  chesnut ;  claws 
Strong  and  hhick.  This  may  be  called  the  common  louse  that  infests 
cattle.  It  is  most  apt  to  abound  on  them  wlu-n  tied  to  the  stall  for  win- 
ter feeding  ;  and  a  notion  prevails  in  England  that  its  increa.-ic  is  owing 
to  the  cattle  feeding  on  straw.  The  fact  probably  is,  that  it  becomes 
more  plentiful  when  the  animal  is  tied  up,  in  conse<iucnce  of  its  being 
then  less  able  to  rub  and  lick  itself,  and  the  creature  is  left  to  propagate, 
which  it  does  with  ^reat  rapidity,  comparatively  undisturbed.  It  gen- 
erally concentrates  its  forces  on  the  mane  and  shoulders.  As  the  jiara-  I 
site  is  suctorial,  if  it  is  at  all  the  means  of  causing  the  hair  to  fall  off.  it  * 
can  only  be  by  depriving  it  of  the  juices  by  which  is  nourished,  which  ^"''-  "X-t.ousE,  H£MA- 
we  can  conceive  to  be  the  case  when  the  sucker  is  in.'serled  at  the  root  Topinus  stJRTSTERNUS. 
of  the  hair ;  but  it  is  more  |)robahle  that  the  hair  is  rubbed  off  by  the  cattle  themselves,  or  is  shorn 
off  by  another  louse  to  be  just  noticed.  The  egg  or  nit  is  pear  shaped,  and  may  be  seen  attsfbed 
to  the  hairs. 

(1291.)  OxlovxefTrickodec/egfcalarifJ.fig.  269. — This  parasite  is  minute,  the  length  Beldoni 
exceeding  j  a  line.  The  head  and  thorax  are  of  a  light  ru.st  color,  the  former  of  a  somewhat  ob- 
cordate  sliape,  with  two  dusky  sjuUs  in  front :  the  third  joint  of  the  untenns  longi.'.st,  and  spindle- 
shaped  (in  the  horse-louse,  Trichodectes  eijni,  that  joint  is  clavate;  ;  abdomen  pale,  tawny,  pabes- 


*  Prize  EUsays  of  the  Ilighland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xL 
(1058) 


REARING  AND  FEEDING    CATTLE   ON  TURNIPS. 


523 


Fig.  296. 


''^ 

THE  OX-LOUSE, 

TRICHODECTES 

SCALARIS. 


Fig.  270. 


Fig.  27] 


9 


cent,  the  first  6  segments  with  a  transvere  dusky  or  rust-colored  stripe  on  the  upper  half,  a  narrow 
stripe  of  the  same  color  along-  each  side,  and  a  large  spot  at  the  hhuier  extremity ;  legs,  pale  taw- 
ny. Plentiful  on  cattle ;  commonly  found  about  the  mane,  forehead,  and 
rump,  near  the  tail-head.  It  is  provided  with  strong  mandibles,  with  two 
teeth  at  the  apex,  and  by  means  of  these  it  cuts  the  hairs  near  the  roots 
with  facility.  Both  these  vermin  are  destroyed  by  the  same  means  as  the 
sheep-louse  (1156). 

(1292.|  Choking-. — \\''hen  cattle  are  feeding  on  turnips  or  potatoes,  it  oc- 
casionally happens  that  a  piece  larger  than  will  enter  the  gullet  easily,  is 
attempted  to  be  swallowed,  and  obstructed  in  its  passage.  The  accident 
chiefly  occurs  to  cattle  receiving  a  limited  supply  of  turnips,  and  young 
beasts  are  more  subject  to  it  than  old.  When  a  number  of  young  beasts 
in  the  same  court  only  get  a  specified  quantity  of  turnips  or  potatoes 
once  or  twice  a  day,  each  becomes  apprehensive,  when  the  food  is  distrib- 
uted, that  will  not  get  its  own  share,  and  therefore  eats  what  it  can  with 
much  apparent  greediness,  and  not  taking  sufficient  time  to  masticate,  swal- 
lows its  food  hastily.  A  large  piece  of  turnip,  or  a  small  potato,  thus  easily 
escapes  beyond  the  power  of  the  tongue,  and,  assisted  as  it  is  by  the  saliva,  is 
sent  to  the  top  of  the  gullet,  where  it  remains.  Cattle  that  project  their  mouths 
forward  in  eating,  are  most  liable  to  choke.  When  turnips  are  sliced  and 
potatoes  are  broken,  there  is  less  danger  of  the  accident  occurring  even  among 
young  cattle.  The  sight  of  the  obstruction,  its  consequent  effects,  and  reme- 
dial measures  for  its  removal,  are  thus  described  by  Professor  Dick.  "  The 
obstruction  usually  occurs  at  the  bottom  of  the  pharynx  and  commencement 
of  the  gullet,  not  far  from  the  lower  part  of  the  larynx,  which  we  have  seen 
mistaken  for  the  foreign  body.  The  accident  is  much  more  serious  in  ruminating  animals  than  in 
others,  as  it  immediately  induces  a  suspension  of  that  necessary  process,  and  of  indigestion,  fol 
lowed  by  a  fermentation  of  the  food,  the  evolution  of  gases,  and  all  those  frightful  symptoms  whicli 
will  be  noticed  under  the  disease  hoveii.  The  difficulty  in  breath- 
ing, and  the  general  uneasiness  of  the  animal,  usually  direct  at 
once  to  the  nature  of  the  accident,  which  examination  brings  un- 
der the  cognizance  of  the  eye  and  hand.  No  time  must  he  lost  in 
endeavorina:  to  afford  relief ;  and  the  ,^rs^  thing  to  be  tried  is,  by 
gentle  friction  and  pressure  of  the  hand  upward  and  downward, 
to  see  and  rid  the  animal  of  the  morsel.  Failing  in  this,  we 
mention  first  the  great  virtue  we  have  frequently  found  in  the  use 
of  mild  lubricating  Huids,  such  as  warm  water  and  oil.  well  boiled 
gruel,  &c.  The  gruel  is  grateful  to  the  animal,  which  frequently 
tried  to  gulp  it,  and  often  succeeds.  Whether  this  is  owing  to 
the  lubrication  of  the  parts,  or  the  natural  action  superinduced,  it 
is  unneces.sary  to  inquire ;  but  the  fact  we  know,  that  a  few  pints 
of  warm  gruel  have  often  proved  successful  in  removing  the  ob- 
struction. If  this  remedy  should  he  ineffectual,  the  foreign  body 
may  perhaps  be  within  the  reach  of  the  small  hand  which  a  kind 
dairy-maid  may  skillfully  lend  for  the  purpose.  If  this  good  service 
cannot  be  procured,  the  common  probang  must  be  used,  the  cup- 
end  being  employed.  Other  and  more  complicated  instruments 
have  been  invented,  acting  upon  various  principles — some,  for 
example,  on  that  of  bruising  the  obstructing  body  ;  and  the  use  of 
these  requires  con.siderable  skill.  Disappointed  in  all,  we  must 
finally  have  resource  to  the  knife."*  You  may  try  all  these  rem- 
edies, with  the  exception  of  the  knife,  with  perfect  confidence. 
The  friction,  the  gruel,  the  hand,  and  the  probang,  I  have  success- 
fully tried  ;  but  the  use  of  the  knife  should  be  left  to  the  practi- 
cal skill  of  the  veterinary  surgeon. 

(1293.)  The  conmjon  probang  is  represented  in  fig.  271,  a  be- 
ing the  cup-end,  which  is  so  formed  that  it  may  partially  lay  hold 
of  the  piece  of  turnip  or  potato,  and  not  slip  between  it  and  the 
gullet,  to  the  risk  of  rupturing  the  latter,  and  being  of  larger  di- 
ameter than  the  usual  state  of  the  gullet,  on  pressing  it  forward 
distends  the  gullet,  and  makes  room  for  the  obstructing  body  to 
proceed  to  the  stomach.  Formerly  the  probang  was  covered 
with  cane,  but  is  now  with  leather,  which  is  more  pliable.  It  is 
used  in  this  manner :  Let  the  piece  of  wood,  fig.  270,  be  placed 
over  the  opened  mouth  of  the  animal  as  a  bit.  and  the  straps  of  ^jjj.  mouth-piece 
leather  attached  to  it  buckled  tightly  over  the  neck  behind  the  „„„  „„„  nnnnA  v/- 
horns,  to  keep  the  bit  steady  m  Us  place.  The  use  of  the  bit  is, 
not  only  to  keep  the  mouth  open  without  trouble,  but  to  prevent  the  animal  injuring  the  probang 
with  its  teeth,  and  it  offers  the  most  direct  passage  for  the  probang  toward  the  throat.  Let  a  few 
men  seize  the  animal  on  both  sides  by  the  horns  or  otherways,  and  let  its  mouth  be  held  project- 
ing forward  in  an  easy  position,  but  no  fingers  introduced  into  the  nostrils  to  obstruct  the  breath- 
ing of  the  animal,  nor  the  tongue  forcibly  pulled  at  the  side  of  the  mouth.  Introduce  now  the 
cap-end  a  of  the  probang,  fig.  271,  through  the  round  hole  b  of  the  mouthpiece,  fig.  270,  and  push 
it  gently  toward  the  throat  until  you  feel  the  piece  of  the  turnip  obstructing  you;  push  then  with 
a  firm  and  persevering  hand,  cautioning  the  men,  previous  to  the  push,  to  hold  on  firmly,  for  the 

*  Dick's  Manual  of  Veterinary  Science. 
(1059) 


THE  PRO- 
BANG- 


524  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


pafwage  of  the  instrument  mny  eive  the  animal  a  little  pain,  and  rouse  it  to  wince  and  even  start 
awav.  The  obstruction  will  now  most  likely  give  way,  etipecially  if  the  operation  has  been  pcr- 
fornieii  before  the  parts  around  it  began  to  swell  ;  but  if  not.  the  probaiit,'  must  be  UKcd  w  ilh  still 
more  force,  while  another  person  rubs  with  his  hanils  U[i  and  down  upon  the  distended  throat  of 
tlie  beast.  If  these  attempts  fail,  recourse  must  be  liad  to  the  knife,  and  a  veterinary  surgeon  sent 
for  instantlv. 

(li><)4.)  lliwcn. — The  hovcn  in  cattle  is  the  corresponding  di-^eas*;  to  the  gripes  or  batts  in  horses. 
Tlie  direct  cause;  of  the  symptoms  is  umluc  accumulation  of  ga.«es  in  tlie  jiaunch  or  large  stom- 
ach, which,  not  finding  a  ready  vent.  caus<'s  ;;reat  pain  and  uneasiness  to  the  unimnl.  and,  if  not 
removed  in  time,  ruptures  the  paunch  and  death  ensues.  The  cause  of  accumulation  of  the  gases 
is  indigestion.  '■  The  structure  of  the  digestive  organs  of  cattle."  sa\s  Professor  Dick,  "  ren- 
ders them  peculiarly  liable  to  the  complaint,  while  the  sudden  changes  to  which  they  are 
exposed  in  feeding  prove  exciting  causes.  Thus,  it  is  often  witnessed  in  animals  removed  from 
confinement  and  winter  feeding  to  the  luxuriance  of  the  clover  field  ;  and  in  house-fed  cattle, 
from  the  exhibition  of  rich  food,  such  as  peas  meal  and  beans,  often  supplied  to  enrich  their 
milk.  We  have  already  mentioned  that  it  sometimes  proceeds  from  obstructed  gullet.  The 
evmptoms  bear  so  close  a  resemblance,  both  in  their  jirogress  and  termination  in  rupture 
and  death,  to  those  so  fully  described  above,  that  wc  shall  not  repeat  tiem.  The  treatment 
mo-wtly  corresponds,  and  it  nui.«t  be  equally  prompt.  The  mixture  of  the  oils  of  lin.seed  and 
turpentine  is  nearly  a  specific.'*  The  recipe  is,  linseed-oil,  raw,  1  lb.  ;  oil  of  turpentine,  from 
2  to  3  oz.  ;  laudanum,  from  1  to  2  oz..  for  one  dose.  Or  hartshorn,  from  {  to  1  oz.,  in  'J  |)int8  im- 
perial of  tei)iil  water.  In  cases  of  pressing  urgency,  from  1  to  2  oz.  of  tar  nuiy  be  added  to  \  pint 
of  spirits,  and  given  diluted,  with  great  prospect  of  advantage.  These  medicines  are  particularly 
effective  in  the  early  stage  ol  the  disease,  and  should  therefore  be  tried  on  the  first  discovery  of 
the  animal  being  affected  with  it.  Should  they  not  give  immediate  relief,  the  probang  may  be 
introduced  into  the  stomach,  and  be  the  means  of  conveying  away  the  gas  as  fast  as  it  is  gene- 
rated ;  and  I  have  seen  it  successful  when  the  complaint  was  produced  both  by  potatoes  and  clo- 
ver; but  I  never  saw  an  instance  of  hoven  from  turnips,  except  from  obstruction  of  the  gullet. 
The  trial  of  the  probang  is  useful  to  show  whether  the  conijilaint  ari.ses  from  obstruction  or  other- 
wi.se,  for  should  it  pass  easily  down  the  throat,  and  the  conijjlaint  continue,  of  course  the  case  is  a 
decided  one  of  hoven.  Placing  an  in.strument,  such  as  in  fig.  270,  across  the  mouth,  to  keep  it 
open,  is  an  American  cure  which  is  said  never  to  have  failed.  But  the  gas  may  be  generated  so 
rapidly  that  neither  medicines  nor  the  probang  may  be  able  to  jireventor  convey  away,  in  which 
case  tiie  apparently  des[)erate  remedy  of />""«c/H«i?' must  be  had  recourse  to.  "  The  place  for 
puncturing  the  paunch,"  directs  Professor  Dick,  '-is  on  the  left  side,  in  the  central  point  between 
the  lateral  [irocesses  of  the  lumbar  vertebra,  the  spine  of  the  ileum,  and  the  last  rib.  Here  the 
trochnr  may  be  introduced  without  fear.  If  air  escape  rapidly,  all  is  well.  The  canula  may  re- 
main in  for  a  day  or  two,  and,  on  withdrawal,  little  or  no  inconvenience  will  usually  manifest 
itself.  If  no  gas  escape,  wc  mu.st  enlarge  the  opening  freely,  till  the  hand  can  be  introduced 
into  the  i)aunch,  and  its  contents  removed,  as  we  have  sometimes  seen,  in  prodigious  <|uantitie8. 
This  done,  we  should  close  the  wound  in  the  divided  paunch  with  2  or  '.i  stitches  of  fine  catgut, 
and  carefully  approximate  and  retain  the  sides  of  the  external  wound,  and  with  rest,  w  ait  for  a 
cure,  which  is  often  as  complete  as  it  is  speedy. "t  To  strengthen  your  confidence  in  the  per- 
formance of  this  operation,  I  may  quote  a  medical  authority  on  its  safe  effects,  in  the  human  sub- 
ject, even  to  the  extent  of  exposing  the  inti'stincs  as  they  lay  in  the  abdomen.  "  I  should  expect 
no  immediately  dangerous  effects  from  opening  the  abdominal  cavity.  Dr.  Blundell  has  stated 
that  he  has  never,  in  his  experiments  upon  the  rabbit,  ob.<erved  any  marked  collapse  when  the 
peritoneum  was  laid  open,  although  in  full  expectation  of  it.  The  great  danger  to  be  apprehend- 
ed is  from  inffammation,  and  the  surgeon,  of  course,  will  do  all  in  his  power  to  guard  against  it. "J 
I  once  used  the  trochar  with  success  in  the  case  of  a  Skiho  slot  which  had  been  put  on  potatoes 
from  turnips,  and  as  he  was  in  very  high  condition,  took  a  little  blood  from  him.  and  he  recovered 
very  rapidly.  In  another  year  I  lost  a  fine  1  year  old  Short  Horn  quey  by  hoven,  occasioned  by 
potatoes.  Oil  and  tur|>entine  were  u.sed,  hut  as  the  complaint  had 
remained  too  long,  before  it  was  noticed  by  myself,  late  at  night, 
the  medicine  bad  no  efli-'cL  The  i>robang  went  down  easily, 
proving  there  was  no  obstruction.  The  trochar  v\as  then  ibrnst  in, 
but  8<3on  proved  ineffectual,  and  as  I  had  not  the  courage  to  use 
the  knife  to  tuilarge  the  opening  the  trochar  had  made,  and  with- 
draw the  conti'iits  of  the  paunch  with  the  hand,  the  animal  sank 
and  was  immediately  slaughtered.  The  remedies  cannot  be  too 
soon  applied  in  the  case  of  hoven. 

(129.1.)  Tlu!  trochar  is  represented  in  fig.  272.  It  consists  of  a 
round  rod  of  iron  a.  5  inches  in  length,  terminating  at  one  end  in  a 
triangular,  pyramidal-shaped  point,  and  furnished  with  a  wooden 
handle  at  the  other.  The  rod  is  slieathed  in  a  cylindrical  cover 
or  case  /',  calleil  the  canula,  which  is  open  at  one  end,  permitting 
its  point  to  project,  and  furnished  at  the  other  with  a  broad,  circu- 
lar flange.  The  canula  is  kept  tight  on  the  rod  by  means  of  a  slit  the  trochar. 
at  its  end  nearest  the  point  of  the   rod,  which,   beiiiL:   somt'what 

larger  in  diameter  than  its  own  body,  expands  the  slit  end  of  the  canula  until  it  meets  the  body, 
when  the  slit  collapses  to  its  ordinary  size,  and  the  canula  is  kept  secure  behind  the  enlarged 
point  as  at  c.  On  using  the  trochar,  in  the  state  as  seen  by  c,  it  is  forced  with  a  thrust  into  the 
place  pointed  out  above,  through  the  skiu  into  the  paunch;  and  on  withdrawing  the  rod  by  its 


*  Dick's  Manual  of  Veterinary  Science.  t  Ibid. 

\  Stcjihcns  on  Obstructed  and  Inflamed  Ilemia. 
(1060) 


DRIVING  AND  SLAUGHTERING  CATTLE.  525 

handle — which  is  easily  done,  notwithstanding  the  contrivance  to  keep  it  on — the  canula  is  left 
in  the  opening,  to  permit  the  gas  to  escape  through  its  channel.  On  account  of  the  distended 
state  of  the  skin,  the  trochar  may  rebound  from  the  throat;  and  in  such  an  event,  a  considerable 
force  must  be  used  to  penetrate  the  skin. 

(1296.)  The  fardlcbonnd  of  cattle  and  sheep  is  nothing  more  than  a  modification  of  the  disease 
in  hor-ses  called  stomach-staggers,  which  is  caused  by  an  enormous  distension  of  the  stomach.  "In 
this  variet}',  it  has  been  ascertained,"  says  Professor  Dick,  "  that  the  matiiplies  are  most  involved, 
its  secretions  are  suspended,  and  its  contents  become  dry,  hard,  and  caked  into  one  solid  mass. 
Though  the  constipation  is  great,  yet  there  is  .sometimes  the  appearance  of  a  slight  purging,  which 
may  deceive  the  practitioner.""  The  remedial  measures  are,  first,  to  relieve  the  stomach  by  large 
drenches  of  warm  water,  by  the  use  of  the  stomach-pump.  Searching  and  stimulating  laxatives 
are  then  given,  assisted  by  clj'sters,  and  then  cordials. 

(1297.)  IVarts  and  angle-berries  are  not  uncommon  excrescences  upon  cattle.  They  are  chiefly 
confined  to  the  groin  and  belly.  I  have  frequently  removed  them  by  ligature  with  waxed  silk 
thread.  Escharotics  have  great  efficacy  in  removing  them — such  as  alum,  bluestone,  corrosive 
sublimate. 

(1298.)  Encysted  tumors  sometimes  appear  on  cattle,  and  may  be  removed  by  simple  incision, 
having  no  decided  root  or  adhesion.  I  had  a  2-year-old  Short-Horn  quey  that  had  a  large  one 
upon  the  front  of  a  hind  foot,  immediatelj'  above  the  coronet,  which  was  removed  by  simple  in- 
cision by  a  veterinary  surgeon.  ^Vhat  the  true  cause  of  its  appearance  may  have  been,  I  cannot 
say  ;  but  the  quey,  when  a  calf,  was  seen  to  kick  a  .straw-rack  violently  w  ith  the  foot  affected, 
and  was  lame  in  consequence  for  a  few  days ;  after  which,  a  small  swelling  made  its  appearance 
upon  the  place,  which,  gradually  enlarging,  became  the  loose  and  unsightly  tumor  which  was 
removed. 

(1299.)  A  gray-colored  scabby  eruption,  vulgarly  called  the  ticker,  sometimes  comes  out  on 
young  cattle  on  the  naked  skin  around  the  eye-lids,  and  upon  the  nose  between  and  above  the 
nostrils.  It  is  considered  a  sign  of  thriving,  and  no  doubt  it  makes  its  appearance  most  likely  on 
beasts  that  are  improving  from  a  low  state  of  condition.  It  may  be  removed  by  a  few  applica- 
tions of  sulphur  ointment. 

(1300.)  In  winter,  when  cows  are  heavy  in  calf  some  are  troubled  with  a  complaint  commonly 
called  a  coming  doicn  of  the  calf-bed.  A  part  of  the  womb  is  seen  to  protrude  through  the  va- 
ginal passage  when  the  cow  lies  down,  and  disappears  when  she  stands  up  again.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  originate  after  a  very  severe  labor.  Bandages  have  been  recommended,  but.  in  the  case 
of  the  cow,  they  would  be  troublesome,  and  indeed  are  unnecessary  ;  for  if  the  litter  is  made  firm 
and  higher  at  the  back  than  the  front  part  of  the  stall,  so  as  the  hind-quarter  of  the  cow  shall  be 
higher  than  the  fore  when  lying,  the  protrusion  will  not  occur.  I  had  a  cow  that  was  troubled 
with  this  inconvenience  every  year,  and  as  she  had  no  case  of  severe  labor  in  mv  possession,  I 
did  not  know  whether,  in  her  case,  it  was  occasioned  by  such  a  circumstance  ;  but  it  seemed  to 
give  her  no  uneasiness,  when  the  above  preventive  remedy  was  resorted  to. 

(1301.)  It  not  unfrequently  happens  to  cattle  in  large  courts,  and  more  especially  to  those  in  the 
court  nearest  the  corn-barn,  that  an  oat-chafFgets  into  one  of  their  eyes  in  a  windy  day.  An  irri- 
tation immediately  takes  place,  causing  copious  watering  from  the  eye,  and,  if  the  chaff  is  not  re- 
moved, a  considerable  inflammation  and  consequent  pain  soon  en.sue,  depriving  the  sufferer  of 
the  desire  for  food.  To  have  it  removed,  let  the  animal  be  firmly  held  by  a  number  of  men,  and 
as  beasts  are  particularly  jealous  of  having  anything  done  to  their  eyes,  a  young  beast  even  will 
require  a  number  of  men  to  hold  it  fast.  The  fore-finger  should  then  be  gently  introduced  under 
the  ej-e-lid,  pushed  in  as  far  as  it  can  go,  and  being  moved  round  along  the  surface  of  the  eye-ball, 
is  brought  round  to  its  original  position,  and  then  carefully  withdrawn  and  examined,  to  see  if 
the  chaff  has  been  removed  along  with  it,  which  it  most  likely  will  be ;  but  if  not,  repeated  at- 
tempts will  succeed.  A  thin  handkerchief  around  the  finger  will  secure  the  extraction  at  the  first 
attempt.  Fine  salt  or  snuff  have  been  recommended  to  be  blown  into  the  eye  when  so  affected, 
that  the  consequent  increased  discharge  of  tears  may  float  away  the  irritating  substance  ;  but  the 
assistance  of  the  finger  is  less  painful  to  the  animal,  and  sooner  over,  and,  as  it  is  an  operation  I 
have  frequently  performed  with  undeviating  success,  I  can  attest  its  eSicacy  and  safety. 


33.    DRIVING  AND  SLAUGHTERING  CATTLE. 

"Frisk,  dance  and  leap,  like  full-fed  beasts,  and  even 
Turn  up  their  wanton  heels  against  the  Heaven ; 
Not  understanding  that  this  pleasant  life 
Serves  but  to  tit  them  for  the  butcher's  knife." 

FI.AVEL. 

(1302.)  It  is  requisite  that  cattle  which  have  been  disposed  of  to  the 
dealer  or  butcher,  or  are  intended  to  be  driven  to  market,  should  undergo 
a  preparation  for  the  journey.  If  they  were  immediately  put  to  the  road 
to  travel,  from  feeding  on  grass  or  turnips,  when  their  bowels  are  full  ol* 

*  Dick's  Manual  of  Veterinary  Science. 
(1061) 


526  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

indigested  vegetable  matter,  a  scouring  might  ensue,  which  would  render 
them  unfit  to  pursue  their  journey;  and  this  complaint  is  the  more  likely 
to  be  brought  on  from  the  strong  propensity  which  cattle  have  to  take 
violent  exercise  on  feeling  themselves  at  liberty  from  a  long  confinement. 
They  in  fact  become  light -head  id  whenever  they  leave  the  hammel  or 
byre,  so  much  so  that  they  actually  "frisk,  dance  and  leap,"  and  their 
antics  would  be  highly  amusing,  were  it  not  for  the  apprehension  they 
may  hurt  themselves  against  some  opposing  object,  as  they  seem  to  regard 
nothing  before  them.  I  remember  seeing  a  dodded  Angus  stot  let  out  of 
a  byre  running  so  recklessly  about  that  at  length  he  came  at  full  speed 
with  his  head  against  the  wall  of  the  steading,  and  was  instantly  felled  to 
the  ground.  Before  any  one  could  run  to  his  assistance  he  sprang  upon  his 
feet  and  made  off  again  at  full  speed,  holding  his  head  high  and  tail  on  end, 
as  if  he  felt  proud  of  having  d«)ne  a  feat  which  no  one  else  could  imitate. 
With  distended  nostrils  and  heaving  flanks  he  appeared  dreadfully  excited  ; 
but  on  being  put  into  his  byre  he  soon  calmed  down.  On  being  let  out 
for  the  first  time  cattle  should  be  put  awhile  into  a  large  court,  or  on  a 
road  well  fenced  with  inclosures,  and  guarded  by  men,  to  romp  about. 
Two  or  three  times  of  such  liVierty  will  make  them  quiet ;  and,  in  the 
mean  time,  to  lighten  their  weight  of  carcass,  they  should  get  hay  for  a 
large  proportion  of  their  food.  These  precautions  are  absolutely  neces- 
sary for  cattle  confined  in  byres,  otherwise  accidents  may  befall  them  on 
the  road,  where  they  will  at  once  break  loose.  Even  at  home  serious 
accidents  sometimes  overtake  them,  such  as  the  breaking  down  of  a  horn, 
casting  off  a  hoof,  spraining  a  tendon,  bruising  ribs,  and  beating  the  whole 
body  violently  ;  and,  of  course,  when  any  such  ill  luck  befalls,  the  animal 
affected  must  be  left  behind,  and  become  a  di-awback  upon  the  value  of 
the  rest,  unless  kept  on  for  some  time  longer. 

(1303.)  Having  been  prepared  for  the  road,  the  drover — who  may  be 
your  own  shepherd,  or  a  hired  professional  drover — takes  the  road  very 
slowly  for  the  first  two  days,  not  exceeding  7  or  8  miles  a  day.  At  night, 
in  winter,  they  should  be  put  into  an  open  court  and  supplied  with  hay 
and  water  and  a  very  few  turnips ;  for  if  the  turnips  are  suddenly  with- 
drawn from  them,  their  bellies  will  become  what  is  termed  dinged,  that  is, 
shrunk  up  into  smaller  dimensions — a  state  very  much  against  a  favorable 
appearance  in  a  market.  After  the  first  two  days  they  may  proceed  faster, 
say  12  or  13  miles  a  day  if  very  fat,  and  15  if  moderately  so.  When 
the  journey  is  long  and  the  beaats  get  faint  in  travel,  they  should  get 
corn  to  support  them.  In  frosty  weather,  when  the  roads  become  very 
hard,  they  are  apt  to  become  shoulder-ahdkcn,  an  effect  of  founder;  and  if 
sleet  falls  during  the  day,  and  becomes  iVozen  upon  them  at  night,  they 
may  become  so  chilled  as  to  refuse;  food,  and  shrink  rapidly  away.  1  had 
a  lot  of  12  Angus  oxen  so  afl'ected  on  their  road  to  tilasgow,  when  over- 
taken in  an  unexpected  storm  in  May,  that  I  could  scarcely  recognize  them 
in  the  market.  Cattle  should,  if  possible,  arrive  the  day  before  in  the 
neighborho(»d  of  a  distant  market,  and  be  sujiplied  with  a  good  feed  of 
turnips  and  hay,  or  grass,  to  make  them  look  fresh  and  fill  them  up  again  ; 
but  if  the  fair  is  only  a  short  dislance,  they  caji  tiavel  to  it  early  in  the 
morning. 

(130  I.)  In  driving  cattle  the  drover  shoulil  have  no  dog,  which  will  only 
annoy  them.  He  should  walk  either  before  or  behind,  as  he  sees  them 
''lisposed  to  proceed  too  fast  or  loiter  on  the  road;  and  in  ]iassing  car- 
riages the  leatling  ox,  after  a  little  experience,  will  make  way  for  the  rest. 
In  other  respects  their  management  on  the  road  is  much  the  same  as  that 
of  sheep,  though  the  rate  of  tjaveling  is  quicker.     Accommodation  will 

(10t)2) 


DRIVING  AND  SLAUGHTERING  CATTLE.  527 

be  found  at  night  at  stated  distances  along  the  road.  On  putting  oxen  in 
a  ferry-boat  the  shipping  of  the  first  one  only  is  attended  with  much 
trouble.  A  man  on  each  side  should  take  hold  of  a  horn,  or  of  a  halter 
made  of  any  piece  of  rope,  should  the  beast  be  hornless,  and  other  two 
men,  one  on  each  side,  should  push  him  up  behind  with  a  piece  of  rope 
held  between  them  as  a  breaching,  and  conduct  him  along  the  plank  into 
the  boat,  which,  if  it  have  low  gunwales,  a  man  will  require  to  remain 
beside  him  until  one  or  two  more  of  the  cattle  follow  their  companion, 
which  they  will  most  readily  do.  In  neglecting  this  precaution  in  small 
ferry-boats,  I  have  seen  the  first  beast  leap  into  the  water,  and  then  it  was 
difficult  to  prevent  some  of  the  rest  doing  the  same  thing  fi-om  the  quay. 

(1305.)  Whatever  time  a  lot  of  cattle  may  take  to  go  to  a  market,  they 
should  never  be  overdriven.  There  is  great  difference  in  management  in 
this  respect  among  drovers.  Some  like  to  proceed  on  the  road  quietly, 
slowly,  but  surely,  and  to  enter  the  market  in  a  placid,  cool  state.  Others, 
again,  drive  smartly  along  for  some  distance  and  rest  to  cool  awhile,  when 
the  beasts  will  probably  get  chilled  and  have  a  staring  coat  when  they 
enter  the  market ;  while  others  like  to  enter  the  market  with  their  beasts 
in  an  excited  state,  imagining  them  then  to  look  gay  ;  but  distended  nos- 
trils, loose  bowels  and  reeking  bodies,  the  ordinary  consequences  of  excite- 
ment, are  no  recommendations  to  a  purchaser.  Good  judges  are  shy  of 
purchasing  cattle  in  a  heated  state,  because  they  do  not  know  how  long 
they  may  have  been  in  it,  and,  to  cover  any  risk,  will  give  c£l  a  head  be- 
low what  they  would  have  bid  for  them  in  a  cool  state.  Some  drovers 
»ave  a  habit  of  thumping  at  the  hindmost  beast  of  the  lot  with  his  stick 
'hile  on  the  road.  This  is  a  reprehensible  practice,  as  the  flesh,  where 
lUmped,  will  bear  a  red  mark  after  the  animal  has  been  slaughtered,  the 
mark  getting  the  appi-opriate  name  of  hlood-hur7i,  and  the  flesh  so  affected 
will  not  take  on  salt,  and  is  apt  to  putrefy.  A  touch  upon  the  shank,  or 
any  tendonous  part,  when  correction  is  necessary,  is  all  that  is  required ; 
but  the  voice,  in  most  cases,  will  answer  as  well.  The  flesh  of  overdriven 
cattle,  when  slaughtered,  never  becomes  properly  firm,  and  their  tallow 
has  a  soft,  melted  appearance. 

(1306.)  A  few  large  oxen  in  a  lot  look  best  in  a  market  on  a  position 
rather  above  the  eye  of  the  spectator.  When  a  large  lot  is  nearly  alike 
in  size  and  appearance,  they  look  best  and  most  level  on  a  flat  piece  of 
ground.  Very  large  fat  oxen  never  look  better  than  on  ground  on  the 
same  level  with  the  spectator.  An  ox,  to  look  well,  should  hold  his  head 
in  a  line  with  the  body,  with  lively  ears,  clear  eye,  dewy  nose,  a  well-licked 
hide,  and  stand  firmly  on  the  ground  on  all  his  feet.  These  are  all  symp- 
toms of  high  health  and  good  condition.  Whenever  you  see  an  ox  shift- 
ing his  standing  from  one  foot  to  another,  he  i?,  foot-sore,  and  has  been  far 
driven.  When  you  observe  him  hanging  his  head  and  his  eyes  watering 
he  feels  ill  at  ease  inwardly.  When  his  coat  stares  he  has  been  over- 
heated some  time,  and  got  a  subsequent  chill.  All  these  latter  symptoms 
will  be  much  aggravated  in  cattle  that  have  been  fed  in  a  byre.  You  may 
discover  when  a  beast  has  been  fed  at  the  stake  with  the  seal  or  baikie,  by 
observing  a  fretted  and  callous  mark  on  the  top  of  the  neck  immediately 
behind  the  ears  ;  by  the  hoofs  being  rather  overgrowTi  at  the  points  ;  by 
marks  of  dung,  or  at  least  much  resting,  upon  the  outside  of  the  hams  ; 
and  very  frequently  by  the  remains  of  lice  upon  the  tail-head  and  top  of 
shoulder,  their  scurf  remaining,  or  the  hair  shorn  off"  altogether. 

(1307.)  In  all  customs  relating  to  jnarkcts  it  is  the  same  with  cattle  as 
with  sheep  (1167).  And  an  ox  puts  on  fat  precisely  in  the  same  manner 
as  a  sheep  (1169). 

(1063) 


628 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


(1308.)  In  judging  cattle  the  jnocedure  is  somewhat  different  from  that 
of  sheep,  inasmuch  as  the  liair  of  cattle  not  hiding  their  form  so  effectually 
as  wool  does  that  of  sheep,  the  eye  is  more  used  than  the  hand  ;  indeed, 
in  the  case  of  ripe  fed  cattle,  the  eye  alone  is  consulted.  The  hand  as  well 
as  the  eye  is  brought  into  use  in  judging  of  Jean  cattle  to  lay  on  to  grass  or 
to  fatten  on  turnips  ;  and  when  we  come  to  consider  that  matter  in  summer 
and  autumn,  1  shall  let  you  know  the  use  of  the  hand  \n  determining  the 
qualities  essential  to  a  good  han  beast.  Meantime  our  business  is  with 
fat  beasts  ;  and  although  judging  them  by  the  eye  is  not  a  difficult  thing 
in  itself,  it  is  rather  difficult  to  describe  in  words.  With  the  assistance, 
however,  of  the  accompanying  figures,  I  hope  you  will  obtain  some  useful 
hints  toward  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  art.  WTien  you  look  at  the 
near  side  of  a  ripe  ox  in  profile — and  this  is  the  side  usually  chosen  to  be- 
gin with — whatever  be  its  size,  imagine  its  body  to  be  embraced  within  a 
rectangled  parallelogram,  as  in  fig.  273 ;  and  if  the  ox  is  filled  up  in  all 


Fig.  273. 


THE  SIDE  TIEW  OF  A  WELL  FILLED-UP   FAT  OX. 

points,  his  carcass  will  occupy  the  parallelogram  a  J  c  J  as  fully  as  in  the 
figure ;  but,  in  most  cases,  there  will  be  deficiencies  in  various  parts — not 
that  all  the  deficiencies  will  occur  in  the  same  animal,  but  different  ones 
in  different  animals.  The  flank  e,  for  instance,  may  be  shrunk  up,  and 
leave  a  space  there  to  the  line  ;  or  the  brisket^ may  descend  much  farther 
down  than  is  represented  ;  or  the  rump  c  may  be  elevated  much  above  the 
line  of  the  back;  or  the  middle  of  the  back  g  may  be  much  hollowed  be- 
low the  line  ;  or  the  top  of  the  shoulder  h  may  be  much  elevated  above 
it ;  or  a  large  space  may  be  left  unfilled  in  the  hams  above  d.  Then  a 
similar  survey  should  be  made  behind  the  animal  ;  the  imaginary  line 
should  inscribe  it  also  within  it  the  perimeter  of  a  rectangled  parallelo- 
gram, though  of  different  form  from  the  other,  as  represented  in  fig.  274, 
where  the  breadth  of  the  hook-bones,  a  and  b,  is  maintained  as  low  as  the 
points  c  and  d ;  and  the  closing  between  the  legs  at  e  is  also  well  filled  up. 
This  figure  gives  a  somewhat  exaggercXted  view  of  the  appearance  of  a 
fat  ox  behind  ;  but  still  it  gives  the  form  of  the  outline  which  it  should 
have.  Then  go  in  front  of  the  ox,  and  there  imagine  the  outline  of  the 
body  at  the  shoulder,  inscribed  within  a  rectangled  parallelogram  abed, 
fig.  27.5,  of  exactly  the  same  dimensions  as  the  one  in  fig.  274.  The 
shoulder,  from  a  to  i,  is  apparently  of  the  same  breadth  as  across  the 
hook-bones,  from  a  to  b,  fig.  274.  The  off-side  of  the  animal  may  of 
course  be  expected  to  be  similar  in  outline  to  the  near  side.     Having  thus 

(1064) 


DRIVING   AND  SLAUGHTERING  CATTLE. 


529 


obtained  an  idea  of  the  outline  which  a  fat  ox  should  have,  let  us  now  at- 
tend to  the  filling  up  of  the  area  of  the  parallelogram. 


Fig.    274. 


Fig.  275. 


THE    HIND    VIEW    uF  A 
WELL    FILLED-UP    FAT    OX. 


THE      FRONT    VIEW 
WELL    FILLED-UP    FAT 


(1309.)  On  looking  again  at  the  near-side  view,  fig.  271,  observe  whether 
the  ribs  below  and  on  each  side  of  g  are  rounded,  and  nearly  fill  up  the 
space  between  the  more  projecting  points  h  and  k,  that  is,  between  the 
shoulders  and  the  hook.  Observe  also  whether  the  shoulder  h  is  flat,  some- 
what in  the  same  plane  as  g,  or  more  rounded  and  prominent ;  and  whe- 
ther the  space  behind  the  shoulder,  at  i,  is  hollow  or  filled  up.  Observe, 
again,  whether  the  shoulder-point  I  is  projecting  and  sharp,  or  rounded 
off;  and  whether  the  neck,  between  a  and  I,  is  flat  and  sunk,  or  sweeps 
fineV  in  with  the  shoulder.  Obsei've  yet  more,  whether  the  muscles  atw 
are  thin  and  flat,  or  full  and  rounded  ;  and  whether  the  hook-bone  k  pro- 
jects or  sinks  in,  or  appears  to  connect  itself  easily  with  the  rump  c  on  the 
one  hand,  and  with  the  ribs  g  on  the  other.  With  all  these  alternative 
particulars  before  you,  they  should  be  arranged  in  the  following  manner, 
to  constitute  points  in  perfection. 

(1310.)  The  line  from  the  shoulder  to  the  hook,  from  Ji  to  h,  fig.  273, 
should  be  parallel  to  the  back-bone.  The  space  on  each  side  of  g,  along 
the  ribs  from  g  to  li,  and  along  the  loin  from  g  to  k,  does  not  fall  in  with 
the  line  h  and  k,  but  should  be  a  little  nearer,  and  almost  as  high  as  the 
back-bone,  with  a  rounding  fall  of  the  ribs  down  the  side  of  the  animal. 
The  loin,  from  k  to  g,  should  be  perfectly  flat  above,  on  the  same  level  as 
the  back-bone,  and  drop  down  on  this  side,  in  connection  with  the  utmost 
rounding  of  the  ribs.  The  point  of  the  hook  k  should  just  be  seen  to  pro- 
ject, and  no  more  ;  and  the  space  between  it  and  the  rump  c  should  grad- 
ually sweep  round  to  the  narrower  breadth  of  the  pelvis,  as  seen  from  a 
to  c  or  i  to  r  in  fig.  276.  i  is  placed  at  the  utmost  bend  of  the  ribs,  along 
which  a  straight  line  should  touch  every  point  through  i,  from  the  front  of 
the  shoulder  to  the  buttock.  The  triangular  space  comprehended  within 
a  h  I  should  gradually  taper  from  the  shoulder-point  to  the  head.  A  straight 
line  from  I,  the  shoulder-point,  should  touch  every  spot  fi-om  it  to  m.  The 
line  of  the  back  should  bo  straight  from  a  to  c  ;  the  tail  should  drop  per- 
pendicularly from  CX.O  d;  and  the  belly  should  sweep  level,  not  high  at  e 
nor  dropping  aty^  There  are  thus  three  straight  lines  along  the  side  of  a 
fat  ox,  from  a  to  c,  one  through  i,  and  from  I  to  7n.  Proceeding  behind  the 
animal  to  fig.  274,  the  space  between  the  hooks,  from  a  to  Z»,  should  be  level, 
but  a  little  rounded  off  at  both  ends,  and  the  bone  at  the  top  of  the  tail 
only  being  allowed  to  project  a  little  upward.     The  muscles  on  each  side 

(1065) 34 


530 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


below  the  hooks,  at  g  aiuiyi  when  fuller  than  the  hooks,  is  no  dfforimty, 
but  should  they  he  no  fuller,  they  are  right.  The  muscles  at  c  and  d, 
down  the  side  of  the  hams,  are  allowed  to  sweep  gradually  toward  the 
hock  joints  of  the  lep^s.  The  closing  at  c  should  be  well  filled  up  to  furnish 
the  rounds  fully,  but  freely,  ft tv  parked  rounds  prevent  easy  motion  of  the 
hind  legs.  Sometimes  the  tail  is  hid  in  a  channel  left  by  the  muscles  l>e- 
tween  c  am\f,  but  this  is  not  usually  the  case.  On  going  to  the  front  view, 
fig.  275,  the  shoulder-top  between  a  and  b  should  be  filled  out  with  a  na- 
tural round,  and  the  muscles  below  it  upon  the  shoulder-bhules  should 
always  project  farther  than  the  breadth  of  the  shoulder-top,  and  in  this  re- 
spect the  fore-quarter  differs  from  the  hind,  where  the  muscles  below  the 
hooks  seldom  project  beyond  them.  The  shoulder-points  c  and/should 
not  be  prominent,  but  round  off  with  the  muscles  of  the  neck  toward  g 
where  the  round  of  the  front  of  the  neck  falls  from  the  head  to  the  breast 
where  the  upper  part  of  the  brisket  h  meets  it,  and  projecting  a  little  in 
front,  is  rounded  below  and  forms  the  lowest  part  of  the  body  of  a  fat  ox, 
and  should  be  well  filled  out  in  breadth  to  spread  the  fore-legs  asundei". 
The  fore-legs  are  usually  farther  apart  than  the  hind,  but  the  hind  at 
times,  when  the  sJiaw  or  cod  is  large  and  fat,  is  as  much  and  even  more 
apart. 

(1311.)  The  objectionable  deviations  from  these  points  are  as  follows  : 
In  fig.  273,  a  hollow  back  at  g  is  bad,  showing  weakness  of  the  back-bone. 
A  high  shoulder-crest  at  /i  is  always  attended  with  a  sharp  thin  shoulder, 
and  has  the  effect  of  bringing  the  shoulder-tops  a  and  b,  fig.  275,  too  close 
together.  A  long  distance  between  g  and  k  makes  the  loins  hollow,  and 
gives  to  a  beast  what  is  called  a  u-ashi/  appearance,  and  is  always  attended 
with  a  liability  to  looseness  in  the  bowels.  This  washiness  is  generally 
attended  with  an  inordinate  breadth  of  hooks,  from  a  to  h,  fig.  274,  and 
causes  them  to  project  much  beyond  the  muscles  below.  A  sharp  project- 
ing hook  is  always  accompanied  with  flat  ribs  at  g, 
fig.  273,  and  ribs  when  flat  give  the  animal  a  hollow 
side,  which  bears  little  flesh,  the  viscera  being  thrown 
down  into  the  cavity  of  the  belly,  which  droops  con- 
siderably below  the  line  ;  but  in  the  event  of  the  mus- 
cles of  the  abdomen  having  a  greater  weight  to  bear, 
they  become  thicker  and  stronger,  and,  accordingly, 
the  flesh  there  becomes  less  valuable,  and  it  has  also 
the  effect  of  thinning  away  the  thick  flank  e.  Flat- 
ness of  rib  is  also  indicative  of  hollowness  of  the 
space  behind  the  shoulder,  so  much  so,  indeed,  that 
the  animal  seems  as  if  it  had  been  gripped  in  too 
firmly  there.  As  the  flesh  is  taken  away  from  the 
shoulder-blade  by  a  sharp  shoulder  and  hollow  ribs,  so 
the  shoulder-joint  I  projects  the  more,  and  causes  a 
thinness  of  the  neck  between  a  and  /.  The  rump- 
bone,  at  c,  frequently  rises  upward,  thereby  spoiling 
the  fine  straight  line  of  the  back  ;  and  whenever  this 
happens, the  rump  betw(^en  J<  and  c  wants  flesh  and  even 
becomes  hollow,  thereby  much  deteriorating  the  value 
of  the  hind-quarter.  A  projecting  hook  /.•  also  thins 
away  the  muscles  about  /«,  and  behind  it  to  the  rounds  ; 
and  this  again  is  followed  by  an  enlargement  of  the 
openings  at  the  closing  e,  fig.  274.  Wlienever  the  shoulder  becomes  thin 
and  narrow,  when  viewed  in  front,  as  in  fig.  275,  the  shoulder-points  c  and 
/"are  wider  than  from  a  to  h,  and  while  this  effect  is  produced  above,  the 

(1066^ 


Fig.  276. 


THE  BACK  VIEW  OK  A 
WELL-FILLED    FAT    OX. 


DRIVING  AND   SLAUGHTERING     CATTLE.  531 

brisket  k  below  becomes  less  fat,  and  permits  the  fore-legs  to  stand  nearer 
each  r)ther.  A  greatly  commendatory  point  of  a  fat  ox  is  a  level  broad  back 
from  rump  to  shouldei',  because  all  the  flesh  seen  from  this  position,  as  is 
endeavored  to  be  represented  by  fig.  27G,  is  of  the  most  valuable  descrip- 
rion  ;  where  the  triangular  space  included  between  «,  h,  c,  is  the  rump ; 
the  triangular  space  between  a,  h,  d,  the  loin  ;  and  the  space  between  cl 
and  e,  deflecting  on  both  sides  toward  ^and^,  the  ribs,  the  value  of  all 
which  parts  are  enhanced  the  more  nearly  they  all  are  on  a  level  with 
each  other.  All  that  I  have  endeavored  to  describe,  in  these  paragraphs, 
of  the  points  of  a  fat  ox,  can  be  judged  of  alone  by  the  eye,  and  most 
judges  never  think  of  employing  any  other  means ;  but  the  assistance 
derived  from  the  hand  is  important,  and  in  a  beginner  cannot  be  dispensed 
with. 

(1312.)  The  first  point  usually  handJcd  is  the  end  of  the  rump  at  the 
tail-head,  at  c,  fig.  273,  although  any  fat  here  is  very  obvious,  and  sometimes 
attains  to  an  enormous  size,  amounting  even  to  deformity.  The  hook-bone 
k  gets  a  touch,  and  when  well  covered,  is  right ;  but  should  the  bone  be 
easily  distinguished,  the  rump  between  k  and  c  and  the  loin  from  k  to  g 
may  be  suspected,  and,  on  handling  these  places,  the  probability  is  that 
they  will  both  be  hard,  and  deficient  of  flesh.  To  the  hand,  or  rather  to 
the  points  of  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand,  when  laid  upon  the  ribs  g,  the 
flesli  should  feel  soft  and  thick  and  the  form  be  round  when  all  is  right, 
but  if  the  ribs  are  flat  the  flesh  will  feel  hard  and  thin,  from  want  of  fat. 
The  skin,  too,  on  a  rounded  rib,  will  feel  soft  and  mobile,  the  hair  deep 
and  mossy,  both  indicative  of  a  kindly  disposition  to  lay  on  flesh.  The 
hand  then  grasps  the  flank  e,  and  finds  it  thick,  when  the  existence  of  in- 
ternal tallow  is  indicated.  The  cod  is  also  fat  and  large,  and  on  looking 
at  it  from  behind  seems  to  force  the  hind  legs  more  asunder  than  they 
would  naturally  be.  The  palm  of  the  hand  laid  along  the  line  of  the  back 
from  c  to  h  will  point  out  any  objectionable  liard  piece  on  it,  but  if  all  is 
soft  and  pleasant,  then  the  shoulder-top  is  good.  A  hoUowness  behind  the 
shoulder  at  i  is  a  very  common  occurrence  ;  but  when  it  is  filled  up  with 
a  layer  of  fat.  the  flesh  of  all  the  fore-quarter  is  thereby  rendered  very  much 
more  valuable.  You  would  scarcely  believe  that  such  a  diflerence  could 
exist  in  the  flesh  between  a  lean  and  a  fat  shoulder.  A  high  narrow  shoul- 
der is  frequently  attended  with  a  ridged  back-bone,  and  low-set  narrow 
hooks,  a  form  which  gets  the  appropriate  name  of  razor-hack,  with  which 
will  always  be  found  a  deficiency  of  flesh  in  all  the  upper  part  of  the  ani- 
mal, where  the  best  flesh  always  is.  If  the  shoulder-point  Z  is  covered,  and 
feels  soft  like  the  point  of  the  hook-bone,  it  is  good,  and  indicates  a  well- 
filled  neck-vein,  which  runs  from  that  point  to  the  side  of  the  head.  The 
shoulder-point,  however,  is  often  bare  and  prominent.  When  the  neck- 
vein  is  so  firmly  filled  up  as  not  to  permit  the  points  of  the  fingers  into  the 
inside  of  the  shoulder-point,  indicates  a  well  tallowed  animal ;  as  also  does 
the  filling-up  between  the  brisket  and  inside  of  the  fore-legs,  as  well  as  a 
full,  projecting,  well-covered  brisket  in  front.  When  the  flesh  comes  down 
heavy  upon  the  thighs,  making  a  sort  of  double  thigh,  somewhat  like  the 
shape  at  d  and  e,  fig.  274,  it  is  called  lyary,  and  indicates  a  tendency  of 
the  flesh  to  grow  on  the  lower  instead  of  the  upper  part  of  the  body. 
These  are  all  the  points  that  require  touching  tchen  the  hand  is  used  ;  and 
in  a  high-conditioned  ox,  they  may  be  gone  over  very  rapidly. 

(1313.)  Cattle  are  made  to  fast  before  being  slaughtered,  as  well  as 
sheep.  The  time  they  should  stand  depends  on  the  state  of  the  animal  on 
its  arrival  at  the  shambles.  If  it  has  been  driven  a  considerable  distance 
in  a  proper  manner,  the  bowels  will  be  in  a  tolerably  empty  state,  so  that 

(1067) 


532  THE  BOOK  OK  THE  FARM WINTER. 


12  hours  may  sullicn .  but  if  full  and  just  off  its  food,  24  hours  will  be  re- 
quired. Ucasls  that  have  been  overdriven,  or  much  struck  with  sticks,  or 
are  in  any  degree  infuriated — or  raised,  as  it  is  termed — should  not  be 
immediately  slaughtered,  but  allowed  to  stand  on  dry  food,  such  as  hay, 
until  the  symj)toni.s  disappear.  While  such  precautions  are  reilaiiily  ne- 
cessary to  iireserve  meat  in  the  best  state,  we  can  scarcely  credit  the  loss 
there  must  be  incurred  every  year  in  Smitlifield  market  in  London,  by  the 
injuries  sustained  by  the  animals  being  driven  through  the  streets  of  an 
immensely  peopled  metropolis.  The  state  of  many  of  the  animals  in  the 
market  t)n  a  Monday  morning  is  truly  ])iliable.  "  The  loss  to  the  grazier," 
says  a  writer  who  advocates  the  removal  of  the  market  to  the  suburbs,  "is 
in  the  difference  in  value  of  his  sheep  or  cattle,  when  ihey  arrive  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  metropolis,  and  when  offered  for  sale  in  Smithfield 
after  intense  suffering  from  hard  blows,  driving  over  the  stones,  from  hun- 
ger, thirst,  fright,  and  the  compressed  state  in  which  tliey  are  constrained 
to  be  packed  ;  the  sheep  and  beasts  the  whole  time,  from  their  raised  tem- 
perature, clouding  the  atmosphere  of  Smithfield  with  dense  exhalations 
from  their  bodies.  The  London  butcher,  canying  on  a  respectable  trade, 
will  at  all  times,  when  he  enters  the  market,  reject  such  cattle  or  sheep  as 
are  what  is  termed  in  a  mess  ;  that  is,  depresse<J,  after  excitation  by  being 
overlaid  or  overdriven,  or  such  as  have  been  more  than  usually  trouble- 
some in  getting  into  the  market,  and,  consequently,  will  be  in  a  more  wor- 
ried and  exhausted  condition.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  all  animals  brought 
into  Smithfield,  especially  on  the  Monday's  market-day,  are  more  or  less 
in  the  condition  above  described."  He  goes  on  to  state  that  "  a  calcula- 
tion has  been  made,  that  512,000  serious  and  extensive  oedematous  bruises 
are,  in  the  course  of  one  year,  discovered  on  cattle  after  they  are  slaugh- 
tered. The  pain  these  bruises  must  occasion  to  the  cattle,  and  the  loss  t« 
the  butcher  or  the  public,  is  exclusive  of  those  parts  of  the  animal  which 
suffer  most  from  the  conduct  of  the  drovers,  namely,  the  head,  especially 
the  nasal  organs,  and  concussions  of  the  brain  by  blows  on  the  horns,  be- 
sides the  more  acute  suffering  from  blows  on  the  hocks."  The  beef  con- 
sumed iii  Lcmdon,  in  1S36,  amounted  to  9^  millions  of  stones,  which,  at 
68.  a  stone,  gives  a  total  value  of  c£2,S.50,000  ;  and  if  its  deterioration  is 
taken  only  at  half  a  farthing  per  pound,  the  annual  loss  sustained  by  the 
bruises  of  cattle  alone  will  amount  to  c£()0.270  16s.* 

(1314.)  Cattle  are  slaughtered  in  a  different  manner  from  sheep,  and 
the  mode  diffci-s  in  different  countries.  In  the  great  abbatoirs  at  Mont- 
martre,  in  Paris,  they  are  slaughtered  by  bisecting  the  spinal  cord  of  the 
cervical  vertebrae  ;  and  this  is  accf)m]ilishcd  by  the  driving  of  a  sharp- 
pointed  chisel  between  the  second  and  third  vertebra,  with  a  smart  stroke 
of  a  mallet,  while  the  animal  is  standing,  when  it  drops,  and  death  or  in- 
sensibility instantly  ensues,  and  the  blood  is  let  out  immediately  by  open- 
ing the  blood-vessels  of  the  neck.  The  plan  ])ursued  in  this  country  is, 
first  to  bring  the  ox  down  on  his  knees,  and  place  his  uniltM-jaw  upim  the 
ground,  by  means  of  ropes  fastened  to  his  liea<l  and  passed  through  an 
iron  ring  in  the  floor  of  the  slausjhter-house.  He  is  then  stunned  with  a 
few  blows  from  an  iron  ax  made  for  the  purpose,  on  the  forehead,  the  bone 
of  which  is  usually  driven  into  the  brain.  The  animal  then  falls  on  its 
side,  and  the  blood  let  out  by  the  neck.  Of  the  two  modes  the  French  is 
apparently  less  cruel ;  for  some  oxen  require  many  blows  to  make  them 
fall  ;  1  once  witnessed  an  ox  receive  nine  blows  before  he  fell.  I  have 
beard  it  alleged  by  butchera  that  the  separation  of  the  spinal  cord  pro- 

*  The  Question  of  the  Smithfield  Market  Fully  Considered. 
(1068) 


DRIVING  AND  SLAUGHTERING  CATTLE.  533 

fliicing  a  general  nervous  convulsion  throughout  the  body,  prevents  the 
blood  flowing  so  rapidly  and  entirely  out  of  it  as  when  the  ox  is  stunned 
in  the  forehead.  The  skin  is  then  taken  off  to  the  knees,  when  the  legs 
are  disjointed,  and  also  off  the  head.  The  carcass  is  then  hung  up  by  the 
tendons  of  the  hough,  on  a  stretcher,  by  a  block  and  tackle,  worked  by  a 
small  winch,  which  keeps  good  what  rope  it  winds  up  by  a  wheel  and 
rachet. 

(1315.)  Every  farm  on  which  sheep  are  killed  should  have  a  proper 
slaughter-house,  such  as  is  seen  at  fig.  1,  Plate  I.  at  ;/,  the  ground-plan  of 
which  may  be  seen  in  fig.  2,  plate  II.,  where  it  is  represented  to  be  10 
feet  by  9  feet,  a  space  too  small  when  cattle  are  slaughtered,  but  it  is  very 
rare  that  an  ox  is  slaughtered  on  a  farm,  except  when  one  is  so  that  is 
likely  to  be  lost  by  some  acute  disease,  in  which  contingency  the  animal 
is  slaughtered  in  the  straw-barn  and  hung  up  by  the  baluks  ;  but  it  is  quite 
easy,  when  the  slaughter-house  is  fitting  up,  to  have  a  block  and  tackle 
and  small  winch,  erected  at  a  convenient  corner,  to  be  used  on  such  occa- 
sions. The  floor  should  be  laid  with  clean-droved  pavement,  and  have  a 
decided  slope  to  the  side  at  which  the  drain  is  made  to  take  away  the 
dirty  water  occasioned  by  cleaning,  which  it  should  always  be  thoroughly. 
The  walls  should  also  be  plastered,  and  a  ventilator  placed  on  the  roof, 
to  maintain  a  draft  of  air.  The  site  chosen  for  the  slaughter-house 
should  be  in  a  cool  place,  away  fix)m  the  sun's  influence  in  summer,  for 
in  a  heated  apartment  meat  never  becomes  firm.  A  locked  closet  is  use- 
ful to  hold  the  knives,  steel,  and  stretchers,  and  the  outer  door  provided 
with  a- good  thumb-latch  and  lock  and  key;  the  key,  of  course,  always  to 
remain  in  the  farm-house  until  needed. 

(1316.)  It  is  the  shepherd's  duty  to  act  the  part  of  butcher  on  a  farm. 
He  should  learn  to  slaughter  gently,  dress  the  carcass  neatly  and  cleanly, 
in  as  plain  a  manner  as  possible,  without  flourishes,  as  the  figures  incised 
on  the  membraneous  skin  are  called,  and  separate  the  valuable  from  the 
worthless  portion  of  the  entrails,  keeping  the  loose  fat  by  itself,  and  hang 
up  the  skin  in  a  suitable  place  to  diy.  It  is  his  duty  also  to  keep  the 
slaughter-house  neat  and  clean. 

(1317.)  After  the  carcass  has  hung  24  houi-s,  it  shiiuld  be  cut  down  by 
the  back-bone,  or  chine,  into  two  sides.  This  is  done  either  with  the  sav/ 
or  chopper ;  the  saw  making  the  neatest  ]ob  in  the  hands  of  an  inexperi- 
enced butcher,  though  it  is  the  most  laborious,  and  with  the  cliopper  is 
the  quickest,  but  by  no  means  the  neatest  plan,  especially  in  the  hands  of 
a  careless  fellow.  In  London  the  chine  is  equally  divided  between  both 
sides,  while  in  Scotland  one  side  of  a  carcass  of  beef  has  a  great  deal  more 
bone  than  the  other,  all  the  spijious  processes  of  the  vertebra  being  left  on 
it.  The  bony  is  called  the  lying  side  of  the  meat.  In  London  the  divided 
processes  in  the  fore-quarter  are  broken  in  the  middle  when  warm,  and 
chopped  back  with  the  flat  side  of  the  chopper,  and  this  has  the  effect  of 
thickening  the  fore  and  middle  ribs  considerably  when  cut  up.  The 
London  butcher  also  cuts  the  joint  above  the  hind  knee,  and,  by  making 
some  incisions  with  a  shai-p  knife,  cuts  the  tendons  there,  and  drops  the 
flesh  of  the  hind-quarter  on  the  flanks  and  loins,  which  causes  it  to  cut  up 
thicker  than  in  the  Scotch  mode.  In  opening  the  hind-quarter  he  also  cuts 
the  aitch-bone  or  pelvis  through  the  center,  which  makes  the  rump  look 
better.  Some  butchers  in  the  north  country  score  the  fat  of  the  closing  of 
the  hind-quarter,  which  has  the  effect  of  making  that  part  of  both  heifer 
and  ox  look  like  the  udder  of  an  old  cow.  There  is  far  too  much  of  this 
scoring  practiced  in  Scotland,  and  ought  to  be  abandoned,  and  let  the 
pieces  have  more  their  natural  appearance, 

(1069) 


534 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


(131S.)  In  cutting  up  a  carcass  of  beef  tlie  London  Imtcher  displays 
great  exj)crtness  ;  lie  not  only  disciiniinatcs  between  the  qualities  of  its 
different  parts,  but  can  cut  out  any  piece  to  gratify  the  taste  of  his  custom- 
ers. In  tliis  way  he  makes  the  best  use  of  the  carcass,  realizes  the  lai'gest, 
value  for  it,  while  he  gratifies  the  taste  of  every  grade  of  customers.  A. 
figure  of  the  Scotch  and  English  modes  of  cutting  up  a  carcass  of  beef 
will  at  once  show  you  their  difference,  and  on  being  informed  where  the 
valuable  pieces  lie,  you  will  be  enabled  to  judge  whether  the  oxen  you 
are  breeding  or  feeding  possess  the  properties  that  will  enable  you  to  de- 
mand the  highest  price  for  them. 

(1319.)  The  Scotch  mode  of  cutting  up  a  carcass  of  beef  is  represented 


Fig.  277. 


THB  SCOTCH  MODE  OF  CUTTING  UFA  CARCASS  OF  BEEF. 

in  fig.  277,  and  these  are  the  names  of  the  different  pieces  of  meat : 


In  the  hind-quarter. 

In  the  fare-quarter 

"l 

The  sirloin,  or  back  sey. 

*, 

The  spare  rib  or  fore  sey. 

b, 
r. 

..    hook-bone. 

..    buttock,         )  ., 

..    lar^e  round  (">«™™P- 

m 

::  ^nno::;^"^-'^'^-^" 

d, 

n. 

..    nineholes. 

e. 

.-    tliick  Hank. 

0, 

. .    brisket. 

f, 

..     thin  flank. 

P< 

..    shoulder-lyar. 

fr. 

..    small  round. 

9' 

. .    nap  or  shin. 

h. 

..    hough. 

r, 

. .    neck. 

1, 

. .    tail. 

t, 

. .    sticking  piece. 

a  the  siirloin  is  the  principal  roasting-piece,  making  a  very  handsome  dish, 
and  is  a  univcrsnl  favorite.  It  consists  of  two  portions,  the  Scotch  and 
English  sides,  the  fonner  is  the  one  above  the  lumbar  bones,  and  is  some- 
what hard  in  ill-fed  oxen  ;  the  latter  consists  of  the  muscles  under  these 
bones,  and  are  generally  covered  with  fine  fat,  and  are  exceedingly  ten- 
der. The  better  the  beast  is  fed  the  larger  is  the  under  muscle,  better 
covered  with  fat,  and  more  tender  to  eat ;  b  the  hook-bone  and  c  the  but- 
tock are  cut  up  for  steaks,  beef-steak  pie,  or  minced  collops,  and  both  these, 
along  with  the  sirloin,  fetch  the  highest  price  ;  d  is  the  large  round,  and  c 
the  small  round,  both  well  known  as  excellent  pieces  for  salting  and  boil- 
ing, and  are  eaten  cold  with  great  relish  ;  //  the  hough  is  peculiarly  suited 
for  boiling  dt»wn  for  sotij),  having  a  large  proportion  of  gelatinous  matter. 
Brown  soup  is  the  jirin(i])al  dish  ma<le  of  the  hough,  but  its  decoction 
forms  an  excellent  .stock  for  various  dishes,  and  will  keep  in  a  state  of 
jelly  for  a  considerable  time.  The  synovial  fat.  skimmed  off  in  boiling 
this  piece,  and  poureil  upon  oatmeal,  seas(»ned  with  pepper  and  salt,  con- 
stitutes the  fanioiisy<//  hrosc  fur  which  Scotland  has  long  been  celebrated. 
In  the  making,  this  brose  should  not  be  much  stiired,  and  the  oatmeal  left 
among  the  fat  gnivy  in  small,  dry  lumps.  It  was  of  this  piece  that  the  old 
favorite  soup  of  Scotland,  called  skinh,  was  made,  e  is  the  thick  and  f 
the  thin  flank    both  excellent  pieces  for  salting  and  boiling ;  i  is  the  tail, 

(1070J 


DRIVING  AND  SLAUGHTERING  CATTLE. 


535 


and  insignificant  as  it  may  seem,  it  makes  a  soup  of  very  fine  flavor.  Ho- 
tel-keepers have  a  trick  of  seasoning  brown  soup,  or  rather  beef-tea,  with 
a  few  joints  of  tail,  and  passing  it  off  for  genuine  ox-tail  soup.  These  are 
all  the  pieces  which  constitute  the  hind-quarter,  and  it  will  be  seen  that 
they  are  valuable  both  for  roasting  and  boiling,  not  containing  a  single 
coarse  piece.  In  the  fore-quarter  is  k,  the  spare  rib  or  fore-sey,  the  six 
ribs  of  the  back  end  of  which  make  an  excellent  roast,  and  when  taken 
from  the  side  opposite  to  the  lying  one,  being  free  of  the  bones  of  the 
spine,  makes  a  large  one  ;  and  it  also  makes  excellent  beef-steaks  and 
beef-steak  pie.  I  and  m  are  the  two  runners,  and  n  the  nine-holes,  make 
salting  and  boiling  pieces  ;  but  of  these,  the  nine-holes  is  much  the  best, 
as  it  consists  of  layers  of  fat  and  lean  without  any  bone  ;  whereas  the 
fore  parts  of  the  runners  have  a  piece  of  the  shoulder-blade  in  them,  and 
every  piece  connected  with  that  bone  is  more  or  less  coarse-grained  ;  o  the 
brisket  eats  very  well  boiled  fresh  in  broth,  and  may  be  corned  and  eaten 
with  boiled  greens  or  carrots  ;  p  the  shoulder-lyar  is  a  coarse  piece,  and  fit 
only  for  boiling  fresh  to  make  into  broth  or  beef-tea;  q  the  nap  or  shin,  is 
analogous  to  the  hough  of  the  hind-leg,  but  not  so  rich  and  fine,  there  be- 
ing much  less  gelatine  in  it ;  r  the  neck  makes  good  broth,  and  the  stick- 
ing-piece  .?  is  a  great  favorite  with  some  epicures,  on  account  of  the  pieces 
of  rich  fat  in  it.  It  makes  an  excellent  stew,  as  also  sweet  bai-ley  broth, 
and  the  meat  eats  well  when  boiled  in  it.  These  are  all  the  pieces  of  the 
fore-quarter,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  they  consist  chiefly  of  boiling-pieces, 
and  some  of  them  none  of  the  finest,  the  roa.sting-piece  being  confined  to 
the  six  ribs  of  the  spare-rib  k,  and  the  finest  boiling-piece,  corned,  only  to 
be  found  in  the  nine-holes  n. 

(1320.)  In  some  of  the  largest  to'WTis  of  Scotland  a  difference  of  Id.  per 
lb.  may  be  made  between  the  roasting  and  boiling  pieces,  but  in  most 
towns,  and  in  the  country  villages,  all  the  pieces  realize  the  same  prices, 
and  even  the  houghs  and  shins  fetch  3d.  per  lb. 

(1321.)  In  the  English  mode  the  pieces  are  cut  up  somewhat  differently, 

Fig.  276. 


THE  ENGLISH  MODE  OF  CUTTING  UP  A  CARCASS  OF  BEEF 


especially  in  the  fore-quarter. 
of  the  following  pieces  : 


t, 

(1071) 


In  the  hind-quarter. 
The  loin, 
rump, 
aitch-bone, 
buttock, 
hock. 

thick  flank 
thin  flank, 
shin, 
tail. 


Fig.  278  shows  this  mode,  and  it  consist* 


In  the  fore-quarter. 
Jc,   The  fore  rib. 

middle  rib. 

chuck  rib. 

clod,  and  sticking,  and  neck. 

brisket. 
p,     ..    leg-of-mutton  piece. 
q,     ..'  shin. 


636  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

a,  the  loin,  is  the  principal  roasting  piece;  Z»,  the  rump,  is  the  favorite 
steak-piece  ;  c,  the  aitch-l)one,  the  favorite  stew  ;  d,  the  buttock,  f,  the 
thick  flank,  and  g,  the  thin  flank,  are  all  excellent  hoilinp;  pieces  when 
corned  ;  c,  the  hock,  and  h,  the  shin,  make  soup,  and  aftord  stork  for  vari- 
ous purposes  in  the  culinary  ait ;  and  /  is  the  tail  for  ox-tail  stmp — a  favor- 
ite English  luncheon.  In  the  curious  case  of  assessing  damages  against 
the  Bank  of  England  for  removing  the  famous  Cock  eating-house  in 
Threadneedle-street,  it  was  produced  in  evidence,  that,  in  the  3  years 
1837-8-9,  there  had  been  l^,3o9  ox-tails  used  for  soup;  and  as  3G  tails 
make  10  gallons  of  soup,  there  had  been  served  up  59,369  basins,  at  lid. 
the  basin,  making  the  large  amount  of  c€2,720  13s.  4d.  for  this  article 
alone.*  These  are  all  the  pieces  in  the  hind-quarter,  and  it  will  be  seen 
they  are  valuable  of  their  respective  kinds.  In  the  fore-quarter,  k,  the 
fore  rib,  I,  middle  rib,  and  m,  chuck  rib,  are  all  roasting  j)icces,  not  alike 
good;  but  in  removing  the  part  of  the  shoulder-blade  in  the  middle  rib, 
the  spare-ribs  below  make  a  good  broil  or  roast ;  n,  the  neck,  makes  soup, 
being  used  fresh,  boiled,  and  the  back  end  of  the  brisket  o  is  boiled 
corned,  or  stewed  ;  p,  the  leg-of-mutton  piece,  is  coarse,  but  is  as  fre- 
quently stewed  as  boiled ;  q,  the  shin,  is  put  to  the  same  uses  as  the  shin 
and  hock  of  the  hind-quarter.  On  comparing  the  two  modes  of  cutting 
up,  it  will  be  observed  that  in  the  English  there  are  more  roasting  pieces 
than  in  the  Scotch,  a  large  proportion  of  the  fore-quarter  being  used  in 
that  way.  The  plan,  too,  of  cutting  the  line  between  b  and  c,  the  rump 
and  aitch-bone  in  the  hind-quarter,  lays  open  the  steak-pieces  to  better 
advantage  than  in  the  Scotch  buttock,  c,  fig.  277.  Extending  the  compar- 
ison from  one  part  of  the  carcass  to  the  other,  in  both  methods,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  most  valuable  pieces — the  roasting — occupy  its  upper,  and 
the  less  valuable — the  boiling — its  lower  part.  Every  beast,  therefore, 
that  lays  on  beef  more  upon  the  upper  parts  of  its  body  is  more  valuable 
than  one  that  lays  the  same  quantity  of  flesh  on  its  lower  parts. 

(1322.)  The  relative  values  of  the  pieces  ditt'er  much  more  in  London 
than  in  Scotland.  The  rumps,  loin  and  fore  ribs  fetch  the  highest  ])rice  ; 
then  come  the  thick  flank,  buttock  and  middle  rib  ;  then  the  aitch-bone, 
thin  flank,  chuck-rib,  brisket  and  leg-of-mutton  piece  ;  then  the  clod,  stick- 
ing and  neck  ;  and  last  of  all  the  legs  and  shins.  In  actual  pecuniary 
value,  the  last  may  bear  a  proportion  of  only  one-fourth  of  the  highest 
price. 

(1323.)  Of  the  qualities  of  beef  obtained  from  different  breeds  of  cattle, 
I  believe  there  is  no  better  meat  than  from  the  West  Highland  breed  for 
fineness  of  grain,  and  cutting  up  into  convenient  j)ieces  fitr  family  use. 
The  Galloways  and  Angus,  when  fattened  in  the  English  pastures,  are 
great  favorites  in  the  London  market.  The  Short-Horns  afford  excellent 
steaks,  being  thick  of  flesh,  and  the  slice  deep,  large  and  juicy,  and  their 
corned  flanks  and  ninehol«*s  are  always  thick,  juicy  and  well  mixed.  The 
Herefords  are  somewhat  similar  to  the  Short-Horns,  and  the  Devons  may 
pernaps  be  classed  amonsj  the  Galloways  and  Angus,  while  the  Welsh  can- 
not be  compared  to  the  West  Highland.  So  that,  taking  the  breeds  of  Scot- 
land as  sujjpliers  of  good  beef,  they  seem  to  be  more  valuable  for  the  table 
than  those  of  England.  Any  beef  that  I  have  seen  of  Irish  beasts  is  infe- 
rior, but  the  cattle  derived  from  Hritain,  fed  on  the  pastures  of  Ireland, 
afford  excellent  meat.  Shetland  beef  is  the  finest  grained  of  all,  but  the 
pieces  are  very  small. 

(1324.)  In  regard  to  tlie  proportion  of  beef  and  tallow  generally  obtained  from  catt)e.  Dr.  Cle- 
land  states  thai  of  14,566  head  of  cattle  sold  in  the  Glasgow  market  in  1822.  averaging  exactly 

*  John  Bull,  Ifitb  January,  1841. 

(1072) 


DRIVING  AND  SLAUGHTERING   CATTLE. 


537 


44  stones  imperial,  each  yielded  .')|  stones,  which  is  exactly  ^  of  the  weight  of  beef*  From  4  of 
:he  oxen  experimented  on  by  Mr.  Stephenson,  and  which  were  slaughtered  at  the  same  time 
those  results  were  obtained  : 


Cattle. 

I,ive  weight. 

Beef. 

Tallow. 

Hide. 

Other 

ortiils. 

Nos. 

Sts. 

St9.    lbs. 

Sts.     lbs. 

Sts.    lbs. 

Sts. 

lbs. 

1. 

112 

66         2 

8       10 

5       11 

32 

5 

2. 

100 

58         6 

7         7 

4       12 

29 

3 

3. 

108 

62         3 

9         0 

4       12 

26 

13 

'■         1 

109 

62         4 

9         4 

5       12 

31 

8 

The  proportion  of  tallow  to  beef  is  here  nearer  1-7  than  |  over  the  whole  beasts;  and  tliere  is 
another  result  worth  attendine;  to,  \\hich  is  that  of  Nos.  2  and  3,  which  had  the  same  weight  of 
hide,  namely,  4  sts.  12  lbs. ;  No.  3  must  have  had  the  finest  skin  and  touch,  for  its  superiority  in 
every  respect  is  apparent,  both  in  weight  of  tallow,  which  was  9  sts.  to  7  sts.  7  lbs. ;  in  weight  of 
beef,  which  was  as  62  sts.  3  lbs.  to  58  sts.  6  lbs. ;  and  in  lightness  of  other  offals,  which  were  as 
26  sts.  13  lbs.  is  to  29  sts.  3  lbs.  Besides  ditferenee  in  quality  of  the  same  weight  of  hide,  a 
lighter  hide,  under  similar  circumstances,  will  produce  the  .same  results  as  tho.so  above.  For  ex- 
ample: of  two  of  the  heifers  fed  by  Mr.  Howden  on  raw  and  steamed  food,  which  afforded  the 
same  live  weight  when  put  up  to  feed,  namely,  1022  lbs.,  and  the  same  live  weight  after  the  ex- 
periment was  concluded,  namely,  1176  lbs.,  one  had  a  light  hide,  that  is,  52  Ibe.  weight,  and  the 
other  a  heavier  one,  60  lbs.,  and  the  light  one  was  accompanied  with  620  lbs.  of  beef  and  96  lbs. 
of  tallow,  while  the  heavier  hide  was  associated  with  only  572  Ib.s.  of  beef  and  80  lbs.  of  tallow. 
All  these  proportions  very  nearly  indicate  the  tallow  at  1-7  of  the  beef;  but  .sometimes  the  pro- 
portion of  tallow  is  very  much  greater  and  much  less.  I  had  a  young  Short-Horn  cow  which 
slipped  her  .second  calf  and  was  fed  when  she  became  dry,  which  was  in  November,  and  in  May 
following  was  sold  to  the  late  Mr.  Robert  Small,  fiesher,  Dundee,  when  she  yielded  72J  .stones  of 
beef  and  27  stones  of  tallow,  being  in  the  ratio  of  2|  to  I.  On  the  other  hand.  Lord  Kinlore's 
large  o.x  that  was  exhibited  at  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society's  Show  at  Aberdeen  in 
1834  only  yielded  16  sts.  7  lbs.  of  tallow,  from  173  sts.  4  lbs  of  beef;  being  in  the  ratio  of  10^  to 
l.t  There  are,  perhaps,  not  sufficient  data  in  existence  to  determine  the  true  proportion  of  offal 
of  all  kinds  to  the  beef  of  any  given  fat  ox  ;  but  approximations  have  been  made  which  may 
serve  the  purpose  until  the  matter  is  investigated  by  direct  experiment,  under  various  circum- 
stances. The  dead  weight  bears  to  the  live  weigiit  a  ratio  varying  between  .571  and  .605  to  1  ; 
and  on  applying  one  or  other  multiple  to  the  cases  of  the  live  weight,  you  will  find  a  pretty 
correct  approximation.  The  tallow  is  supposed  to  be  8-100  of  the  live  weight,  so  that  the  multiple 
is  the  decimal  of  .08.  The  hide  is  supposed  to  be  5-100  of  the  live  weight,  so,  to  obtain  its  weight, 
a  multiple  of  .05  should  be  used.  The  other  offals  are  supposed  to  bear  a  ratio  of  about  I  of  the 
live  weight,  so  that  the  multiple  of  .28  is  as  near  as  can  be  proposed  under  existing  expe- 
rience | 

(1325.)  Beef  is  the  staple  animal  food  of  this  country,  and  it  is  used  in  various  states — fre.sh,  salt- 
ed, smoked,  roasted,  and  boiled.  When  intended  to  be  eaten  fresh,  "  the  ril/n  will  keep  the  best. 
and  with  care  will  keep  5  or  6  days  in  summer,  and  in  winter  10  days.  The  middle  of  the  loin 
is  the  next  best,  and  the  nnnp  the  next.  The  roiaid  will  not  keep  long.unless  salted.  The  bris- 
ket is  the  worst,  and  will  not  keep  longer  than  3  days  in  summer,  and  a  week  in  winter."||  In 
cooking,  a  piece  of  beef,  consisting  of  four  of  the  largest  ribs,  and  weighing  11  lbs.  1  oz.,  was  sub- 
jected to  roa.sting  by  Mr.  Donovan,  and  it  lost  during  the  process  2  lbs.  6  oz.,  of  which  10  oz. 
were  fat.  and  1  lb.  12  oz.  water  dissipated  by  evaporation.  On  dissection,  the  bone  weighed  16 
oz.,  so  that  the  weight  of  meat  fit  for  the  table  was  only  7  lbs.  11  oz.  out  of  11  lbs.  1  oz.  It  ap- 
pears that  when  the  butchers'  price  of  ribs  is  8^d.  per  lb.,  the  cost  of  the  meat  when  duly  roasted 
IS  Hid.  per  lb.,  aud  the  average  loss  arising  from  liquefaction  of  fa'  and  evaporation  of  water  is 
18  percent.  With  sirloin.s,  at  the  price  of  Sjd.  per  lb.,  the  meat  cost,  when  roasted.  Is.  1  l-6d. 
per  lb.,  at  a  loss  of  20^  per  cent.  A  lo.ss  of  18  per  cent,  was  also  sustained  on  boiling  salted  bris- 
kets ;  and  on  salted  flanks  at  6d.  per  lb.  the  meat  cost  7fd.  per  lb.,  at  a  loss  of  13  1-5  per  cent.fi 
In  regard  to  the  power  of  the  stomach  to  digest  beef  that  which  is  eaten  boiled  with  salt  only  is 
digested  in  2  hours  45  minutes.  Beef  fresh,  lean,  and  rarely  roasted,  and  a  beefsteak  broiled, 
lakes  3  hours  to  digest:  that  fresh  and  dry-roasted,  and  boiled,  eaten  with  mustard,  is  difrested 
in  3  hours  and  30  minutes.  Lean  fresh  beef  fried  takes  4  hours  to  digest,  and  old  hard  salted  beef 
boiled  does  not  di,'est  in  less  than  4  hours  15  minutes.  Fresh  beef-suet  boiled  takes  5  hours  30 
minutes  to  digest. 1[ 

(1326.)  The  usual  mode  of  preserving  beef  is  by  saKmsr;  and  when  intended  to  keep  a  long 
time,  such  as  for  the  use  of  .shipping,  it  is  always  salted  with  brine  :  but  for  family  use  it  .should 
be  .silted  dry  with  good  Liverpool  salt,  without  saltpetre  ;  for  brine  dispels  the  juice  of  the  meat, 
and  saltpetre  only  serves  to  make  the  meat  dry,  and  give  it  a  disagreeable  and  unnatural  red  color. 
Various  experiments  have  been  made  to  cure  beef,  with  salt  otherwise  than  by  hand-rubbing,  and 
ill  a  short  space  of  time;  and  also  to  preserve  it  from  putrefaction  by  other  means  than  salt. 
Those  of  Messrs.  Payne  and  Ellmore,  of  Loudon,  consist  in  putting  meat  in  a  copper  which  is 
rendered  air-tight,  and  an  air-pump  then  creates  a  vacuum  within  it,  thereby  extracting  all  the 
air  out  of  the  meat;  then  brine  is  pumped  in  by  pres.sure,  which  entering  into  every  pore  of  the 
meat  formerly  occupied  by  the  air,  is  said  to  place  it  in  a  state  of  preservation  in  a  few  minutes. 
M.  Gannal,  of  France,  preserved  the  carcass  of  an  ox  from  putrefaction  for  2  years  by  injecting 

*  Cleland's  Account  of  the  Hichland  and  Agricultural  Show  at  Glasgow  in  1828. 
1  Quarterly  Journal  of  Asricuiturc,  vol.  vii. 

t  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xii. 
|]  The  fJxperipnced  Butcher.     §  Donovan's  Domestic  Economy,  vol.  ii. 
^  Combe  on  Digestion  and  Dietetics. 
(1073) 


538 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


4  lb».  of  Halinc  mixtaro  into  the  carotid  arierj-.  Whcllicr  any  such  contrivauce  can  be  made  arail- 
ablefor  faniilv  purposes  Bccmn  doubtful.  Up  to  the  10th  October,  \>*ii,  salted  beef  iraportod  wa« 
subject  to  a  (5uty  of  128.  per  cwu  ;  since  that  date  both  raited  and  fresh  jmy  a  duty  of  ?».  pcrcwu 
from  fon-ign  countries,  and  28.  from  Urilish  possesttions.  Up  to  tiiat  period  the  importation  of 
live  stock  was  prohibited,  by  the  snnie  act ;  bulls  and  oxen  can  now  be  imported  fn)m  forei^ 
countries  at  XI  each,  and  from  Hritish  po.«flOMion«,  10s. :  cows,  l.ls.  and  7».  Cd. ;  calves.  10».  and 
58.;  slietp,  38.  ami  Is.  6d..  and  lambs,  2s.  and  Is.  each.*  Salted  beef  cured  with  wood  smoke 
is  converted  into  a  ham,  and  very  hitilily  relislied.  The  tierce  of  salted  beef  for  the  navy  contains 
300  lbs.,  consisting  of  38  pieces  of  i^  lbs.  each. 

(1327.)  Cattle  are  useful  to  man  in  various  other  ways  than  affording  food  from  their  flesh,  their 
oflals  of  tallow,  hides,  and  horns,  forming  extensive  articles  of  connnerce.  Of  the  futlr.  the  char- 
acteristics of  a  good  one  for  strong  purposes  are  strength  in  its  middle  or  biUt.  as  i;  is  called,  and 
light  on  the  edges  or  oj'a/.  A  bad  liide  is  the  oppo.site  of  this,  thick  in  the  edges  and  thin  in  the 
middle.  A  good  hide  has  a  firm  texture,  a  bad  one  loose  and  soft  A  hide  improves  as  the  sum- 
mer advances,  and  it  continues  to  impmve  after  the  new  coat  of  hair  in  autumn  until  Xovember 
or  December,  when  the  coat  gets  routrh  from  the  coldness  of  the  season,  and  the  hide  is  then  in 
its  best  state.  It  is  8uri)rising  how  a  hide  improves  in  thickness  after  the  cold  weather  has  set  in. 
The  sort  of  food  does  not  seem  to  affect  the  (|uality  of  the  hide  ;  but  the  better  it  is,  and  the  better 
cattle  hiive  been  fed,  and  the  longer  they  have  been  well  fed.  even  from  a  calf,  the  better  the  hide. 
From  what  has  been  said  of  the  effect  of  weather  upon  the  hide,  it  seems  a  natural  conclusion  that 
a  hide  is  better  from  an  ox  that  has  been  fed  in  the  open  air  than  from  one  fed  in  a  byre.  Dirt  ad- 
hering to  a  hide  injures  it,  particularly  in  byrefed  animals;  and  anythine  that  punctures  a  hide, 
such  as  u-arhles  arising  from  certain  insects,  is  also  injurious.  The  In-st  hides  are  obtained  from 
the  West  Highland  breed  of  cattle.  The  Short-Homs  produce  the  thinnest  hides,  the  Aberdeen- 
shire the  next,  and  then  the  Angus.  Of  the  same  breed,  the  ox  affords  the  strongest  hide  ;  but 
as  hides  are  applied  to  various  uses,  the  cows,  provided  it  be  larpe.  may  be  as  valuable  as  an  ox's 
The  bull's  hide  is  the  least  valuable.  Hides  are  imported  from  Russia  and  South  America;  and 
the  number  imported  in  1838  was  301,890.  The  duty  on  hides,  by  the  new  Tariff",  is  6d.  per  cwL 
for  dried  and  3d.  for  wet. 

(1328.)  Hides,  when  deprived  of  their  hair,  are  converted  into  leather  by  infusion  of  the  astrin- 
gent property  of  bark.  The  old  plan  of  tanning  used  to  occupy  a  long  tmie  :  but  such  was  the 
value  of  the  process,  that  the  old  tanners  u.«ed  to  pride  themselves  in  producing  a  substantial  arti- 
cle. More  recent  discoveries  have  prompted  tanners  to  hasten  the  process,  much  to  the  injury  of 
the  article  produced.  Strong  infusions  of  bark  make  leather  brittle;  100  lbs.  of  skin,  quickly 
tanned  in  a  strong  infu.sion,  produce  137  lbs.  of  leather;  while  a  weak  infusion  produces  only 
117|,  the  additional  191  lbs.  serving  only  to  deteriorate  the  leather,  and  cause  it  to  contain  much 
h'ss  textile  animal  solid.  Leather  thus  highly  charged  with  tannin  is  so  spongy  as  to  allow 
moisture  to  pa.«s  readily  through  its  pores,  to  the  great  discomfort  and  danger  of  persons  who 
wear  shoes  made  of  it.  The  proper  mode  of  tanning  lasts  a  year  or  a  year  and  half",  according  to 
the  quality  of  the  leather  wanted,  and  the  nature  of  the  hides.  A  perfect  leather  is  recognized  by 
its  section,  which  should  have  a  glistening  marbled  appearance,  without  any  white  streaks  in  the 
middlc.t  Leather  is  applied  to  many  irtiportant  purposes,  being  made  into  harness  for  agricul 
tural  and  other  uses.  It  is  used  to  line  the  powder  magazines  of  ships  of  war  ;  to  make  carding- 
machines  for  cotton  and  other  mills;  belts  to  drive  macliinery  ;  to  make  soles  of  shoes ;  and,  when 
japanned,  to  cover  carriages.  Calves'  leather  is  used  in  bookbinding.  The  duty  on  tanned  hides 
is  now  fixed  at  £10  per  jtlOO  value.  The  hair  taken  off"  hides  in  tanning  is  employed  to  mix  with 
plaster,  and  is  surreptitiously  put  into  a  hairmatlrcsses.  The  duty  imposed  on  foreign  cattle  hair 
is  Cd.  per  cwt. 

(1329.)  '-The  principal  substances  of  which  give  is  made."  says  Dr.  Ure,  "  are  the  paring  of  ox 
and  other  thick  hide.s,  which  form  the  strongest  article  ;  the  refuse  of  the  lcather-dro.s.-<T;  both  af- 
ford from  if)  to  55  per  cent,  of  glue.  The  tendons,  and  manj-  other  offals  of  slaughter  houses,  also 
aff'ord  materials,  though  of  an  inferior  quality,  for  the  purpose.  The  refuse  of  tanneries — such  as 
the  ears  of  oxen,  calves,  sheep,  <V.c. — arc  better  articles:  but  parintrs  of  parchment,  old  gloves,  and 
in  fact  animal  skins  in  any  form,  uncombined  with  tanning,  niav  be  made  into  glue."f 

(1330.)  Ox-talloir  is  of  great  importance  in  the  arts.  Candles  and  soap  are  made  of  it.  and  il 
enters  largely  into  the  dressing  of  leather  and  the  use  of  machinerj-.  Large  quantities  ai>:  annual- 
ly imported  from  Rti.ssia.  Of  the  exports  from  St.  Petersburgh,  consisting  of  4^  millions  rif  poods, 
at  least  ;5J  millions  are  <-xporled  to  this  country,  at  the  value  of  i. 2,306, l.'iO.  at  X3.">  per  ;')ii.||  Of 
the  quantity  imported  in  1837,  1,294,000  cwis.  were  retained  for  home  consumption.  Ox  tallow 
consists  of  7(i  parts  of  stearine  and  24  of  oleine  out  of  the  100.  The  duty  on  tallow  by  the  new 
Tariff  is  3s.  2d.  per  cwt.  from  foreign  countries,  and  3d.  per  cwt.  fmm  the  Colonies. 

(1331.)  The  horns  ofo.ven  and  sheep  arc  used  for  many  purpo.ses.  "The  horn  consists  of  two 
parts :  an  outward  honiy  case,  and  an  inward  conical-shaped  substance,  sjimewhnt  intermediate 
Dolween  indurated  hair  anil  bone,"  called  the  J!inf  of  the  horn.  "  The.se  two  parts  arc  .separated 
by  means  of  a  blow  on  a  block  of  wood.  The  horny  exterior  is  then  cut  into  three  portions  by 
means  of  a  framesaw.  The  lowest  of  these,  next  the  root  of  the  horn,  after  undergoing  several 
proces.sos  by  which  it  is  rendered  flat,  is  made  into  combs.  The  middle  of  the  horn,  alter  beinjf 
flattened  by  heal  and  its  Iransjian-ncy  improved  by^il.  is  split  into  thin  layers,  and  forms  n  substi- 
tute for  glass  in  lanterns  of  the  commonest  kind.  The  tip  of  the  honi  is  used  by  the  niakcrs  of 
knife-handles  and  of  the  tops  of  whips,  and  for  other  similar  purposes.  The  interior,  or  core  of 
the  horn,  is  boiled  down  in  water.  A  lar^'e  quantity  of  fst  rises  to  the  surface  ;  this  is  put  aside, 
and  sold  to  the  makers  of  yellow  soap.  The  liquid  itself  is  used  as  a  kind  of  glue,  and  is  pur- 
chased by  the  cloth-dresser  for  stifl"ening.     The  bony  substance  which  remains  l^hind  is  then  sent 

*  The  Act  to  amend  the  Lrw»  relatini;  to  the  Cuitoms,  Table  A. 

t  Urf's  Dictionnry  of  the  Arto.  art.  I^Athtr  Tanning.  ^  Ibid.,  art.  Glue. 

y  McCullorh's  Dictionitry  of  Commerce,  art.  TaUtne. 

(1074) 


TREATMENT  OF  FARM-HORSES.  539 


to  the  mill,  and.  being  ground  down,  is  sold  to  the  farmers  for  manure.  Besides  these  various 
purposes  to  which  the  different  parts  of  the  horn  are  applied,  the  clippings  which  arise  in  comb- 
making  are  sold  to  the  farmers  at  about  Is.  per  bushel.  The  shavings  which  form  the  refuse  of 
the  lantern-makers  are  sold  as  manure."*  Horn,  as  is  well  known,  is  easily  rendered  soft  and 
pliant  in  warm  water;  and  by  this,  and  the  property  of  adhesion  like  glue,  large  plates  of  horn 
c&D  be  made  by  cementing  together  the  edges  of  small  pieces  rendered  flat  by  a  peculiar  process, 
as  a  substitute  for  glass.  For  this  purpose,  the  horns  of  goats  and  sheep  are  preferred,  being 
whiter  and  more  transparent  than  those  of  any  other  animal.  Imitation  of  tortoise-shell  can  be 
given  to  horn  by  the  use  of  various  metallic  solutions.  Horn,  also,  when  softened,  can  be  im- 
printed with  any  pattern  by  means  of  dies.t  The  duty  on  horns  is  Is.  per  ton,  and  on  hoofs  £1 
per  £100  value. 


34.    TREATMENT  OF    FARM-HORSES  IN  WINTER. 

"  But  loose  betimes,  and  through  the  shallow  pond 
Drive  the  tired  team,  and  bed  them  snug  and  warm  ; 
And  with  no  stinting  hand  theii-  toil  reward." 

Gkaham. 

(1332.)  "With  the  exception  of  a  few  weeks  in  summer,  farm-horses  oc- 
cupy their  stable  all  the  year  round.  It  is  situate  at  O,  fig.  3,  Plate  III., 
where  it  is  seen  with  two  doors  and  two  windows  in  front,  and  surmount- 
ed with  two  ventilators  on  the  roof.  Its  plan  may  be  seen  at  O,  fig.  4, 
Plate  IV.,  where  it  is  represented  as  containing  12  stalls.  The  fitting-up 
of  the  stable  in  all  its  particulars  of  stalls,  floor,  and  accommodation,  hav- 
ing already  been  fully  dilated  on  when  treating  of  the  steading,  from  (23) 
to  (34),  more  seems  unnecessary  to  be  said  in  regard  to  these  particulars 
in  this  place. 

(1333.)  Farm-horses  are  under  the  immediate  charge  of  the  plowmen, 
one  of  whom  woi'ks  a  pair,  and  keeps  possession  of  them  generally  during 
the  whole  period  of  his  engagement.  This  is  a  favoi-able  arrangement  for 
the  horses,  as  they  work  much  more  steadily  under  the  guidance  of  the 
same  driver,  than  when  changed  into  the  hands  of  different ;  and  it  is  also 
oetter  for  the  plowman  himself,  as  he  will  perform  his  work  much  more 
satisfactorily  to  himself,  as  well  as  his  employer,  with  horses  familiarized 
to  him  than  strange  ones.  In  fact,  the  man  and  his  horses  must  become 
acquainted  before  they  can  understand  each  other  ;  and  when  the  pecu- 
liarities of  each  party  are  mutually  understood,  work  becomes  more  easy, 
and  of  course  greater  attention  can  be  bestowed  upon  it.  Some  horses 
show  great  attachment  to  their  driver,  and  will  do  whatever  he  desires 
without  hesitation  ;  others  show  no  particular  regard  ;  and  the  same  differ- 
ence may  be  remarked  of  plowmen  toward  their  horses.  Upon  the  whole, 
however,  there  seems  to  be  a  very  good  understanding  in  this  country  be- 
tween the  plowman  and  his  horses  ;  and,  indeed,  independently  of  this,  I 
believe  there  are  few  masters  disposed  to  allow  their  horses  to  be  ill  treat 
ed,  because  there  is  no  occasion  for  it ;  for  horses  which  have  been 
brought  up  upon  a  farm,  in  going  through  the  same  routine  of  work 
every  year,  become  so  well  acquainted  with  what  they  have  to  do  in 
every  department  of  work,  that  should  a  misimderstanding  arise  between 
them  and  their  driver,  you  may  safely  conclude  that  the  driver  is  in  the 
wrong. 

(1334.)  The  treatment  which  farm-horses  usually  receive  in  winter  is 
this  :  The  plowmen,  when  single,  get  up  and  breakfast  before  daybreak, 
and  by  that  lime  go  to  the  stable,  where  the  first  thing  they  do  is  to  take 

*  Babbage  on  the  Economy  of  Machinery  and  Manufactures,    t  Ure's  Dictionary  of  the  Arts,  art.  Horn 
(1075) 


540  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

out  tlie  horses  to  the  water.*  While  the  horses  are  out  of  the  pfable  the 
rest  of  the  men  take  the  opportunity  of  cleansing  away  the  «lung  and 
soiled  litter  made  during  the  night,  into  the  adjoining  court-yard  K,  fig.  3, 
Plate  III.,  with  their  shovels  (fig.  149),  wheelbarrow  and  besoms.  While 
the  horses  are  absent  usually  one  of  the  plowmen  supplies  each  corn-box 
with  corn  from  the  corn-chest.  It  is  not  an  unusual  })ractire  to  put  the 
harness  on  while  the  horses  are  engaged  with  the  corn  ;  but  this  should  by 
no  means  be  allowed.  Let  the  ht»rses  eni<»y  their  f(»od  in  peace,  as  many 
of  them,  from  sanguine  temperament  or  greed,  cannot  divest  themselves 
of  the  feeling  that  they  are  about  to  be  taken  away  from  their  corn,  if 
worked  about  during  the  time  of  feeding.  The  harness  can  be  quickly 
enough  put  on  after  the  feed  is  eaten,  as  well  as  the  horses  curried  and 
brushed  and  the  mane  and  tail  combed.  A  veiy  commcm  practice,  how- 
ever, is  to  dress  the  horses  while  eating,  which  should  not  be  allowed.  A 
better  plan  in  all  respects  is  to  let  the  horses  eat  their  corn  undisturbed, 
and  then  dress  and  harness  them  afterward,  and  it  has  the  advantage  of 
allowirig  them  a  little  time  between  eating  their  corn  and  g(»ing  out  to 
work,  which,  if  of  a  violent  nature,  undeitaken  with  a  full  stomach,  may 
bring  on  an  attack  of  halts  or  colic.t  The  ])lan  which  1  have  just  de- 
scribed is  intended  to  apply  to  single  men  who  live  together,  and  who  have 
their  own  victuals  to  cooli.  But  should  the  plowmen  be  married  men  the 
best  arrangement  for  them  is  to  go  to  the  stable  when  they  rise,  water  the 
horses,  clean  the  stable,  corn  the  horses,  bind  them  up,  and,  shutting  the 
door,  leave  them  in  quiet  to  eat  their  food  as  long  as  they  themselves  are 
in  taking  their  breakfast,  which  by  that  time  should  be  made  ready  by 
their  wives.  On  returaing  to  the  stable  after  breakfast  the  horses  should 
then  be  dressed,  combed  and  harnessed,  wlien  they  will  come  out  quite 
fresh  and  clean  to  go  to  yoke  and  after  their  feed  has  been  a  little  time 
in  their  stomachs. 


[*  It  can  nowhere,  we  trast,  be  unseasonable  to  exhort  the  farmer  to  give  attention,  habita- 
aliy,  to  the  treatment  of  all  domestic  animals,  and  more  especially  to  those  to  whose  labor  be 
owes  the  fruits  and  profits  of  his  indastry.  Common  humanity,  to  say  nothing  of  Christian  benev- 
olence, demands,  and  ihe  more  especially  as  all  power  of  complaint  is  denied  them,  that  every  ani- 
mal that  works  should  be  not  only  tuilably  and  ircllfed,  but  that  it  should  be  saved  from  suffering 
by  thirst ;  that  its  skin  be  kept  clean  and  in  good  condition,  w  hich  a  few  minutes'  use  of  the  car- 
rj'-comb  and  brush  will  effect,  and  that  its  eyes  and  fct't  should  be  often  examined  and  protected 
from  injury  ;  while  a  sore  back  or  gall  on  any  part  of  the  body  should  be  deemed  a  disgrace  to 
master  as  well  as  man.  Trite  and  commonplace  as  this  word  in  their  favor  may  appear,  we  can- 
not withhold  it,  in  view  of  so  much  neglect  in  working  animals  as  we  see  committed  on  many 
farms  that  fall  under  our  obscr%'ation  ;  for  whether  we  speak  of  it  or  not,  we  never  visit  or  pass 
a  farm  wi'hout  noticing  these  things.  Those  whose  benevolence  does  not  move  them  thus  to  care 
for  the  feelings  of  the  humblest  beast  in  their  employment  should  yet  be  prompted  to  look  after  their 
comfort,  a-s  well  in  the  stable  as  the  field — whether  in  or  out  of  harness — by  the  consideration  that 
a  sufficiency  of  substantial  food,  personal  care  and  kind  treatment  always  beget  proportionate  will- 
ingness and  efficiency — as  much  or  even  more  with  the  brute  trian  with  the  naman.  For  ourselves, 
■we  take  the  occasion  to  reiterate  our  persuasion  that  the  almost  universal  preference  for  the  horse 
over  the  ox  and  mule,  as  a  beast  of  labor  and  burden,  has  its  origin,  in  a  great  measure,  in — [alas  I 
not  byiroiu:]  ages  of  war  and  barbarism,  which  made  power  and  flectness  identical ;  and  that  with  a 
vast  saving  of  national  wealth  these  more  economical  animals  might  and  ought  to  be  substituted 
for  the  short  lived  and  perishable  horse.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib  ] 

[t  We  well  remember,  when  residing  in  Baltimore,  to  have  been  within  on  ace  of  killing  one 
of  the  best  geldings  we  ever  straddled,  by  giving  him  a  brisk  eight  mile  an-hour  canter  imme- 
diately after  he  had  swallowed  his  oats.  As  soon  as  he  took  the  spur  we  knew  there  was  some- 
thing wrong ;  and.  turning  back  at  the  end  of  the  first  mile,  scarcely  got  him  in  his  stall  before  he 
■was  prostrate  and  swollen  like  an  inflated  bladder.  By  dint  of  hard  rubbing  and  the  prompt  use 
of  enemas  he  was  fortunately  saved  for  some  years  more  of  gallant  service.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 
(1076) 


TREATMENT  OF  FARM-HORSES.  541 

(1335.)  Men  and  horses  continue  at  work  until  12  noon,  when  they 
come  home,  the  horses  to  get  a  drink  of  water  and  a  feed  of  corn  and  the 
men  their  dinner.  Some  keep  the  harness  on  the  horses  during  this  short 
interval,  but  it  should  be  taken  off  to  allow  both  horses  and  harness  to 
cool,  and  at  any  rate  the  horses  will  be  much, more  comfortable  without 
it,  and  it  can  be  taken  off  and  put  on  again  in  a  few  seconds  ;  and,  besides, 
the  oftener  the  men  are  exercised  in  this  way  they  will  become  the 
more  expert.  When  the  work  is  in  a  distant  field,  rather  than  come  home 
between  yokings,  it  is  the  practice  of  some  farmers  to  feed  the  horses  in 
the  field  out  of  the  nose-bags  ;  and  the  men  to  take  their  dinners  with 
them,  or  be  carried  to  them  in  the  field  by  their  own  people.  This  plan 
may  do  for  a  day  or  two  in  good  weather  on  a  particular  occasion  ;  but  it 
is  by  no  means  a  good  one  for  the  horses,  for  no  mode  so  effectual  for  giv- 
ing them  a  chill  could  be  contrived  than  to  cause  them  to  stand  on  a  head 
ridge  for  nearly  an  hour  on  a  winter  day,  after  working  some  hours.  A 
smart  walk  home  can  do  them  no  harm,  and  if  time  is  pressing  for  the 
work  to  be  done,  let  the  horses  remain  a  shorter  time  in  the  stable.  The 
men  themselves  will  feel  infinitely  more  comfortable  to  get  dinner  at  home. 
There  is  a  practice  in  England  connected  with  this  subject  that  I  think 
highly  objectionable,  which  is,  doing  a  day's  work  in  one  yoking.  For  a 
certain  time  horses,  like  men,  will  work  with  spirit,  but  if  made  to  work 
beyond  that  time  they  not  only  lose  strength,  but  their  very  spirit  is  wrung 
out  of  them,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  time  will  do  their  work  in  a  care- 
less manner.  Horses  thus  kept  for  7  or  8  hours  upon  the  stretch  at  work 
must  be  injured  in  their  constitution,  or,  if  able  to  withstand  it,  it  must  be 
either  at  the  expense  of  bad  work  executed  at  the  latter  part  of  the  yoking, 
or  of  curtailment  of  hours  of  a  full  day's  work,  or  of  extraordinary  feed- 
ing, either  of  which  expedients  is  no  compensation  for  bad  management. 
Common  sense  tells  a  man  that  it  is  much  better  for  a  horse  to  be  \yorked 
a  few  hours  smartly,  and  have  his  hunger  satisfied  before  feeling  fatigue, 
when  he  will  again  be  able  to  proceed  with  fresh  vigor,  than  to  be  worked 
the  same  number  of  hours  without  feeding.  I  can  see  no  possible  objec- 
tion that  can  be  offered  to  horses  receiving  a  little  rest  and  food  in  the 
middle  of  a  long  day's  work,  but  I  see  many  and  serious  ones  to  their 
working  all  day  long  without  rest  and  food.  Suppose,  then,  that  men  and 
horses  come  home  at  midday,  the  usual  dinner-hour  of  agricultural  labor- 
ers, the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  give  the  horses  a  drink  at  the  pond  on 
the  way  to  the  stable  ;  and  there  should  then  be  no  washing  of  legs. 
From  the  water  the  horses  proceed  to  the  stable,  where  the  harness  is 
taken  off;  and  as  the  men  then  have  nothing  else  to  do,  every  man  gets 
the  corn  from  the  steward  at  the  corn-chest  for  his  own  horses  in  nose- 
bags, or  in  a  small  corn-trough  or  box  which  each  man  keeps  for  the  pur- 
pose. Of  these  two  sorts  of  things  for  carrying  the  corn  in  the  stable  I 
prefer  the  trough,  as  being  most  easily  filled  and  emptied  of  coni.  The 
horses  are  bound  up,  the  stable  door  shut,  and  the  men  go  to  their  own 
houses  to  dinner,  which  should  be  in  readiness  for  them.  After  dinner 
they  proceed  to  the  stable,  when  the  horses  will  be  found  to  have  finished 
their  feed,  and  when  a  small  quantity  of  fodder  may  be  thrown  before 
them  fresh  from  the  straw-barn,  for  at  this  time  of  year  farm-horses  get 
no  hay.  The  men  may  have  a  few  minutes  to  converse  until  10  minutes 
to  1  P.  M.,  when  they  should  give  the  horses  a  slight  wisp  down,  put  on 
the  harness,  comb  out  their  tails  and  manes,  and  be  all  ready  to  put  on  the 
bridles  the  moment  1  o'clock  arrives,  which  is  announced  by  the  steward.* 

[*  In  our  country,  in  the  towns  generally,  the  "  ten-hour  system,"  as  it  is  called,  prevails,  while 
in  the  country  the  practice  is  to  be  up  by  daylieht,  winter  and  summer,  and  to  labor  until  dark, 
(1077) 


542  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

(1336.)  The  afternoon  yoking  is  short,  not  hiKlinir  longer  than  sunset, 
which  at  this  season  is  before  4  P.  M.,  when  the  liorses  are  loosened  out 
of  yoke  and  brought  home.  After  dnnking  again  at  the  pond  they  are 
gently  passed  through  it  to  wash  off'  any  mud  from  their  legs  and  feet, 
which  they  can  hardly  escape  collecting  in  winter.  But  in  washing  the 
men  should  be  prohibited  wetting  their  horses  above  the  knees,  which 
they  are  most  ready  to  do  should  there  be  any  mud  upon  the  thighs  and 
belly  ;  and  to  render  this  prohibition  effectual,  I  have  expressly  stated, 
when  speaking  of  the  construction  of  a  horse-pond  (125),  that  it  should 
not  be  made  deeper  at  any  part  than  will  take  a  horse  to  the  knee.  There 
is  danger  of  contracting  inflammatitm  of  bowels  or  colic  in  washing  the 
bellies  of  horses  in  winter ;  and  to  treat  mares  in  foal — which  they  will 
be  at  this  time  of  year — in  this  way  is  little  short  of  madness.  If  the  feet 
and  shanks  are  cleared  of  mud,  that  is  all  that  is  required  in  the  way  of 
washing  in  winter.  On  the  horses  entering  the  stable  and  having  their 
harness  taken  off",  they  are  well  strapped  down  by  the  men  with  a  wisp 
of  straw.  Usually  two  wisps  are  used,  one  in  each  hand ;  but  I  am  sure 
the  work  is  much  better  done  with  one,  shifting  the  hand  as  occasion  re- 
quires, and  directing  the  attention  to  one  place  at  a  time.  A  couple  of 
wisps  may  very  properly  be  taken  to  rub  down  the  legs  and  clean  the  pas- 
terns, rendering  them  as  dry  as  a  modei-ate  length  of  time  will  admit. 
All  this  is  done  not  quite  in  the  dark,  for  there  is  still  a  glimmer  of  twi- 
light in  the  vrestern  horizon,  but  too  much  in  the  dark  to  allow  its  being 
well  done.  After  the  horses  are  rubbed  down,  the  men  proceed  to 
the  straw-barn  and  bundle  each  4  windlings  of  fodder-straw,  one  to  be 
given  to  each  horse  just  now,  and  the  other  two  to  be  put  above  the  stalls 
across  the  small  fillets  p,  fig.  7,  which  run  along  the  stable  for  the  purpose. 

(1337.)  When  8  P.  M.  arrives,  the  steward,  provided  with  light  in  a  lan- 
tern, summons  the  men  to  the  stable  to  give  the  horses  a  gi'ooming  for  the 
night  and  their  suppers.  The  sound  of  a  horn,  or  nnging  of  a  bell,  are  the 
usual  calls  on  the  occasion,  which  the  men  are  ready  to  obey.  I  may  here 
remark  in  passing,  that  the  sound  of  a  horn  is  pleasing  in  a  calm  winter 
night,  and  I  never  hear  it  without  its  recalling  to  my  mind  the  goatherds' 
horns  in  Switzerland,  pounng  out  their  mellow  and  prayer-like  strains  at 
sunset,  the  time  for  gathering  the  flocks  together  from  the  mountain  sides, 
on  their  way  to  the  folds  in  the  neighboring  village.  Lights  are  placed 
at  convenient  distances  in  the  stable  to  let  the  men  see  to  gioom  the  horses. 
The  grooming  consists  first  in  currying  the  horse  with  the  curry-comb,  to 
free  him  of  all  dirt  that  may  have  adhered  to  the  skin  during  the  day,  and 
which  has  now  become  dry  and  flies  off".  A  wisping  of  straw  removes  the 
roughest  of  the  dirt  loosened  by  the  curry-comb.  The  legs  ought  to  be 
thoroughly  wisped,  not  only  to  make  them  clean,  but  dry  of  any  moisture 
that  may  have  been  left  in  the  evening,  and  at  this  time  the  feet  should  be 
picked  clear  by  the  foot-])icker  of  any  diit  adhering  around  between  the 
shoe  and  the  foot.  The  brush  is  then  used  to  remove  the  remaining  and 
finer  portions  of  dust,  from  which,  in  its  tuni,  it  is  cleared  by  a  few  rasps 
of  the  curry-comb.     The  wisping  and  brushing,  if  done  with  some  force 

with  the  usual  intervals  for  nicala.     But  while  mechanics  in  town,  under  a  vigilant  boss,  are  at 

work,  they  keep  working  all  the  time ;  not  so  with  men  hired  by  the  day  at  the  public  expense 

to  work  and  to  vole  !     In  the  country,  too,  if  a  stage  drives  along  the  rond,  you  will  see  a  man 

stop  hif  plow  and  a  whole  pang  let  fall  their  hoes  or  axes  to  look  at  the  passer-b}',  as  if  they  had 

never  seen  a  stage  or  a  horseman  before. 

In  the  South  the  slaves  •'  knock  off"  for  two  hours  at  midday  in  very  hot  weather,  but  being 

almost  universally  talked,  where  the  work  will  admit  of  it,  they  generally  get  through  in  less 

than  ten  hours.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.} 

(1078)  ' 


TREATMENT   OF  FARM-HORSES. 


543 


Fig.  279. 


Fig.  880. 


and  dexterity,  with  a  combing  of  the  tail  and  mane,  should  render  the 
horse  pretty  clean  ;  but  there  are  moi'e  ways  than  one  of  grooming  a  horse, 
as  may  be  witnessed  by  the  skimming  and  careless  way  in  which  some 
plowmen  do  it.  It  is  true  that  the  rough  coat  of  a  farm-horse  is  not  easily 
cleaned,  and  more  especially  in  a  work-stable  where  there  is  much  dust 
floating  about  and  no  horse-clothes  in  use ;  but  rough  as  it  is,  it  may  be 
clean  though  not  sleek  ;  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  steward  to  see  that  the 
grooming  is  done  in  an  efficient  manner.  A  slap  of  the  hand  upon  the 
horse  will  soon  let  you  know  whether  there  is  any  loose  dust  in  his  hair. 
Attendance  at  this  time  will  give  you  an  insight  into  the  manner  in  which 
farm-horses  ought  to  be  cleaned  and  generally  treated  in  the  stable.  The 
straw  of  the  bedding  is  then  shaken  up  with  a  fork  such  as  in  fig.  279. 
This  figure  has  rather  longer  prongs,  and  is  too 
sharp  for  a  stable  fork,  which  is  most  handy-  for 
shaking  up  straw  when  about  5  feet  in  length,  and 
least  dangerous  of  injuring  the  legs  of  the  horses 
by  puncture  when  blunt.  The  united  prongs  ter- 
minate at  their  upper  end  in  a  sort  of  spike  or 
tine,  which  is  diiven  into  a  hooped  ash  shaft,  as 
better  seen  in  fig.  280,  which  is  a  steel-pronged 
fork  of  the  form  used  in  Lincolnshire,  and  is  an 
excellent  instrument  for  working  among  straw. 
This  mode  of  mounting  a  fork  is  much  better  than 
with  socket  and  nail,  which  ai"e  apt  to  become  loose 
and  catch  the  straw.  The  horses  then  get  their 
feed  of  oats,  after  which  the  lights  are  removed 
ond  the  stable-dottrs  barred  and  locked  by  the  stew- 
ard, \vho  is  custodier  of  the  key.  In  some  stables 
a  bed  is  provided  for  a  lad,  that  he  may  be  present 
to  relieve  any  accident  or  illness  that  may  befall 
any  of  the  horses  ;  but  where  the  stalls  are  prop- 
erly constructed,  there  is  little  chance  of  any  horse 
strangling  himself  with  the  collar,  or  any  becoming 
sick  wliere  a  proper  ventilation  is  established. 

(133S.)  In  winter  it  is  usual  to  2;ive  farm-horses  a  mash,  once,  at  least, 
and  sometimes  thrice  a  week.  The  mash  consists  of  either  steamed  po- 
tatoes, boiled  barley  or  oats,  mixed  sometimes  with  bran,  and  sometimes 
seasoned  with  salt.  The  articles  are  prepared  in  the  boiler  b'  in  the  boil- 
ing-house U,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.,  in  the  afternoon  by  the  cattle-man  or  a  field- 
worker,  or  any  other  person  appointed  to  do  it,  and  put  into  tubs,  into 
which  it  is  carried  to  the  stable  by  the  men,  and  dealt  out  in  the  troughs 
used  to  carry  the  corn  to  the  horses,  with  a  shovel.  It  is  warm  enouo-h 
when  the  hand  can  bear  the  heat.  The  (|uantity  of  corn  put  into  the  boiler 
is  usually  as  much  as  that  given  raw,  and  in  preparation  swells  out  consid- 
erably, so  that  the  mash  acquires  considerable  bulk.  The  horses  are  ex- 
ceedingly fnd  of  mash,  and  when  the  night  arrives  for  its  being  dealt  out, 
show  unequivocal  symptoms  of  impatience  until  they  receive  it.  The 
quantity  of  raw  oats  given  to  farm-horses,  when  on  full  feed,  is  3  lippies  a 
day,  by  measure  and  not  by  weight ;  but  taking  horse-corn  at  almost  the 
highest  figure  of  60  lbs.  per  firlot,  each  feed  will  weigh  3f  lbs.,  the  daily 
allowance  amounting  to  11-'-  lbs. ;  but  the  lippy-measure,  when  the  corn  is 
dealt  out,  is  most  frequently  not  struck,  but  heaped,  or  at  least  hand- 
waved,  so  that  the  full  allowance  will  weigh  even  more  than  this.  As  horses 
work  only  7  or  8  hours  a  day  in  winter,  their  feeding  is  lessened  to  pojhaps 
2  full  feeds  a  day  or  71  lbs.,  divided  into  three  portions,  namely,  a  full  feed 

(;079) 


THE  COMMON 
FORK. 


THE  LINCOLN 

SHIRE  STEEL 

FORK. 


644  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

in  the  morning,  ^  feed  at  midday,  and  ^  feed  at  niglit ;  and  on  the  nighta 
the  mash  is  given,  the  evening  ^-feed  of  oats  is  saved.  One  season,  as  a 
mash,  I  tried  steamed  potatoes,  with  salt  alone,  of  which  the  horses  were 
excessively  fond,  and  received  three  times  a  week,  and  on  wliich  they  be- 
came very  sleek  in  the  skin  and  fat,  notwithstanding  much  heavy  work  ; 
but  in  spring,  when  the  long  day  field-work  was  resumed,  they  seemed  to 
me  to  be  all  affected  with  shortness  of  wind.  Have  cooked  potatoes  ne- 
cessarily this  effect  upon  horses'?  I  may  mention  that  oats,  when  desired 
to  be  cooked,  must  be  boihJ,  as  steaming  only  burns  the  outside,  and  does 
not  penetrate  into  the  interior,  having  somewhat  the  effect  of  kiln-diying. 
Oats,  in  fact,  and  barley  too,  must  be  macerated  to  be  cooked,  and  to  do 
this  effectually  uarm  water  must  be  used. 

(1339.)  I  have  often  thought  that  the  usual  careless  manner  of  placing 
the  lights  in  the  stable  in  the  evening  is  highly  dangerous  to  the  safety  of 
the  building  ;  and  yet,  in  the  most  crowded  and  dirty  stables,  no  accidents 
of  fire  almost  ever  happen.  Sometimes  the  candle  is  stuck  against  a  wall 
by  a  bit  of  its  own  melted  giease  ;  at  other  times  it  hangs  by  a  string  from 
the  roof  in  an  open  lantern,  set  apparently  on  purpose  to  light  straws.  A 
good  stable  lantern  is  still  a  desideratum  ;  and  it  should  be  made  to  hold 
a  candle,  and  not  an  oil-lamp,  as  being  the  most  cleanly  mode  of  light  for 
carrying  about ;  and  if  the  candle  could  be  made  to  require  no  snuffing  it 
would  be  perfect.  A  common  tin  lantern,  with  a  horn  glass,  is  what  is 
commonly  in  use  to  carry  the  candle  in  the  air ;  but  when  it  gets  black- 
ened with  smoke  in  the  inside,  it  is  of  little  use  to  give  light  outside.  I 
have  seen  a  globe  lantern  of  glass  made  very  strong  for  use  on  board  of 
ship,  but  it  has  an  oil-lamp.  I  observe  Messrs.  Palmer  and  Company, 
London,  advertising  a  "  weather  cowJ/e-lamp  for  safeti/,  and  for  use  in 
wind  and  rain,  and  which  requires  no  snuffing."  The  candle  costs  8^d.  per 
lb.,  tnd  burns  5  hours  for  Id.  I  have  not  seen  this  lamp,  but  judging  from 
its  figure,  and  if  the  glass  is  made  strong  enough,  it  would  seem  to  answer 
the  purpose,  and  is  certainly  not  dear.  If  safe,  it  might  be  taken  into  the 
straw-barn,  hammels,  &c.  at  night. 

(1340.)  This  is  the  usual  routine  of  the  treatment  of  fann-horses  in  win- 
ter, and  when  followed  with  some  discernment  in  regard  to  the  state  of 
the  weather,  is  capable  of  keeping  them  in  health  and  condition.  The 
horses  are  themselves  the  better  »of  being  out  every  day  ;  but  the  species 
of  work  which  they  should  do  daily  must  be  determined  by  the  state  of 
the  weather  and  the  soil.  In  very  wet,  frosty,  or  snowy  weather,  the  soil 
cannot  be  touched  ;  but  then  threshing  and  canying  corn  to  market  may 
be  conducted  to  advantage,  and  fhe  dung  from  the  courts  may  be  taken 
out  to  the  fields  in  which  it  is  proposed  to  make  dung-hills.  This  latter 
piece  of  work  is  best  done  when  the  ground  is  frozen  hard.  When  heavy 
snow  falls,  nothing  can  be  done  out  of  doors  with  horses,  except  threshing 
when  the  machine  is  impelled  with  horse-power.  In  a  very  rainy  dav,  the 
horses  should  not  go  out,  as  everything  about  them,  as  well  as  the  men, 
become  soaked;  and  before  both  or  either  can  be  again  made  comforta- 
ble, the  germs  of  serious  disease  may  be  laid  in  both.  When  it  is  fair 
above,  on  the  other  hand,  however  cold  the  air  or  wet  the  soil,  some  of 
the  sorts  of  out-door  work  mentioned  above  may  be  done  by  the  horses  ; 
and  it  is  better  for  them  to  work  only  one  yoking  a  day  than  to  stand  idle  in 
the  stable.  Work-horses  soon  show  symptoms  of  impatience  when  con- 
fined in  the  stable  even  for  a  day,  on  Sundays,  for  example;  and  when 
the  confinement  is  much  prolonged,  they  even  become  troublesome.  When 
such  occasions  happen,  which  they  do  in  continued  snow-storms,  with  the 
ground  covered  deep,  the  horses  should  be  ridden  out  for  some  time  every 

(lOSO) 


TREATMENT    OF   FAUM-MORSES.  545 

day,  and  groomed  as  carefully  as  when  at  work.  Exercise  is  necessary  to 
pie\ent  thickening  of  the  heels,  a  shot  of  grease,  or  a  common  cold.  Fat 
horses,  when  unaccustomed  to  exercise,  are  liable  to  molten  grease. 

(1341.)  It  is  an  advisable  plan  for  a  farmer  to  breed  his  own  horses  ; 
and.  on  a  farm  which  employs  6  pairs,  two  mares  might  easily  bear  foals 
every  year,  and  perform  tlieir  share  of  the  work  at  the  same  time,  without 
injury  to  themselves.  The  advantage  of  breeding  working  stock  at  home 
is,  that,  having  been  born  and  brought  up  upon  the  ground,  they  not  only 
become  naturalized  to  the  products  of  its  particular  soil,  and  thrive  the 
better  upon  them,  but  also  become  familiarized  with  every  person  and 
every  field  upon  it,  and  are  broken  into  work  without  trouble  or  risk.  The 
two  mares  should  work  together,  and  be  driven  by  a  steady  plowman  ; 
and  their  work  should  almost  always  be  confined  to  plowing,  particularly 
in  winter  and  spring,  when  they  are  big  with  young,  for  the  shaking  in  the 
shafts  of  a  cart  is  nothing  in  their  favor.  In  driving  home  turnips,  and 
leading  out  dung  in  winter,  over  most  probably  not  the  smoothest  of  roads, 
mares  in  foal  should  not  be  employed,  their  driver  rather  plowing  with 
them,  when  that  operation  can  be  performed,  or  assisting  the  other  men 
at  their  carts  with  manual  labor. 

(1342.)  Supposing,  then,  that  one  or  two  mares  bear  foals  every  year, 
the  young  horses,  their  produce,  consisting  of  foals,  year-olds,  and  two- 
year-olds,  should  be  accommodated  in  the  steading  N,  figs.  3  and  4,  Plates 
III.  and  IV.,  according  to  age,  where  there  are  more  than  one  of  the  same 
age,  the  older  being  apt  to  knock  about  the  younger;  but  where  one  only 
of  every  age  is  brought  up,  they  may  be  placed  together  for  the  sake  of 
companionship,  as  horses  are  very  social  animals,  and  they  learn  to  ac- 
commodate themselves  to  one  another's  tempers.  Where  blood  foals  are 
bred  as  well  as  draft,  they  should  have  separate  hammels,  the  latter  be- 
ing too  rough  and  ovei'bearing,  but  the  bloods  generally  contrive  to  obtain 
the  mastery.  Young  horses  never  receive  any  grooming,  and  are  even 
seldom  handled ;  but  they  should  all  be  accustomed  to  be  led  in  a  halter 
from  their  youngest  period. 

(1343.)  The  food  usually  given  to  young  horses  in  winter  is  oat-straw 
for  fodder,  and  a  few  oats  ;  and  where  they  are  wintered  among  the  young 
cattle  in  the  large  court  K,  they  have  the  chance  of  a  few  pickings  of 
corn  from  the  corn-barn,  or  the  refuse  of  hay  from  the  litter  of  the  work- 
horse stable,  and  then  they  seldom  get  corn.  The  fact  is,  young  horses 
are  generally  unjustly  dealt  with  ;  tljey  are  too  much  stinted  of  nourishing 
food,  and  the  consequences  established  by  the  treatment  are  a  smallness  of 
bone  which  deprives  them  of  requisite  strength  for  their  work,  and  a  dull- 
ness of  spirits  which  render's  their  work  a  burden  to  them.  I  speak  of 
what  I  have  seen  of  the  way  in  which  a  large  proportion  of  the  farm- 
horses  of  this  country  are  brought  up  when  young.  Thsir  treatment 
seems  to  be  derived  from  the  opinion  that  very  little  nouiishiTig  meat 
should  be  given  to  young  horses.  Instead  of  this,  they  should  receive  a 
stated  allowance  of  corn — and  if  bruised,  so  much  the  better — according 
to  their  ages ;  and  when  a  mash  is  given  to  the  work -horses,  the  young 
ones  should  always  have  a  share.  Should  a  mash  be  grudged  as  being  too 
extravagant  for  young  horses,  they  should  get  Swedish  turnips  or  potatoes 
every  day ;  for  some  moist  food  is  requisite  with  dry  fodder  and  corn. 

(1344.)  The  names  usually  given  to  the  different  states  of  the  horse  are 
these  :  The  new-born  young  is  called  a  foal,  a  male  one  being  a  colt  foal 
and  a  female  ?i  filly  foal.  After  being  weaned,  the  foals  are  culled  colt  or 
flly,  according  to  the  sex,  which  the  male  retains  until  broken  in  for 
work,  when  he  is  a  gelding  or  horse,  which  he  retains  all  his  life ;  and  tho 
(1081) 35 


546  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

filly  is  then  clianged  into  marc.  When  the  colt  is  not  castrated,  he  is  an 
entire  colt ;  wliich  name  he  retains  until  he  serves  marcs,  when  he  is  a 
stallion  or  entire  horse.  A  mare,  when  senerl,  is  said  to  be  covered  hy  or 
stinted  to  a  particular  stallion  ;  and  after  she  has  home  a  foal,  then  she  is  a 
brood-mare,  until  she  ceases  to  bear,  when  she  is  a  barren  mare  or  eill 
marc  ;  and  when  dry  of  milk,  she  is  said  to  be  yeld.  A  mare,  while  bear- 
ing a  foal,  is  said  to  be  in  foal.* 

(1345.)  You  liavc  seen  that  Uiuugh  catlle  pain  weight  when  fed  on  cooked  food,  compared  to 
others  fed  on  the  ^amc  substances  in  a  raw  state;  vol  tlic  expense  of  rooking-  counterbalaucea 
any  advantage  gained  in  weight,  and  it  is  therefore  inexpedient  to  undertake  the  trouble  of  it. 
These  results  might  have  been  anticipated  from  the  peculiar  functions  of  the  stomach  of  the  ox  ; 
for  he  cheirx  Ihf  cud.  tiiat  is  to  say,  he  masticates  the  food,  as  he  takes  it  into  his  mouth  in  a  very 
imperfect  manner,  rendering  it  only  so  small  as  lo  he  able  to  swallow  it  with  some  degree  of 
force,  in  which  state  it  roaches  the  paunch  or  first  stomach  ;  where,  if  it  deeom[)08cs  immediately 
and  generates  gas,  it  produces  the  disease  of  the  liinvii,  which  has  been  spoken  of  already  {lii94). 
But  should  it  not  decompose — which  is  the  usual  condition  of  the  food — it  is  again  brought  up  to 
the  moutli,  and  undergoes  a  thorough  mastication,  ufttr  \\  hich  it  is  swallowed  and  finds  its  way 
to  the  stomach,  which  contains  the  gastric  juice,  there  to  be  digested  for  the  purpose  of  being  as- 
similated into  the  system.  Now,  all  that  we  can  do  for  the  o.x  in  cooking  his  food,  is  to  save  him 
the  trouble  of  chewing  the  cud,  and  to  put  the  food  into  that  slate  in  which  it  is  at  once  til  lo  be 
acted  upon  by  the  gastric  juice.  In  doing  this,  we  attempt  to  imitate  and  enter  into  competition 
with  a  complicated^natural  process,  and,  as  might  be  expected  in  the  circumstances,  exhibit  our 
inferiority.  In  the  state,  however,  in  which  cooked  food  is  presented  to  the  ox.  chewing  the  cud 
is  not  allogelher  saved  him.  as  the  8tra%v  which  he  chooses  to  eat  undergoes  ihat  operation,  and 
therefore  assists  in  keeping  that  important  function  in  exercise.  It  is  doubtful  that  the  ox  would 
retain  his  wonted  good  health,  were  we  able  entirely  to  suspend  the  action  of  that  function  in 
him;  and  it  is  therefore  questionable  policy  to  attempt  it  to  a  farther  degree  than  to  reduce  his 
food  so  small  as  to  render  it  fit  to  enter  the  paunch,  with  still  less  mastication  than  he  would  have 
to  give  it  in  its  ordinary  state. 

(134(1.)  The  case,  however,  of  the  horse  is  very  different.  His  is  a  single  or  simple  storoach. 
which  mu.st  be  filled  at  once  with  well-masticated  food,  before  the  gastric  juice  can  act  upon  it  in 
a  proper  manner ;  and  should  any  food  which  enters  it  in  an  insufRciently  masticated  state,  escape 
beyond  the  influence  of  the  juice  into  the  bowels,  it  may  deconipo.se  there,  generate  gas,  and  pro- 
duce the  analogous  disease  of  hoveii  in  cattle,  namely,  Haiulent  colic  or  battx.  To  render  food  in 
such  a  state  at  first  as  shall  save  the  horses  the  trouble  of  mastication,  is,  therefore,  to  do  him  a 
good  service ;  and  hence,  cooked  food  is  in  a  proper  state  for  feeding  a  horse,  and  it  has  also 
been  proved  to  be  economical.  Still,  the  cooking  will  be  carried  to  an  injurious  degree,  if  it  shall, 
by  dint  of  ease  of  deglutition,  prevent  the  flow  of  the  suflicient  (piantity  of  saliva  into  the  stomach 
which  is  necessary  to  comjilete  digestion — "  the  (juantiiy  of  which,"  says  Professor  Dick.  "  is  al- 
most incredible  to  those  who  have  not  had  an  opportunity  of  ascertaining  it,  but  vvhidi  the  fol- 
lowing fact  will  testify.  A  black  horse  had  received  a  wound  in  the  jmroiid  duct,  which  became 
fistulous.  When  his  jaws  were  in  molioii  in  the  act  of  ealiiig  hay,  I  had  the  curiosity  to  collect 
in  a  glass  measure  the  (juantity  which  flowed  during  1  minute,  by  a  stop  watch  ;  and  it  amounted 
to  nearly  2  drachms  more  than  '2  oz.  in  that  time.  Now,  if  we  calculate  that  the  j)aroli(l  gland  on 
the  opposite  cheek  poured  into  the  mouth  the  same  quanlity  in  the  same  time,  and  allow  that  the 
sublingual  and  sub-maxillary  gland,  on  each  side  combined,  pour  into  the  mouth  a  quantity  equal 
to  the  two  paroti<ls,  we  then  have  no  less  than  8  oz.  of  saliva  passing  into  the  mouth  of  a  horse  in 
one  minute,  for  the  purpo.se  of  .softening  the  food  and  jn-eparing  it  for  digestion. "t  Yet  it  is  im- 
possible for  any  hor.se  to  swallow  food  in  the  most  favorable  stale  it  can  be  made  for  swallowing, 
without  moving  his  jaws  to  a  certain  degree,  and  this  insures  a  certain  quantity  of  saliva  entering 
his  stomach. 

(i:i47.l  IJut  more  than  this,  cooked  food  may  he  presented  in  too  nutritious  a  state  for  the  stom- 
ach ;  and  there  may  be.  on  the  other  hand,  too  little  nutriment  in  the  food  given  ;  for,  "  the  digest- 
ive organs  of  the  hor.se,  like  those  of  the  ox."  says  Profcs.sor  Dick,  "  are  very  capacious,  and  are 
evidently  inteiKied  to  t;ike  in  u  lartie  proportion  of  matter  containing  a  small  iiroportiim  of  nutri- 
ment;  and  if  the  food  upon  which  they  are  made  to  live  is  of  too  rich  a  <iuality,  there  is,  by  the 
excitement  produced,  an  increase  of  the  peristaltic  motion,  in  order  to  throw  off  the  superabund- 
ant quantity  which  has  been  taken  into  the  stomach  and  bowels.  It  is  necessary  to  .give,  there- 
fore, a  certain  quantity  of  Imlk,  in  mpnrnte.  jtfrhapa,  the  ■partirhx  of  tuilrilioii.t  malirr,  that  the 
bowels  iiiiiy  be  enabled  to  art  upon  it  properly.  A  horse  could  not  live  so  well  on  oats,  if  fed 
entirely  upon  them,  as  when  a  portion  of  fodder  is  given  ;  with  them  a  certain  quantity  is  required. 
But  this  may  be  carried  too  far,  and  the  animal  mnv  have  his  bowels  hxiih'd  with  too  large  a  quan- 
tity of  unnutritious  food  ;  "  as  witness  the  nature  o(  the  xtcep  hi^fore  allude<i  to  ;  "  and  nothing  less 
than  such  a  mass  as  will  render  him  incapable  to  perform  any  active  exertion,  will  be  sufficient 
to  aflbrd  him  even  a  scanty  degree  of  nourishment.     A  horse  living  on  straw  in  a  straw-yard  be- 

[*  Some  use  the  foolish  expression,  out  of  such  a  horse  or  stallion,  instead  ofhy  the  stallion  and 
out  of  the  marc  ;  and,  again,  they  say  "  My  horse  was  nhrd  by  Messenger,"  in.stead  of  got  by 
Messenger.  As. John  Uandolph  once  ob,scrved,  they  might  as  well  say  he  was  rfoww'rf  by  a  par- 
ticular mare.  There  are  proprieties  and  technicalities  belonging  to  every  sort  of  business,  which 
should  he  learned  at  least  by  those  who  follow,  or  are  immedi.ilely  interest  «d  in  it. 

Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 
t  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  III. 
(108-2) 


TREATMENT  OF  FARM-HORSES.  547 

comes  pot-bellied.  Hence  it  is,  that  a  proper  arrangement  in  the  properties  and  proportions  of 
his  food  becomes  a  matter  of  important  consideration."*  These  and  the  preceding  remarks  com- 
prehend all  the  rationale  of  feeding  both  cattle  and  horses,  and,  if  carefully  considered,  may  con- 
duct you  to  adopt  such  an  appropriate  mi.xture  of  materials  in  your  possession  as  may  serve  to 
maintain  the  strength,  good  health  and  condition  of  your  horses,  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  do  so 
economically  on  the  other.  Meantime,  I  shall  enumerate  a  few  of  the  attempts  that  have  hitherto 
been  made  of  making  mixtures  of  food  for  horses,  with  the  view  of  ascertaining  whether  cooked 
or  raw  food,  in  a  prepared  or  natural  state,  maintains  horses  in  the  best  order. 

(1348.)  The  most  careful  set  of  experiments  that  have  yet  been  recorded  in  supporting  farm- 
horses  on  boiled  and  rate  grain,  and  on  raw  grain  prepared  and  in  a  yiatural  state,  was  made  by 
Mr.  James  Covvie.  Halkerton  Mains,  Kincardineshire.  He  subjected  no  fewer  than  12  horses  to 
the  experiment,  dividing  them  into  3  sets  of  4  each,  and  keeping  each  set  on  a  separate  fare.  The 
horses  were  weighed  on  1st  March,  when  the  experiment  began,  and  their  weights  varied  from 
9  cwts.  3  qrs.  to  12  cwts.  1  qr.  4  Ib.s. ;  and  they  were  again  weighed  on  1st  May,  at  the  end  of  the 
experiment,  and  their  weights  then  ranged  from  9  cwts.  2  qrs.  23  lbs.  to  12  cwts.  1  qr.  14  lbs. 
Thus  the  range  of  weight  did  *ary  much  at  both  the  periods,  though  the  individual  weights  did. 
Their  ages  ranged  from  4  to  1 2  years. 

(1349.)  The  facts  brought  out  in  this  experiment  were,  that  the  horses  fed  on  unbruised  raw 
and  on  hoi/ed  grain,  gave  results  so  very  nearly  alike  that  it  seems  inexpedient  to  incur  the  expense 
of  cookinsi-  food  for  horses,  as  that  costs  about  l^d.  on  two  feeds  for  each  horse.  This  is  a  rather 
remarkable  result,  for  one  should  have  expected  that  the  boiled-  grain  would  have  had  the  advan- 
tage. Bruised  raw  grain  seems  the  most  nourishing,  and,  in  not  requiring  cooking,  of  course  the 
most  economical,  mode  of  feeding  work-horses.  For,  all  the  horses  that  had  been  on  boiled  and 
unbruiaed  raw  grain  lo.st  70  lbs.  each  ;  and  that  amount  of  loss  in  an  animal  of  10  cwts.  or  12  cwts. 
is  considerable  ;  whereas  those  which  had  been  on  bruised  grain,  though  given  raw,  either  gained 
weight  or  lost  none.  And  as  to  the  economy  of  using  grain  in  this  state,  besides  the  cooking,  it  is 
alleged  that  boiled  whole  grain  passes  through  the  horse  undigested  as  well  as  raw  grain  when 
whole,  and  that  the  quantity  which  thus  escapes  is  equal  to  1-6  of  wh^t  a  horse  consumes ;  whereas, 
the  grain  that  is  bruised  undergoes  a  considerable  degree  of  digestion  at  least,  before  passing 
away.  If  the  loss  is  taken  at  1-6  on  a  horse  which  gets  12  lbs.  daily  of  oats  whole,  a  yearly  sav- 
ing might  be  effected  of  about  2  quarters  of  corn,  by  giving  him  10  lbs.  of  bruised  instead. 

(1350.)  Many  economical  forms  of  mixtures  have  been  recommended  for  farm-horses,  and  these 
are  among  them : 

10  lbs.  of  chaffed  straw,  at  £l  per  ton Id. 

10  lbs.  of  oats,  at  3s.  per  bushel 9 

16  lbs.  of  turnips,  at  10.s.  per  ton 1 

Expense  of  cutting  and  chaffing OJ 

Cost  of  one  horse  each  day ll^d. 

16  lbs.  of  hay,  at  3s.  6d.  per  cwt 6d. 

5  lbs.  of  oats,  at  3s.  per  bushel 4^ 

16  lbs.  of  turnips,  at  lOs.  per  ton 1 

Cost  of  one  horse  each  day 11  ^d. 

28  lbs.  of  steamed  turnips 3  Jd. 

7  lbs.  of  coals,  at  Is.  per  bushel 1 

Expenses  of  steaming OJ 

16  lbs.  of  straw,  at  £,\  per  ton \\ 

Cost  of  one  horse  each  day 6^d. 

This  last  mixture,  containing  no  corn  of  any  kind,  is  said  to  "  succeed  remarkably  well,  and  al- 
though the  horses  perspired  considerably  while  at  work,  they  kept  their  condition  exceedingly 
well,"  and  has  been  adopted  hy  some  farmers  in  the  South  of  England,  and  by  Mr.  Karkeek,  the 
veterinary  surgeon,  as  having  been  "highly  recommended  by  several  practical  farmers."!  No 
doubt,  horses  can  live  upon  turnips,  as  well  as  upon  grass,  without  corn,  and  they  may  be  said  to 
work  upon  them  ;  but  I  quite  agree  with  Mr.  Stewart,  when  he  observes  :  "  What  the  owner 
might  call  work  is  not  known.  In  this  country,  grass  alone  will  not  produce  workable  horses," 
and  the  same  may  more  truly  be  said  of  turnips  and  straw.  "  If  food  is  not  given,"  continues  Mr, 
Stewart,  "  work  cannot  be  taken.  Every  man  who  has  a  hor.se  has  it  in  his  power  to  starve  the 
animal ;  but  that,  I  should  think,  can  afford  little  matter  for  exultation."!  Turnips  are  frequently 
given  to  farm-houses  in  the  evening  in  lieu  of  a  feed  of  corn,  and  even  in  lieu  ofa  hot  mash  at  night; 
and  horse-s  are  very  fond  of  Swedish  turnips,  which,  on  being  washed,  are  generally  set  before 
them  whole,  unless^some  of  the  men  take  the  trouble  of  cutting  them  into  slices  with  their  knives; 
but  the  best  way  would  be  to  have  them  sliced  on  purpose  by  Wallace's  turnip-slicer,  fig.  2.59, 
which  has  been  already  described.  Potatoes  are  given  to  horses  in  a  raw  state,  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  turnips,  and  they  seemed  to  be  relished  by  them,  but  not  so  fondly,  in  so  far  as  I  have  ob- 
served, as  Swedish  turnips.  But  of  the  sorts  of  food  of  the  root  kind,  there  is  none  which  gives 
horses  so  much  delight  as  the  carrot.  It  is  a  pity  that  this  root  can  only  be  cultivated  successfully 
on  very  light  soil,  otherwise  it  would  be  worth  while  to  rai.se  as  many,  at  least,  as  would  support 
the  horses,  m  conjunction  with  com,  all  winter.  Stewart  says  that  "  for  slow-vvorking  horses  car- 
rots may  supply  the  place  of  corn  quite  well,  at  least  for  those  employed  on  the  farm."||  They 
would  get  fat  enough  on  70  lbs.  of  carrots  a  day,  but  would  want  stamina  without  corn.$     Carrots 

*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  iii. 

^  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xiv. 

J  Stewart's  Stable  Economy.  M  jbjd. 

An  error  has  crept  into  (i031),  where  the  specific  gravity  of  the  carrot  is  stated  at  0  018  instead  of  ••810 
(10  83) 


At  night. 


548  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

are  easily  am]  successfully  ^Towri  in  lli<!  iHlam)  of  GuornHcy  ;  but  tliey  aro  not  pivcn  to  liorscs  on 
account  of  an  allctjation  that  '  ulien  on  iliii*  fooil  ilioir  ri/e^  are  injured."  The  name  writer  men- 
tions a  similar  cflV-ct  produced  by  tlie  piirsiiip  at  a  certain  season  of  iho  year.  "  To  liorpes."  he 
aaye,  "parsnips  are  frequently  jjiven.  and  have  the  property  ot  niakini;  them  t-leek  and  (at;  but  in 
working  they  are  observed  to  sweat  profusely.  If  new,  and  cut  Kufhciently  cnmll.  no  otlu-r  ill  ef- 
fect results,  except,  indeed,  at  one  period  of  the  year,  toward  the  clo.«c  of  February,  when  tho 
root  begins  to  shoot;  if  then  given,  both  horses  and  horned  cattle  are  subject,  on  this  food,  tn  an 
inflammation  in  the  eye,  and  epiphora  or  watery  eye  ;  in  some  subjects,  perhaps,  producing  blind- 
ness."* Hor.'H.'s  are  very  fond  of  bread  ;  a  piece  of  bread,  and  especially  oat  cake,  will  take  a 
horse  in  the  field  when  a  feeil  of  corn  cannot.  It  is  <piite  common  in  Holland  to  see  travelers  at 
a  village  inn,  take  a  black  loaf  and  slice  it  down  with  a  bread-knife  in  a  trough  for  their  horse. 
Upon  the  principle  of  economy,  M.  Longchamp  lia.-i  proposed  to  feed  the  cavalry  of  France  with 
a  bread  comj)Osed  of  J  of  of  boiled  potatoes  and  \  oalnnal,  properly  baked  in  an  oven.  The  usual 
allowance  of  oats  for  a  horse,  at  10  lbs.  costs  1 3  sous ;  but  10  lbs.  of  this  bread  will  oidy  cost  5  sous 
(1351.)  But  independent  of  all  succedanea,  which  may  be  given  to  horses  at  times  as  a  treat, 
and  as  affording  a  beneficial  change  of  food,  there  should  be  a  regular  feed  prepared  for  farm- 
horse.s,  \\  Inch  should  be  administered  every  day,  and  any  deviation  from  which  should  be  regard- 
ed as  a  reli.sh  or  treat.  There  are  two  formuliE  which  I  shall  give,  which  liave  been  found  to 
make  excellent  prepared  food  lor  farm  horses,  and  they  may  be  prepared  without  much  trouble, 
provided  the  proper  apparatus  is  erected  for  tlie  purpose.  The  first  is  given  in  quantity  of  each 
day  for  one  horse  : 

T    .,  (    31  lbs.  of  oat  and  bean  meal,  ?,..  i. 

In  the  morning -s  n     n        r    v.  i    .  '  >  14i  lbs. 

'^  ^11    lbs.  of  chopped  straw,         J      ' 

A.  ~;j  i»  ,  ^3    lbs.  of  oat  and  bean  meal.  )  .^ 

^'""^•^*y I  12    lbs.  of  chopped  straw,         T"^     ■- 

I    1|  lbs.  of  oat  and  bean  meal,  ^ 
^11    lbs.  of  steamed  potatoes.     /HJ  -- 

(    2    lbs.  of  chopped  straw,         )  J^  y^^^ 

This  quantity  is  quite  sufficient  for  the  strongest  farm-horses,  and  less  will  be  consumed  by  or- 
dinary ones,  but  that  can  be  regulated  according  to  circumstances,  by  withdrawing  a  little  meal 
and  straw,  still  retaining  the  proportions.  The  usual  allowance  of  oats,  as  you  have  seen,  weighs 
11  i  lbs.  a  day,  when  the  grain  is  of  the  finest  qualitj' ;  but  as  horses  seldom  receive  the  finest  oats, 
and  are  usually  supplied  with  what  arc  called  common  oats,  which  do  not  weigh  so  heavy,  the 
nsual  allowance  may  be  taken  at  10  lbs. ;  and  ■when  hay  is  given  to  the  horses  in  spring  they  eat 
at  least  \\  stones  of  22  lbs.::=33  lbs.  every  day.  This  mixture,  on  the  other  hand,  contains  no  hay, 
and  only  8  lbs.  of  oats  and  bean-meal,  or  6  lbs.  of  barley-meal  instead,  if  more  convenient  to  be 
given,  and  11  lbs.  of  steamed  potatoes,  which  cannot  be  estimated  at  much  value  on  a  farm 
beyond  the  cost  of  steaniing.t  The  value  of  the  ordinary  and  the  prepared  food  can  easily  be 
estimated,  and  it  will  be  found  that  ihe  ()vepared  is  the  cheapest,  and  at  the  same  time  better  for 
the  horses'  health,  and  e(iuall}-  well  for  thtuii  as  to  condition  and  spirit.  The  mixture  is  made  in 
this  \vay  :  The  meal  and  chopped  straw  are  i)ut  and  mixed  tf)getli»'r  in  a  tub,  and  a  little  salt 
sprinkled  over  it.  The  steamed  potiitoes  arc  then  poured  hot  into  tlu'  tub  over  the  straw,  and 
the  whole  is  formed  into  a  ma.-^h  \\  itli  a  .shovel,  and  let  stand  awhile  to  aojuire  an  eijual  tempera- 
ture throughout,  and  to  .swell  tho  meal  into  a  pulpy  state  with  the  potatoes,  before  being  divided 
out  to  the  horses. 

(13.52.)  A  formula  is  given  by  Prof.  Low,  consisting  of  chopped  straw,  chopped  hay.  bruised  or 
coarsely-ground  grain  and  .steamed  potatoes  by  weight,  in  eqnal  parts,  with  2  oz.  of  salt;  and  of 
this  from  30  lbs.  to  3.")  lbs.,  or  32j  lbs.  on  an  averag'-,  to  be  given  to  a  horse  every  day.^  This 
mixture,  including  hay,  will  be  more  expensive  than  the  above;  and  I  am  doubtful  that  35  lbs. 
of  it  will  satisfy  a  farm-horse  ou  active  work  in  spring,  when  he  can  eat  33  lbs.  of  unchopped  hay 
a  da)',  without  corn. 

(13.'i3.|  It  appears  at  first  sight  soniewbat  surjirisin?  that  the  idea  of  preparing  food  for  farm - 
horses  sliould  only  have  been  veceiuly  iicted  on  ;  but  I  have  no  doubt  that  the  [iractice  of  the  turf 
and  of  the  road,  of  maintaining  horses  on  large  (luantities  of  oats  and  dry  ryegrass  hay,  has  had 
a  jiowerlul  influence  in  retaining  il  on  farms.  But  now  that  a  more  natunil  treatment  has  been 
adopted  by  the  owners  of  horses  on  fii.st  work,  fanners,  having  now  the  example  of  post-horses 
standing  tlii-ir  work  well  on  preparer!  t'ooil.  should  ea-<ily  be  persuaded  that,  on  plow  work,  the 
same  sort  of  food  should  li;ive  even  a  innr.!  salutary  ellect  on  their  horses.  How  prevalent  was 
the  notion,  at  one  time,  that  horses  conlil  not  be  expected  to  do  work  at  all  uiilfss  there  was  hnrd 
meal,  in  them!  "  Tliis  is  a  very  silly  and  erroneous  idea,  if  we  inquire  into  it."  as  Prof  Dick 
truly  observes;  "  for  whatever  may  he  lh<;  consistency  of  the  Ihod  when  taken  into  the  stomach, 
it  must,  before  the  body  can  itossihjy  ih-rivc  any  substantial  support  or  benelii  trom  it.  be  converted 
into  cln/me — a  pultacious  mass;  and  litis,  as  it  jiasses  onward  from  the  .«tomach  into  the  intestinal 
canal,  is  renderi;d  still  more  fluid,  by  the  admixturt!  of  the  .secretions  from  the  .stomach,  the  liver 
and  the  pancreas,  when  it  becomes  of  a  niil'.;y  ajipearance,  an«i  is  called  chyle.  It  is  then  taken 
into  the  systiMU  by  the  laeteals.  ami  in  this  Jhml,  \\nn  soft  state — iDid  in  this  xlolpoiili/ — mixes 
with  the  blooil  and  passcH  ihrouL'h  the  eirciilatiie:  vessels  for  the  nourishment  of  the  system. "|| 
Actuated  by  the.se  rational  principles.  Mr.  .Inhn  f'roall.  a  large  coach  proprietor  in  Edinburudi.  now 
supports  his  coachhorsi's  en  s  lbs.  of  cho;.ped  hay  aixl  Ifi  lbs.  of  briiiseii  oats  ;  so  does  Mr  Isaac 
Scott,  a  Postmaster,  who  gives  10  llm.  or  12  Ib.s".  of  chopped  bay  and  16  lbs.  of  bruised  oats  to 
large  horses ;  and  to  carry  the  principle  still  farther  into  practice,  Captain  Cheyne  found  his  post- 


*  Qu»yle'«  Agriculture  of  the  Channel  Ulands.  t  Quarterly  JoumRl  of  Agriculture,  vol.  iv. 

*  Low's  KlemenU  of  rniclicul  .\griculturo.  |{  Qunrtcily  Journal  of  Agriculture,  voL  jii. 

(1084) 


TREATMENT  OF  FARM-HORSES.  549 

horses  work  well  on  the  following  mixture,  the  proportions  of  which  are  given  for  each  horse 
every  day ;  and  this  constitutes  the  second  of  the  formulae  alluded  to  above  : 

^8  lbs.  of  bruised  oats.  f'i2    lbs.  of  steamed  potatoes. 

In  the  day  ..  ■?  3  lbs.  of  bruised  beans.  .  ^    .  i         J    1  J  lbs.  of  fine  bavley-dust 

^  4  lbs.  of  chopped  straw.  °      "  j    2    lbs.  of  chopped  straw. 

Yy\^  [  2    ounces  of  salt. 

25^  lbs. 

Estimating  the  barley-dust  at  lOd.  per  stone  ;  chopped  straw  6d.  per  stone  :  potatoes,  steamed, 
at  78.  6d.  per  cwt. ;  and  the  oats  and  beans  at  ordinary  prices,  the  cost  of  supper  was  6d.,  and  for 
daily  food  Is.  with  cooking,  in  all  Is.  6d.  a  horse  each  daj-.* 

(1354.)  {Hay  and  Strair-Cuttcrs. — Machines  for  chopping  haj-  and  straw  form  now  an  import- 
ant article  in  the  class  of  iui|ilemeiits  for  preparing  tbod  for  horses  and  cattle.  In  England  the 
straw-cutter  or  chaft'-cutter  is  held,  very  properly,  in  high  estimation  by  the  farmei*.  and  its  value, 
in  an  economical  point  of  view,  seems  to  be  fully  appreciated  by  all.  In  Scotland,  with  all  its 
boasted  economy  in  the  various  walks  of  Agriculture,  the  straw  cutter  is  but  partially  employed, 
and  it  is  chiefly  among  those  farmers  who,  to  a  well-established  experience  superadd  scientific 
skill  that  the  employment  of  the  straw-cutter,  together  with  the  otlier  members  of  the  class  of 
food  preparing  machmes.  are  brought  to  bear  upon  the  establishmonl  in  a  systematic  reform. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  ere  long  the  food-preparing  system  will  become  as  universal  among 
farmers  as  the  threshing-machine  is  alreadj',  and  straw-cutters,  corn  bruisers  and  steaming-appa- 
ratus  will  be  seen  in  every  well-regulated  steading.  To  the  full  development  of  such  a  system 
there  exists  one  especial  obstacle,  which  is  that  defect,  in  the  minds  of  many  men,  which  pre- 
vents their  forming  a  systematic  arrangement  of  any  given  subject,  and  from  being  indifferently 
qaalified  to  draw  conclusions  from  a  series  offsets,  which  individually  appear  isolated  and  loosely 
connected,  but  which,  in  the  aggregate,  are  capable  of  bringing  out  important  results.  For  ex- 
ample, there  are  many  individuals  who  may  have  procured  ihe  requisite  machinery  to  have  ena- 
bled them  to  follow  the.system  here  alluded  to.  but,  owing  to  the  absence  of  properly  organized 
methods  of  procedure  in  the  different  processes,  and  losing  sight  of  the  advantages  to  be  derived 
from  a  proper  combination  of  effects,  by  viewing  only  the  results  in  detail,  the  well-intended 
trial  ends  in  disappointment,  and  the  machinery  set  aside  as  unprofitable  ;  wherea.o,  under  proper 
direction,  it  would  certainly  have  achieved  the  object.  In  using  machinery  of  this  kind  it  should 
always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  more  constantly  and  regularly  it  is  kept  in  operation,  so  much 
the  moi-e  productive  it  will  be  in  saving  expense  to  its  proprietor,  provided  such  machinery  be 
of  a  kind  that  can  be  rendered  available  as  a  means  of  saving  expense  ;  and,  from  the  nature  of 
things,  no  machine  will  be  continued  in  any  practice  after  it  has  been  ascertained  to  possess  only 
negative  properties. 

(1355.)  Straw-cutters  are  of  very  various  construction,  rising  in  the  perfection  and  complication 
of  parts,  from  the  simple  knife,  jointed  at  one  end  to  a  table  and  wielded  by  the  right  hand,  as  a 
lever  of  the  second  order,  chopping  the  straw  or  hay  that  is  presented  to  it  by  the  left.  From 
this  simple  and  primitive  form  they  rise  in  gradation  to  a  class  of  elaborate  machines,  too  numer- 
ous to  be  described  individually,  but  out  of  which  the  following  varieties  are  selected  as  appear- 
ing most  worthy  of  attention.  I  shall  pass  over  some  of  the  early  machines,  which,  however 
ingenious,  were  i;nnecessarily  complicated ;  such  as  those  which  enjoyed  the  advantage  of  a  re- 
volving web  to  carry  forward  the  substance  to  be  cut,  and  having  also  the  means  of  moving  the 
substance,  not  uniformly,  but  by  starts,  the  progressive  action  being  performed  iu  the  interval  of 
the  strokes  of  the  cutter,  the  substance,  at  the  same  time,  being  alternately  compressed  and  re- 
laxed, that  is.  compressed  while  the  knife  is  cutting,  and  relaxed  during  the  progressive  stage. 
Such  mechanical  appliances  are  now,  for  the  most  part,  laid  aside,  and  the  machine  is  propor- 
tionally siniplified.t 

(1356.)  The  straw-cutting  machines  now  in  general  use  may  be  arranged  under  three  varieties, 
and  in  the  order  of  seniority  stand  as  follows :  1.  Those  having  the  cutting-knife  or  knives 
attached  on  the  disk  of  a  fly-wheel.  2.  Those  having  the  knives  placed  upon  the  peripherj'  of  a 
skeleton  cylinder ;  and  3.  Those  having  numerous  knives  set  round  the  surface  of  a  small  solid 
cylinder.  This  last  being  the  simplest  form  of  the  modern  machine  I  shall  place  it  first  in  the 
order  of  description. 

(1357.)  The  Canadian  Strnw-Cuifer. — This  machine,  as  the  name  implies,  is  an  importation 
from  Canada,  a  description  of  it  having  been  sent  thence  by  Mr.  Fergus.son  of  \\'"oodhull,  now 
of  Fergus.  Upper  Canada,  to  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  in  whose  Transactions  it 
was  first  published  ;t  but  the  present  figure  is  taken  from  the  machine  as  made  by  James  Slight 
and  Company,  who  have  greatly  improved  the  construction  of  the  cutting  cj  linder.  Fig.  281  is 
a  view  in  perspective  of  this  machine.  It  consists,  first,  of  a  wooden  frame,  of  whicha  a  a  a 
are  the  four  posts,  2|  inches  square,  the  front  pair  43  inches  in  hight,  and  the  back  pair  36  inches. 
These  are  connected  by  two  side-rails,  one  of  which  is  seen  at  b,  and  a  cross-rail,  c,  which  last 
serves  also  to  support  the  bottom  of  the  feeding-spout.     These  rails  are  2^  inches  deep  by  IJ 

[t  Not  to  have  it  said  that  this  great  work  had  been  impaired  in  any  of  its  e.ssential  parts,  and 
especially  in  such  engravings  as  are  emplo3-ed  to  illustrate  it,  we  give  all  the  cuts  of  machinery, 
thoagh  well  aware  that  some  of  them  have  been  well  supplanted  by  more  economical  inventions 
of  our  own  ingenious  countrj-men.  The  presentation  of  them  will  be  acceptable,  too,  as  we  may 
suppose,  to  the  manufacturers  and  venders  of  implements,  patrons  of  this  work. 

Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 
*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Atrriculture,  vol.  uL 

1  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  A'TicuIIUMil  Society,  vol.  xii. 
(10851  ^^ 


'j£ 


650 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


The  posu  are  farther  connected  by  four  light  Btay  rails  below  ;  and  th« 
frame,  when  thus  joined,  measures  iS  inches  in  width  at  the 


inches  in  thickness.     ^ r  -  •  l        n 

frame,  when  thus  joined,  measures  1.5  inches  in  width  at  the  front,  where  the  rollers  are  applied, 
28  inches  in  width  behind,  and  40  inches  in  length  at  bottom,  bat  only  36  inches  at  the  top-nU 


Fig.28L 


THE  CANADIAN  STRAW-CUTTER 

measured  over  all.  The  feeding-spout,  d,  is  40  inches  in  length,  9  inches  in  width  wiiliin,  at  the 
feeding  end.  and  18  inches  behind  ;  the  depth  is  4  to  6  inches. 

(1358.)  The  acting  parts  of  this  straw-cutter  consist  of  the  cutting -cylinder  c.  which  is  9  inches 
in  length  and  6  J  inches  in  diameter  to  the  edge  of  the  cutters.  It  is  armed  with  '24  cutters  or 
knives;  its  axle  run.';  in  plummer-blocks,  bolted  upon  the  posts,  and  carries  likewi.-H-  the  wheel/ 
of  9i  inches  in  diameter.  The  pressure  cylinder  ^  is  a  plain  cylinder  of  hardwood.  b<  ech  or  elm, 
tnrned  true  upon  an  iron  axle,  which  runs  in  plummer-blocks  similar  to  the  former.  The  length 
of  the  pressure  cylinder  is  9  inches,  and  its  diameter  7  to  8  inches:  it  carries  no  wheel,  but  re- 
volves oy  similar  contact  wi;h  the  cutting-cylinder.  The  pres>urecylinder  is  funiishcd  with  a 
pair  of  adjusting  screws  at  h  li,  which  act  upon  the  plummer  blocks  of  the  cylinder,  and  afford 
the  means  of  regulating  the  pressure  of  the  oiic  cylinder  upon  the  other.  The  sl;afl  /,  which  has 
also  its  plummer-blocks,  carries  at  one  end  a  pinion  of  3 J  inches  in  diameter,  which  acts  upon  the 
wheel  /,  while,  at  the  other  end.it  carries  the  tly-w  heel  /  of  34  inches  diameter  and  00  lbs. 
weight.  The  winch  handle  m  is  also  attached  to  the  shaft  »',  and  serves  to  put  the  machine  in 
motion. 

(13.'>9.)  Fig  282  is  a  transverse  section  of  the  cutting-cylinder,  showing  the  position  of  the 
entters  and  their  insertion  in<o  grooves  which  are  planed  out  of  the  solid  cast-iron  forming 
the  body  of  the  cylinder  ;  a  is  the  axle,  and  ii  tlie  body  of  the  cylinder,  which  is  4  inches  in  diame- 
ter, and  has  24  cutlers  inserted  in  its  periphery.  Fig.  283  is  a  longitudinal  section  of  ilie  same,  for 
the  purpose  of  exhibitiny;  the  manner  in  which  the  cutters  are  secured  in  ilieir  places,  a  is  the 
axle,  and  b  the  body  as  before,  c  c  being  t\\  o  opposite  cutlers.  The  body  is  8  inches  in  length 
but  is  furnished  with  two  caps  J  d.  which  make  it  up  to  9  inches.  The  caps  are  cupped  out.  so 
that  their  edges  eee  e  embrace  the  ends  of  the  body,  ami  at  the  same  time  enter  into  notches  cut 
in  each  end  of  the  cutters,  as  seen  in  fie.  284,  which  is  a  cutter  detached,  and  drawn  to  a  Urger 
scale  exhibiting  the  notch  a  a  into  which  the  edges  of  the  cupped  ends  enter.  By  this  arrange- 
ment, the  numerous  cutters  arc  all  held  firnilv  in  their  grooves:  for  so  soon  as  the  caps  are  ap- 
plied, and  fixed  by  the  keys  //,  fig.  083.  benig  driven  through  the  axle,  the  caps  are  pressed 
home  upon  the  bodv  and  the  cutlers.  On  the  other  band,  when  it  is  found  requisite  to  remove  a 
cutter,  for  sharpcnme  or  other  purposes,  it  is  only  neces.-'ary  to  drive  out  one  of  the  keys  f,  to 
withdraw  the  cap.  and  the  cutters  can  be  lifted  out  of  their  grooves  withoni  trouble. 

(1360.)  As  this  machine  acts  entirely  by  direct  pressure,  it  will  readily  be  observed  that,  in 
workine  it,  the  straw  being  laid  in  a  trough  d,  fig.  281,  and  brought  in  contact  w  ith  the  cutting- 
(1086)  / 


TREATMENT  OF  FARM— HORSES. 


551 


cylinder  and  its  antagonist,  the  hay  or  straw  will  be  continuously  drawn  forvvard  by  means  of 
the  two  cylinders ;  and  when  it  has  reached  the  line  of  centers  of  the  two,  it  will  be  cut  through 
by  the  direct  pressure  of  the  cutting-edges  of  the  one  against  the  resisting  surface  of  the  other 


Fig.  284. 


SECTIONS  OF  THE  CUTTING-CYLINDER. 


cylinder,  and  the  process  goes  on  with  great  rapidity.  The  straw  is  cut  in  lengths  of  about  J  inch , 
and  though  it  passes  in  a  thin  layer,  yet  the  rapidity  of  its  motion  is  such,  that  when  driven  by 
hand,  at  the  ordinary  rate  of  44  turns  of  the  handle  per  minute,  the  number  of  cuts  made  by  the 

Fig.  285. 


THE  CYLINDER  STRAW-CUTTER  WITH  STRAIGHT  KNIVES. 

cutting-cylinder  in  that  time  is  360  ;  and  the  quantixy,  compared  by  weight,  will  be  three  times,  near 
ly,  what  any  other  straw-cutter  will  produce,  requiring  the  same  force  to  work  it,  that  is  to  say,  a 
man's  power.  There  is  one  objection  to  this  machine,  which  is,  the  wearing  out  of  the  resisting 
cylinder  but  this  balanced  by  the  excess  of  work  performed,  and  by  the  circumstance  that  the 
wearing  cylinder  can  be  removed  at  an  expense  not  exceeding  2s.,  and  it  will  last  from  3  to  6 
months.  The  price  of  the  Canadian  straw-cutter  is  £6  lUs. 

(1361.)  Cylinder  Straw-cutter,  go  named  here  from  its  havinsr  the  knives  or  cutters  (generally 
(1087)  ^ 


552 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


two,  bat  soraetimes  foar)  placed  on  the  poriphcn-  of  a  skeleton  cylinder,  the  knife  lyin^  nearly  in 
the  plane  of  revolution.  Besides  the  cuttinu'  cylinder,  they  necessarily  have  a  pair  of  feeding-roU- 
ern,  which  bring  forward  the  substance  to  be  cut,  and  also,  from  the  velocity  of  ihtir  motion,  repn- 
late  the  length  of  the  cut.  Two  forms  of  the  machine  exist,  the  essential  difference  of  which 
ia  that,  in  the  one.  the  cutters  are  placed  upon  the  cylinder  with  a  large  angle  of  obliquity  to  the  axis, 
generally  about  :i:>  .  and  are  therefore  bent  and  twisted  until  their  edges  form  an  oblique  section 
of  the  cylinder,  while  the  box.  or  the  orifice  through  which  the  substance  is  protruded  for  being 
cut.  lies  parallel  U<  the  axis  of  the  feedinir-rollers.  In  the  other  variety,  the  knives  are  placed 
parallel  lo  the  axis  of  the  cylinder,  and  therefore  straight  in  the  edge,  while  the  cutting  box  is 
elongated  into  a  nozzle,  and  is  twisted  to  aii  angle  of  1.')^  with  the  axis  of  the  feeding  rollers.  To 
ihifi  form  of  the  machine  I  shall  at  present  chiefly  confine  myself 

'i.i62.)  The  cylinder  straw-cutter  with  straight  knives,  as  constructed  by  James  Slight  and  Co., 
Edinburgh,  at  prices  from  £7  10s.  to  £8  lOs.,  is  represented  by  fig.  285,  being  a  view  in  perspec- 
tive of  the  macnine,  while  fig.  286  is  a  section  of  tlic  principal  parts ;  and  in  the  two  figures  the 
.«amc  letters  refer  to  the  corresponding  parts  of  each.  The  machine  is  made  entirely  of  iron,  chief- 
ly cast  iron.  The  two  side-frames  a  a,  are  connected  toijether,  at  a  width  of  from  12  to  1.5  inches, 
by  the  stretcher-bolts  b  h.  two  of  which  are  seen  in  the  right  hand  side  of  the  figure,  and  a  third 
below  on  the  left  :  a  fourth  is  formed  of  the  bedplate  r,  which  is  bolted  to  a  projecting  bracket, 
:ind  carries  the  cheeks  or  frame  d  of  the  feeding-rollers  e  and  /".  The  lower  roller  e  carries  upon 
its  axle  the  driving-wheel  g,  and  also  the  feedinewheel.  indistinctly  .seen  in  the  figure,  but  which 
works  into  its  equal  wheel  f,  fitted  upon  the  axle  of  the  upper  roller  f.  In  the  machine,  when 
adapted  for  hand  power,  the  rollers  vary  from  5  to  8  inche«  in  lenL'th,  and  are  3  J  inches  in  diame- 
ter, and  fluted.  In  the  apex  of  the  side-frames,  bearings  are  formed  for  the  axle  of  the  cutter- 
wheels  k,  which  form  the  skeleton  cylinder,  and  whose  axle  carries  also  the  driving-pinion  /,  act 
ing  upon  the  wheel  g.  The  cutter-wheels  are  11  inches  diameter,  and  are  set  at  from  10  to  13  in- 
ches wide.  Intermediate  between  the  feeding-rollers  and  the  cutter-wheels  is  placed  the  cutting- 
box  or  nozzle  m,  bolted  to  the  roller-frame  in  the  position  represented  in  fig.  286.  On  the  farther 
end  of  the  cutter-wheel  axle  the  fly-wheel  n,  of  4  feet  diameter,  ia  fixed ;  and  on  the  near  end  of 

Fis.  286. 


A  TR1NSVER3E  SECTION,  SHOWING  THE  RELATION  OP  THE   PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

the  game,  the  winch-handle  o.  by  which  the  machine  is  worked.  The  feeding-trough  p  is  4  feet  in 
length,  from  .I  to  8  inches  wide  at  the  feeding  end,  and  18  inches  behind.  The  depth  is  6  iuchee, 
and  the  trough  is  formed  of  J  inch  deal.  It  is  hooked  to  the  roller-frame  at  the  mouth,  and  is  sup- 
ported by  the  jointed  foot  q.  The  cutters  r  r,  from  10  lo  13  inches  in  length,  and  3J  to  4  inches  in 
breadth,  are  made  of  the  finest  steel,  backed  with  iron.  The  cutters  are  fixed  upon  the  cylinders, 
each  with  two  screw  bolts,  as  seen  at  «,  passing  through  the  ring  of  the  wheel,  and  "they  are 
placed  slightly  eccentric  to  it ;  the  cutting-edge  teing  about  {  inch  more  distant  from  the  center 
than  the  back.  To  secure  the  regular  feed  of  the  rollers,  the  lower  one  turns  in  fixed  bearings  ; 
bnt  the  other  is  at  liberty  to  rise  and  fall  in  the  fork  t  of  the  roller  frame.  In  order  farther  to  se- 
cure a  uniform  pressure  on  this  roller,  a  bridge  n  is  inserted  on  the  fork  /.  resting  on  both  jour- 
nals of  the  roller.  A  compensation  lever  r,  has  iu  forked  fulcra  in  x  throui.li  the  strap  z  z.  a  hich 
ia  hooked  on  to  pins  in  the  roller  frame  ;  and  it  thus  bears  upon  the  bridge  »  at  both  sides  by 
means  of  the  forked  end,  as  seen  at  a'  in  fig.  28.").  A  weight  ir  is  appended  to  the  extremity  of 
the  lever,  which,  thus  arranged,  keeps  a  uniform  pressure  on  the  upper  roller,  while  "it  i» 
always  at  liberty  to  rise  or  fall  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  feed  ^yhich  the  rollers  are  re- 
ceiving. 

(1363.)  Fig.  267  is  a  direct  front  view  of  the  cutiing-box  detached,  on  a  scale  of  2  inches  to  a 
foot,     a  a  are  the  ears  by  which  it  is  bolted  to  the  roller  frame  ;  b  c  and  d  e  axe  the  upper  and 
lower  extreme  edges  of  the  nozzle,  while/ g'  A  i  is  the  baae,  as  applied  to  the  roller-frame.    The 
(1088J 


TREATMENT  OF  FARM-HORSES. 


553 


angle  h  g  f  or  e  i  his.  the  obliquity  which  is  given  to  tlie  nozzle,  and  is  about  15°  with  the  hori- 
zontal axis.  Fig.  288  is  a  plan  of  the  same,  in  which  the  same  letters  of  reference  ap|)ly  to  the 
corresponding  parts.  /  iT  is  the  base,  lying  on  the  same  plane  with  the  ears  a  a.  The  curve  lino 
b  c  is  the  contour  of  the  upper  edge  of  the  nozzle,  and  the  dotted  line  b  e  reinesents  the  lower  edee 
deof  fig.  287.  ^ 

/  Fig.  287.  ^ 


Fig.  288. 


,  THE  CUTTING-KOX  DETACHED. 

{]3fi4.)  The  obliquity  of  the  nozzle,  as  here  represented,  serves  the  purpose  of  causing  the 
knife  to  make  a  progressive  cut.  approaching  to  tlie  ctiort  of  clipping;  thereby  preventing  the 
shock  that  would  otlierwi.se  arise,  were  the  nozzle  and  the  edu'e  of  the  kuile  parallel  at  the  in.stant 
when  the  cut  commences.  The  action  of  the  machine  would  perhaps  be  iSniprovcd  by  an  in- 
creased obliquity  of  nozzle,  as  the  stroke  of  the  knives  would  thus  be  still  less  felt;  but  this  could 
not  ea.sily  bo  done  unless  the  knife  were  placed  obli(]uo  also  in  the  opposite  direction.  Hut  this 
involves  a  difficulty  which  the  present  machine  was  intended  to  obviate,  namely,  the  preserving 
a  straight-edged  knife,  which,  in  the  hands  of  an  unskilled  workman,  is  much  easier  adjusted  than 
a  twisted  one.  And  farther,  a  moderate  degree  of  obliquity  is  preferable  to  an  excc.ss ;  in  the 
former,  the  intervals  of  the  cuts  are  so  considerable  as  to  allow  the  fly-wheei  to  exert  its  natural 
eil'ect  of  storing,  as  it  were,  a  quantity  of  momentum  or  force,  which  it  freely  gives  out  to  meet 
the  resistance  of  the  next  cut;  when,  '.m  the  contrary,  the  oblicjuity  is  very  great,  as  is  frequently 
the  case  in  the  machines  with  twisted  knives,  and  more  especially  when  there  are  four  cutters 
applied  to  the  cylinder,  there  may,  in  such  cases,  be  no  interval  of  action  in  the  cutters,  for  be- 
fore one  has  completed  its  cut,  the  ne.xt  has  commenced,  and  the  advantages  of  a  fly-wheel  are,  in 
Buch  cases,  nearly,  if  not  altogether,  lost;  hence  we  find  that  some  of  the  machines  with  twisted 
knives  are  extremely  heavy  to  work. 

(i;)65.)  There  is.  liowever,  another  cause  of  increased  labor  in  the  working  of  some  straw-cut- 
ters, on  the  principle  now  before  us.  In  many  of  the  cylinder  machines,  the  cutter  wheels  are  of 
a  diameter  so  large  as  to  render  the  operation  of  cutting  with  them  one  of  great  labor.  This  arises 
from  the  circumstance  of  the  action  of  the  machine  being  a  combination  of  the  effects  of  the  lever. 
The  winch-handle  is  a  lever,  say  of  12  inches  radius,  and  the  radius  of  the  cutter-wheel,  measured 
to  the  edge  of  the  cutter,  may  be  taken  at  6  inches  ;  here  there  is  a  mechanical  advantage  of  two 
to  one  in  favor  of  the  power.  Let  the  cutter-wheel  be  increa.sed  to  Hi  inches,  or  a  radius  of  8  in- 
ches, the  proportion  of  the  leverage  is  now  materially  changed,  and  the  mechanical  advantage  in 
favor  of  the  power  is  only  1^  to  1.  The  power,  therefore,  suppose  it  exerts  in  the  first  case  a 
force  of  30  lbs.,  it  will  require,  in  the  second  case,  a  force  of  40  lbs.,  to  overcome  the  same  resist- 
ance, and  so  on  in  that  proportion.  But  the  fly-wheel,  under  the  like  circumstance,  lo.ses  part  of 
its  etFect,  though  not  to  the  same  amount;  for,  suppo.se  its  radius  to  the  center  of  gyration  to  be 
2  feet,  the  mechanical  advantage  of  its  momentum  would  be,  in  the  first  case,  as  4  to  1,  and  in  the 
second,  as  3  to  1.  In  the  construction  of  all  cylinder  straw-cutters,  therefore,  it  is  of  importance 
to  make  the  cutters  of  small  diameter,  that  is  to  say,  never  to  excred  11  inches.  It  were,  per- 
haps, better  that  they  should  be  less  than  thi.s,  but  on  no  account  should  they  exceed  it,  especially 
for  hand-machines.  In  the  case  of  steam  or  water  power,  any  small  increase  of  resistance  is  less 
important,  provided  that  a  countervailing  object  is  to  be  attained  by  it,  such  as  a  machine  already 
made,  or  the  like. 

(136S.)  While  on  the  subject  of  fly-wheels,  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  make  a  few  remarks, 
pomting  out  where  those  auxiliaries  to   machinery  may  with  propriety  be  applied,  and  where 
thej'  oughf.  not.     In  the  first  place,  it  may  be  asserted  that  in  no  case  can  a  fly-wheel  act  as  a 
generator  of  power;  and  under  a  false  impres.sion  of  this  supposed  function  of  fly-wheels,  numer- 
ous instances  occur  of  their  misapplication,  or  at  least  a  misconception  of  their  effects;  and,second- 
\y,  the  only  available  function  of  fly-wheels  is  their  capabilitj'  of  acting  as  reitervoirs  of  that  power 
or  force  that  is  communicated  to  them  while  in  motion.     Thus  a  comparatively  small  force  applied 
to  a  heavy  fly-wheel  for  a  few  seconds,  will,  on  the  principle  of  its  absorbing  and  partially  retain- 
ing that  power  and  force,  accumulate  a  momentum  that  may,  through  the  agency  of  mechanical 
m.'ans,  be  discharged  on  a  p.irticular  point,  and  produce  an  instantaneous  effect  that  the  first 
mover  never  could  accomplish  without  such  means.      This  is  finely  exemplified  in  the  machine 
for  punching  and  cutting  thick  iron  plates  and  bars;  and  the  principle  applies  in  all  cases  where 
fly-wheels  can  be  employed  with  advantage.     The  principle  of  action  is  this:    Fly-wheels  may 
be  employed  with  advantage  in  every  case  where  the  intensity  of  either  iha  power  or  the  resist- 
a:r-<-  is  variable  ;  and  where  both  are  variable,  it  becomes  still  more  necessary.  On  the  other  hand, 
■where  both  the  power  and  the  resistance  are  uniform,  a  fly-wheel  may  be  held  as  an  incumbrance, 
and  can  only  act  as  a  load  upon  the  first  mover.  In  the  .steam-engine,  for  example,  of  any  form  in 
which  a  crank  is  used  to  communicate  motion  to  machinery,  the  fly-wheel  is  indispensably  neces- 
sary; and  such  is  the  requisite  governing  power  of  fly  to  keep  up  steady  motion,  that  its  "momen- 
tum is  sufficient  to  compensate  for  considerable  variation  in  the  resistance  of  the  machine  or  ma- 
chinery upon  which  it  operates.  With  water-wheels,  however,  the  power  is  perfectly  unitbrm,  and 
is  the  resistance  is  also  uniform,  as  in  gri.st-mills  and  even  threshing-mills,  fly-wheels  would  be 
worse  than  useless  ;  but  where  the  resistance  is  intermitting,  such  as  rolling  and  tilt-mills,  and  punch- 
ing machines,  a  heavy  fly  becomes  necessary,  in  which  the  power  of  the  first  mover  can  be  accumu- 
lated for  a  short  period  and  which  will  be  expended  during  the  succeedins:  short  period  that  the 
(1089) 


554  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


driven  niachiue  is  in  action.  In  cvcr>'  case  where  manual  labor  is  applied,  fly-wheels  are  useful  if 
not  essontial.  This  arises  from  the  power  itself  beiu^  variable  ;  for  the  power  of  a  man  workinfj  a 
winch  varies  actoniiiiu'  to  the  iliHeroiil  positions  whicli  the  winch  occupies  in  the  coarse  of  its  rnvolu- 
tion  and  has  been  ascertained  to  rnnce  in  the  proportion  of  30  lbs.  and  00  lbs.  The  rationale  of  this 
is  rhatwhen  he  is  in  a  position  that  restricta  hisexertion  to  :)Olb».,  he  might  not  be  able  to  overcome 
the  resistance  unless  at  a  very  slow  rale  ;  but  in  the  position  where  he  can  exert  a  force  of  f.O  lbs.,  he 
can  do  more  than  overcome 'the  resistance.  And  here  it  is  that  the  fly  wheel  comes  to  his  aid  ;  for 
BUppose  the  ri>sistance  requires  an  actual  force  of  45  lbs.,  while  he  is  putting  lorth  60  lbs.,  there  is 
a  surplus  of  l.'i  lbs.  Th'u  last  quantity  the  ever  ready  fly  wheel,  whose  velocity,  from  its  inertia, 
he  is  not  able  u'reatlv  to  increase;  but  it  takes  up,  with  a  small  increase  of  velocity,  the  surplus 
force  e.xeried  by  the"  hand,  and  this  is  stored  up  in  the  mass  of  the  wheel,  to  be  delivered  out 
atrain  at  tlie  next  weak  point  in  the  revoluiii.n  of  the  winch.  Hence,  a  nearly  equable  force  is 
produced  to  act  upon  the  machine  to  which  the  power  of  the  man  is  directed.  If  this  power  is 
directed  upon  an  intcrmittins;  machine,  sucli  as  a  straw-cutter,  the  demands  upon  the  Hy-wheel 
are  very  much  increased  ;  but  as  the  point  of  the  machine  to  which  the  power  is  applied  moves 
at  a  much  slower  velocity  than  the  center  gyration  in  the  fly,  and  as  the  intermissions  of  the  resist- 
ance are  not  likely  to  coincide  exactly  with  the  increments  or  decrements  of  the  power,  there 
will  be  a  mutual  compensation  goinsr'on  among  the  forces  to  bring  out  a  uniform  result.  There 
is  a  possibility  that  a  coincidence  of  the  above  circumstances  may  occur  ;  hence,  it  is  some- 
times of  consequence  to  observe  the  placing  of  the  winch,  so  as  to  counteract  any  defect  of  com- 

(i:i67  )  The  power  of  horses  to  impel  the  machinery  being  of  nearly  uniform  intensity,  requires 
no  regulaior  in  itself;  but  it  comes  under  the  general  law,  if  the  resistance  is  intermitting.  Thus, 
in  the  threshing  machine,  which  is  slightly  variable  in  resistance,  it  would,  if  worked  with  horse- 
power, be  considerably  improved  by  the  addition  of  a  well  proportioned  fly-wheel,  of  which  more 
m  another  place.  In  various  other  machines  worked  with  horse  power,  where  the  resistance  is 
frequcnllv-intermitiing,  such  as  blowing  bellows,  pumping,  and  the  like,  a  fly  is  indispensa- 
ble ;  while  in  a  malt  or  other  mill,  whose  resistance  is  uniform,  the  fly  would  be  an  incumbrance. 
Steam  power  applied  to  a  threshing  machine  requires,  as  already  observed,  no  additional  fly- 
wheel :  but  that  of  the  steam-engine  for  such  purpose,  should  be  above  the  standard  allowed  for 

ordinarj-  purposes.  _         rn,,  i^  i-/-  i 

(lafifi.)  The  general  theory  of  the  application  of  fly-wheels  may  be  repeated  m  a  few  words. 
They  arc  usefully  employed  in  all  cases  of  intermitting  resistance  and  of  variable  force,  whether 
in  tlie  first  mover  or  in  the  re^sistance.  Where  the  motion  is  uniform  and  not  intermitting,  the 
first  mover  being  also  uniform,  the  fly-wheel  is  in  almost  every  case  unnecessary,  and  frequently 

an  ob.struction.  ,  -    ,-     r,        •       .  /•  •  •  1 1 

(KJti'.i.)  The  determination  of  the  weight  of  a  fly-wheel  for  any  given  purpose,  is  a  problem  not 
very  definite  in  its  results;    but  apinoxiinalions  to  it  have  been  made  by  men  of  eminence. 
AnioniT  the.se,  we  find  TredL'old  .«tatinir  a  rule  for  the  fly  wheels  of  steam  engines,*  which,  for 
practical  purposi-s,  is  convenic-nt,  and  comes  near  to  the  general  practice  ;  though  this  is  to  bo 
taken  with  considerable  latitude,  seeing  that  the  practice  of  engineers  difters  considerably  on  this 
point ;  and  the  rule,  though  it  applies  to  heavy  fly  wheels  with  tolerable  exactness,  does  not  agree 
with  practice  in  the  case  of  flv  wheels  for  ihe'hanci,  and  other  small  machines.     But  the  following 
approximation  will  be  a  tolerable  gui.le  in  practice  for  the  weight  of  small  fly-wheels. 

(1370.)Taking  the  average  force  tliat  a  man  will  exert  in  turning  a  winch  of  12  inches  radius  at 
23  lb.s..  when  lie  turns  it  45  times  per  minute,  the  rule  will   be  :  ...  ..        .      - 

Rule.— Multiply  iO  times  the  loire  in  pounds  cxeiicd  on  the  winch  by  its  radius  in  feet,  and 
divide  this  product  by  the  cube  of  the  radius  of  llie  fly-wheel  in  feet,  multiplied  into  the  num- 
ber of  the  revolutions  per  niiuute  ;  the  result  will  be  the  area  of  a  section  of  the  rim  of  the  fly, 
in  sciuare  inches.  .  ,,       .  ,.  /-  ,    ,  ,     ■ 

E.VA.Mi  I.K.— The  force  applied  to  the  v,  inch  being  23  lbs.,  its  radius  1  foot,  and  the  revolutions 
"  per  minute  45  ;  required  the  section  of  the  rim  of  a  fly-wheel  whose  radius  is  1^  feet,  or  3 
ieet  diameter. 

20X-aXl       460  . 

=: =3  inches,  the  area  of  section  of  the  rim  nearly. 

1-5' X  45        151  .... 

(1371.)  Thouu'h  this  formula  will  serve  for  small  flywheels,  whose  velocities  range  from  40  to 
80  revulitidiis  j.er  minute,  it  becomes  necessary,  in  order  to  make  it  agree  with  practice,  to  change 
the  constant.  Thus,  for  velocities  ranging  from  ?0  to  150,  the  number  10  will  be  substituted  for 
20;  and  from  l.'iO  to  300,  the  number  5.  In  this  last  case,  the  fly-wheel  cannot  exceed  2  feet 
diameter;  and  in  the  former,  it  is  restricted  to  5  lt.'et. 

(137J.)  T/ic  Disk  S/rairaitlrr.—Of  the  disk  straw-cutter  the  varieties  are  very  numerous,  and 
they  form  a  very  important  order  of  this  machine  ;  being  that,  al.«o,  which  isforthe  most  part,  em- 
ployed in  Kiiuland,  it  is  the  most  iiinneious  of  the  clas-s.  The  principal  feature,  the  cutting-knife, 
fixed  upon  the  fly-wheel,  i.s  invariable,  except  that  it  sometimes  carries  one,  at  other  times  two 
knives.  The  machinery  or  details  are  exceedingly  varied.  In  .some,  it  is  a<lapted  to  cut  of  va- 
rious lengths  by  means  of  ratchit  wheels  and  lever"  catches  applied  to  the  motion  of  the  feeding- 
rollers,  and  at  the  same  time  to  move  ihc  sub.siance  forward  only  in  the  intervals  of  the  stroke  of 
the  knif.- ;  in  others,  the  latter  <|ualiHcation  only  is  attended  to  ;  in  a  third,  a  continous  mo- 
tion of  the  sub.stance  is  deemed  sulKcient ;  and  these  varieties  ol  motion  are  produced  by  other 
and  various  arrangements  of  spur,  hovel,  and  screw  geering.s. 

(1373.)  The  machine  selected  for  illusiration  is  one  in  which  two  knives  are  employed,  and 
which  gives  to  the  substance  to  be  cut  a  continuous  motion  forward.  The  figure  here  represent- 
ing this,  is  taken  from  a  machine  manufactured  by  John  Anderson  and  Son,  founders,  Leith  Walk. 


Treilcol^on  Steam-Engine*. 
(1090) 


TREATMENT  OF    FARM-HORSES. 


555 


at  a  price  of  i;iO  lOs.  Fig.  289  is  a  view  of  this  machine  in  perspective.  The  chief  parts  of  the 
frame-work  are  of  cast-iron,  consistins  of  a  frame  a  a  on  each  side  of  the  machine,  which  are  sup 
ported  transversely  by  the  truss  b.     The  front  part  of  the  side-frames  extend  upward  and  form 

Fig.  289. 


THE  DISK  STRAW-CUTTER  WITH  COiNVEX  KNIVES. 

the  feeding-roller  frame.  The  cutting-plate  is  attached  in  front  of  the  latter  portion  of  the  frame- 
work, and  is  dressed  truly  otf  for  the  passage  of  the  knife  over  its  face.  The  feeding-trough  e  is 
connected  in  the  fore-part  to  the  roller-frame,  and  along  its  bottom  to  the  upper  edge  of  the  side- 
frames.  The  back  end  of  the  trough  is  supported  in  a  light  wooden-frame.  The  principal  shaft/ is 
supported  on  two  projecting  brackets  s  and  h,  and  upon  it  is  mounted  the  single- thread  screw  i,  and 
the  fly-wheel  k  ;  on  the  extreme  end  also  of  the  shaft,  the  wiuclihandle  /  is  attached.  A  bracket 
carries  one  end  of  a  small  shaft,  on  which  the  screw-wheel  n,  of  21  teeth,  is  mounted,  and  is  turn- 
ed by  means  of  the  screw,  when  the  fly-wheel  is  put  in  motion.  On  the  opposite  end  of  the 
small  shaft  n.  a  spur-wheel  is  also  placed,  and  acts  upon  another  of  equal  diameter  placed  on  the 
axle  of  the  lower  feeding-roller.  This  last,  as  well  as  the  upper  roller,  are  furnislied  with  the  usual 
long-toothed  pinions,  for  admitting  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  upper  roller.  The  upper  roller  ia 
supported  in  a  light  frame  that  rises  and  falls  in  a  slide  of  the  roller-frame,  and  this  is  acted  upon 
by  a  lever  and  weight,  of  which  the  hook  only  is  seen  in  the  figure  at  o.  The  cutting-knife  p  is 
18  inches  in  length,  and  4  inches  in  breadth.  It  is  firmly  bolted  upon  the  arm  of  the  fly-wheel, 
and  its  cutting-edge,  which  is  convex,  is  so  formed  that  every  successive  point,  in  passing  the 
edge  of  the  cutting-plate,  tbrms  eijual  angles  with  the  edge  of  that  plate.  In  many  of  the  disk 
machines,  the  cutting-edge  of  the  knife  is  concave,  formed  on  the  same  principle  of  equal  angles, 
and,  in  effect,  is  the  better  of  the  two. 

(1374.)  The  dimensions  of  the  principal  partsof  this  machine  areas  follows.  Width  of  the  frames 
14  inches;  length  of  cast-iron  fiaraes  30  inches,  and  hight  3  feet;  length  of  feeding-rollers  12  in- 
ches, and  their  diameter  4 1  inches;  length  of  feeding-trough  5  feet,  and  width  12  inches.  The 
flv-wheel  is  4  feet  3  inches  diameter,  and  the  hight  to  its  center  is  3  feet.  From  the  entire  weight 
of  the  fly-wheel  being  supported  at  one  angle  of  the  frame,  the  spreading  brackets  q  r  are  attach- 
ed, to  give  the  machine  stability. 

(IS?.!.)  The  S/eamiiig-  Apparatus. — The  means  employed  for  cooking  food  for  horses  and  cattle, 
are  either  boiling  or  steaming.  In  the  first,  an  open  ves.sel  is  of  course  employed,  in  which  the 
roots  or  other  substances  are  placed,  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  vvatei".  This  method  has  been 
found  inconvenient  in  many  respects;  and  when  the  establishment  is  extensive,  the  vessel  is  re- 
quired to  be  incommodiously  large,  and  is  withal  not  economical. 

(1376.)  Steaming  in  a  separate  vessel  has  been  adopted  in  preference  to  the  former  rnethod  and 

has  been  followed  in  a  variety  of  forms,  but  these  may  be  ranked  under  two  distinct  kind,s.     The 

first  is  an  open  vessel,  a  boiler  generally  of  cast-iron,  having  a  channel  or  groove  of  1  inch  wide 

and  2  inches  deep  formed  round  its  brim.  The  vessel  is  placed  over  a  furnace  properly  construct- 

(1091J 


556 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


ed,  and  is  partly  filled  with  water.  The  proove  is  also  filled  with  water.  A  sheet-iron  cyliudri- 
cal  pan.  of  3  to  4  liot  in  (ii-i>th.  and  of  a  dinnietor  suitfd  to  pass  into  the  proove  of  the  water- ves- 
sel (which  is  cc iieiiilly  aliout  :i  fi-et  diuinotcr),  is  also  provi.lo.l.  The  pan  has  a  i>crforatf<]  l>ottom 
to  admit  steam  fiicl\  from  tin-  Iow«!r  ves*-!.  It  is  also  furnislud  with  an  iron  bow  hy  which  it 
can  be  suspindid,  and  hy  which  it  can  be  convcnionlly  tilted  while  suspended.  This  is  the  steam- 
ing pan  ;  and  for  the  purpose  ot'nuiviii!?  it  to  ami  from  the  iKiihr.  u  crane,  mounted  with  wheel 
and  pinion  and  a  chain,  completes  the  apparatus.  To  put  this  in  operation,  the  pan  is  fdled  w  ith  the 
substances  to  be  steamed,  ajid  covered  over  either  with  a  deal  cover  or  with  oUl  canvas  bau's.  It  is 
then  placed  u|ion  tlie  boiler  hy  m<ans  of  the  crane,  and  the  fire  beinir  pretty  stronely  urged  till 
the  water  in  the  boiler  gives  oil' its  steam,  which,  passim;  up  throi-iih  the  bottom  of  the  pan,  and 
acting  upon  the  contents,  produces  in  a  few  hours  all  th<-  results  of  boilinir.  The  water  in  the  groove 
of  the  boiler  serves  iis  a  si.'alini,' to  j)revent  the  escape  of  steam  without  passing  through  the  pan.  But 
notwithstanding  this,  it  is  evidi-nt  that  the  steam  can  hardly  ever  reach  the  tem|>erature  of  '21i°  ; 
and  hence,  this  apparatus  is  always  found  to  be  very  tardy  in  its  effects.  When  the  contents  of 
the  pan  have  been  found  sufficiently  done,  the  whole  is  removed  from  the  boiler  by  means  of  the 
crane,  and  lilted  into  a  large  trough'  to  be  thoroiiuhly  mixed,  anil  thence  served  out  to  the  stock. 
A  general  complaint  has  been  urged  asainst  this  consiruciion  of  apparatus,  arising  from  the  slow- 
ness of  the  process  of  cookincr  by  it.  ami  consoipient  expense  of  fin<l.  Hollers  oi  the  form  here 
described  are  not  uell  calculated  to  absorb  the  maximum  of  caloric  that  may  be  afforded  by  a 
given  quantity  of  fuel,  neither  is  the  apparatus  generally  lb'-  be^t  a.iapiaiion  for  the  application  of 


THE  CLOSED-BOILER    STEAMING    APPARATUS. 


Steam  to  the  substances  upon  which  the  steam  has  to  act.  Such  boilers,  as  already  observed,  can 
never  produce  steam  of  a  higher  temperature  than  -Jia^.  If  thev  did.  the  shallow  water! urine, 
formed  by  the  marginal  groove,  would  be  at  once  thrown  out  by  the  steam  pressure  ;  for  it  is  well 
known  that  the  addition  of  P  to  the  temperature  of  the  steam  mcreases  its  elasticity  equal  to  the 
resistance  of  a  column  of  water  about  7  inches  high.  A  groove,  therefore,  of  7  inches  in  depth 
(1092) 


TREATMENT   OF    FARM-HORSES.  557 

would  be  required  to  resist  the  pressure,  which  would  even  then  be  only  1-5  lb  of  pressure  on 
the  square  inch.  Under  such  circumstances,  the  temperature  in  the  steaming-pan  will  always  be 
under  212^.     Hence  the  tedious  nature  of  the  process  by  using  this  apparatus. 

(1377.)  The  apparatus  which  deserves  the  precedence  of  the  above  mode  is  here  represented 
in  fig.  290.  The  principle  of  its  construction  is  that  of  a  closed  boiler,  in  which  the  steam  is  pro- 
duced under  a  small  pressure  of  3  to  4  lbs.  on  the  inch.  It  is  then  delivered  through  a  pipe  to  one 
or  more  separate  vessels  containing  the  substances  that  are  to  be  cooked ;  and  these  vessels  are  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  be  readily  engaged  or  disengaged  with  the  conducting  steam-pipe.  The  outline  abed 
of  the  figure  represents  a  section  of  the  steaming-house,  with  the  apparatus  in  due  order  of  arrange- 
ment, and  of  the  extent  that  may  be  capable  of  supplying  an  establishment  of  from  10  to  16  horses. 
The  boiler  e  is  of  a  cylindrical  form,  20  inches  in  diameter  and  4  feet  in  length.  It  is  set  in  brick-work 
f,  overafurnaceof  14  inches  in  width,  with  firegrate  and  furnace-door.  The  brick  building  requires 
to  be  6  feet  6  inches  in  length,  4  feet  6  inches  in  breadth,  and  the  hight  about  3  feet  6  inches.  The 
furnace  is  built  with  a  circulating  flue,  passing  first  to  the  farther  end  of  the  boiler,  then,  turning  to 
right  or  left  according  as  the  chimney  may  be  situated,  returns  to  the  front  of  the  boiler,  and  termi- 
nates in  the  chimney  on  the  side  opposite  to  the  first  turning.  The  flues  should  be  not  less  in 
width  at  the  upper  part  than  one-fourth  the  diameter  of  the  boiler  ;  and  their  hight  will  be  about 
one-third  the  diameter.  The  steam-pipe  is  attached  to  the  boiler  at  its  crown,  takes  a  swan-neck 
bend  downward  to  within  12  inches  of  the  floor  at  ^.  and  terminates  aXp:  it  is  furnished  with  a.s 
many  branch  nozzles  as  there  are  intended  to  be  steaming-vessels.  The  steam-pipe  may  be  either 
cast-iron  or  lead,  and  2  inches  diameter  in  the  bore.  The  receptacles  or  steaming-vessels  h  h  are 
usually  casks  of  from  50  to  100  gallons  contents.  They  are  mounted  with  2  iron  gudgeons  or 
pivots,  placed  a  little  above  mid-higlit ;  they  are  be.sides  furnished  with  a  false  bottom,  supported 
about  3  inches  above  the  true  bottom ;  the  former  being  perforated  with  a  plentiful  number  of 
holes,  to  pass  the  steam  which  is  introduced  between  the  two  bottoms.  The  connection  between 
the  steam-pipe  and  the  receptacle  may  be  either  by  a  stop-cock  and  coupling-screw — which  is 
the  most  perfect  connection — or  it  may  be  by  the  simple  insertion  of  the  one  nozzle  within  the 
other,  in  the  form  of  a  spigot  and  faucet.  In  this  latter  case,  the  nozzle  that  leads  from  the  steam- 
pipe  is  stopped  with  a  wooden  plug,  when  the  receptacle  is  disengaged.  Besides  the  steam-pipe, 
the  boiler  is  furnished  with  a  pipe  i,  placed  in  connection  with  a  cistern  of  water  k,  the  pipe  en- 
tering into  it  by  the  bottom,  and  its  orifice  closed  by  a  valve  opening  upward,  the  lower  extremi- 
ty of  the  pipe  passing  within  the'  boiler  to  within  3  inches  of  its  bottom.  A  slender  rod  I  passes 
also  into  the  boiler  through  a  small  stuffing-box  ;  and  to  its  lower  end,  within  the  boiler,  is  append- 
ed a  float,  which  rests  upon  the  surface  of  the  water  within  the  boiler.  The  upper  end  of  this  rod 
is  jointed  to  a  small  lever  which  has  its  fulcrum  supported  on  the  edge  of  the  cistern  a  little  above 
k  ;  the  opposite  end  of  the  lever  being  jointed  to  a  similar  but  shorter  rod,  rising  from  the  valve  in 
the  bottom  of  the  cistern.  This  forms  the  feeding  apparatus  of  the  boiler,  and  is  so  adjusted  by 
weights  that  when  the  water  in  the  boiler  is  at  a  proper  hight,  the  float  is  buoyed  up  so  as  to  shut 
the  valve  in  the  cistern,  preventing  any  farther  supply  of  water  to  pass  into  the  boiler,  until,  by 
evaporation,  the  surface  of  the  water  has  fallen  so  far  as  to  leave  the  float  unsupported,  to  such 
extent  as  to  form  a  counterpoise  to  the  valve,  which  will  then  open,  and  admit  water  to  descend 
into  the  boiler,  until  it  has  again  elevated  the  float  to  that  extent  that  will  shut  the  valve  in  the 
cistern.  By  this  arrangement,  it  will  be  perceived  that  the  water  in  the  boiler  will  be  kept  near- 
ly at  a  uniform  hight ;  but  to  accomplish  all  this,  the  cistern  must  be  placed  at  a  certain  fixed 
hight  above  the  water  in  the  boiler,  and  this  hight  is  regulated  by  the  laws  which  govern  the  ex- 
pansive power  of  steam.  This  law,  without  going  into  its  mathematical  details  at  present,  in  so 
far  as  regards  this  point,  may  be  stated  in  round  numbers  as  follows :  That  the  hight  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  in  the  cistern  must  be  raised  above  the  surface  of  that  in  the  boiler,  3  feet  for 
every  pound-w'eight  of  pressure  that  the  steam  will  exert  on  a  square  inch  of  surface  in  the 
boiler.  Thus,  if  it  is  estimated  to  work  with  steam  of  1  lb.  on  the  inch,  the  cistern  must  be  raised 
3  feet :  if  2  inches,  6  feet ;  3  inches,  9  feet ;  and  so  on.  If  the  steam  is  by  any  chance  raised  higher 
than  the  hight  of  the  cistern  provides  for,  the  whole  of  the  water  in  the  boiler  may  be  forced  up 
through  the  pipe  into  the  cistern,  or  until  the  lower  orifice  of  the  pipe,  within  the  boiler,  is  ex- 
posed to  the  steam,  which  will  then  also  be  ejected  through  the  pipe  ;  and  the  boiler  may  be  left 
dry.  Such  an  accident,  however,  cannot  occur  to  the  extent  here  described,  if  the  feeding-appa- 
ratus is  in  proper  working  order ;  and  its  occurrence  to  any  extent  is  sufficiently  guarded  against 
by  a  safety-valve. 

(1378.)  The  safety-valve  of  the  steam-boiler  is  usually  a  conical  metal  valve,  and  always  open- 
ing outward  ;  it  ought  always  to  be  of  a  diameter  large  in  proporiion  to  the  size  of  the  boiler  and 
steam-pipe,  so  as  to  insure  the  free  egress  of  any  rapid  generation  of  steam.  For  a  boiler  of  the  .size 
under  consideration  it  should  be  2  inches  in  diameter  on  its  under  surface — that  being  the  surface 
acted  upon— this  gives  an  area  of  fully  3  square  inches;  and  if  loaded  directly,  or  without  the  in- 
tervention of  a  lever,  for  steam  of  a  pressure  of  1  lb.  on  the  inch,  it  will  require  3  lbs. ;  if  2  lbs.  on 
the  inch,  6  lbs. ;  if  3  lbs.  on  the  inch,  9  lbs.,  and  so  on.  With  the.se  adjustments,  the  steam,  should 
it  rise  above  the  proposed  pressure,  will,  instead  of  forcing  the  water  through  the  feed-pipe, 
raise  the  safety-valve,  and  escape  into  the  atmosphere  until  the  pressure  is  reduced  to  the  in- 
tended equilibrium. 

(1379.)  Another  precautionary  measure  in  the  use  of  the  steam-Voileris  the  guage-cock,  of  which 
there  are  usually  two.  but  sometimes  one,  a  two-way  cock  ;  they  are  the  common  stop-cock,  with 
a  lengthened  tail  passing  downward,  the  one  having  its  tail  terminating. about  \\  inches  below  the 
proper  water  level  iu  the  boiler,  the  other  terminating  IJ  inches  above  that  level,  which  allows  a 
range  of  3  inches  for  the  surface  of  the  water  to  rise  or  fall.  The  first,  or  water-cock,  then,  when 
opened,  will  throw  out  water  by  the  pressure  of  the  .steam  upon  its  surface,  until  the  surface  has 
sunk  \\  inches  below  its  proper  level,  when  steam  will  be  discharged,  thus  indicating  the  water  in 
the  boiler  to  be  too  low,  and  that  measures  should  be  taken  to  increase  the  supply.  When  the 
second  or  steam-cock  is  opened,  it  will  always  discharge  steam  alone,  unless  the  water  shall 
have  risen  so  high  as  to  come  above  its  orifice,  in  which  case  the  cock  will  discharge  u-aier,  indi 
(1093) 


558  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

eating  a  too  larpe  supply  of  water  to  the  boUer,  and  that  it  ehoold  be  reduced  ;  for  this  pnrpose, 
the  feed-pipe  t  is  provided  with  a  stop-cock  m,  whereby  the  admission  of  water  can  be  entirely 
prevented  at  the  [ileasure  of  llie  attendant. 

(1380.)  The  foregoinf?  dei*cription  refers  to  a  stcaminp-apparatus  of  the  best  description,  and  im- 
phes  that  the  water  cistern  can  be  supplied  cither  from  a  fountain  head,  or  that  water  can  be 
pumped  up  to  the  cistern.  But  there  may  be  cases  where  neither  of  these  are  easily  attainable. 
Under  such  circumstances  the  feed  pipe  may  rise  to  the  bight  of  4  or  4J  feet,  and  be  surmounted 
by  a  funnel,  and  under  it  a  stop  cock.  In  this  case,  also,  a  float  with  a  wire  stem,  rising  throogh 
a  stuffing-box  on  the  top  of  the  boiler,  must  be  employed — the  stem  may  rise  a  few  inches  above 
the  stuffing-box,  in  front  of  a  graiiuated  scale — having  the  zero  in  its  middle  point.  When  the 
water  is  at  the  proper  hight  in  the  boiler,  the  top  of  tlieslem  .should  point  at  zero,  and  any  rise  or 
fall  in  the  water  will  be  indicated  accordingly  by  the  position  of  the  stem.  To  supply  a  boiler 
mounted  after  this  fashion,  the  first  tiling  to  be  attended  to,  before  setting  the  fire,  is  to  fill  up  the 
boiler,  through  the  funnel,  to  the  proper  level,  which  will  be  indicated  by  the  float  pointing  to  ze- 
ro ;  but  it  should  be  raised,  in  this  case,  two  or  three  inches  higher.  In  this  stage,  the  gauge  cocks 
are  noneffective  ;  but  when  the  steam  has  been  got  up,  they,  as  well  as  the  float,  must  be  con- 
sulted frequently  ;  and  should  the  water,  by  evaporation,  fall  so  low  as  3  inches  below  zero,  a 
supply  must  be  introduced  through  the  funnel.  To  eflbct  a  suppily,  in  these  circumstances,  the 
steam  must  be  allowed  to  fall  rather  low,  and  the  funnel  being  filled,  and  the  stop-cock  opened, 
the  water  in  the  former  will  sink  down  through  the  tube,  provided  the  steam  be  sufficiently 
low  to  admit  its  entrance,  but  the  first  portion  of  water  that  can  be  thus  thrown  in  will  go  far  to 
eflect  this,  bv  sinking  the  temperature.  The  sinking  of  the  temperature  by  the  addition  of  a  large 
quantity  of  "cold  water,  is  the  objection  to  this  mode  of  feeding  ;  but  this  is  obviated  to  some  ex- 
tent from  the  circumstance,  that  unless  the  steaming  receptacles  are  large  or  numerous,  the  first 
charge  of  water  will  generally  serve  to  cook  the  mess,  when  a  fresh  charge  can  be  put  in  for 
the  next. 

(1381.)  In  using  this  eteaming-apparatus,  it  has  been  noticed  that  the  casks  are  funiished  with 
gudgeons,  which  play  in  tlie  posts  n  n  ;  these  are  kept  in  position  by  the  collar-beam  o  to  which 
they  are  attached  ;  the  casks  being  at  liberty  to  be  tilted  upon  these  gudgeons.  They  are  charged 
when  in  the  upright  position,  and  the  connection  being  formed  with  the  steam-pipe,  as  described, 
they  are  covered  at  top  with  a  close  lid  or  a  thick  cloth,  and  the  process  goes  on.  When  the 
substances  are  sufficiently  cooked,  the  couplings  r  r  are  disengaged,  the  upper  part  of  the  cask  ia 
swung  forward,  and  their  contents  discharged  into  a  trough  which  is  brought  in  front  of  them 
for  that  purpose. 

(1382.)  The  connections  with  the  steam-pipe  are  sometimes,  for  cheapness,  formed  by  a  sliding 
tuoe  of  copper  or  brass,  about  4  inches  in  length,  which,  after  the  nozzle  of  the  cask  and  that  pro- 
jecting from  the  steam-pipe  are  brought  directly  opposite  to  ea'^h  other,  is  slid  over  the  JTinction, 
and  as  a  moderate  degree  of  tightness  only  is  requisite  in  such  joints,  a  strip  of  sacking  wrapped 
round  the  ends  of  the  slider  is  found  sufficient.  On  breaking  the  connection,  and  opening  the  exit 
nozzles,  the  steam  will  of  course  flow  out,  but  this  is  checked  by  a  wooden  plug,  or  even  a  potato 
or  slice  of  turnip,  (hrust  into  the  orifice,  may  be  sufficient.  It  is  advisable,  however,  that  a 
main  stop-cock  should  be  placed  in  the  steam-pipe  anywhere  between  the  boiler  and  the  first 
receptacle.  . 

(1383.)  The  most  perfect  connection  between  the  stcam-pipe  and  the  receptacles  is  a  stop-cock 
and  couplins-screv.  These  should  be  of  IJ  inches  bore,  they  are  more  certain  in  their  eflect,  and 
more  conveiiient  in  their  application,  though  attended  with  more  expense  in  the  first  cost  of  the 
apparatus.  In  this  case  no  main-cock  is  required.  The  extremity  of  the  steam-pipe  should,  in  all 
cases,  be  closed  by  a  small  stop-cock,  for  the  purpose  of  draining  off  any  water  that  may  collect  in 
the  pipe  from  condensation.  A  precaution  to  the  same  effect  is  requisite,  in  the  bottom  of  each 
cask,  to  draw  off  the  water  that  condenses  abundantly  in  it ;  or  a  few  small  perforations  in  the 
bottom  will  effect  the  purpose. 

(1384.)  It  must  be  remarked,  in  regard  to  steaming,  that  in  those  establishments  where  grain 
of  any  kind  is  given  in  food  in  a  cooked  state,  drj'  prain  cannot  be  cooked,  or  at  least  boiled 
to  softness  in  dry  steam,  the  only  effect  produced  benig  a  species  of  parching  ;  and  if  steam  of 
high  temperature  isemployed,  the  parching  is  increased  nearly  to  carbonization.  If  it  is  wished, 
therefore,  tolwii  grain  bv  steam,  it  must  be  done  by  one  of  the  two  following  methods:  The 
grain  must  either  be  soaked  in  water  for  a  few  hours,  and  then  exposed  to  the  direct  action  of  the 
Bteam  in  the  receptacle;  or  it  may  be  put  into  the  receptacle  with  as  much  water  as  will  cover  it, 
and  then  by  attaching  the  recepiacle  to  the  steam  pipe,  by  the  coupling  stopcock,  or  in  the  ab- 
sence of  stop  cocks,  by  passing  a  bent  leaden  pipe  from  the  steam-pipe,  over  the  upper  edge  of 
the  receptacle  and  descending  aeain  inside,  to  the  space  between  the  false  and  the  true  bottoms; 
the  steam  discharged  thus,  by  either  niethoii,  will  shortly  rai.«e  the  temperature  of  the  water 
to  the  boiling  point,  and  produced  the  desired  effect." 

(1385.)  The  time  required  to  prepare  food  in  this  way  varies  considerably,  according  to  the  state 
of  tlic  apparatus,  and  the  principle  of  its  construction.  With  the  ajijiaratus  just  described,  pota- 
toes can  be  steamed  in  casks  of  from  32  to  .50  gallons  contents,  in  30  to  4.">  minutes.  In  casks  ex- 
tending to  80  gallons,  an  hour  or  more  may  be  required.  Turnips  require  considerably  longer 
time  to  become  fully  rcadv,  especially  if  subjected  to  the  process  in  thick  mas-^es,  the  time  may 
be  stated  at  double  "that  of  potatoes.  When  the  apparatus  is  ill  constructed,  the  time,  in  some 
cases,  required  to  cook  turnips,  extends  to  .■)  hours.  And,  with  reference  to  the  apparatus  first 
described  (1376),  the  time  is  seldom  under  5  hours. 

(1386.)  The  prices  of  steaming-apparaius  vary  accordingly  to  quality  and  extent;  but,  on  an 
average,  the  open  boiler  and  jian  apparatus,  including  a  power  crane,  will  range  from  £1  to  XlO; 
and  the  other,  fig.  290,  the  price  range.-*  from  i.8  to  X16.  The  expense  of  building  the  furnace, 
and  supplying  jnixing-tronghs,  will  add  about  i.2  lOs.  toeach. 

«  See  nn  Hrticle  by  me  in  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  vi 
(1094) 


TREATMENT   OF  FARM-HORSES. 


659 


(1387.)  Corn-Bruisers.  In  following  up  an  economical  system  of  feeding,  the  braising  of  all 
grain  so  applied  forms  an  important  branch  of  the  system,  and,  as  might  be  expected,  numerous 
are  the  varieties  of  machines  applied  to  the  purpose.  These  naturally  arrange  themselves  under 
three  distinct  kinds.  1st.  Machines  which  act  on  a  principle  that  partakes  of  cutting  and  bruieine 
by  means  of  grooved  metal  cylinders,  and  is  applied  to  those  chiefly  driven  by  the  hand.  2d.  Ma- 
chines adapted  to  bruise  only  by  means  of  smooth  cylinders  ;  this  is  applied  exclusively  to  those 
driven  by  steam,  or  other  agency  more  powerful  than  the  human  hand.  And,  3d,  Breaking  or 
grinding  by  the  common  grain  millstones,  and  of  course,  only  worked  by  power. 

(1388.)  That  variety  of  the  first  division  which  I  shall  particularly  notice,  is  represented  in  per- 
spective in  fig.  291.  It  is  con.structed  almost  entirely  of  cast-iron,  except  the  hopper  and  dischargiu°-- 
spout;  but  its  frame  or  standard  may  with  propriety  be  formed  of  hard  wood,  when  circumstances 
render  the  adoption  of  that  material  desirable.  In  the  figure,  a  a  a  \s  the  frame  work,  consisting 
of  two  separate  sides,  connected  by  two  stretcher  bolts,  the  screw-nuts  of  which  are  only  seen 
near  to  a  and  a  below.  A  case  b  b,  formed  of  cast-iron  plates,  is  bolted  on  the  projecting  ears  at 
the  top  of  the  frame,  and  contains  the  bruising  cylinders.  The  cylinders  are  4  inches  in  diameter, 
and  6  inches  in  length,  of  cast-iron  or  of  steel.  They  have  an  axle  of  malleable  iron  passing 
through  them,  having  turned  journals,  which  run  in  bearings  formed  on  the  cast-iron  side-plates 
of  the  case,  the  bearings  being  accurately  bored  out  to  fit  the  journals.  The  spur-wheels  c  and  d 
are  fitted  upon  the  axle  of  the  cylinders,  c  having  14  teeth,  and  d  24  teeth.  The  cylinder  corres- 
ponding to  d  is  perfectly  smooth,  while  that  of  c  is  grooved  at  a  pitch  of  \  inch,  and  about  3-32 
inch  deep  worked  to  sharp  edges.  The  grooves  lie  obliquely  on  the  face  of  the  cylinder,  being 
at  an  angle  of  10°  with  the  axle.  The  winch-handle  e  is  attached  to  the  axle  of  the  roller  c 
whose  bearings  are  permanent,  while  those  of  d  are  movable,  being  formed  in  separate  plates' 
and  fitted  to  slide  to  a  small  extent  in  a  seat,  for  the  adjustment  of  the  cylinder  to  any  desired  grist! 

Fig.  291. 


THE  HAND  CORN-BRUISER. 


This  adjustment  is  effected  by  means  of  the  screws  f,  which  act  upon  the  sliding-plates  of  the 
bearings,  g  is  one  of  the  bearings  of  a  feeding-roller,  placed  also  within  the  case ;  it  is  turn- 
ed by  means  of  a  toothed-wheel  fitted  upon  the  farther  end  of  its  axle,  and  which  is  driven  by  an- 
other wheel  of  24  teeth  on  the  axle  of  the  cylinder  d.  The  fly-wheel  h  is  fitted  upon  the  axle  of 
(1095) 


560 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


the  cylinder  c,  and  is  3^  feet  in  diameter;  <  is  the  feeding-hopper,  attached  to  the  top  of  the  caw 

by  two  small  hooks;  aud  k  is  a  wooden  spoat  to  convey  the  bruised  grain  from  the  caae. 
(13fi9.J  Fig  '-'92  is  a  section  of  tlie  case, 


Fig.  29i 


and  the  cylinders,  detached  from  the 
frame,  b  b  arc  the  two  ends  of  the  case 
cut  by  the  section  ;  c  is  tlie  grooved  cylin- 
der, d  the  smooth,  and  /  is  the  rccding- 
roUer,  it  is  3  J  inches  diameter,  and  has  cy- 
lindrical grooves  formed  on  its  surface  to 
convey  tlie  grain  ;  o  is  a  cover  of  cast-iron 
fixed  upon  the  top  of  the  case  ;  it  has  two 
rounds  ears  n  n,  with  eye-holes  which 
serve  to  steady  the  hopper,  and  to  which 
it  is  screwed  by  the  hooks  already  men- 
tioned. A  hopper-shaped  opening  m  is 
formed  in  the  cover  ;  it  is  six  inches  long, 
3  inches  wide  ut  top,  and  1  inch  at  bottom, 
and  the  edges  fit  closely  ujion  the  feeding- 
rollers.  Two  plate-iron  sliders  are  fitted 
upon  the  surlace  of  tlii.x  little  hopper,which 
serve  to  enlarge  or  contract  the  opening 
longitudinally,  and  are  fixed  by  screw- 
bolts  in  each  plate ;  the  head  of  one  of  the  bolts  is  seen  at  o.  p  p  P  p  are  ears  by  which  the  case 
is  bolted  together,  and  q  q  are  prolongations  of  the  side-plate  of  the  case  ;  r  r  are  additional 
plates  of  siieet-iron,  to  prevent  the  grain  from  being  thrown  over  the  cylinders  unbruised. 

(1390.)  This  is  a  very  efficient  machine  for  bruising  either  oats  or  beans  ;  the  adjustment  of  the 
plain  cylinder  to  the  requisite  distance  being  easily  accomplished  by  the  adjusting-screws;  and 

Fig.  293. 


TRANSVERSE  SECTION,  SHOWING  THE    RELATION 
OF  THE   PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 


THE  ELEVATION  OF  THE  POWER  CORN-BRUISER. 

to  prevent  the  abrasion  of  the  grooved  cylinder,  by  coming  in  too  close  contact  with  the  other,  a 
stopper  is  applied  on  each  side,  to  keep  the  slides  from  overreaching  the  due  safety  distance. 
From  the  ditferent  velocities  of  llie  two  cylinders,  the  grooved  one  being  the  fastest,  it  produces 
a  cutting  as  well  as  a  bruising  action,  which  renders  its  effects  on  the  grain  more  perfect  than 
simple  pressure.  It  ran  be  worked  by  one  man,  who  will  brui.se  4  bushels  of  oats  in  an  houc 
The  price  of  the  machine  is  £6  lOs.  .,,,,.,  •,      , 

(1391.)  Various  other  forms  of  this  machine  are  in  use,  some  with  both  cylinders  grooved,  others 
with  only  one  grooved  cylinder  acting  against  a  grooved  plate;  in  this  last  state  it  is  much  used 
for  bruising  beans. 
(1096) 


TREATMENT  OF    FARM-HORSES. 


561 


(1392.)  Among  the  varieties  of  the  bruising-machine  of  the  2d  division,  I  may  just  notice  one 
that  is  found  very  efficient.  It  consists  of  two  plain-edged  wheels  or  pulleys,  as  they  may  be  termed 
usually  about  6  inches  broad  on  the  rim  or  sole  ;  the  one  ranges  from  2J  feet  to  4  feet  in  diameter' 
and  its  fellow  only  half  the  diameter  of  the  larger.  They  require  to  be  truly  turned  on  the  rim', 
and  work  in  contact.  The  smaller  one  is  always  driven  by  the  power,  and  the  larger  usually  by 
contact  with  the  smaller.  The  smaller  wheel  makes,  according  to  its  diameter,  from  150  to  200 
revolutions  per  minute.  Where  plain  cylinders  are  employed  for  bruising,  and  their  surfacesmov- 
ing  with  equal  velocity,  the  effect  is  to  press  each  grain  into  a  flat,  hard  cake  :  but  when  one  of  the 
surfaces  is  left  at  liberty  to  move  by  simple  contact,  it  is  found  that  the  effect  is  different  from  the 
above,  for  the  grain  passes,  bruised  indeed,  though  not  into  a  hard  cake,  but  has  apparently  un- 
dergone a  species  of  tearing,  leaving  it  in  a  more  open  and  friable  state  than  as  described  above. 
This  machine,  however,  does  not  answer  well  for  bruising  beans,  for  here,  again,  they  come 
through  in  the  form  of  a  flat  cake.  If  beans,  therefore,  are  used  in  an  e.stablishment  where  this 
bruiser  is  adopted,  a  separate  one,  on  the  principle  of  fig.  291,  is  required  for  the  beans  alone  ; 
that  machine  though  serviceable  for  a  small  establishment,  being  incapable,  even  with  power,  to 
produce  the  quantity  in  a  reasonable  time  that  would  be  required  in  a  large  one. 

(1393.)  Plain  Roller  Cora-bruisers,  for  poicer. — A  very  efficient  corn  bruiser,  adapted  for  pow- 
er, is  shown  in  figs.  293,  294,  295.  The  first  being  an  elevation,  the  second  a  plan,  and  the  third  a 
section  of  the  machine  ;  the  same  letters  apply  to  such  corresponding  parts  as  are  seen  in  all  the 
three  figures.  In  fig.  293  a  a  is  one  of  the  side-frames,  of  cast-iron,  which  are  connected  together 
by  stretcher-bolts  b,  and  the  frame  so  formed  is  bolted  to  a  floor  through  the  palms  at  c  c.  On  the 
top  bar  of  the  frames  there  are  two  strong  snugs  d  d  cast,  sufficient^ to  resist  the  pressure  of  the 
rollers,  and  are  formed  also  to  receive  the  brass  bushes  in  which  the  journals  of  the  two  rollers 
are  made  to  run.  The  two  rollers  e  and  /  are  respectively  8  and  9i  inches  diameter,  and  are  18 
inches  in  length,  fitted  with  malleable  iron  shafts  1|  inches  diameter;  the  roller  /  runs  in  perma- 
nent bearings,  but  e  has  its  bushes  movable,  for  adjustment  to  the  degree  of  bruising  required,  and 
this  adjustment  is  effected  by  the  adjusting-screws ,        m,       ,..,.,       ,.  .  ... 

equal  in  diameter,  which  is  nine  inches.      The 
roller  e   has  also  upon  its    shaft    the  driving 


The  shaft  of  each  roller  carries  a  wheel  h, 
Fig.   294. 


pulley  i,  which  by  means  of  a  belt  s  s  from  any 
shaft  of  a  threshing-machine  or  other  power 
having  a  proper  velocity,  puts  the  rollers  ni  mo- 
tion. The  rollers  are  inclosed  in  a  square  wood- 
en case  k  k,  in  the  cover  of  which  a  narrow  hop- 
per-shaped opening  I  is  formed  to  direct  the 
grain  betweeu  the  rollers.  A  hopper  in  for  re- 
ceiving the  grain  is  supported  on  the  light 
wooden  frame-work  n  n,  which  also  supports 
the  feeding-shoe  o,  jointed  to  the  frame  at  p, 
and  suspended  by  the  straps  q,  which  last  is  ad- 
justable by  a  screw  sXq  to  regulate  the  quantity 
of  feed.  A  smooth-edged  oblique  wheel  r,  fig. 
294,  is  mounted  on  the  shaft  of  the  roller/,  and 
by  its  oscillating  revolutions,  acting  upon 
a  forked  arm  which  descends  from  the  shoe,  a 
vibratory  motion  is  given  to  the  latter,  by  which 
a  regular  and  continued  supply  of  the  grain  is 
delivered  from  the  hopper  to  the  rollers.  After 
passing  the  rollers  the  grain  is  received  into  a 
spout,  which  either  delivers  it  on  the  same 
floor,  or  through  a  close  spout  in  the  floor  below. 
The  velocity  of  the  rollers,  which  are  driven  by  "^"^  ^^^^  °^  '^^^  power  corn-bruiser. 
the  belt  s  s,  may  be  250  revolutions  per  minute.  The  dimensions  of  the  frame  a  are  30  in- 
ches in  length  and  24  inches  in  hight ;  the  width  over  all  being  also  24  inches.  The  price  of  this 
machine,  as  manufactured  by  James  Slight  and  Co.,  is  XlO.— J.  S. 

(1394.)  The  horse  is  an  intelligent  animal,  and  seems  to  delight  in  the  society  of  man.  It  is  re- 
marked by  those  who  have  much  to  do  with  blood-horses,  that,  when  at  liberty,  and  seein"  two 
or  more  people  standing  conversing  together,  they  wiU  approach,  and  seem,  as  it  were,  to  wish  to 
listen  to  the  conversation.  The  farm  horse  will  not  do  this ;  but  he  is  quite  obedient  to  call  and 
distinguishes  his  name  readily  from  that  of  his  companion,  and  will  not  stir  when  desired  to  stand 
until  his  own,  name  is  pronounced.  He  distinguishes  the  various  sorts  of  work  he  is  put  to  and 
will  apply  his  strength  and  skill  in  the  best  way  to  effect  his  purpose,  whether  in  the  threshing- 
mill,  the  cart,  or  the  plow.  He  soon  acquires  a  perfect  sense  of  work.  I  have  seen  a  horse  walk 
very  steadily  toward  a  feering-pole,  and  halt  when  his  head  had  reached  it.  He  seems  also  to 
have  a  sense  of  time.  I  have  heard  another  neigh  almost  daily  about  10  minutes  before  the  time 
of  loosening  m  the  evening,  whether  in  summer  or  winter.  He  is  capable  of  distinguishing  the 
tones  of  the  voice,  whether  spoken  in  anger  or  otherwise  ;  and  can  even  distinguish  between  mu- 
sical notes.  There  was  a  work  horse  of  my  own.  which,  even  at  his  corn,  would  desist  eating 
and  listen  attentively,  with  pricked  and  moving  ears,  and  steady  eyes,  the  instant  he  heard  the 
note  of  losy  (j-  sounded,  and  would  continue  to  listen  as  long  as  it  was  sustained  ;  and  another, 
that  was  similarly  affected  by  a  particular  high  note.  The  recognition  of  the  sound  of  the  bugle 
by  a  trooper,  and  the  excitement  occasioned  in  the  hunter  when  the  pack  give  tongue,  are  familiar 
mstances  of  the  extraordinary  effects  of  particular  sounds  on  horses. 

(1395.)  When  alluding  to  the  names  of  horses,  I  may  mention  that  they  should  be  short  and 
emphatic,  not  exceeding  two  syllables  in  length,  for  longer  words  are  difficuU  of  pronunciation, 
and  mconvenient  to  utter  when  quick  or  sharp  action  is  required  of  the  horse  ;  and  a  long  name 
IS  ahnost  always  corrupted  into  a  short  one.    For  geldings,  Tom,  Brisk,  Jolly,  Tinker,  Dragon, 


562 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


Dobbin,  seem  verj-  pood  names  ;  for  maree,  Peg,  Rose,  Jeso.  Molly.  Beauty,  Mettle.  Fcem  as  go<  d 
and  as  to  the  name  ol"  stallions,  they  should  be   somewhat  high-soundinp,  as  indicative  of  greater 
importance  of  character,  as  Lofty,  Farmer,  Plowboy,  Matchem,  Diamond,  Blaze,  Kanison,  Cham- 
Fig.  295. 


THE  SECTION  OF  THE  POWER  CORV-BRUISER. 

pion,  are  names  which  hare  all  distingviished  first  rate  draught  horses. 

(1396.)  This  seems  a  befitting  place  to  say  a  few  words  on  the  farmer's  nding  and  h/irness 
horses.  Usually  a  young  lad,  or  groom,  ia  hired  to  take  charge  of  these,  to  go  errands  and  to  the 
post-office,  and  otherwise  make  himself  serviceable  in  the  house.  Sometimes  the  hedger  or  shep- 
herd acts  the  part  of  groom.  My  shepherd  acted  as  groom,  and  his  art  in  grooming  is  so  skillful 
that  many  friends  remarked  to  me  that  they  would  be  glad  to  see  their  professed  grooms  tuni  out 
a  saddle-horse  or  gij,'  in  so  good  a  style  as  he  did.  Besides  being  useful  in  carrying  the  farmer  to 
market,  or  other  short  distaaces,  a  roadster  is  required  to  carry  him  over  the  farm  when  it  is  of 
large  extent,  and  when  the  work-people  necessarily  receive  pretty  constant  attention  in  the  im- 
portant operations  of  seed-time  and  harvest.  The  harness-horse  is  useful  to  a  family  at  all  times, 
as  well  as  to  the  farmer  himself,  when  he  visits  his  friends ;  and  many  farmers  now  prefer  riding 
to  market  in  a  gig  or  drosky,  to  horseback ;  and  it  must  be  owned  to  be  the  pleasanter  mode  of 
the  two. 

(1397.)  I  have  said  that  the  agricultural  pupil  should  have  no  horse  of  his  own  at  first,  to  tempt 
him  to  leave  home  and  neglect  his  own  training.  But  to  know  how  a  riding-horse  ought  to  be 
kept  by  a  groom,  and  to  be  able  to  correct  him  when  he  neglects  his  duty  or  performs  it  in  an  nn- 
eatisfactory  manner,  I  would  advise  him  to  undertake  the  charge  of  one  himself  for  some  time  ; 
not  merely  to  superintend  its  keeping,  but  to  clean  it  himself,  to  water  and  corn  it  at  stated  times 
at  morning,  noon,  and  night,  and  to  keep  the  saddle  and  bridle  in  proper  order.  I  groomed  a  new- 
broke-in  blood  filly  for  four  months  one  winter,  and  cot  more  insight  into  its  form,  temper,  and 
manaeenient,  and  wants,  than  I  could  have  obtained  by  observation  alone  in  a  much  longer  time. 
On  coming  home  at  nia;ht  from  visiting  a  friend,  I  made  it  a  point  with  myself  to  make  my  charge 
comfortable  for  the  night  before  thinking  of  my  own  rest. 

(1398.)  A  saddle-horse  is  treated  somewhat  differently  in  the  stable  from  a  work  horse.  The 
first  thing  to  be  done  early  in  the  morning  is  to  shake  up  the  litter  nearest  the  strand  with  a  fork, 
removing  the  dung  and  soiled  straw  to  a  court-yard,  and  sweeping  the  floor  clean.  Then  give 
the  horse  a  drink  out  of  the  pail  \vhich  is  constantly  kept  full  of  water  in  tiie  stable.  The  usual 
practice  is  to  offer  the  water  immcdiatcty  before  giving  the  com  ;  but  I  conceive  it  more  condu- 
cive to  the  health  of  the  horse  to  slake  his  thirst  a  while  before  giving  him  corn,  the  water  by  that 
time  having  reached  its  destined  place,  and  acquired  the  temperature  of  the  body.  Should  the 
horse  have  to  undertake  a  longer  journey  than  walking  about  the  farm,  a  stinted  allowance  of  wa- 
ter before  starting  on  the  journey  is  requisite,  say  to  10  gluts ;  but  if  he  is  to  be  at  home,  then  he 
may  drink  as  much  as  he  pleases.  He  is  then  groomed  by  being,  in  the  first  place,  gently  gone 
over  the  whole  body  with  the  curry-comb,  to  loosen  the  mud  that  may  possibly  have  been  left  ad- 
hering upon  the  hair  from  the  former  night's  grooming,  and  also  to  raise  the  scurf  from  the  skia 
(1098) 


TREATMENT   OF  FARM-HORSES.  563 

The  whole  body  should  be  then  wisped  down  with  straw,  to  clear  off  all  the  dust  and  dirt  that 
the  carry-comb  may  have  raised  to  the  surface.  The  brush  follows,  to  clear  the  hair  of  its  dust  and 
ecurf,  the  cuiTycomb  being  used  to  clean  the  brush.  Of  wisping  and  brushing,  wisping  is  the 
more  beneficial  to  the  legs,  where  the  hair  is  short  and  the  tendons  and  bones  are  but  little  cover- 
ed, because  it  excites  in  them  warmth,  and  cleans  them  sufficiently.  Both  wisping  and  brushing 
should  be  begun  at  the  head  and  terminated  at  the  other  end  of  the  body,  along  the  lie  of  the  hair, 
whichsoever  way  that  may  be,  and  which,  notwithstanding  its  different  swirls,  all  tends  from  the 
upper  to  the  lower  part  of  the  body.  Many  a  groom  rests  content  with  the  brushing  just  men- 
tioned ;  but  it  does  not  entirely  remove  the  dust  raised  to  the  surface,  and  therefore  a  w  isping  is 
required  to  do  it.  The  wisp  for  this  purpose  is  best  made;  of  Russia  mat,  first  wetted,  and  then 
beaten  to  softness,  and  rolled  up  somewhat  firmly  into  the  form  of  a  wisp  sufficient  to  fill  the  hand. 
A  wisp  of  hair-cloth  makes  the  skin  clean,  but  in  dry  weather  it  is  apt  to  excite  such  a  degree  of 
electricity  in  the  hair  of  the  horse  as  to  cause  it  to  attract  much  dust  toward  it.  On  the  horse  be- 
ing turned  round  in  the  stall,  his  head,  neck,  counter,  and  fore-legs,  should  be  well  rubbed  down 
with  this  wisp,  and  this  done,  he  should  again  be  turned  to  his  former  position,  and  the  body, 
quarters,  and  hind-legs,  then  rubbed  down  ;  and  when  all  this  has  been  accomplished,  the  horse 
may  be  considered  clean.  All  this  grooming  implies  the  bestowal  of  much  more  labor  than  most 
farmers'  riding-horses  receive.  They  are  usually  scuffled  over  in  the  morning  with  the  curry- 
comb, and  then  skimmed  down  with  the  brash,  and  with  a  hasty  combing  of  the  mane  and  tail, 
the  job  is  considered  finished.  The  mane  and  tail  ought  to  be  carefully  combed  out,  and  wetted 
over  at  the  time  of  combing  with  a  half-dry  water-brush.  The  sheet  should  then  be  thrown  over 
the  horse,  and  fastened  (not  too  tightly)  with  the  roller.  On  putting  on  the  sheet,  it  should  be 
thrown  more  toward  the  head  of  the  horse  than  where  it  is  intended  to  remain,  and  thence  drawn 
gently  down  the  hair  with  both  hands,  to  its  proper  position,  while  standing  behind  the  horse. 
The  litter  is  then  neatly  shaken  up  with  a  fork,  taking  care  to  raise  the  stra^v  so  far  up  the  travis 
on  each  side  as  to  form  a  cushion  for  the  side  of  the  horse  to  rest  against  when  he  lies  down.  The 
feed  of  corn  is  then  given  him,  and  a  little  hay  thrown  into  the  rack  ;  and  on  the  stable-door  be- 
ing shut,  he  is  permitted  to  enjoy  his  meal  in  peace.  At  mid-day,  he  should  have  another  drink 
of  water  from  the  pail,  the  dung  removed,  the  litter  shaken  up.  and  another  portion  of  oats  given 
him.  At  8  o'clock  at  night,  the  sheet  should  again  be  taken  off,  the  currj'-comb  and  brush  used, 
and  the  entire  dressing  finished  again  with  a  wisping  of  the  Rus.sia  mat.  The  sheet  is  thrown 
over  him  as  in  the  morning,  the  litter  shaken  up  and  augmented,  water  given,  and  the  supper  of 
oats,  or  a  mash,  finishes  the  day's  treatment  of  the  saddle-horse.* 

(L399.)  The  treatment  just  described  is  most  strictly  applicable  to  the  horse  remaining  all  day 
in  the  stable ;  but  when  he  is  ridden  out,  a  somewhat  different  procedure  is  required.  When  he 
comes  home  from  a  long  and  dirty  ride,  the  first  thing  is  to  get  clear  of  the  mud  on  the  belly  and 
legs.  A  very  common  practice  is  to  wade  the  horse  through  the  pond,  as  the  farm-horses  are,  but 
Buch  should  not  be  the  course  pursued  with  a  saddle-horse,  because  wading  through  a  pond  cannot 
thoroughly  clear  his  legs  of  mud  to  the  skin,  he  being  clean-shanked  and  smooth-haired,  and 
there  still  remains  the  belly  to  be  cleaned  by  other  means  than  wading.  The  plan  is,  being  that 
adapted  for  winter,  to  bring  the  horse  into  the  stable  upon  the  pavement,  and,  on  taking  off  the 
saddle  and  bridle  and  putting  on  a  halter,  scrape  all  the  mud  as  clean  off  the  belly  and  legs  as  can 
be  done  with  a  knife — a  blunt  table-knife  answers  the  purpose  well.  Then,  with  a  pailfull  of 
lukewarm  water,  wash  down  the  legx,  outside  and  inside,  with  a  water-brush,  and  then  each  foot 
separately,  picking  out  the  mud  with  the  foot  picker  ;  then  wash  the  mud  clean  from  the  belly. 
A  scrape  with  the  back  of  the  knife,  after  the  washing,  will  bring  out  all  the  superfluous  water 
from  among  the  hair.  On  going  into  the  stall  the  horse  should  be  wisped  firmly  with  straw,  rub- 
bing the  belly  first,  and  then  both  sides  of  each  leg  until  they  are  all  thoroughly  dry.  It  is  scarce- 
ly possible  to  get  the  belly  dry  at  once  ;  it  should,  therefore,  get  another  good  wisping  with  dry 
clean  straw  after  the  legs  are  dry.  On  combing  out  the  mane  and  tail,  putting  on  the  sheet,  and 
bedding  plentifully  with  dry  straw,  the  horse  will  be  out  of  danger,  and  feel  pretty  comfortable 
even  for  the  night;  but  should  be  have  arrived  some  time  before  the  evening  time  for  Rooming, 


*  In  giving  these  details,  and  all  which  follow,  we  are  aware  that  many  of  them  are  too  minute, 
and  otherwise  ill  adapted  to  American  life  and  management  generally  ;  but  then  the  reader  must 
reflect  that  there  are  also  many  patrons  of  The  Farmers'  Library  who  are  wealthy  men,  living  in 
cities,  who  keep  their  carriage  horses  and  pet  nags  for  the  saddle,  with  their  superfluous  grooms 
and  all  necessary  appliances,  to  follow  out  all  these  directions.  And  besides,  a  sensible  man  nev- 
er objects  to  knowing  how  any  department  of  industry  or  of  pleasure  is  managed  in  the  coun- 
try, where  such  departments  have  been  carried  on,  as  those  have  in  England,  to  the  highest  pitch 
of  perfection  and  refinement.  And  here  we  may  relate  an  anecdote  of  a  shrewd  Massachusetts 
man  of  the  world,  who  was  some  years  since  on  a  tour  in  England,  and  on  a  visit  to  the  Duke  of 
Buccleuch.  After  showing  him  many  displays  of  the  splendor  and  luxury  of  aristocratic  living. 
His  Grace  took  him  to  his  stables,  where  genius  and  wealth  had  combined,  to  see  how  much  mon- 
ey could  be  expended,  and  how  much  elegance  displayed,  on  such  an  object.  Our  Yankee  friend 
perhaps  supposing  he  was  expected  to  be  confounded  and  overcome  with  astonishment  at  all  he 
saw,  instead  of  lifting  up  his  eyes  and  exclaiming  as  did  the  aueen  of  Sheba  when  she  visited 
Solomon  in  all  his  glory,  went  peering  under  and  about  the  troughs  and  stalls ;  and,  on  being  ask. 
ed  by  the  Duke  if  there  was  anything  deficient  in  his  stable  appointment ;  answered  "  There  is 
but  one  thing,  your  Grace,  that  is  wanting  to  their  completeness.  I  was  looking  for  a  silver  pot 
de  chambre,  for  each  of  your  Grace's  hunters."  \Ed.  Farm.  Lib. 

(1099)  ^ 


564 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


the  curry-comb  and  wisp  then  applied  will  remove  any  moisture  or  dust  that  may  have  been  over 
.coked  before. 

(1400.)  Considerable  apprehension  is  felt  in  regard  to  wetting  the  abdomen  of  horses,  and  espe- 
cially at  night,  and  the  apprehension  is  not  ill  founded,  for  if  the  wet  is  allowed  to  remain,  even 
to  a 'small  degree,  quick  evaporation  ensues  from  the  excited  state  of  the  body  consequent  on  ex- 
ercise, and  rapidly  reduces  the  temperature  of  the  skin.  The  consequence  of  this  coldness  is  ir- 
ritation of  the  skin,  and  likely  grease  on  the  legs,  and  this  is  the  danger  of  wetting  the  bellies  of 
farm-horses,  and  of  any  sort  of  horse,  with  cold  water :  for  it-firm  water  cleans  the  hair  and  makes 
it  dry  sooner,  even  that  on  the  abdomen,  which  is  generally  much  longer  than  that  of  the  legs; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  unless  as  much  labor  is  bestowed  as  will  dry  the  skin,  and  which  is  usual- 
ly more  than  can  be  expected  to  be  given  by  ordinary  country  grooms,  it  is  safer  for  the  horse 
to  remain  in  a  somewhat  dirty  state,  than  to  run  the  risk  of  any  inflammation  by  neglected  wet 
limbs  and  abdomen.  At  the  same  lime,  if  the  requi-site  labor  shall  be  bestowed  to  render  the  ekin 
completely  drj-,  there  is  even  less  risk  in  wetting  the  belly  than  the  legs,  inasmuch  as  the  legs,  in 
proportion  to  "their  magnitude,  expo.se  a  much  larger  surface  for  evaporation,  and  are  not  eo 
near  the  source  of  animal  heat  as  the  body. 

(1401.)  Saddle-horses  receive  oats  in  proportion  to  the  work  they  have  to  perform,  but  the 
least  quantity  that  is  supposed  will  keep  tliem  in  such  condition  as  to  enable  them  to  do  a  good 
day's  work  at  any  time,  is  three  halffeeds  a  day,  one  in  the  morning,  another  at  mid-day,  and  the 
third  at  night  When  subjected  to  daili/  exercise,  riding-horses  require  3  feeds  a-day,  and  an  ex- 
tra allowance  for  extra  work,  such  as  a  long  journey.  A  mash  once  a-week,  even  when  on  work 
daily,  is  requisite  ;  but  when  comparatively  idle,  a  part  of  the  mash,  whenever  prepared  for  the 
workhorses,  may  be  administered  with  much  advantage.  I  am  no  advocate  of  a  bran-mash  to  a 
horse  in  good  health,  as  it  serves  only  to  loosen  the  bowels  without  bestowing  any  nourishment. 
Boiled  barley  is  far  better.  A  riding-horse  should  have  hay,  and  not  straw,  in  winter ;  and  he 
will  eat  from  J  to  J  of  a  stone  of  22  lbs.  every  day. 

(1402.)  On  cleaning  harness  there  should  be  two  pairs  of  girths  in  use  with  the  saddle,  when 
the  horse  has  much  work  to  do,  to  allow  each  pair  to  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  dried  before  be- 
ing again  used.  The  best  way  to  clean  girths  is  first  to  scrape  off  the  mud  with  a  knife,  and 
then  to  wash  them  in  cold  water,  and  hang  them  up  so  as  to  dry  quickly.  Warm  water 
makes  them  shrink  rapidly,  and  so  does  long  exposure  to  wet.  If  there  is  time,  they  should  be 
washed  in  the  same  day  they  have  been  dirtied  ;  but  if  not,  on  being  scraped  at  night,  they  should 
be  washed  in  the  following  morning,  and  hung  up  in  the  air  to  dry,  and  if  the  air  is  damp,  let  them 
be  hung  before  the  kitchen  fire.  Girths  allowed  to  dry  with  the  mud  on  soon  become  rotten  and 
unsafe.  The  stirrup  leathers  should  be  taken  off  and  sponged  clean  of  the  mud,  and  dried  with  a 
cloth.  The  stirrup-irons  and  bit  should  be  first  washed  m  water,  and  then  rubbed  dry  with  a 
cloth  immediately  after  being  used.  Fine  sand  and  water,  on  a  thick  woolen  rag,  clean  these 
irons  well,  and  a  dry  rub  afterward  with  a  cloth  makes  them  bright.  Some  smear  them  with  oil 
on  setting  them  past  to  prevent  rust,  but  oil,  on  evaporation,  leaves  a  resinous  residuum  to  which 
dust  readily  adheres,  and  is  not  easily  taken  oft"  afterward.  The  curb-chain  is  best  cleaned  by  wash- 
ing in  clean  water,  and  then  rubbed  dry  and  bright  by  friction  between  the  palms  of  both  hands. 
The  saddle-flaps  should  be  sponged  clean  of  mud,  and  the  seat  sponged  with  a  wrung  sponge,  and 
rubbed  dry  with  a  clcth.  Carriage-harness  should  be  sponged  clean  of  mud,  kept  soft  and  pliable 
with  fine  oil,  and,  when  not  japanned,  blackened  with  the  best  shoe  black.  There  should  be  no 
plating  or  brass  on  a  farmer's  harness ;  plain  iron  japanned,  or  iron  covered  with  leather,  forming 
the  neatest,  most  easily  kept,  and  sei-viceable  mounting.  Bright  metallic  mountings  of  every  kind 
soon  assume  the  garb  of  the  .shabby  genteel  in  the  hands  of  an  ordinary  rustic  groom. 

(1403.)  In  regard  to  the  diseases  of  the  horse,  if  we  were  to  regard  in  a  serious  light  the  list 
of  frightful  maladies  incident  to  that  animal,  which  every  work  on  veterint^ry  science  contains,  we 
would  never  purchase  a  horse  ;  but  fortunately  for  the  farmer,  his  horses  are  exempt  from  a  large 
proportion  of  those  maladies,  as  almost  every  one  relating  to  the  foot,  and  their  consequences,  are 
unknown  to  them.  Nevertheless,  many  serious  and  fatal  disorders  do  overtake  farm  horses  in  their 
usual  work,  with  the  symptoms  of  which  you  should  be  so  far  acquainted  as  to  recognize  the  na- 
ture of  the  di.sea.«e ;  and  a.s  you  should  be  able  to  perform  some  of  the  simpler  operations  to  assist 
the  animal  in  serious  cases  until  the  arrival  of  the  veterinary  surgeon,  a  short  account  of  these 
operations  may  prove  useful.  One  or  more  of  them,  when  timely  exercised,  may  have  the  eflect 
ofsooi,  removing  the  symptoms  of  less  serious  complaints.  They  consist  of  bleeding,  giving 
physic  and  drenches,  applying  fomentations,  poultices,  injections,  and  the  like. 

(1404.)  Bleeding. — "  In  the  horse  and  cattle,  sheep  and  dog,  bleeding,  from  its  greater  facility 
and  rapidity."  says  Professor  Dick,  "is  best  performed  in  the  jugular  or  neck-vein,  tliough  it  may 
also  be  satisfactorily  performed  in  the  plate  and  saphena  veins,  the  former  coming  from  the  inside 
of  the  arm,  and  running  up  directly  in  front  of  it  to  the  jugular  ;  the  latter,  or  thigh-vein,  running 
across  the  inside  of  that  limb.  Either  the  fleam  or  lancet  may  be  used.  When  blood  is  to  be 
drawn,  the  animal  is  blindfolded  on  the  side  to  be  operated  upon,  and  the  head  held  to  the  other 
Bide;  the  hair  is  smoothed  along  the  course  of  the  vein  by  the  moistened  finger,  the  point  selected 
being  about  2  inches  below  the  angle  of  the  jaw.  The  progress  of  the  blood  toward  the  heart  is 
to  be  obstructed,  and  the  vein  thus  made  sufficiently  permanent  and  tense.  A  largebladed  fleam 
and  a  good-sized  lancet  are  preferable,  as  the  benefit  of  the  operation  is  much  increased  by  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  blood  is  drawn.  From  8  to  10  pints  imperial  is  a  moderate  bleeding  for 
the  horse  and  ox,  regulated,  in  some  degree  by  the  size.  From  12  to  16  or  even  20  pints  is  a  large 
one  :  and  sometimes  in  skillful  hands,  it  is  expedient  to  bleed  till  fainting  is  induced,  and  the  ani- 
mal drops  down  under  the  operation.  The  vessel  in  which  the  blood  is  received  should  be  such 
that  the  quantity  can  be  readily  ascertained.  When  this  is  sufficient,  the  edges  of  the  wound  are 
to  be  brought  accurately  together,  and  kept  80  by  a  small  sharp  pin  being  passed  through  them, 
and  retained  by  a  little  tow.  It  is  of  importance,  in  closing  the  wound,  to  see  it  quite  close,  and 
that  no  hairs  or  other  foreign  bodies  interpose.  For  a  time  the  head  should  be  tied  up,  and  cara 
taken  that  the  horse  Joes  not  injure  the  part." 
(IIOOJ 


TREATMENT  OF  FARM-HORSES.  565 

(1405.)  The  dangers  arising  from  carelessness  in  blood-letting  are  not  numerous;  and  "the  first 
of  whicn,  though  it  may  alarm  the  inexperienced,  is  very  trifling.  It  is  a  globular  swelling, 
thrombus,  sometimes  as  large  as  the  fist,  arising  immediately  around  the  new-made  incision.  The 
filtrating  of  the  blood  from  the  vein  into  the  cellular  membrane,  which  is  the  cause  of  the  disease, 
is  rarely  very  copious.  Gentle  pressure  may  be  used  at  first,  and  should  be  maintained  with  a 
well-applied  sponge  and  bandage,  kept  cool  with  cold  lotion.  Occasionally  there  is  injlommalion 
of'  the  Jugular  from  bleeding.  .  .  .  The  cause  is  usually  referred  to  the  use  of  a  foul  fleam,  or 
from  allowing  hairs  to  interfere  with  the  accurate  adjustment  of  the  edges  of  the  wound.  The 
first  appearance  indicative  of  the  disease  is  a  separation  of  the  cut  edges  of  the  integuments,  which 
become  red  and  somewhat  inverted.  Suppuration  soon  follows,  and  the  surrounding  skin  appears 
tumefied,  tight  and  hard,  and  the  vein  itself,  above  the  orifice,  feels  like  a  hard  cord.  After  this 
the  swelling  of  the  neck  increases,  accompanied  with  extreme  tenderness,  and  now  there  is  con- 
stitutional irritation,  with  tendency  to  inflammatory  fever.  .  .  .  In  the  first  stage  we  must  try 
to  relieve  by  evaporating  lotions  or  by  fomentation.  If  these  fail,  and  as  soon  as  the  disea.se  be- 
gins to  spread  in  the  vein,  the  appropriate  remedy  is  to  touch  the  spot  with  the  actual  cautery, 
simply  to  sear  the  lips  of  the  wound,  and  apply  a  blister  over  it,  which  may  be  repeated.  Purga- 
tives in  full  doses  must  be  administered,  and  the  neck,  as  much  as  possible,  kept  steady  and 
upright." 

(1406.)  Blistering: — "Blistering  plasters  are  never  applied  to  horses.  Anointment  is  always 
used,  of  which  rather  more  than  half  is  well  rubbed  into  the  part  to  be  blistered,  while  the 
remainder  is  thinly  and  equally  spread  over  the  part  that  has  been  rubbed.  When  there  is  any 
danger  of  the  ointment  running  and  acting  upon  places  that  should  not  be  blistered,  they  must  be 
covered  with  a  stitF  ointment  made  of  hog's  lard  and  beeswax,  or  kept  wet  with  a  little  water. 
.  .  .  The  horse's  head  must  be  secured  in  such  a  way  that  he  cannot  reach  the  blister  with  his 
teeth.  .  .  .  When  the  blister  has  become  quite  dry  the  head  may  be  freed.  Sometimes  it 
remains  itchy  and  the  horse  rubs  it;  in  that  case  he  must  be  tied  up  again.  .  .  .  When  the 
blister  is  quite  dry  put  some  sweet-oil  on  it,  and  repeat  it  every  second  day.  Give  time  and  no 
work,  otherwise  the  horse  may  be  blemished  by  the  process." 

(1407.)  Physicing. — "  Physicing,  which,  in  stable  language,  is  the  term  used  for  purging,  is  em- 
ployed for  improving  the  condition  when  in  indifferent  health,  and  as  a  remedy  for  disease.  The 
medicines  chiefly  used  are — for  horses,  Barbadoes  aloes,  dose  from  3  to  9  drachms;  croton  bean, 
from  1  scruple  to  ^  drachm,  or  cake,  from  ^  drachm  to  1  drachm,  to  which  may  occasionally  be 
added  calomel,  from  1  to  1^  drachms.  For  cattle,  aloes  in  doses  somewhat  larger  than  for  the 
horse;  Epsom  salts,  or  common  salt,  dose  from  1  lb.  to  1^  lbs.,  with  some  stimulus,  as  ginger, 
anise  or  carraway-seed  ;  also  linseed-oil,  dose  1  lb.,  and  croton-oil,  15  to  20  drops,  or  the  bean  or 
cake,  the  same  as  in  the  horse.  For  dogs,  jalap,  dose  1  drachm,  combined  with  2  grains  of  calo- 
mel ;  croton  oil,  dose  2  drops  ;  bean,  5  grains  ;  and  syrup  of  buckthorn,  dose  1  oz.  These,  it  will 
be  observed,  are  average  doses  for  full-grown  animals ;  in  the  young  and  small  they  may  be  less, 
in  the  large  they  may  require  to  be  greater;  but  much  injury  has  often  been  done  by  too  large 
doses  too  frequently  repeated.  To  the  horse  physic  is  usually  administered  in  the  form  of  a  bolus 
or  ball ;  to  cattle  by  drinking  or  drenching,  though  for  both  either  way  may  be  employed.  A 
ball  is  conveniently  made  of  linseed-meal,  molasses  and  the  active  ingredient,  whether  purgative, 
diuretic  or  cordial ;  it  should  be  softish,  and  about  the  size  of  a  pullet's  egg.  In  administering  it 
the  operator  stands  before  the  horse,  which  is  unbound  and  turned  with  its  head  out  of  the  stall, 
with  a  halter  on  it.  An  assistant  stands  on  the  left  side  to  steady  the  horse's  head  and  keep  it 
from  rising  too  high  ;  sometimes  he  holds  the  mouth,  and  grooms  generally  need  such  aid.  "The 
operator  seizes  the  horse's  tongue  in  his  left  hand,  draws  it  a  little  out  and  to  one  side,  and  places 
his  little  finger  fast  upon  the  under  jaw  ;  with  his  right  hand  he  carries  the  ball  smartly  along  the 
roof  of  the  mouth,  and  leaves  it  at  the  root  of  the  tongue  ;  the  mouth  is  closed  and  the  head  is 
held  till  the  ball  is  seen  descending  the  gullet  on  the  left  side.  When  loth  to  swallow,  a  little 
water  may  be  oft'ered,  and  it  will  carry  the  ball  before  it.  A  hot,  troublesome  horse  should  be  .sent 
at  once  to  a  veterinary  surgeon.  Instruments  should,  if  possible,  be  avoided,  and  adding  croton 
farina  to  the  mash  often  answers  the  purpose."  Drenches  should  be  given  with  caution  to  either 
horse  or  ox;  "  that  no  unnecessary  force  be  used,  that  they  be  never  given  by  the  nostrils,  and 
especially  that,  if  the  slightest  irritation  is  occasioned  in  the  windpipe,  the  animal  shall  immedi- 
ately be  set  at  liberty,  that,  by  coughing,  he  may  free  himself  of  the  offending  matter."  "  The 
horse  must  undergo  preparation  for  ■physic,  which  is  done  by  gently  relaxing  the  bowels. 
During  the  day  his  food  should  be  restncted  to  bran-mashes,  a  \  peck  being  sufficient  for  a  feed, 
and  this,  with  his  drink,  should  be  given  warm  ;  corn  should  be  withheld  and  hajf  restricted.  He 
may  have  walking  and  trotting  exercise  morning  and  evening.  The  physic  is  given  on  an  empty 
stomach  early  in  the  morning  ;  immediately  after,  a  bran-mash  is  given ;  that  over,  the  horse  goes 
to  exercise  for  perhaps  an  hour,  and  is  watered  when  he  returns.  The  water  should  be  as  warm 
as  he  will  take  it ;  and  he  should  have  as  much  as  he  pleases  throughout  the  day  ;  bran  mash 
should  be  given  as  often  as  corn  usually  is,  and  better  warm  than  cold  ;  if  both  are  refused  bran 
may  be  tried,  but  no  corn,  and  but  little  hay.  Sometimes  gentle  exercise  may  be  given  in  the 
afternoon,  and  also  next  day.  The  physic  usually  begins  to  operate  next  morning,  though  it 
rarely  takes  effect  in  12  hours,  frequently  not  for  30.  When  the  ph3'sic  begins  to  operate,  the 
horse  should  stand  in  the  stable  till  it  sets,  which  may  be  in  12  hours."*  The  stable  should  be 
well  littered  behind  the  stall  to  receive  the  discharge.  '•  Many  practitioners  and  horse-propri- 
etors," says  Mr.  Youatt,  "  have  a  great  objection  to  the  administration  of  medicines  in  the  form  of 
drinks.  .  .  .  There  are  some  medicines,  however,  which  must  be  given  in  the  form  of  drink, 
as  in  colic.  .  .  .  An  ox-horn,  the  larger  end  being  cut  slantingly,  is  the  usual  and  best  instru- 
ment for  administering  drinks.  The  noose  of  a  haltei  is  introduced  into  the  mouth,  and  then,  by 
means  of  a  stable-fork,  the  head  is  elevated  by  an  assistant  considerably  higher  than  for  the  deliv- 
ery of  a  ball.    The  surgeon  stands  on  a  pail  on  the  off-side  of  the  horse  and  draws  out  the  tongue 

*  Dick's  Manual  of  Veterinary  Science. 
(1101) 


666  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM — WINTER. 

with  the  left  hand.  He  tlicn  with  the  right  hand  introdaces  the  horn  gently  into  the  mouth  and 
over  the  longue,  and.  by  a  dexterous  tuni  of  the  horn,  empties  the  whole  of  the  lirink — not  more 
lliaii  iibout  t;  oz. — into  the  back  part  of  llie  ukjiuIi.  The  liorn  i»  now  quickly  wiilidraw  n  and  iJie 
tongue  loosened,  and  the  greater  portion  of  the  iiuid  will  be  swallowed.  A  portion  of  it,  how- 
ever, will  ofit-n  be  obstinately  held  in  the  mouth  for  a  long  tinie,  and  the  head  niusi  be  kept  up 
until  the  whole  is  got  rid  of,  whieh  a  (juick  but  violent  slap  on  the  muzzle  will  generally  compel 
the  liorsc  to  do.  The  art  of  giving  a  drink  consists  in  not  putting  too  much  in  tlie  bom  at  once, 
introducing  tlie  horn  far  enough  into  the  mouth,  and  quickly  turning  and  withdrawing  it  wiiliout 
bruising  or  wounding  the  mouth,  the  tongue  being  hxjsened  at  the  same  moment.  A  bottle  is  a 
disgraceful  instrument  to  use,  except  it  be  a  Hat  pint  bottle  with  a  long  and  thick  neck."*  The 
near-side  horn  has  the  most  handy  twisi  for  adminisiering  a  drink  wiili  the  right  hand. 

(1408.)  Fovicntalionx. — "  Cleiui  water  is  the  best  fomenlation.  It  should  be  as  hot  as  the  hand 
can  bear  it,  yet  not  hot  enough  to  pain  the  animal.  In  fomenting  the  horse  the  groom  ha«  rarely 
enough  water,  and  he  docs  not  continue  the  bathing  long  enougli  to  do  any  good.  If  the  leg  is 
to  be  fomented  get  a  pailfull  of  water  as  hot  as  the  band  can  bear  it ;  put  the  horse's  foot  into  jt, 
and,  with  a  large  sponge,  lave  the  water  well  above  the  affected  part,  and  keep  it  constantly 
running  down  the  whole  limb.  Foment  for  half  an  hour,  and  keep  the  water  hot  by  adding 
moi-e." 

(1409. J  Potiltices. — "  Poultices  should  be  formed  of  those  materials  which  best  maintain  heat 
and  moisture,  and  they  should  be  applied  as  warm  as  possible  and  can  be  safely  borne.  They 
are  usually  made  of  bran-mash,  turnips  or  oat-meal  porridge.  Linseed-meal  alone  makes  the 
best  of  poultices,  and  some  of  it  should  always  be  added  to  the  other  ingredients.  Wet  band- 
ages act  as  poultices." 

(1410.)  Lotions. — "Of  cW/Hir  lotions  cold  water  is  tlie  menstruum.  It  may  be  made  colder 
by  the  introduction  of  a  little  salt  or  ice.  Sal-ammoniac  and  vinegar  may  be  added  for  the  same 
purpose.  The  object  is  to  reduce  heat  and  promote  evaporation.  The  addition  of  a  little  spirits 
IS  made  with  the  same  object." 

(1411.)  7'Ae  Pidae. — "  Of  the  horse  the  natural  pulse  is  from  35  to  45  beats  in  the  minute  ;  un- 
der fever  it  rises  to  80,  90  and  100.  The  most  convenient  spot  to  examine  it  is  at  the  edge  of  the 
lower  jaw.  a  little  before  the  angle,  where  the  maxillary  comes  from  the  neck  to  be  distributed 
over  the  face.     The  pulse  is  one  of  the  most  important  indications  in  all  serious  disorders." 

(1412.)  Injections. — "  Injections,  though  easily  administered  bj-  means  of  the  old  ox-bladder 
and  pipe,  are  still  more  convenient!}-  given  with  the  syringe.  For  laxative  clysters  for  the  horse  or 
cow,  from  1  gallon  to  12  pints  imperial  of  warm  water  or  gruel,  at  the  temperature  of  96"^  Fahr., 
with  a  couple  of  haudfulls  of  salt  or  2  oz.  of  soft  soap,  prove  useful.  Stronger  ones  may  be  ob- 
tained by  adding  a  few  ounces  of  aloes  to  the  mixture.  In  cases  of  diarrhsa  or  over-purging, 
the  injection  should  consist  of  a  few  pints  of  warm  gruel,  to  which  is  added  1  oz.  of  cattcha 
electuary,  or  from  \  drachm  to  1  drachm  of  powdered  opium.  The  only  art  in  administering  a 
clyster — where,  however,  there  is  often  bungling,  and  even  injury  by  wounding  the  rectum — is 
to  avoid  frightening  the  animal,  anointing  the  pipe  well,  and  gently  insinuating  it  before  the  Jluid 
is  forced  tip." 

(1413.)  "In  general,  bran-mashes,  carrots,  green  meat  and  hay  form  the  sick  horse's  diet, 
gruel  and  tepid  water  his  drink. "t  Of  the  diseases  themselves,  I  shall  only  notice  those  at  pres- 
ent which  usually  aflect/or7« -horses  in  winter. 

(1414.)  Horse-Louse  (  Trichodcclcs  cqni). — The  horse  is  infested  by  a  louse  as  well  as  the  ox, 
and  which  is  represented  in  fig.  296.  Color  of  the  head  and  thorax  bright 
chesnut,  the  former  very  large  and  somewhat  square,  the  surface  with  a  lon- 
gitudinal black  line  toward  each  side,  forming  an  angle  near  the  middle  ;  an- 
tenna; with  the  third  joint  longest;  abdomen  j)ale,  tawny  yellow,  witli  fine 
pubescence,  the  first  eight  .segments  having  a  dusky  transverse  band  on  the  up- 
per half,  the  lateral  maiginsal-^o  with  a  dusky  band  ;  legs  pale  chesnut ;  length 
1  line.  Common  in  tlie  tail-head  and  neck  of  the  horse,  especially  when 
fresh  from  pasture  in  autumn.  Found  also  on  the  ass.  A  little  oil  will  de- 
stroy this  animal  when  first  e.stablished  ;  but  if  allowed  to  remain  on  for 
some  time,  mercurial  ointment  will  be  necessarj-,  but  in  small  quantities  at  a 
time.  The  ass,  however,  has  a  lou.se  peculiar  to  itself,  the  Himnlopinus 
asini ;  of  a  rusty  red  ;  abdomen  whitish,  tinged  with  yellow,  with  a  row  of 
dark  horny  excrescences  on  each  side  ;  head  long,  with  a  deep  sinuosity  be- 
hind the  antenna  ;  length  1  to  1 J  lines.  It  frequents  the  mane  and  neck, 
and  is  common  4 

(1415.)  Bails. —  One  of  the  most  common  complaints  among  farm-horsea  is 
the  flatulent  colic,  gripes  or  batts.     It  arises  from  indigestion,  which  again  is 
occasioned  by  various  causes,  sudi  as  hard  work  immediately  after  feeding, 
drinking  water  largely  after  a  feed  of  corn,  bad  stale  of  the  food,  fast  eating,        ^  horse-LOUSE, 
and,  in  coiiseciuence,  a  paucity  of  saliva,  an  overloaded   stomach,  a  sudden      TRICHODECTES 
change  of  food  from  soft  to  hard  and  dry,  and  more  likely  to  occur  altercating  EQUI. 

turnijis,  potatoes,  carrots  and  gras.s,  than  hay  and  oats,  and  after  peas  than  barley.  The  indigestion 
arist's  in  two  forms  ;  the  food  either  undergoing  no  change,  or  running  rapidly  to  fermentation.  In 
the  former  case  acute  foul  founder  is  apt  to  arise,  and  its  treatment  is  purgatives,  drenches  and  in- 
jections. In  the  latter  case  the  symjitoms  are  most  alarming.  The  horse  falls  down,  rolls  over, 
starts  up,  paws  the  ground  witli  bis  forefoot,  strikes  his  belly  with  the  liind  foot,  perspiration 
runs  down  and  agony  appears  extreme.  Relief  may  be  obtained  from  this  dose  :  Linseed-oil 
raw,  1  lb. ;  oil  of  turpentine  from  2  to  3  oz. ;  laudanum  from  1  to  2  oz.,  or  hartshorn  from  I  oz.  to 
1  oz.    The  following  tincture  may  be  kept  in  readiness :   In  2  lbs.  of  whisky,  digest  for  8  days,  3 

*  YouBtt  on  the  Horse,  edition  of  1842.  t  Dick's  Manual  of  Veterinary  Science, 

X  Denny's  Munograpbia  Anoplururum  BritanDis. 
(U02) 


TREATMENT   OF  FARM-HORSES.  567 

or.  of  ginger,  3  oz.  of  cloves,  and  then  add  4  oz.  of  sweet  spirits  of  nitre.  Half  a  pint  imperial 
of  this  tincture  is  a  dose  in  a  quart  of  warm  water.  The  abdomen  should  be  rubbed,  the  horse 
walked  slowly  about  and  supplied  with  a  good  bed,  and  with  room  to  roll  about.  If  there  is  no 
relief  in  half  an  hoar  a  second  dose  may  be  g^iven,  and  ere  long,  if  still  required,  a  third.  Farm- 
horses  that  have  keen  appetites  and  devour  their  food  greedily,  and  when  they  have  been  long 
in  the  j-oke,  are  most  apt  to  take  this  disease. 

(1416.)  Infiammaiioii  of  the  Barrels. — The  sj-mptoms  of  the  hatts  are  very  similar,  at  first,  te 
those  of  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  and,  if  mistaken,  serious  mistakes  may  arise,  as  the  treat- 
ment of  the  two  complaints  is  very  different.  The  symptoms  may  be  distinguished  thus  :  la 
batts,  tlie  pulse  remains  nearly  unaltered,  whereas  in  inflammation  it  is  quickened ;  all  the 
extremities,  the  ears  and  feet,  feel  cold  in  batts,  hot  in  inflammation.  Whenever  inflammation 
is  apprehended,  blood  may  be  taken  ;  in  batts  this  is  not  necessary  ;  but  under  such  an  appre- 
hension, the  assistance  of  the  veterinarj'  surgeon  should  be  obtained  as  .speedilj'  as  possible.  I 
have  cured  many  Iwrses  of  the  hatts  by  administering  stimulating  drinks  with  a  handy  cow'a 
horn.  I  remember  of  one  liorse  being  seized  with  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  on  its  arrival  home 
from  delivering  com  at  the  market-town  -,  and  though  the  usual  remedies  of  bleeding  and  blister- 
ing were  resorted  to,  they  proved  ineffectual,  no  doubt  from  being  disproportioned  to  the  exigen- 
cies of  the  case,  and  the  horse  sunk  in  five  days  in  excruciating  agonj'.  There  was  no  veterinary 
surgeon  in  the  district  at  that  time,  which  was  many  j-ears  ago.  No'w,  however,  thanks  to  the 
Veterinary  College  of  Edinburgh,  througli  tlie  really  practicallj'  useful  tuition  of  its  indefatigable 
Principal,  Professor  Dick,  there  is  not  a.  p>opulous  district  of  the  countrj'  in  which  a  skillful  veteri- 
narian is  not  settled.  To  the  surgeon,  therefore,  in  a  serious  case  such  as  this — and,  indeed,  in 
all  cases  of  extensive  inflammation,  and  especially  in  the  interior  of  the  body — recourse  should 
immediately  be  had.  I  say  immediately,  for  it  is  but  fair  to  give  the  surgeon  a  chance  of  treat- 
ing the  case  correctly  from  its  commencement,  and  not  to  impose  upon  him  the  task  of  amending 
your  previous  bungling.  Inflammation  of  the  lungs,  as  well  as  inflammation  of  the  kidneys,  both 
of  which  the  farm-horse  is  subject  to,  should  alwaj's  be  treated  by  the  veterinarian;  but  fortun- 
ately, these  formidable  maladies  may,  almost  with  certainty,  be  evaded  with  well-timed  working, 
discrimination  of  work  according  to  the  state  of  the  weather,  and  by  good  food,  supplied  with 
regularity  and  in  due  quantity. 

(1417.)  Common  colds  frequently  occur  among  farm-horses  at  the  commencement  of  winter, 
and  when  not  entirely  unheeded,  but  treated  with  due  care,  seldom  leave  serious  effects.  -'A  cold 
requires  nothing  more  but  confinement  in  a  moderately  warm  stable  for  a  few  days,  with  clothing, 
bran-mashes  instead  of  com,  and  a  little  laxative  and  diuretic  medicine."  The  evil  lies  not  so 
much  iu  the  complaint  itself  as  in  its  ordinary  treatment ;  it  is  seldom  thought  seriously  of  by 
farmers — "  it  is  only  a  cold,"  is  the  usual  remark — and,  in  consequence,  the  hor.se  goes  out  every 
day,  feels  fatigued,  gets  wet,  becomes  worse,  and  then  the  lungs  not  unfrequeutly  become  affect- 
ed, or  a  chronic  discharge  is  established  from  one  of  tlie  nostrils.  One  eea.sou  9  horses  out  of  12 
in  one  stable  were  affected,  one  after  another,  by  a  catarrhal  epidemic,  which  required  bleeding, 
poulticing,  or  blistering  under  tlie  jaw,  besides  tlie  medical  remedies  mentioned  above.  These 
I  was  obliged  to  take  charge  of  myself,  tliere  being  no  %'eterinarian  in  the  distinct,  and  all  fortun- 
ately recovered.  The  remaining  3  were  slightly  affected  afterward,  and  easily  brought  through  ; 
but  had  tlie  cases  been  unheeded  from  the  first,  very  serious  loss  might  have  been  incurred  by 
death. 

(1418.)  Grease. — "The  well-known  and  unsightly  disease  called  grease,"  says  Professor  Dick, 
"is  a  morbid  secretion  from  the  cutaneous  pores  ot  tlie  heels  and  neighboring  parts,  of  a  peculiar 
greasy,  offensive  matter,  attended  with  irritation  and  increased  vascular  action.  It  is  most  fre- 
quently seen  in  coach  and  cart-horses,  but  often  also  in  young  colts  which  are  badly  cared  for; 
and  it  is  most  common  in  the  hind-feet,  but  occurs  in  all.  Its  main  cause  seems  to"  be  sudden 
changes  in  the  condition  of  the  foot  from  dry  to  wet,  and  from  heat  to  cold,  greatly  augmented, 
of  course,  by  evaporation."  Hence  the  evil  effects  of  washing  the  legs  at  night,  without  thoroughly 
drying  them  afterward.  "The  first  appearance  of  grease,"  continues  the  Professor, '•  is  a  dry 
state  of  the  heels,  with  heat  and  itchiness.  Swelling  succeeds,  with  a  tendency  to  lameness ;  the 
discharge  augments  in  quantity,  the  hair  begins  to  fall  off.  ...  .  In  the  early  stage  the  parts 
should  be  washed  with  soap  and  water,  and  a  solution  of  sugar  of  lead  and  sulphate  of  zinc  ap- 
plied ;  this  may  not  be  chemically  scientific,  but  we  have  found   it  superior  to  anything  else. 

Even  in  old  and  aggravated  cases  it  is  very  efficacious If  the  horse  be  strong  and  full  of 

flesh,  laxatives  should  be  given,  followed  by  diuretics  ;  if  weak,  tonics  may  be  added  to  these 
last.  The  feeding,  too.  must  be  varied  with  the  condition :  green-meat  and"  carrots  should  be 
given,  and  mashes  frequently,  as  a  substitute  for  corn.  During  convalescence,  exercise  should 
be  given,  and  bandages  and  pressure  hasten  the  cure."  I  have  no  hesitation  in  saj'ing  that  it  is 
a  disgrace  for  any  steward,  and  in  the  want  of  such  a  functionary,  it  is  so  in  the  farmer  himself, 
to  allow  his  horses  to  become  greasj-.  There  is  a  complaint  called  a  shot  of  grease,  arising  from 
a  different  cause  from  the  common  grease.  "  In  the  horse,  pletliora,"  says  Professor  Dick,  "  cre- 
ates a  strong  disposition  to  inflammation  of  the  eyes,  feet  and  lungs,  and  sometimes  to  an  erup- 
tion which  is  called  surfeit,  or  the  nettle-raih.  The  hair  falls  off  in  patches,  and  the  skin  is  raw 
and  pimpled.  There  is  also  a  tendency  to  grease,  and  to  what  has  been  designated  a  weed  or 
i:hot  of  s^rease  in  the  heavy  draught-horse.  One  of  the  legs,  generally  a  hind  one,  suddenly  swells  , 
the  animal  becomes  lame ;  there  is  pain  in  tlie  inside  of  the  thigh — increa.sed  upon  pressure  ;  and 

fever  supervenes We  have  seen  it  occur  chiefly  during  continued  rest  after  hard  work 

and  exposure  to  weather,  in  animals  which  were  highly  fed.  The  best  treatment  is  large  blood- 
letting, scarifying  the  limb,  fomenting,  and  applying  hay,  straw,  or  flannel  bandages,  with  purga- 
tives and  diuretics.  The  pressure  of  a  bandage  will  expedite  tlie  reduction  of  the  part  to  its 
natural  dimensions." 

(1419.)  Stom.ach-staggers. — "The  most  prominent  symptoms  of  this  disease  are  the  horse's 
hanging  his  head,  or  resting  it  on  the  manger,  appearing  drowsy,  and  refusing  food  :  the  mouth 
and  eyes  being  tinged  with  a  yellowish  color ;  there  is  twitching  of  the  muscles  of  the  chest,  and 
(1103) 


568 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


die  forelegs  appear  suddenly  to  give  way,  though  the  horse  seldom  falls.  Inflammation  of  langi 
or  bowels,  or  lockjaw,  may  supervene.  Its  cause  is  long  fasting  and  overwork  ;  but  iJie  quality 
of  the  food  acts  as  a  cause.  Its  treatment  is  relieniiK  Uie  stuuiach  and  bowels  with  searching 
laxatives,  such  as  croton,  also  aloes  and  calomel,  with  ginger.  Clysters  should  also  be  given,  and 
afterward  cordials.  Ulood-letting  from  the  jugular  vein  will  be  attended  with  advantage.  Finally, 
steady  exercise  and  careful  feeding  will  prevent  a  recurrence  of  the  disorder.""  I  hml  a  year- 
old  draughtcolt  that  was  affected  with  this  disease.  He  was  a  foul-feeding  animal,  delighting  to 
cat  the  moistened  litter  from  the  stable  and  byre.  He  was  bled  and  physiced  by  a  veterinarian, 
who  had  established  himself  in  the  neighborhood,  and  the  front  of  his  head  blistered.  He  quite 
recovered,  and  having  been  removed  from  the  temptation  of  foul  feeding,  he  was  never  again 
similarly  attected.  The  practice  of  kee[iing  lu-i,'o(i(s  in  the  stables  of  inns,  and  of  those  persona 
who  have  extensive  studs,  is  8uppo.«ied,  by  llie  common  people,  to  act  as  a  charm  against  the  mad 
staggers  ;  but,  as  Marshall  judiciously  observes,  tlie  practice  may  be  explained  on  physiological 
principles.  •'  The  staggers  are  a  nervous  disorder,"  he  says,  "  and  as  odors,  in  many  cases,  op- 
orate  beneficially  on  llie  human  nerves,  so  may  the  strong  scent  of  tlie  goat  have  a  similar  effect 
on  those  of  the  horse.  The  subject,"  he  adds,  "is  worthy  of  inquiry."!  And  he  gives  a  striking 
instance  of  tlie  good  effects  of  the  practice. 

(  14i;o.)  Thrush  and  Corns. — I  have  said  that  the  feet  of  the  farm-horse  are  not  liable  to  so  many 
diseases  as  those  of  horses  subjected  to  high  speed  on  hard  roads.  Farni-hnrses,  however,  are 
liable  to  thrush  and  corns  in  the  feet.  The  former  is  situate  at  the  hind  part  of  the  cleft  of  the 
frog,  originating  principally  from  continued  application  of  moisture  and  dirt,  and  hence  it  may  be 
most  expected  to  be  seen  in  dirty  stables,  ot  which  there  are  not  a  few  in  the  country.  After  be- 
ing thoroughly  cleaned  out,  the  hollow  may  bo  filled  with  calomel,  which  generally  cures ;  or 
with  pledgets  of  tow  dipped  in  warm  tar,  or  spirit  of  tar,  applied  at  night,  and  retained  during  the 
day.  The  general  health  of  the  horse  should  be  attended  to.  Corns  are  usually  the  consequence 
of  the  irregular  pressure  of  the  shoe  on  peculiarly  formed  hoofs;  and  are  mere  bruises,  generally 
produced  by  the  heel  of  tlie  shoe,  and  which,  from  the  extravasated  blood,  assume  a  reddish  or 
dark  color.  They  usmally  occur  only  in  the  fore-feet  ;  and  their  site  is  almost  invariably  in  the  in- 
ner (juarter  between  the  bar  and  crust,  at  the  heel.  The  obvious  cure  is  removal  of  the  pressure 
of  the  shoe. 

(1421.)  Broken  wind. — Besides  natural  complaints,  farm-horses  are  liable,  in  the  execution  of 
their  work,  to  accidents  which  may  produce  serious  complaints.  Thus  overwork,  in  a  pe- 
culiar state  of  condition,  may  produce  broken  tvind,  which  is  the  common  phrase  given  to  all  dis- 
organized affections  of  the  lungs,  though  the  term  is  defined  by  veterinarians  to  be  "  the  rupture 
of  some  of  the  air-cells  of  the  lungs,  whereby  air-vesicles  are  produced  on  the  surface,  and  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  air  is  rendered  less  direct  and  easy.  It  is  usually  produced  by  animals  being  urged 
to  overexertion  when  in  bad  condition,  though  a  horse  may  oeconie  broken-winded  in  a  straw- 
yard."  There  are  many  degrees  of  broken  wind,  which  receive  appellations  according  to  the 
noise  emitted  by  the  horse  ;  and  on  this  account,  he  is  called  a  piper,  trumpeter,  whistler,  wheezer, 
roarer,  higbblower,  gruntcr,  and  with  thick  wind,  and  with  broken  wind.  I  had  two  uncom- 
monly good  horses  affected  in  the  wind  by  working  much  in  the  trocex  of  a  four-horse  plow,  which 
were  employed  to  rip  up  old  turf  dykes  intermixed  with  large  stones,  and  to  break  up  rough 
ground.  These  serious  effects  of  such  work  gave  me  the  hint  to  relinquish  it,  and  take  to  tlie 
spade,  wliii.'h  I  soon  found  did  the  work  much  better,  and  in  the  end  clie«per.  The  horses  got 
gradually  worse  under  the  disease,  and  at  length  being  unable  to  maintain  their  step  with  the 
rest,  were  disposed  of  as  broken-winded  horses. 

(142'.'.)  Sprains. — "  A  sprain,  or  strain,  is  violence  inflicted,  with  extension,  often  rupture  and 
displacement,  upon  the  soft  par's  of  a  joint,  including  cellular  menibane,  tendons,  ligaments,  and 
all  otlier  parts  forming  the  articulation.  The  dislocation  or  disruption  may  be  complete,  or  it  may 
be  a  mere  bruise  or  stress;  and  innumerable  are  the  shades  of  differences  between  these  ex- 
trenies.  Effusion  of  the  fluids  is  an  attendant  consequence.  Parts  of  vital  importance,  as  in  the 
neck  or  back,  may  be  implicated,  and  the  accident  be  immediately  fatal,  or  wholly  irremediable ; 
on  the  contrary,  they  may  be  to  that  extent  only,  that,  with  time  and  ease,  restoration  may  be  ac- 
complished. They  constitute  a  serious  cla-^s  of  cases.  The  marked  sj-mptoms  are,  pain  in  the  in 
jured  parts,  and  inability  of  motion,  sometimes  complete.  The  treatment  is  at  fir.st  rest,  a  regula- 
tion of  the  local  action  and  constitutional  disturbance,  according  to  circumstances,  by  venesection, 
general  and  local,  the  antiphlogistic  regimen,  fomentation,  bandages,  and  othersoothing  remedies; 
and  when  the  sprain  is  of  an  older  date,  counter-irritation,  friction,  and  gentle  exercise."  Farm- 
borses  are  not  unfrequently  subject  to  strains,  especially  in  doing  work  connected  wiili  building, 
draining,  and  other  heavy  work  ;  and  they  are  most  apt  to  occur  in  autumn,  when  geldings  are 
generally  in  a  weak  state.  For  rough  work  of  this  kind,  old  seasoned  horses  are  best  adapted, 
and  such  may  often  be  procured  for  little  money  at  sales  of  stock. 

(142;i.)  Sdddlcpitlh. — When  young  horses  are  first  put  to  work,  the  parts  covered  by  tlie  sad- 
dle and  collar  are  apt  to  become  tender,  healed,  an<l  then  inflamed,  and  if  the  inflammation  is  ne- 
glected, the  parts  may  break  out  into  sores.  Washing  witli  a  strong  solution  of  salt  in  water  wiili 
tincture  of  myrrh  is  a  good  lotion,  while  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  packing  of  both  saddle  and 
collar,  until  iney  assume  the  form  of  the  horse  intended  to  wear  tliem.  "  Tumors,  which  some- 
times result  from  the  pressure  of  the  saddle,  go  by  the  name  oi  warbles,  to  which  when  they  ul- 
cerate the  name  of  sitfas/s  is  applied,  from  the  callous  skin  which  adheres  to  the  center.  Goulard 
water  may  be  used  to  disncrse  the  swelling  ;  a  digestive  ointment  will  remove  tlie  silfost ;  and  the 
sore  should  be  healed  witli  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc." 

(1424.)  Crib-biting  and  trindsucking. — These  practices  are  said  to  increase  the  tendency  to  in- 
digestion and  colic,  and  to  lower  condition,  rendering  tlie  horses  which  practice  them  unsound. 
"  A  crib-biter  derives  his  name  from  seizing  the  manger,  or  some  other  fixture,  with  his  teeth, 
arching  his  neck,  and  sucking  in  a  quantity  of  air  with  a  peculiar  noise Wind-sucking 

*  Dick's  Manual  of  Veterinary  Science.  t  Marsball's  Rural  Economy  of  Gloucestershire,  toL  iL 

(1104) 


TREATMENT  OP  FARM-HORSES.  569 

consists  in  swallowing  air,  without  fixing  the  mouth.  The  horse  presses  his  lip  against  some  hard 
boilv,  arching  his  neck,  and  gathering  together  his  feet."  Both  vices  are  said  to  be  prevented  by 
fastening  a  strap  round  the  neck,  studded  with  one  or  more  sharp  points  or  prickles  opposite  the 
lower  jaw  ;  but  this  means  will  not  avail  in  all  cases,  for  I  had  a  year-old  colt,  which  first  began 
crib-biting  in  the  field,  by  seizing  the  gate  or  any  other  object  he  could  find.  Being  prevented 
using  the  gate  by  a  few  thorns,  he  pressed  his  mouth  against  any  object  that  would  resist  him, 
even  against  the  sides  or  rumps  of  his  companions,  and  he  then  began  to  be  a  wind-sucker.  A 
strap  of  the  above  form  was  put  on,  recommended  to  me  by  an  artillery  officer ;  but  though  it  re- 
mained upon  the  colt  for  more  than  a  twelvemonth,  night  and  day,  and  as  tight  as  even  to  affect 
his  appearance,  he  continued  to  crib-bite  or  wind-suck  in  spite  of  it,  even  to  the  laceration  of  his 
skin  by  the  iron  studs.  Growing  largely  to  the  bone,  though  very  thin,  he  was  taken  up  to  work 
at  the  early  age  of  two  years,  solely  with  the  view  of  seeing  if  the  yoke  would  drive  him  from  the 
practice,  but  it  had  no  such  effect.  Whenever  he  came  into  the  stable  he  set  to  with  earnestness 
to  bite  and  suck  with  the  strap  on,  until  he  would  become  puffed  up  as  if  to  bursting,  and  pre- 
ferred sucking  wind  to  eating  his  corn.  At  length  I  was  so  disgusted  with  the  brute  that  I  sold 
him  to  a  carrier,  to  draw  a  heavy  single  cart,  and  got  a  fair  price  for  him,  though  sold  as  a  crib- 
biter. 

(1425.)  Dust-hall. — Millers'  horses  are  most  liable  to  be  affected  with  this  disease.  It  is  com- 
posed of  corn  and  barley  dust,  saved  in  grinding  meal,  and  used  as  food,  and  occurs  sometimes  in 
the  stomach,  but  more  frequently  in  the  intestinal  canal.  "  In  an  advanced  stage  no  doubt  can 
remain  as  to  the  nature  of  the  disorder.  The  countenance  is  haggard,  the  eye  distressed,  the 
back  up,  the  belly  distended,  the  respiration  becomes  hurried,  bowels  habitually  costive,  and 
sometimes  the  horse  will  sit  like  a  dog  on  his  haunches.  Relief  may  frequently  be  afforded. 
Strong  purgatives  and  large  injections  must  be  given,  and  under  their  continued  action  the  of- 
fending body  is  sometimes  removed."  On  using  barley-dust  as  food  for  horses,  it  -would  be  ■well 
lo  mix  it  thoroughly  with  the  other  prepared  ingredients,  instead  of  using  it  in  the  dry  state." 

(1426.)  Worms. — Farm-horses  are  sometimes  affected  with  worms.  These  are  of  3  kinds: 
the  round  w^orm,  teres  ;  the  thread-worm,  ascaris  ;  and  the  tape-worm,  tcenia.  "  In  the  horse 
the  tenia  is  very  rare  ;  in  the  dog  exceedingly  common.  When  the  horse  is  underfed  his  bowels 
are  full  of  teres  and  ascaris  ;  and  the  appearance  of  his  staring  coat,  want  of  flesh  and  voracious 
appetite  betoken  it.  They  occasion  gripes  and  diarrhcca,  but  the  mischief  they  produce  is  not 
great.  The  principal  habitat  of  the  ascaris  is  the  ccecum,  although  they  are  sometimes  found  in 
countless  multitudes  in  the  colon  and  rectum.  Turpentine  is  a  deadly  poison  to  all  these  worms ; 
but  this  medicine,  so  harmless  in  man.  acts  more  disagreeably  in  the  lower  animals.  Hence  it 
must  not  be  given  to  them  pure  or  in  large  quantities,  but  mixed  in  small  proportion  with  other 
oils,  as  linsetd,  or  in  a  pill ;  and,  with  these  precautions,  it  may  be  found  at  once  safe  and  eflSca- 
cious." 

(1427.)  Nebula  or  Specks  in  the  Eye. — Farm-horses  are  not  subject  to  the  more  violent  dis- 
eases of  the  eye  ;  but,  being  liable  to  accidents,  the  effects  of  inflammation — nebulae  or  specks — 
do  sometimes  appear.  "  The  former  are  superficial,  the  latter  dip  more  deeply  into  the  substance 
of  the  part.  Directly  in  the  sphere  of  vision  these,  of  course,  impede  it,  and  cause  obscurity  of 
vision.  Even  here  we  must  proceed  gently.  These  blemishes  are  the  pure  consequences  of  in- 
flammation, and  this  subdued,  their  tendency  is  to  disappear.  Time  and  nature  will  do  much, 
and  the  duty  of  the  practitioner  consists  in  helping  forward  the  salutary  process  where  necessary, 
by  gently  stimulating  washes,  while  irritating  powders  should  be  avoided."*  With  these  sensi- 
ble remarks  of  Professor  Dick  I  shall  conclude  what  I  have  to  say  of  the  diseases  of  the  farm- 
horse  at  this  time. 

(1428.)  The  offals  of  the  horse  are  not  of  great  value.  His  hide  is  of  most  value  when  free  of 
blemishes.  It  tans  well  and  forms  a  good  leather,  which,  on  being  japanned,  is  chiefly  used  for 
covering  carriages.  I  was  informed  by  a  friend  who  settled  in  Buenos  Ayres  as  a  merchant,  that 
he  once  bought  a  lot  of  horses,  containing  no  fewer  than  20,000,  for  the  sake  of  their  hides  alone, 
and  that  some  of  them  would  have  fetched  good  prices  in  England.  They  were  all  captured 
with  the  lasso. 

(1429.)  Horse-hair  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  damask-cloth  for  sofas  and  chair-bottoms.  The 
dyeing  of  it  of  various  beautiful  colors  and  the  manufacture  of  the  damask  figures  have  been 
much  improved  of  late.  Horse-hair  is  also  used  for  making  fish-lines,  horse-tails  for  cavaliy  caps 
and  stuffing  for  matresses,  for  which  last  purpose  it  is  prepared  by  being  wound  up  hard  and 
baked  in  an  oven. 

(1430.)  "  Hair,  of  all  animal  products,  is  the  least  liable  to  spontaneous  change.  It  can  be  dis- 
solved in  water  only  at  a  temperature  somewhat  above  230°  Fahr.  in  Papin's  digester,  but  it  ap- 
pears to  be  partially  decomposed  by  this  heat,  since  some  sulphureted  hydrogen  is  disengaged 
By  dry  distillation  hair  gives  off  several  sulphureted  gases,  while  the  residuum  contains  sulphate 
of  lime,  common  salt,  much  silica,  and  some  oxides  of  iron  and  manganese.  It  is  a  remarkable 
fact  that  fair  hair  affords  magnesia  instead  of  these  latter  two  oxides.  Horse-hair  yields  about  12 
per  cent,  of  the  phosphate  of  lime.  Hair  also  yields  a  bituminous  oil,  ^vhich  is  black  when  the 
hair  is  black,  and  yellowish  when  the  hair  is  red."t 

(1431.)  •'  Button-moulds  are  made  of  the  bones  of  the  horse,  ox  and  sheep.  The  shavings,  saw 
dust  and  more  minute  fragments  in  making  these  moulds,  are  used  by  the  manufacturers  of  cut- 
lery and  iron  toys  in  the  operation  of  case-hardening,  so  that  not  the  smallest  waste  takes  place. "t 
The  bones  of  all  these  animals,  when  reduced  small,  make  the  valuable  manure — bone-dust — 
now  well  known  to  every  farmer. 

*  Dick's  Manual  of  Veterinary  Science.  t  Thomson's  Animal  Chemistry. 

J  Ure's  Dictionary  of  the  Arts,  arts.  Hair—BvUons. 


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END  OF  VOLUME  I.  OF  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

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THE 


BOOK  OF  THE  FARM : 


DETAILING    THE    LABORS   OF    THE 


FARMER,  STEWARD,  PLOWMAN,  HEDGER,  CATTLE-MAN, 
SHEPHERD,  FIELD-WORKER,  AND  DAIRYMAID. 


BY  HENRY  STEPHENS. 


WITH  FOUR  HUNDRED  AND  FIFTY  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


TO    WHICH    ARE    ADDED 

EXPLANATORY  NOTES,  REMARKS,  ETC. 
BY  JOHN  S.  SKINNER, 

EDITOR   OF   THE   FARMERS'    LIBRARY. 


VOLUME  XL 


NEW  YORK : 
C.  M.  SAXTON,  AGRICULTURAL  BOOK  PUBLISHER 

1851. 


THE 

BOOK  OF  THE  FARM 


1.    FATTENING,  DRIVING  AND  SLAUGHTERING  SWINE.* 

"  Where  oft  the  swine,  from  ambush  warm  and  dry, 
Bolt  out,  and  scamper  headlong  to  their  sty." 

Bloomfibld. 

(1432.)  That  the  youngest  pigs  may  receive  better  treatment,  the  court 
and  shed  at  h,  fig.  3,  Plate  III.,  the  same  as  in  the  plan  at  b,  in  fig.  4, 
Plate  IV.,  and  described  in  (68),  are  made  purposely  fiDr  them.  These 
pigs  consist,  probably,  of  the  last  litters  of  the  season  of  as  many  brood 
sows  as  are  kept.  Here  they  should  be  provided  daily  with  turnips  as 
their  staple  foocl,  of  the  sort  given  for  the  time  to  the  cattle,  and  sliced  as 
small  as  for  sheep  ;  and  they  should,  besides,  have  a  portion  of  the  warm 

[*  There  are  few  subjects  in  regard  to  which  we  are  in  less  need  of  being  enlightened  by  the 
experience  of  other  countries  tlian  in  the  breeding  and  management  of  swine.  If,  as  assuredly 
it  must  be  admitted,  we  are,  over  a  large  portion  of  the  country,  neglectful  both  as  to  improve- 
ment of  the  breed  and  treatment  of  them  in  all  stages  of  their  growth  and  existence,  it  is  not  that 
there  is  any  great  difficalty  in  understanding  both  the  one  and  the  other;  but  mismanagement  iu 
this,  as  in  too  many  other  cases,  results  from  sheer  listlessness  and  want  of  thought.  The  hog 
may  quickly  be  brought  to  the  shape  that  we  desire,  and  which  best  adapts  him  to  the  food  at 
command  and  the  uses  designed  by  the  farmer ;  and  common  sense  tells  every  one  that  as  the 
sole  purpose  of  rearing  him  is  for  meat,  he  should  be  kept  ahcays  in  thriving  condition  by  atten- 
tion to  the  necessary  warmth  and  safBciency  of  food,  so  that  he  may  be  kept  always  growing 
apace,  until  finally  to  be  fattened.  The  region  of  which  Indian  com  is  the  staple,  and  where  there 
is  most  of  it,  is  the  natural  habitat  of  the  hog  in  our  country ;  nor  could  he  be  reared  in  the  East- 
em  States  with  that  economy  which  our  countrymen  there  know  so  well  how  to  practice,  were 
it  not  for  the  essential  object  which  they  keep  constantly  in  view,  and  to  which  the  hog  is  there 
made  largely  subservient,  to-wit :  the  manufacture  of  manure. 

But  conversant  as  we  are  with  swine  husbandry,  there  may  yet  be  found  in  this  chapter  some 
interesting  remarks  on  the  preparation  and  value  of  different  kinds  of  food — a  subject  of  import- 
ance to  every  agriculturist  who  desires,  as  all  should  desire,  to  economize  labor  and  materials  in 
the  process  of  fattening.  Useful,  too,  should  be  the  lesson  it  teaches,  to  keep  for  fattening  hogs  a 
constant  supply  of  pure  clean  water,  and  to  study  cleanliness  tliroughout,  as  far  as  practicable,  in 
a  department  where  the  general  impression  and  practice  agree  that  dirt  without  stint  is  tolera- 
ble, if,  indeed,  it  be  not  medicinal  and  useful !  The  manner  of  fattening  hogs,  where  Indian 
corn  is  used  for  the  purpose,  as  in  the  South  and  "West,  is  to  '•  put  them  up"  in  large  open  pens 
on  the  ground,  without  litter  and  without  shelter.  Here  they  are  left  to  burrow  and  sleep  in  mud 
and  mire,  exposed  to  all  weathers,  consuming,  probably,  before  they  get  '-ripe  fat,"  one-third  if 
not  one-half  more  than  would  be  necessary  were  they  sheltered  in  a  warm  pen,  with  clean  litter 
and  with  clean  water  and  rich  food  in  abundance  at  pleasure,  free  alike  from  exposure  and  ex- 
citement. Experiment  has  abundantly  proved  the  truth  of  Johnson's  declaration,  that  "  the 
'  gi-eater  the  difference  between  the  temperature  of  the  body  and  that  of  the  atmosphere  in  which 
'  they  live,  the  more  food  they  require  to  'feed  the  lamp  of  life.'  "  All  this,  however,  is  philo- 
sophically and  plainly  described  in  our  Monthly  Journal  of  Agriculture.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.'' 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


mash  made  for  the  horses,  with  such  other  pickings  from  the  farm-house 
which  the  kitchen  affords.  They  should  also  be  provided  with  a  trough 
of  clean  water  and  plenty  of  litter  under  the  shed  every  day.  The  court- 
yard should  be  cleaned  out  every  day.  Pigs  are  accused  of  dirty  habits, 
but  the  fact  is  otherwise,  and  the  accusation  applies  more  ti-uly  to  their 
owners  who  keep  them  dirty,  than  to  the  natural  habits  of  the  animals 
themselves.  When  constrained  to  lie  among  dirt  and  eat  food  fit  only  for 
the  dunghill,  and  even  that  dealt  out  with  a  grudging  hand,  how  can  they 
exhibit  other  than  dirty  propensities  1  But  let  them  have  room,  choice  of 
clean  litter  and  plenty  of  food,  and  it  will  soon  be  observed  that  they 
keep  their  litter  clean,  place  their  droppings  in  one  corner  of  the  court 
and  preserve  their  bodies  free  from  dirt. 

(1433.)  The  sties  c,  figs.  3  and  4,  Plates  III.  and  IV.,  are  intended  for 
sows  about  to  litter.  Whenever  the  period  of  their  confinement  ap- 
proaches each  sow  should  be  put  into  one  of  these  and  supplied  with 
food  ;  but  the  treatment  of  sows  will  better  fall  to  be  described  in  spring. 
The  form  of  door  best  suited  for  securing  pigs  in  their  sties  may  be  seen 
in  fig.  23. 

(1434.)  By  direct  experiment,  which  will  be  found  related  below,  it  has 
been  ascertained  that  pigs  fatten  much  better  on  cooked  than  on  raw  food. 
This  being  the  case  it  is  only  waste  of  time  and  materials,  and  also  loss 
of  flesh,  to  attempt  to  fatten  pigs  on  raw  food  of  whatever  kind  ;  for  al- 
though some  sorts  of  food  fatten  better  than  others  in  the  same  state,  yet 
the  same  soit  when  cooked  fattens  much  faster  and  better  than  in  a 
raw  state.  The  question,  however,  simply  is,  what  is  the  best  sort  of 
food  to  cook  for  the  purpose  oi.  fattenivg  pigs  1  Roots  and  grains  of  all 
kinds,  when  cooked,  will  fatten  pigs.  Potatoes,  turnips,  carrots,  parsnips, 
as  roots  ;  and  barley,  oats,  peas,  beans,  rice,  Indian  corn,  as  grain,  will  all 
fatten  them  when  prepared.  Which,  then,  of  all  these  ingi-edients  should 
be  selected  as  the  most  nourishing  and,  at  the  same  time,  most  econom- 
ical? Carrots  and  parsnips,  among  roots,  are  not  easily  attainable  in 
this  country,  and  therefore  cannot  be  considered  as  economical  food ;  and 
as  to  the  other  two  sorts  of  roots,  when  cooked,  potatoes  doubtless  con- 
tain much  more  nourishment  than  turnips,  even  in  proportion  to  their 
price,  for  it  is  as  easy  to  obtain  10s.  for  a  ton  of  Swedish  tuniips  as  8s.  for 
a  boll  of  40  stones  of  potatoes  ;  and  yet  potatoes  contain  4  times  the  nu- 
tritive matter  of  Swedes,  and  6  times  of  common  turnips.*  Steamed  po- 
tatoes, then,  may  form  the  staple  ingredient  of  pig-feeding.  As  to  grains, 
I  have  never  heard  of  wheat  or  wheat-flour  being  given  to  pigs ;  it  would 
certainly  not  be  economical;  barley  or  oat-meal  being  usually  employed. 
Peas  and  beans,  whether  raw  or  cooked,  are  proverbially  excellent  food 
for  pigs.  And  as  to  rice  and  Indian  corn,  they  will  both  fatten  well,  if 
cooked.  Amid  all  these  ingredients  for  choice,  regarding  the  question  of 
economy  alone,  it  may  be  assumed  that  entire  feeding  on  grain,  of  what- 
ever kind,  would  be  too  expensive,  so  that,  as  steamed  potatoes  are  of 
themselves  nourishing  food,  a  proportion,  with  any  of  the  grains,  should 
form  a  moderately-priced  food  which  will  insure  fatness.  It  has  been 
ascertained  in  England  that  upon  2  pecks  of  steamed  potatoes  mixed  with 
0  lbs.  of  barley-meal  and  a  little  salt,  given  every  day  to  a  pig  weighing 
from  24  to  28  stones,  will  make  it  r\pe  fat  in  9  weeks.  Taking  this  pro- 
portion of  food  to  weight  of  flesh  as  a  basis  of  calculation,  and  assuming 
that  2  months  will  fatten  a  pig  sufliciently  well,  provided  it  has  all  along 
received  its  food  regularly  and  amply,  I  have  no  doubt  that  feeding  with 

*  The  Fanners'  Almanac  and  Calendar  for  1842, 
(6) 


FATTENING,  DRIVING  AND  SLAUGHTERING  SWINE.  7 

steamed  potatoes  and  barley-meal,  for  the  first  month,  and,  in  the  second, 
with  steamed  potatoes  and  peas-meal  (both  seasoned  with  a  little  salt),  and 
lukewarm  water,  with  a  little  oat-meal  stiiTed  in  it,  given  by  itself  twice  a 
day  as  a  drink,  will  make  any  pig,  from  15  to  30  stones,  ripe  fat  for  hams. 
The  food  should  be  given  at  stated  hours,  3  times  a  day,  namely :  in  the 
morning,  at  noon  and  at  nightfall.  One  boiling  of  potatoes  in  the  day,  at 
any  of  the  feeding-hours  that  is  found  most  convenient,  will  suffice ;  and 
at  the  other  hours  the  boiled  potatoes  should  be  heated  with  a  gniel  made 
of  bai'ley  or  peas-meal  and  boiling  water ;  the  mess  being  allowed  to 
stand  awhile  to  incorporate  and  cool  to  blood-heat.  It  should  not  be 
made  so  thin  as  to  spill  over  the  feeding-trough,  or  so  thick  as  to  choke 
the  animals  ;  but  of  that  consistence  which  a  little  time  will  soon  let  the 
feeder  know  the  pigs  relish  best.  Washing  fattening  pigs  v^dth  warm 
water  and  soap  rapidly  promotes  their  fattening ;  and,  after  the  first  trial, 
they  delight  in  the  scrubbing.  A  convenient  form  of  trough  for  fattening 
pigs  is  described  below  in  fig.  297.  The  swing-door,  on  being  fastened 
on  the  side  nearest  the  pigs,  serve  the  purpose  of  warding  them  off  until 
the  trough  is  cleaned  out  or  replenished  with  food.  The  trough  should 
be  thoroughly  cleaned  eveiy  day,  and  being  subdivided  into  three  parts, 
more  than  one  pig  may  be  fattened  in  the  same  sty.  But  when  only  one 
occupies  a  sty, — which  is  the  least  troublesome  arrangement — one  division 
may  be  filled  with  one  of  the  meals  daily,  thus  giving  a  clean  trough  every 
meal ;  and  all  the  divisions  should  be  cleaned  in  the  morning  before  sup- 
plying the  first  meal.  After  every  meal  is  supplied  the  swing-door  is 
fastened  nearest  the  outside,  thus  giving  the  pigs  access  to  their  food,  as 
well  as  preventing  them  being  disturbed  at  their  meals.  The  quantity  of 
food  given  at  any  time  should  be  apportioned  to  the  appetite  of  the  ani- 
mals fed,  which  should  be  ascertained  by  the  person  who  feeds  them  ;  and 
it  will  be  found  that  less  food,  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  the  animal, 
will  be  required  as  it  becomes  fatter.  When  pigs  are  fattening  they  lie 
and  rest  and  sleep  a  great  deal,  no  other  creature  showing  "  love  of  ease" 
so  sti'ongly  in  all  their  motions ;  and,  in  truth,  it  is  this  indolence  which  is 
the  best  sign  of  their  thiiving  condition.  The  opposite  effects  of  activity 
and  indolence  on  the  condition  of  animals  is  thus  contrasted  by  Liebig  : 
"  Excess  of  carbon,"  says  he,  "  in  the  form  of  fat,  is  never  seen  in  the 
Bedouin  or  in  the  Arab  of  the  Desert,  who  exhibits  with  piide,  to  the 
traveler,  his  lean,  muscular,  sinewy  limbs,  altogether  free  from  fat.  But 
in  prisons  and  jails  it  appears  as  a  puffiness  in  the  inmates,  fed  as  they  are 
on  a  poor  and  scanty  diet ;  it  appears  in  the  sedentary  females  of  Oriental 
countries  ;  and,  finally,  it  is  produced  under  the  well  known  conditions  of 
the  fattening  of  domestic  animals  ;"*  and  among  these  last  the  pig  may 
be  instanced  as  the  most  remarkable. 

(1435.)  The  denominations  received  by  pigs  are  the  following  :  When 
new-bom,  they  are  called  sucking  pigs,  or  simply  ^?^5  ;  and  the  male  is 
called  hoar  pig,  the  female  sow  pig.  A  castrated  male,  after  it  is  weaned, 
IS  named  a  [baiTow]  shot  or  hog.  Hog  is  the  name  mostly  used  by  natural- 
ists, and  very  frequently  by  ^vTiters  on  Agriculture  ;  but  as  it  sounds  so  like 
the  name  given  to  young  sheep,  I  shall  always  use  the  term  pig  ands\%-ine, 
for  the  sake  of  distinction.  A  spayed  female  is  a  cut  sow  pig.  As  long  as 
both  sorts  of  cut  pigs  are  small  and  young,  they  get  the  name  of  porkers  or 
jwrklings.  A  female  that  has  not  been  cut,  and  before  it  bears  young, 
gets  the  name  of  an  open  sow  ;  and  an  entire  male  receives,  and  retains 
ever  after,  the  name  of  boar  or  brawn.     A  cut  boar  is  a  brawner  [barrow], 

*  Liebig'8  Animal  Chemistry.  _ 

(7) 


8  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

and  the  flesh  of  both  boar  and  brawner  is  brawn.  A  female  that  has 
taken  the  boar  is  said  to  be  lined  ;  wlien  bearing  young  she  is  called  a 
brood  sow  ;  and  when  she  has  brought  forth  pigs,  she  is  said  to  have  lit- 
tered ovfarrotced,  and  her  family  of  pigs  at  one  biith  are  called  a  litter  or 
farrow  of  pigs. 

(1436.)  Oi' judging  of  a  fat  pig,  the  back  should  be  nearly  straight;  and 
though  arched  a  little  from  head  to  tail,  it  is  no  fault.  The  back  should 
be  uniformly  broad  and  rounded  across  along  the  whole  body.  The  touch 
all  along  the  back  should  be  firm  but  springy,  the  thinnest  skin  springing 
most  The  shoulder,  side,  and  haras  should  be  deep  up  and  down,  and  in 
a  straight  line  from  shoulder  to  ham.*  The  closing  behind  should  be  filled 
up  ;  the  legs  short,  and  bone  small ;  llie  neck  short,  and  thick,  and  deep  ; 
the  cheeks  rounded  and  well  filled  out ;  the  face  straight,  nose  fine,  eyes 
bright,  ears  pricked,  and  the  head  small  in  projiortion  to  the  body.  A 
curled  tail  is  a  favorite,  because  indicative  of  a  strong  back  [and  healthy, 
thriving  condition].  All  these  characters  may  be  observed  in  the  figure  of 
the  brood-sow  in  one  of  the  Plates  ;  though,  of  course,  the  sow  is  not  in  the 
fattened  state.  A  black  colored  pig  is  always  black  of  skin,  and  a  white 
one  white,  and  which  latter  color  gives  to  the  pig  a  cleaner  appearance  than 
the  black.  A.Jat  pig  ought  never  to  be  driven,  but  carried  in  a  cart  when 
desired  to  be  transported  from  one  place  to  another. 

(1437.)  As  to  the  breed  which  shows  the  greatest  disposition  to  fatten, 
together  with  a  due  proportion  of  lean,  I  never  saw  one  to  equal  that 
wliich  was  originated  by  Lord  Western,  in  Essex.  I  received  a  present 
of  a  young  boar  and  sow  of  that  breed  from  Lord  Panmure,  and  had  the 
breed  for  10  years  ;  and  such  was  the  high  condition  constantly  maintained 
by  the  pigs  on  what  they  could  pick  up  at  the  steading,  besides  the  feed 
of  turnips  supplied  them  daily,  that  one  could  be  killed  at  any  time  for 
the  table  as  a  porkling.  They  were  exceedingly  gentle,  indisposed  to  tra- 
vel far,  not  very  prolific,  however,  but  could  attain,  if  kept  on,  to  a  great 
weight ;  and  so  compact  in  form,  and  small  of  bone  and  ofi'al,  that  they  in- 
variably yielded  a  gi'eater  weight  of  pork  than  was  judged  of  before  being 
slaughtered.  Though  the  less  valuable  oflal  was  small,  the  proportion  of 
loose  seam  was  always  great,  and  more  delicious  ham  was  never  cured  in 
Westphalia  than  they  affbrded.t 


["In  the  United  States,  where  so  large  a  proportion  of  tlie  hogs  slaughtered  is  made  and  cured 
for  bacon,  and  where  the  ham  is  much  the  most  valuable  part — length  from  the  tail  to  the  hips,  or 
08  they  are  called  in  cattle  the  pins,  so  as  to  throw  their  points  well  forward  toward  the  shoulder 
is  a  matter  of  importance  in  the  formation  of  the  hog  ;  as  it  insures  a  greater  proportionate  weight 
in  that  part  of  the  animal.  The  best  bacon  in  the  world,  some  would  except  the  Westphalia,  is 
to  be  foun  1  in  our  Middle  States,  where  corn  is  one  of  our  chief  staples,  and  where  the  hog  is  left 
to  run  at  large,  and  scuffle  for  his  living,  from  the  time  he  is  weaned  until  put  up  finally  to  be 
fattened  on  com,  which  is  too  generally  throwrt  in  upon  the  ground  and  on  the  cob.  True,  where 
there  is  a  "  gang  "  of  turkeys,  they  are  usually  fattened  on  tlie  wasting  and  leaving  of  the  hog,  as 
the  hog  is  the  scavenger  to  clean  up  and  fatten  on  the  leavings  of  btillocks  fed  witli  com,  on  tlie 
cob,  in  open  field. 

However  careless  in  other  things,  the  salting  and  smoking  of  their  pork  generally  commands 
the  close  attention  of  the  husbandman,  and  not  unfreqnently  of  the  good  housewife.  The  standard 
for  the  best  hams,  in  tlie  region  to  which  we  have  referred,  is  where  the  whole  hog  weighs  from 
130  to  160  or  17.'>  at  most.  Without  subjecting  them  to  the  best  of  all  tests,  no  one  who  never 
compared  them,  can  realize  the  difference  between  a  Maryland  ham  of  about  twelve  pounds, 
properly  smoked  with  hickory  wood,  and  such  as  one  sometimes  meets  with  elsewhere,  half  smok- 
ed and  from  a  great  fat  beast  of  300  pounds  weight. 

[t  We  should  prefer  the  Mackey  breed — if  to  be  had  under  the  sanction  of  Col.  Jaques  of  Charles- 
town,  Mass. — as  to  its  genuineness.    Mr.  Webster  took  great  pains  to  procure,  and  had  at  Marsh- 


FATTENING,   DRIVING    AND   SLAUGHTERING   SWINE. 


(1438.)  [Piirx' -Troughs. — A  very  convenient  trough  for  a  piggery  has  been  lontr  manufrtctnred 
by  the  Shots  Iron  Company,  of  which  fig.  297  is  a  view  in  perspective  from  the  interior  of  the 
court.  It  is  nearly  all  made  of  cast-iron,  and  possesses  the  great  convenience  of  allowing  the 
troughs  to  be  filled  with  food  from  the  outside  of  the  building,  the  feeder  being  at  the  same  time 
free  from  any  annoyance  from  the  inmate.s.  Troughs  of  this  kind  are  placed  in  proper  sized  open- 
ings in  the  external  wall  of  the  piggery  court,  in  the  manner  shown  in  the  figure,  where  a  marks 
the  wall  on  one  side  of  the  opening,  that  on  the  hither  side  being  left  out  of  the  figure,  in  order  to 
exhibit  the  form  of  the  trougli.  The  trough,  part  of  which  is  seen  at  b,  is  4  feet  in  length.  16  in- 
ches wide  at  top,  and  8  inches  at  bottom,  and  is  9  inches  deep.  ThS  two  ends  c  and  d  rise  in  a 
triangular  form  to  the  bight  of  .TJ  feet,  and  are  connected  at  the  top  by  the  stretcher  bolt  e.  The 
lower  part  of  each  end  extends  inward  tofg,  making  a  breadth  of  3  feet  4  inches  when  complete, 
but  this  part  of  the  end  g  in  the  figure  is  broken  off,  to  show  part  of  the  trough  b.  Two  interme- 
diate divisions  k  h  divide  the  trough  into  three  compartments;  these  divisions  extend  to  the  same 
length  as  the  ends  f  g,  and  are  all  21  inches  in  bight.  By  means  of  these  divisions,  each  animal, 
when  there  are  more  than  one  together,  has  its  own  stall,  and  can  take  its  food  undisturbed  by  its 
neighbors.  A  swing-door  i  is  jointed  on  the  pivots  Jc  k,  to  complete  the  form  by  filling  up  the 
opening  of  the  wall.     In  the  figure  this  door  is  thrown  to  the  full  extent  outward,  where  it  always 

Fig.  297. 


THE   PIGS  -TROUGH,  WITH  SUBDIVISION.?,  TU  .STAND   IN  AN  OPENING  OF  THli  OUTER  VfUX.'L  O-F 

THK  STY. 

Stands  daring  the  time  the  animals  are  feeding,  and  is  fixed  there  by  a  slide-bolt  on  the  outside. 
When  food  is  to  be  introduced  the  bolt  is  withdrawn,  and  the  door  moved  from  that  position  to  I, 
and  there  bolted  until  the  compartments  of  the  trough  are  cleaned  and  filled,  when  the  door  is 
again  swung  back  to  its  original  position,  and  the  food  is  placed  before  the  aniuial.s.  The  door 
has  slits  formed  in  it  corresponding  to  the  divisions  h  h,  to  allow  of  its  swinging  freely,  and  yet 
have  depth  sufBcient  to  close  the  entire  opening  down  to  the  outward  edge  of  the  trough.  A 
dowel  or  stud  m  is  let  into  the  wall  at  each  end,  to  secure  the  upper  part  of  the  trough.  On  a 
late  visit  to  the  Duke  of  Buccleuch's  home-farm  at  Dalkeith  Park,  which  is  conducted  by  Mr 
Black,  I  was  much  interested  with  the  piggery,  where  the  stock  is  of  the  finest  quality,  and, 

field,  some  time  since,  the  real  Simon  Pure  of  that  race.  But  the  best  breed  of  hogs  that  we 
have  ever  seen,  according  to  our  judgment,  were  sent  into  Maryland  from  England,  in  1823,  by 
Mr.  Wright,  a  brother-in-law  of  the  late  Mr.  Champion,  as  a  present  to  the  then  Editor  of  the 
American  Farmer.  They  were  black  hogs,  of  which  an  account  may  be  seen,  with  a  portrait  of 
the  sow,  in  the  old  American  Farmer,  vol.  6.  They  got  the  name  of  "  Skinner's  breed,"  and  some 
traces  of  them  may  yet  be  found  in  Virginia.  If  they  could  be  bred  back  to  the  form  and  quali- 
ties of  the  original  stock,  they  would  deserve  to  be  very  highly  prized.  Any  farmer,  however, 
of  common  sagacity  and  attention,  may  soon  modify  and  shape  a  breed  to  suit  his  own  locality 
and  views.  From  those  who  have  not  the  spirit  and  true  love  of  business  to  do  even  that,  you 
•will  be  sure  to  hear  the  common  remark,  "  say  what  you  will  about  breeds,  but  give  me  the  corn 
house  breed."  Men  without  energy  or  proper  ambition  are  rarely  withcuisome  flucb  easy  resor^ 
in  the  way  of  self-excuse.] 

'9)  ♦ 


10 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


THE  RING  PIGS  -TROUGH. 


among  other  things  of  interest,  saw  what  in  very  probably  the  oripinal  of  the  trooch  here  de- 
scribed. The  irouphs  in  this  piffircr^-  are  composed  of  wood,  bat  precisely  on  the  Nime  principle, 
as  here  fi^'ured  and  described,  and  tfii-ir  introduction  there  dates  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  the  late 
Duke  Hcurj-  of  Buccleuch,  whoso  invention  they  are  supposed  to  be,  and  which  must  be  at  least 
of  forty  or  more  years'  standinir. 

(H39.)  The  king  Pies' -Tronsh. — I  have  seen  in  Eng-land  a  very  handsome  pigs'-trough 
adapted  for  standing  in  the  middle  of  a  court.  It  is  formed  also  of  cast-iron,  but  in  one  entire 
piece,  and  is  here  represented  in  fig.  398.  Ita  external  appearance  when  viewed  as  it  stands  on 
the  ground,  approaches  tc*  that 

of  a  hollow  hemisphere  ;   but  Fig.  296. 

interiorly  the  bottom  parts  rise 
up  in  the  center,  forming  a  cen- 
tral pillar,  thus  converting  the 
hemisphere  into  an  annular 
trough,  whose  transverse  sec- 
tion is  a  semicircle,  and  tlie  en- 
tire section  of  the  two  troughs 
forms  two  semicircles  conjoin- 
ed. The  diameter  a  i  of  this 
trough  is  30  inches,  the  edge  is 
finished  with  a  round  baton, 
serving  both  for  strength  and  for 
comfort  to  the  animals  which  eat 
out  of  it ;  the  depth  is  about  9  in- 
ches, and  it  is  divided  into 
eight  compartments  by  the  di- 
visions c,  which  are  formed 
with  a  convexity  on  the  upper 
edge  to  prevent  the  food  being 
thrown   from  the  one  compartment  into  another. — J.   8.1 

(1440.)  In  regard  to  the  slaughtering  of  pips,  they  should  be  made  to  fast  for  nearly  a  day,  to  clear 
their  bowels  of  as  much  food  as  possible.  The  season  best  adapted  for  the  purpose  is  in  the  cool 
months  of  the  year ;  the  flesh  in  the  warm  months  not  becoming  sufficiently  firm,  and  is  then  lia 
ble  to  be  fly-blown  before  it  should  be  cured.  For  using  fresh  pork,  the  season  of  course  does  not 
signify.  VVhen  you  wish  to  make  hams  for  your  own  use,  Christmas  is  a  good  time  for  slaugh- 
tering pigs,  and,  in  doing  it,  great  care  should  be  taken  that  the  animals  receive  no  injury  by 
bruises  before  being  killed,  as  the  flesh,  w^here  bruised,  will  become  bloodbumcd,  and  will  not 
take  with  ilie  salt.  When  the  time  for  slaughtering  arrives,  the  animals  should  be  taken  out  of 
their  sties  gently  one  by  one  as  slaughtered,  and  placed  on  their  back  on  a  considerable  quantity 
of  straw,  and  held  in  that  position  by  assistants,  while  a  long  knife  is  introduced  with  a  firm  hand 
through  the  counter  near  the  bottom  of  the  neck,  through  the  opening  between  the  ribs  at  the 
sternum  into  the  heart,  care  being  taken  that  the  point  of  the  knile  does  not  miss  the  opening,  and 
go  between  the  sloulder  blade  and  the  ribs.  This  error  is  frequently  committed  in  slaughtering 
pigs  ;  it  is  called  shouldering,  and  has  the  eficct  of  collecting  a  mass  of  blood  under  the  shoulder- 
blade,  where  it  coagulates,  and  prevents  the  whole  shoulder  from  being  cured.  Before  theslaugh 
tering  commences,  a  large  quantity  of  boiling  water  should  be  provided,  with  which  to  scald  off 
the  hair.  This  is  effected  either  by  pulling  ilie  carcass  into  a  large  tub  of  water,  or,  should  there 
not  be  a  tub  of  sufficient  size,  the  hot  water  can  be  poured  on  the  carcass  on  the  straw,  and 
scraped  clean  of  the  hair  from  every  part  of  the  body.  The  hoofs  are  taken  off  at  tliis  time.  The 
net  fat  and  entrails  are  separated,  and  the  carcass  is  dressed  in  the  most  simple  manner,  without 
flourishes,  and  with  only  a  single  stretcher  to  keep  apart  the  flaps  of  the  belly. 

(1141.)  The  carcass  hangs  in  the  slaughter-house  unlil  next  day,  when  it  is  sawn  up  the  back 
bone  into  two  sides.  If  it  is  intended  for  pickled  pork,  the  sides  are  cut  up  in  Scotland  in  the 
same  way  as  the  Scotch  mode  of  cutting  up  mutton  (fig.  255),  namely,  a,  fig.  299,  is  the  leg,  and'A 
the  loin,  in  the  hind-quarter;  c  the  ribs,  and  d  the  breast,  in  the  fore-quarter.  The  leg  a  makes 
an  excellent  leg  of  pickled  pork,  served  with  pea-pudding;  and  the  loin  b  a  juicy  tresh  roast. 
The  back-ribs  of  c  are  a  fine  roasting  piece,  and  also  for  pork-chops,  one  of  the  most  delicate 
dishes  of  the  hasty  modes  of  dressing  meat.  The  fore-end  of  c,  and  the  whole  of  the  breast  d.  are 
fit  for  pickling.  The  head,  split  in  two,  is  also  pickled,  and  considered  a  delicacy,  as  the  fat  upon 
the  cheeks  is  gristly. 

(1442.)  The  English  mode  of  cutting  up  pork  is  different  from  what  has  just  been  described, 
and,  upon  the  whole,  perhaps  belter  adapted  for  family  use.  Fig.  300  gives  a  representation  of 
it,  where,  in  the  fore-quarter,  a  is  the  spare-rib,  so  called  because  the  flesh  and  fat  are  taken  off 
the  ribs  for  salting ;  and  the  ribs  are  then  roasted,  and  make  a  savorj-  dish  :  b  is  the  hand  or 
shoulder,  fit  for  pickling;  c  the  belly  or  spring,  also  fit  for  [lickliup,  or  for  roiling  up,  when  well 
seasoned  and  stuffed,  for  brawn,  and  eaten  as  a  relish.  In  the  hiiidquarter  arc  d  the  fore  and  e 
the  hind  loin,  both  best  when  roasted,  the  fore  one  d  also  making  excellent  chops ;  andy"the  leg, 
which  is  cut  short  for  pickling.  The  neck  is  called  a  crop  of  pork,  and.  when  divided  into  its  ver- 
tebra", are  cut  for  chops,  and  called  gnskint.  The  head,  when  divided  in  two,  is  again  divided 
at  the  jaw  into  an  upper  part  caJled  the/ace  or  cheek,  and  the  lower  part  named  the  chop.  Some 
times  the  two  chaps  are  not  divided. 

(1443.)  According  to  Mr.  Donovan,  a  hand  of  salt  pork,  weighing  4  lbs.  5  oz.,  lost  in  boiling  11 
oz.  The  bone  weighed  9  oz. ;  the  meat  was  3  lbs.  1  oz.  If  the  first  cost  of  the  pork  was  TJd. 
per  lb.,  the  meat  alone,  when  duly  boiled,  cost  lOjd..  and  wiih  the  bone  nearly  9d.  per  lb.  The 
loss  in  boiling  salt  pork  is  consequently  15J  per  cent." 

•  Donovan's  Domeatic  Economy,  vol.  iL 
(lOj 


FATTENING,   DRIVING   AND    SLAUGHTERING  SWINE. 


11 


(1444.)  Of  the  time  required  for  digesting  pork  dressed  in  various  ways,  pigs'  feet  soused  and 
boiled  take  1  hour;  sucking-pig  roasted,  2^  hours;  pork  recently  salted,  raw  or  stewed,  3  hours; 
pork-steak,  and  recently  salted  pork,  broiled,  3^  hours;  pork  recently  salted,  fried,  4J  hours;  pork 
recently  salted,  boiled,  4J  hours;  and  pork,   fat 


Fig.  299. 


Fig.  300. 


and  lean,  roasted,  5^  hours.* 

(1445.)  Pickled  pork  derives  its  name  from  the 
mode  in  which  pork  is  cured  in  a  strong  brine 
or  pickle  of  salt  and  water.  The  flesh  is  first 
rubbed  with  salt,  then  subjected  to  pressure,  then 
rubbed  again,  and  packed  in  barrels,  and  strong 
brine  poured  over  it.  Immense  quantities  of 
pork  are  pickled,  for  home  and  foreign  consump- 
tion, by  the  pieces  being  simply  placed  in  brine, 
but  is,  of  course,  inferior  to  vi'hat  is  cured  as  above 
described.  The  largest  establishment  for  the 
curing  of  pork  I  ever  saw  was  in  Belfast.  A 
carcass  is  cut  up  in  a  few  seconds  in  this  manner  : 
One  man  stands  at  the  end  of  a  large  hacking- 
block  of  wood,  provided  with  a  long-faced  hatchet, 
and  two  others  stand  on  each  side  of  the  block. 
A  carcass,  of  whatever  size,  is  placed  on  the 
block,  on  its  back,  with  its  head  toward  the 
hatchet ;  a  man  then  seizes  each  of  the  limbs,  and 
keeps  the  carcass  open.  With  three  or  four 
strokes  of  the  hatchet,  the  carca.ss  is  divided  into 
two  from  snout  to  tail.  One  chop  cuts  off  each 
of  the  half  heads,  and  one  each  of  the  legs.  The 
heads  are  thrown  into  one  heap,  and  the  legs  into 
another.  The  two  men  at  the  hind-quarter  then 
take  their  knives  and  cut  off  the  hams,  which 
are  put  by  themselves,  and  taken  away  and 
rubbed  with  salt,  and  placed  in  rows  on  the 
ground,  with  the  Heshy  side  uppermost,  covered 
with  dry  .salt.  The  remainder  of  the  carcass  gets 
two  or  three  chops  across  the  ribs,  according  to 
its  size,  and  the  pieces  are  thrown  into  a  large  tub 
of  brine.  The  whole  thing  is  done  in  far  less  time 
than  I  have  taken  to  describe  it.     For  family 

use,  no  pickle  should  be  u.sed  in  curing  pork,  as  it  extracts  the  natural  juices  of  the  meat ;  the 
pieces,  cut  of  a  convenient  size,  should  be  rubbed  with  good  dry,  Liverpool  salt,  both  on  the 
skinny  and  fleshy  parts,  and  packed  in  a  jar  covered  with  a  lid  or  cloth  :  and  from  eight  days  to 
a  fortnight,  according  to  the  size  or  thickness  of  the  pieces,  the  pork  will  be  ready  for  use.  The 
navy  tierce  of  pork  consists  each  of  80  pieces  of  4  lbs. 

(1446.)  When  the  carcasses  are  meant  for  ham  for  family  u.se,  they  are  treated  in  this  manner : 
After  being  sawn  asunder,  the  sides  should  be  carefully  handled,  that  the  back-bone  be  not 
broken,  and  placed  on  a  table,  when  all  the  loose  seam  or  tallow  is  taken  out,  and  the  kidneys 
extracted  out  of  it.  The  muscle  lying  along  the  back-bone  under  the  loin  is  taken  out,  and,  when 
used  fresh,  makes  an  excellent  coUop  for  sausages  ;  and  the  diaphragm  or  skirt  is  also  cut  off. 
The  tongue  is  cut  out,  the  brains  scooped  out,  the  ears  extracted  by  their  sockets,  the  tail  cut 
away,  and  the  four  feet  disjointed  at  the  knees.  Every  loose  and  useless  shred  of  fat,  sinew, 
nerve,  flesh,  and  skin,  should  be  carefully  removed. 

(1447.)  The  ne.XLt  process  is  the  sal'iiif^.  Let  the  sides  be  placed  with  the  skin  side  uppermost, 
and  all  where  there  is  skin  let  it  be  rubbed  hard  with  the  palm  of  the  hands,  by  two  persons,  for 
fully  half  an  hour,  in  a  warm  place,  with  good  dry  salt,  taken  in  indefinite  quantity.  Thin-skinned 
uniformly  fat  pork  will  feel  warm  under  the  rubbing,  and  the  skin  become  somewhat  loose  and 
sweaty,  which  are  the  best  signs  that  the  flesh  is  taking  in  the  salt.  A  hard-skinned  side  will  not 
exhibit  these  symptoms,  nevertheless  it  will  take  in  the  salt  too,  though  not  so  kindly.  The  ends 
of  the  shanks  should  be  well  rubbed  with  salt.  After  this  rubbing,  the  side  is  turned  over,  and  4 
oz.  of  saltpetre,  finely  pounded,  are  strewed  over  the  inside,  and  especially  over  all  the  fleshy 
parts  that  have  been  cut  with  the  knife,  such  as  along  the  line  of  the  back-bone,  and  the  inside  of 
the  ham.  The  use  of  the  saltpetre  is  to  give  a  uniformity  to,  and  highten  the  color  of,  the  flesh, 
which,  in  pork,  becomes  red  on  being  converted  into  ham.  A  layer  of  salt  of  about  ^  of  an  inch 
tliick  is  then  laid  on  the  side  over  the  saltpetre.  In  this  state  the  side  is  carried  carefully,  and 
laid  upon  a  board  or  wooden  floor.  Other  sides  are  treated  exactly  in  the  same  manner,  one  af- 
ter the  other,  and  laid  upon  one  another,  with  the  skinny  sides  downmost ;  but  perhaps  4  sides 
are  enough  to  form  one  heap,  laid  alternately,  head  and  tail,  to  lie  compactly.  A  board  is  then 
laid  above  them,  supporting  a  number  of  weights  ;  the  whole  being  covered  with  a  woolen  cloth, 
to  keep  oat  the  frost,  should  it  arrive.  In  the  course  of  a  day  or  two,  brine  will  run  from  the 
heaps,  which  should  be  wiped  up  from  the  floor.  In  a  fortnight  the  sides  should  again  be  laid  on 
tlie  table,  and  the  brine  that  may  have  collected  on  the  ribs  poured  out,  the  loose  wet  salt  re- 
moved, and  the  skinny  side  again  rubbed  with  dry  salt  for  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  The  loose 
salt  should  then  be  all  brushed  off  by  the  hand,  and  the  skin  wiped  dry.  To  prevent  flies  blow- 
ing the  end  of  the  shanks  at  the  joints,  a  brown  paper  bag  makes  a  close  enough  covering  for 
them  ;  and  a  wooden  skewer  being  thrust  through  both  shank  and  bag.  and  both  tied  firmly  to 
the  leg  with  twine,  the  remainder  of  the  twine  is  formed  into  a  stout  loop  by  which  the  side  is 

♦  Combe  on  Digestion  and  Dietetics. 
(11) 


12  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

■Dspendril  from  hooks.  The  in»ide  'i»  then  covered  with  a  Dnifonn  coating  of  barfey  or  peas-meaf, 
poshing  it  well  into  cvrrj-  crevice  with  the  fiiifrer.  The  dHDipneiDi  of  the  flesh  will  make  the  meal 
Btick  oit.  hut  there  i«  nwie  pot  on  the  »kiniiy  side.  The  side  i«  then  hune  op  from  the  roof  of  a 
Warm,  dry  room,  the  kitclien  being  the  most  appropriate  place ;  and  the  kitchen  roof  thus  par- 
nished  conveyn  on  idea  of  plenty  and  good  cheer.  1  wnt  thin  recipe,  through  a  friend,  to  a  lady 
■whom  I  undergtooil  was  at  the  time  encaged  on  a  work  on  the  calinary  art,  and  it  may  be  fonnd 
Bobstantially  in  the  above  shape  in  her  valuable  pages. 

(1441*.)  From  experimenr.  it  was  ascertained  by  Mr.  Donovan  that  rf  the  irst  cost  of  ham  be 
lOd.  per  lb.,  the  meat  dniy  boiled,  skinned  and  browned,  will  cost  Is.  1  Jd.  per  lb. ;  the  loss  there 
by  being  conseqoentiv  33  per  cent 

(1449.)  Hog's  lard  is  rendered  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  mutton  suet  (1513) ;  but  as  lard 
ia  liable  to  become  rancid,  yellow-colored,  and  acquire  a  strong  smell  when  exposed  to  the  air,  h 
is  usually  tied  op  in  bladders.  For  this  purpose  it  is  allowed  to  cool  a  while,  after  it  is  melted, 
and  the  bladder  (a  pig's  or  calf's)  being  made  ready  by  being  thoroughly  cleaned  and  turned  oat- 
aide  in,  is  filled  with  the  lard  bj-  a  funnel,  and  tied  up.  Lard  '•  melts  completely  at  99-*  Fahr, 
and  then  has  the  appearance  of  a  transparent  and  nearly  colorless  fixed  oil.  A  thermometer 
placed  in  h  sinks  gradually  to  80^.  The  lard  then  begins  to  congeal,  and  the  thermometer  re- 
mains at  HIT'  all  the  time  of  congealing,  which  occapies  several  minates.  It  h  clear  from  this 
that  80-  is  the   melting  point  of  hog's  lard.     Its  specific   gravity  at   100°  is  0-9028  ;    at  60°.  it  ia 

0-9302 It  cemsists  of  elain  fi2  parts  and  of  Btearine  38  parts  out  of  the  100  parts When 

aabjectcd  to  pre.ssnre  between  folds  of  blotting-paper,  the  elain  is  absorbed,  while  the  stearine  re- 
anains."*  For  domestic  purposes,  hog's  lard  is  better  than  even  hotter  for  frj-ing  fish  ;  but  ia 
quite  unfit  for  pa.strj-,  though  much  n.«ed  in  that  way  on  the  score  of  economy. 

(1450.)  Hog's  skin  is  osoally  thick,  and,  when  tanned,  its  great  tou>ihness  renders  it  valnable 
for  the  seats  of  riiling-saddles.  Hog's  bristles  are  formed  into  brushes  for  painters  and  artists,  and 
for  numeroos  domestic  uses.  Some  of  the  offals  of  the  pig  make  excellent  domestic  dishes,  soch 
as  blood,  mealy  and  sweet  paddings  -,  and  pork  sausages,  made  of  the  tender  muscle  under  the 
lumbar  vertebrse,  are  sweeter,  higher  flavored,  and  more  delicious  than  those  of  beef  If  it  were 
not  for  taking  up  too  moch  room.  I  could  give  excellent  recipes  for  making  these  puddings  and 
sausages;  because  1  do  not. think  such  matter  foreign  to  the  pages  of  a  work  which  professes  to 
make  yoti  acquainted  with  what  can  be  made  available  on  a  farm, 

(14.51.)  An  experiment  on  the  comparative  advantages  of  feeding  pigs  on  raw  and  boiled  food 
■was  made  in  1.''33  by  Mr.  John  Dudgeon,  Spylaw,  Roxburghshire.  He  put  up  6  he  pigs  in  one 
lot,  and  5  xhe  ones  in  another,  and  they  were  all  carefully  cut,  and  9  weeks  old.  The  he  pigs 
were  put  on  boiled  food,  narmcly.  potatoes  and  ha.ehed  beans  ;  the  she  ones  on  raw  of  the  same 
Bort.  The  6  he  pigs  increased  in  live-weight,  from  2d  July  to  12th  October,  38  stones  6  lbs.  4  oz., 
or  6  stones  5  lbs.  11  oz.  each  ;  whereas  the  5  she  ones  onlj-  increased,  in  the  same  time,  17  stones 
11  lbs.  S  oz.,  or  3  stones  7  lbs.  14  oz.  each.  Other  3  pigs  were  fed  at  the  same  time  on  boiled  and 
raw  food  indiscriminately,  as  it  happened  to  be  left  over  after  serving  the  other  two  lots.  The 
facts  brought  out  in  this  experiment  are,  that  the  pies  "  fed  exclosively  upon  boiled  meat  did 
thrive  in  a  superior  manner  to  the  others,  and  even  to  those  which  had  an  occasional  mixture  of  raw 
and  boiled  meat ;  thus  sba^-ing  that  boiled  meat  is  at  all  times  more  nutritive  than  raw-."  The 
"  pigs  were  repeatedly  washed  with  soap  and  water,  which  refreshed  them  greatly,  and  caused 
them  to  reli-sh  their  food."  Those  "which  got  a  mixture  of  food  both  prepared  and  raw.  ap- 
proached nearer  to  tho.«e  which  were  fed  on  boiled  to  their  feeding  properties  ;  but  they  appeared 
occasionally  shy  at  having  their  meat  so  mixed.  It  is  therefore  better,  in  general,  to  continue  for 
some  time  only  one  description  of  food  ;  as,  whatever  the  animals  become  accustomed  to,  they 
begin  to  relish,  and  thrive  upon  it  accordingly."! 

(14.52. j  Mr.  Robert  Walker,  Ferrygale,  East  Lotliian,  also  made  an  experiment  on  the  same 
■object  in  the  same  year.  He  pnt  5  pigs  on  steamed  potatoes  and  prepared  broken  barlev,  and 
other  5  on  raw  potatoes  and  raw  broken  barley.  The  pigs  were  2  J  months  old.  On  tlie  4th 
March,  1833,  the  live  weight  of  the  5  pigs  fed  on  raw  food  was  7  st.s.  10  lbs. ;  on  the  1st  June  fol- 
lowing, it  was  16  sts.  13  lbs.,  showing  an  increase  of  8  sts.  3  lbs.,  or  an  increase  in  each  pig  of  1 
et.  9  lb.  On  the  4th  of  March,  the  live  weight  of  those  fed  on  steamed  food  was  7  sts.  8  lbs.,  and 
on  the  l.st  June  it  was  19  sts.  13  lbs.,  show-ing  an  increase  over  the  whole  of  12  sts.  5  lbs.,  or  an  in- 
crease on  each  pig  of  2  sts.  6 J  lbs.  Tlie  increase  in  the  time  was  67  lbs.  more  than  double  the  ori- 
ginal live  weight  of  the  pigs  fed  on  steamed  food  ;  whereas,  in  those  fed  on  raw,  the  increase 
was  only  7  lbs.  more  than  the  double  ;  "  so  that  there  can  be  vcr>-  little  doubt,"  as  Mr.  'U'alker 
concludes,  "that  steamed  food  is  more  profitable  for  feeding  pigs  than  raw  food.  In  fact,  I  do  not 
think  it  possible  to  make  pigs  fat  on  raw  potatoes,  without  other  food,  when  confined  to  them 
alone."! 

(1453.)  Dairj-  farms  are  well  suited  for  rearing  pigs  on  the  dairj-  refuse  in  summer,  but  in  win- 
ter the  roost  that  can  be  done  is  to  keep  the  brood-sows  in  pig  in  fair  condition  for  littering  in 
spring.  On  carse  and  pastoral  farms,  no  more  pigs  can  conveniently  be  reared  than  to  eerre  the 
former's  family.     On  mixed  farms,  pigs  constitute  a  portion  of  the  regular  stock. 

(1454.)  With  regard  to  the  dixeafex  o(  swine,  they  are  fortunately  not  nnmenms,  as  it  is  no  easy 
matter  to  administer  medicine  to  them.  The  safest  plan,  in  most  cases,  I  believe,  is  to  slaughter 
them  whenever  any  symptoms  of  internal  disease  show  themselves.  Swine  are  infested  with  a 
\ouee  ''Htrm a/ opin UK  fuis),  like  all  domesticated  animals.  It  is  represented  in  fitr.  301.  Head 
and  thorax  of  a  dull,  rusty  color,  the  former  pear-shaped  and  narrow,  with  an  angular  black  line 
at  the  apex,  and  one  on  each  side  before  the  eyes;  abdomen  large,  flat,  and  oval,  of  a  bluish  or 
yellowish  ash  gray  color,  mo.st  of  the  segments  with  a  black  homy  prominence  at  each  side,  sur- 
rounding a  white  breathing  hole  ;  legs  pale  ochre-yellow,  the  thigh  marked  with  dusky  bands; 


■*  Thornton's  Animal  Chcmi«trT. 

t  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Elociety,  vol.  x.  %  n>id.,ToI.  x. 

(12) 


TREATMENT   OF  FOWLS.  13 

length  li  to  1 J  lines.  This  species  is  generally  very  plentiful  on  swiite,  more  particularly  on 
those  fresh  imported  from  Ireland.  It  appears  to  abound  most  on  Lean  animals.  "  In  walking," 
savs  Mr.  Denny,  "  it  uses  tlie  claw  and  tibial  tooth  with  great  facility  (which  act  &«  a  finger  and 
thiimb),  in  taking  hold  of  a.  single  hair ;  tiie  male  is  much  smaller,  sub-orbicalar,  and  the  segment* 
lobate.  The  egg  or  nit  is  j  of  a  line  in  length,  of  a  cream  color,  and  ele- 
gantly shagreened,  oblong,  and  slightly  acuminated,  surrounded  by  a  lid 
which,  when  the  yo«ng  insect  is  ready  to  emerge,  splits  circularly — or, 
as  a  botaoist  would  say,  has  a  eircunacisile  dehiscence.''*  Oil  in  the  first 
stage,  and  mercurial  ointment  in  after  stages,  will  destroy  this  insect.t 

(145.5.)  Consmnption  is  a  disease  which  affects  pigs.  It  is  brought  on 
by  "  neglect  and  exposure  to  cold  and  damp.  The  animal  becomes  thin, 
the  coat  staring,  the  skin  appearing  as  if  glued  to  the  ribs ;  .obstinate 
cough  supervenes  ;  discharge  is  frequent  from  the  nose,  and  glandular 
swellings  appear  aboaX  the  ueek.  On  dissection,  tlie  lungs  are  studded 
with  tubercles."  "  It  is  in  the  early  stage  alone  of  tlie  complaint,"  sajs 
Professor  Dick,  "  that  anything  can  be  done,  and  the  prospect  of  cure  is 
but  faint.|  In  alluding  to  the  lungs,  I  may  mention  a  remarkable  in- 
stance of  their  state  I  once  observed  in  a  sow  of  my<3wn.  She  had  borne 
several  litters,  and  became  asthmatic,  which  increasLug  so  as  to  apj>ear 
distressing  to  the  animal,  she  was  killed  ;  and  one  lobe  of  the  lungs  was 
found  to  be  so  completely  ossified  that  its  surface  was  converted  into  a  _ 

shell  nearly  as  hard  ^s  the  crust  of  a  crab,  and  it  was  filled  with  a  tliick  / 

yellow  tiuid.     Having  understood  afterward  that  this  was  a  remarkable     ^^^  60W-louse  (,hj: 
case,  I  regret  that  the  k>be  was  not  examined  by  a  veterinarian.     £  take         matopisus  suis). 
this  opportunity  of  suggesting  to  every  farmer,  who  may  happen  to 

meet  with  any  instance  of  structural  disorganization  in  any  part  of  any  animal  he  owns,  to  have 
it  examined  by  a  competent  veterinarian. 

(1456.)  Pigs  are  subject  to  a  cutaneous  disease  called  measles,  which  is  supposed  to  render  the 
flesh  unwholesome.  •'  The  measles,"  says  a  writer,  "  are  very  prevalent,  though  seldom  fatal ;  and 
if  not  cheeked,  affect  the  grain  of  the  meat,  which  may  be  commonly  seen  in  the  shops  of  a  faded 
color,  and  the  flesh  punctured,  as  it  were,  with  small  holes,  or  distensions  of  tiie  fibre.  Tlie  com- 
mencement of  the  disease  appears  in  languor  and  decline  of  appetite,  followed  by  email  pustule* 
in  the  throat  together  with  red  and  purple  eruptions,  more  distinct  after  death  than  during  the 
life  of  the  animal ;  but  may,  it  is  said,  be  removed  in  this  stage  by  giving  small  quantities  of  levi- 
gated crude  antimony  in  the  food.  Grenerally  speaking,  even" if  the  animals  be  in  heakb,  a  small 
quantity  of  nitre  and  sulphur,  occasionally  mixed  up  with  their  food,  besides  stimulating  their 
appetite,  will  frequently  prevent  disease  ;  neither  can  we  too  much  insist  on  cleanliness,  nor  upon 
the  punctual  regularity  of  feeding  at  stated  time«."||  The  injunction  contained  in  the  last  words, 
if  followed,  will  do  more  for  the  preservation  of  health  in  pigs,  than  the  administration  of  any 
specific  after  disease  has  once  shown  itself  I  can  safely  say  that,  with  the  simple  means  here  es- 
joined,  I  never  had  a  pig  that  was  in  the  least  affected  in  the  skin  hy  either  disease  or  yenaiti. 


2.    TREATMENT     OF    FOWLS.. 

■"  Thither  the  househeld  feathery  tribe  crowd,  "■ 

The  crested  cock,  with  all  his  female  train, 

Pensive  and  dripping ; " 

Thomsok. 

(1457.)  Of  all  the  animals  reared  on  a  farm,  there  are  none  so  mucli 
neglected  by  the  farmer,  both  in  regard  to  the  selection  of  their  kind, 
and  their  quaUfications  to  fatten,  as  all  the  sorts  of  domesticated  fowls  found 
in  the  farra-yard.  Indeed,  the  very  supposition  that  he  would  devote  any 
of  his  time  to  the  consideration  of  poultry,  is  regarded  as  a  positive  affront 
on  his  manhood.  Women,  in  his  estimation,  may  be  fit  enough  for  such  a 
charge,  and  doubtless  they  would  do  it  well,  provided  they  were  not  be- 
grudged every  particle  of  food  bestowed  upon  those  useful  creatures.  The 
consequence  is  what  might  be  expected  in  the  circumstances,  that  go  to 
most  farnisteads  and  the  surprise  will  be  to  meet  a  single  fowl  of  any  de- 
scription in  good  condition,  that  is  to  say,  in  such  condition  that  it  may  be 

*  Dentsy's  Monographia  Anoplnrorura  Britannite. 

U  fipd    that  the    ox-louse   (ffamatopinus   eurystemus),   fig.   26S.  has    been    erroBeouflly  printed   oa 

t  Dick'g  Manual  of  Vetednary  Science.        y  Britiah  Husbandrv,  vol  iL 
(13; 


14  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

killed  at  the  instant  in  a  fit  state  for  the  table,  which  it  might  be  if  it  had 
been  treated  as  a  fattening  animal  from  its  birth.  The  usual  objection  urged 
against  feeding  fowls  is  that  it  does  not  pay,  and  no  doubt  the  usual  price 
received  for  lean,  stringy-fleshed,  sinewy-legged  fowls  is  far  from  remune- 
rative;  but  whose  fault  is  it  but  the  rearer  of  them,  that  fowls  are  sent  to 
market  in  such  a  state,  and  why  should  purchasers  give  a  high  price  for 
any  animal,  be  it  fowl  or  beast,  that  is  in  under  condition  ?  There  would 
be  some  excuse  for  the  existence  of  lean  fowls  at  a  farmstead  were  there 
any  difficulty  of  fattening  poultry  of  every  kind  at  no  great  expense  ;  but 
the  idea  of  expense  is  a  perfect  bugbear;  and  this  is  one,  like  all  others 
that  seize  us  through  our  fears,  would  vanish  were  a  plan  adopted  for 
rearing  fowls  more  consonant  to  common  sense  than  the  one  usually  pur- 
sued. To  judge  from  common  practice,  the  prevalent  sentiment  seems  to 
be,  that  fowls  cannot  be  ill  oif  when  they  get  leave  to  shift  for  themselves. 
Such  a  principle  is  a  grievous  error  in  the  rearing  of  any  kind  of  live  stock. 
Better  a  man  keep  no  stock  at  all  than  allow  such  a  sentiment  to  influence 
his  conduct  to  them.  Fowls  maybe  considered  worthless  stock,  and  so  they 
generally  are,  but  are  you  sure  that  it  is  not  your  mode  of  managing  them 
that  renders  them  so  %  But  apart  from  every  consideration  of  profit  to  be 
derived  from  sales  in  market-towns,  there  is  the  superior  one  of  the  fanner 
having  it  at  all  times  in  his  power  to  eat  a  well-fed  fowl  at  his  own  table  ; 
and  there  is  no  good  i-eason  why  he  should  not  be  able  to  enjoy  such  a 
luxury  at  any  time  he  choses.  There  would  be  economy  in  it  too,  in  the 
long  run,  inasmuch  as  good  poultry,  at  command,  will  keep  him  out  of  the 
butcher  market,  into  which  he  cannot  go  without  cash  in  band,  and  cash 
he  cannot  command  except  by  realizing  the  money  value  of  some  com- 
modity or  other  from  the  fann.  Few  farmers  kill  their  own  mutton,  that 
is  to  say,  keep  fine  fat  sheep  for  their  own  use  ;  lamb,  they  may  kill  in  the 
season ;  but  as  to  beef,  it  must  be  purchased  ;  so  that,  situate  as  the  farmer 
usually  is,  the  produce  of  the  poultry-yard  and  pig-sty  constitute  the  prin- 
cipal items  of  his  board.  And  why  should  he  not  have  these  in  the  high- 
est perfection  1 

(1458.)  Winter  is  a  season  in  which  no  fowls  are  brought  forth  in  Great 
Britain.  The  climate  is  too  severe  for  them  ;  the  cold  would  either  kill 
chickens  outright  or  prevent  their  growth  so  as  to  render  it  unprofit- 
able to  bestow  the  great  attention  which  their  reaiing  would  require. 
None  of  the  fowls  usually  lay  eggs  in  winter.  But  notwithstanding  this 
natural  barrier  to  the  propagation  of  fowls  in  winter,  both  chickens  and 
eggs  may,  by  good  management,  be  obtained  in  that  season. 

(1459.)  The  ordinary  fowls  on  a  farm  are  the  cock  (PJiasianus  gallus), 
the  turkey  ( Meleagris  galloparo),  the  goose  (Anas  anser),  the  duck 
(Anas  domestica),  and  the  pigeon  (Columha  Uvia),  the  white-backed  or 
rock  dove,  which  was  long  ago  confounded  with  the  blue-backed  dove 
f  Columha  <enas).  In  regard  to  all  these  1  shall  first  state  the  condition 
in  which  they  are  found  on  a  farm  in  winter,  and  then  describe  the  mode 
in  which  food  should  be  daily  supplied  them ;  and  as  they  may  all  be  fed 
with  nearly  the  same  ingredients,  the  mode  of  feeding  to  be  described 
will  apply  to  all. 

(1460.)  And  first,  in  regard  to  the  condition  of  the  hen.  As  hatchings 
of  chickens  are  brought  out  from  April  to  September,  there  will  be  broods 
of  chickens  of  different  ages  in  winter ;  some  as  old  as  to  be  capable  of 
laying  their  first  eggs,  and  others  only  mere  chickens.  The  portion  of 
those  breeds  which  should  be  taken  for  domestic  use  are  the  young  cocks 
and  the  older  hens,  there  being  a  feeling  of  reluctance  to  kill  young  hens, 
which  will  supply  eggs  largely  in  the  following  season.     At  all  events, 


TREATMENT  OF  FOWL  15 

should  any  hen-chickens  be  used  for  the  table,  the  most  likely  to  become 
good  layers  next  season  should  be  preserved.  The  marks  of  a  chicken 
likely  to  become  a  good  hen  ai-e  a  small  head,  bright  eyes,  tapering  neck, 
foil  breast,  straight  back,  plump  ovoidal-shaped  body,  and  moderate- 
lengthed  gray-colored  legs.  All  the  yellow-legged  chickens  should  be 
used,  whether  male  or  female,  as  their  flesh  never  has  so  fine  an  appear- 
ance as  the  others.  As  to  the  color  of  the  feathers,  that  is  not  a  matter 
of  much  importance,  some  preferring  to  have  them  all  white,  others  all 
black ;  but  I  believe  there  is  none  better  for  every  useful  purpose  than 
the  mottled  gray.  Young  fowls  may  either  be  roasted  or  boiled,  the  male 
making  the  best  roast  and  the  female  the  neatest  boil.  The  older  birds 
may  be  boiled  by  themselves  and  eaten  with  bacon,  or  assist  in  making 
broth,  or  that  once  favorite  wintei'-soup  in  Scotland — cockieleekie.  A 
chicken  never  eats  more  tenderly  than  when  killed  a  short  time  before 
being  dressed ;  but  if  not  so  soon  used,  it  should  hang  in  the  larder  for 
3  or  4  days  in  winter.  An  old  fowl  will  become  the  more  tender  on  be- 
ing kept  for  a  week  before  being  used.  The  criterion  of  a  fat  hen  is  a 
plump  breast,  and  the  rump  feeling  thick,  fat,  firm,  on  being  handled 
laterally  between  the  finger  and  thumb.  A  corroborative  criterion  is 
thickness  and  fatness  of  the  skin  of  the  abdomen,  and  the  existence  of 
fat  under  the  wings.  White  flesh  is  always  preferable,  though  poulterers 
insist  that  a  yeWow -shinned  chicken  makes  the  most  delicate  roast. 

(1461.)  Turkeys  being  hatched  in  May,  will  be  full  grown  in  stature  by 
winter,  and,  if  they  have  been  well  fed  in  the  interval,  will  be  ready  for 
use.  Indeed,  the  Christmas  season  never  fails  to  create  a  large  demand 
for  turkeys,  and  it  must  be  owned  there  are  few  more  delicate  and  beauti- 
ful dishes  presented  at  table,  or  a  more  acceptable  present  given  to  a 
friend,  than  a  fine  turkey.  Young  cocks  are  selected  for  roasting,  and 
young  hens  for  boiling,  and  both  are  most  relished  with  a  slice  of  ham  or 
of  pickled  ox-tongue.  The  varieties  in  common  use  are  white,  black  and 
mottled  gray  ;  and  of  these  the  white  yields  the  fairest  and  most  tender 
flesh.  The  criterion  of  a  good  turkey  is  fiillness  of  the  muscles  covering 
the  breast-bone,  thickness  of  the  rump  and  existence  of  fat  under  the 
wings ;  but  the  turkey  does  not  yield  much  fat,  its  greatest  property  being 
plenty  of  white  flesh.  Young  turkeys  attain  to  great  weights.  I  have 
had  yearly  young  cocks  weigliing,  at  Christmas,  18  lbs.  each  in  their 
feathers.  Norfolk  has  long  been  noted  for  its  turkeys,  where  they  are  fed 
on  buckwheat,  and  large  droves  are  annually  sent  to  the  London  market. 
A  turkey  is  deprived  of  life  by  cutting  its  throat,  when  it  becomes  com- 
pletely bled.  The  barbarous  practice  of  cutting  out  their  tongues  and 
hanging  them  up  by  the  feet  to  bleed  slowly  to  death,  for  the  alleged 
purpose  of  securing  whiteness  of  flesh,  ought  to  be  severely  reprobated. 

(1462.)  Geese,  having  been  hatched  in  the  early  part  of  summer,  will 
also  be  full  grown  and  fit  for  use  in  wintpr.  I  believe  there  is  very  little 
difference  in  flavor  or  appearance,  as  a  dish,  between  the  young  male  and 
young  female  goose,  though  there  may  be  some  difference  of  size.  The 
criterion  of  a  fat  goose  is  plumpness  of  muscle  over  the  breast,  and  thick- 
ness of  rump  when  alive ;  and,  when  dead  and  plucked,  the  additional 
one  of  a  uniform  covering  of  ivhite  fat  over  the  whole  breast.  It  is  a  very 
good  young^  goose  that  weighs  in  its  feathers  12  lbs.  at  Christmas.  The 
goose  is  as  favorite  a  dish  at  Christmas  as  the  turkey,  but  people  tire  of  it 
sooner,  and  in  consequence  it  is  not  so  frequently  served  at  table.  A 
green  goose  at  Michaelmas  is,  however,  considered  a  greater  delicacy  in 
England  than  a  turkey-poult.  Geese  are  always  roasted ;  and  their  flesh 
is  much  hightened  in  flavor  by  a  seasoning  of  onions  as  a  stuffing,  and 

(15) 


16  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

by  being  served  up  with  apple-sauce.  A  goose  should  be  kept  a  few  days 
before  being  used.  It  is  bled  to  death  by  an  incision  across  the  back  of 
the  head,  which  completely  bleeds  it.  Large  flocks  of  geese  are  reared 
in  Lincolnshire,  and  thence  driven  to  the  London  market.  It  is  rare  to 
see  a  graij  gander,  and  as  rare  to  meet  a  icliite  goose.  I  remember  seeing 
large  flocks  of  geese  on  the  islands  in  the  Elbe  near  Hamburg,  which 
were  reared  chiefly  for  their  quills,  their  carcasses  being  salted  and  sent 
to  Holland.  The  invention  of  the  steel-pen,  however,  has  much  injured 
the  quill-dressing  trade,  and,  in  consequence,  good  quills  are  now  not  easily 
obtained ;  aiid  their  deterioration  still  farther  encourages  the  use  of  the 
steel-pen.  Geese  have  long  been  proverbially  good  watchers.  I  have 
seen  a  gander  announce  the  approach  of  beggars  toward  the  kitchen-door 
as  lustily  as  any  watch-dog. 

(1463.)  Ducks,  being  also  early  hatched,  are  in  fine  condition  in  winter 
if  they  have  been  properly  fed.  Ducklings  soon  became  fit  for  use,  and 
are  much  relished  with  green  peas  in  summer.  I  believe  there  is  no  dif- 
ference in  flavor  and  delicacy  between  a  young  male  and  young  female 
duck.  They  are  most  frequently  roasted  and  stuffed  with  sage  and  onions  ; 
though  often  stewed,  and  if  smothered  among  onions,  when  stewed,  there 
are  few  more  savory  dishes  that  can  be  presented  at  a  farmer's  table.  A 
duck  never  eats  better  than  when  killed  immediately  before  being  dressed. 
It  is  deprived  of  life  by  chopping  off"  the  head  with  a  cleaver,  which  com- 
pletely bleeds  it. 

(1464.)  Hens  and  turkeys  are  most  easily  caught  on  their  roosts  at 
night  with  a  light,  which  seems  to  stupefy  them  ;  and  geese  and  ducks 
may  be  caught  in  any  outhouse  at  any  time  they  are  dnven  into  it. 

(1465.)  As  young  pigeons  alone  are  made  use  of,  and  as  the  pigeon  does 
not  hatch  in  winter,  they  require  no  other  notice  at  present  than  what  re- 
gards their  feeding ;  and  to  give  you  an  idea  of  their  gastronomic  pow- 
ers, of  three  rock-doves  which  were  sent  to  Professor  MacGillivray, 
"  The  number  of  oat-seeds  in  the  crop  of  the  second  amounted  to  1,000 
and  odds,  and  the  barley-seeds  in  that  of  another  were  510.  Now,  sup- 
posing," says  he,  '*  there  may  be  5,000  wild  pigeons  in  Shetland,  or  in 
Fetlar,  which  fed  on  grain  6  months  every  year,  and  fill  their  crops  once  a 
day,  half  of  them  with  barley  and  half  with  oats,  the  number  of  seeds 
picked  up  by  them  would  be  229,500,000  grains  of  barley,  and  450,000,000 
grains  of  oats — a  quantity  which  would  gladden  many  poor  families  in  a 
season  of  scarcity,  I  am  unable,"  he  adds,  "  to  estimate  the  number  of 
bushels,  and  must  leave  the  task  to  the  curious."*  And  the  task  I  have 
undertaken,  and  find  the  result  to  be  422  bushels  of  barley  and  786  of 
oats.t 

(1466.)  The  prices  of  poultry  in  towns  are  pretty  high.  In  Edinburgh, 
for  instance,  in  winter,  a  couple  of  chickens  are  28.  6d. ;  hens  from  Is.  to 
Is.  9d.  each  ;  ducks  3s.  per  couple ;  turkeys  3s.  6d.  to  8s.  apiece  ;  geese 
Ss.  6d.  to  Ss.  each ;  and  eggs  are  from  Is.  2d.  to  Is.  8d.  per  dozen.  In  the 
country  towns  the  prices  are  fully  one-third  below  these  ;  but  the  highest 
prices  in  London  are  not  more.  In  Russia  fat  turkeys  are  Is.  lOd.,  geese 
28.,  and  fowls  and  ducks  Is.  3d.  per  covple  !\  In  Ireland  poultry  of  all 
kinds  are  cheap  ;  but  not  so  much  so  as  in  Russia. 

(1467.)  Farmers  usually  sell  poultry  alive,  excepting  in  some  parts  of 


*  MacfiUlivrey'*  Hiitory  of  British  Bird*,  toI.  i. 

t  I  ascertained  the  result  by  wci^'hi ;  and  as  the  ftirt«  may  b«  worth  recording,  I  may  mention  that  in 
an  average  of  3  drarhmo,  ihfre  wore  ITi  urains  of  chevalier  barlt-y  in  each  drachm  of  a  sample  weiching 
56J  lbs.  per  bushel  ;  and  97  grains  of  S^ibcrian  early  oat  in  1  drachm  of  a  sample  ireichine  46  lbs.  per 
bushel.     Of  Cliiiiham  white  wheat,  weighing  65  lbs.  per  bushel,  there  were  86  grains  in  Uie  dnchm. 

X  Venables'  Tour  in  Russia,  Appendix. 
16J 


TREATMENT   OF   FOWLS.  17 

the  country,  such  as  the  Borders,  where  geese  are  killed  and  plucked  for 
the  sake  of"  their  feathers  before  being  sent  to  market.  Poulterers  in 
towns,  on  the  other  hand,  kill  and  pluck  every  sort  of  fowl  for  sale,  so 
that  the  purchaser  has  it  in  his  power  to  judge  of  the  carcass;  and  if  he 
buys  an  inferior  article  at  a  high  price  it  must  be  his  own  fault.  It  is 
easy  to  judge  of  a  plucked  fowl,  whether  old  or  young,  by  the  state  of 
the  legs.  If  a  hen's  spur  is  hard,  and  the  scales  on  the  legs  rough,  she  is 
old,  whether  you  see  her  head  or  no  ;  but  the  head  will  corroborate  your 
observation,  if  the  under-bill  is  so  stiff  that  you  cannot  bend  it  down,  and 
the  comb  thick  and  rough.  A  young  hen  has  only  the  rudiments  of  spurs, 
the  scales  on  the  legs  smooth,  glossy  and  fresh  colored,  whatever  the  color 
may  be,  the  claws  tender  and  short,  the  under-bill  soft,  and  the  comb  thin 
and  smooth.  An  old  hen-turkey  has  rough  scales  on  the  legs,  callosities  on 
the  soles  of  the  feet,  and  long,  strong  claws  ;  a  young  one  the  reverse  of 
all  these  marks.  When  the  feathers  are  on,  an  old  turkey-cock  has  a  long 
beard,  a  young  one  but  a  sprouting  one ;  and  when  they  are  off  the 
smooth  scales  on  the  legs  decide  the  point,  beside  difference  of  size  in  the 
wattles  of  the  neck,  and  in  the  elastic  snot  upon  the  nose.  An  old  goose, 
when  alive,  is  known  by  the  roughness  of  the  legs,  the  strength  of  the 
wings,  particularly  at  the  pinions,  the  thickness  and  strength  of  the  bill, 
and  the  firmness  and  thickness  of  the  feathers;  and  when  plucked,  by  the 
legs,  pinions  and  bill,  and  the  coarseness  of  the  skin.  Ducks  are  distin- 
guished by  the  same  means,  but  there  is  this  difference,  that  a  duckling's 
bill  is  much  longer  in  proportion  to  the  breadth  of  its  head  than  that  of  an 
old  duck.  A  young  pigeon  is  easily  discovered  by  its  pale-colored, 
smooth-scaled,  tender,  collapsed  feet,  and  the  yellow,  long  down  inter- 
spersed among  the  feathers.  A  pigeon  that  can  fly  has  always  red-colored 
legs  and  no  down,  and  is  then  too  old  for  use. 

(1^68.)  The  hen-houses  are  placed  at  d  on  the  plan  and  view,  figs.  3 
and  4,  Plates  III.  and  IV.  They  are  divided  into  3  apartments,  each  hav 
ing  a  giblet-check  door  to  open  outward,  and  all  included  within  a  court- 
yard provided  with  an  outer  door  and  lock.  The  use  of  3  apartments  is  to 
devote  one  of  them  to  the  hens  and  turkeys,  which  roost  high  ;  another  to 
the  geese  and  ducks,  which  rest  on  the  floor ;  and  the  third  to  a  hatching- 
house  to  accommodate  both.  When  geese  are  obliged  to  rest  below  hens 
they  are  made  uncomfortable  and  dirty  by  the  droppings  of  those  which 
roost  above  them.  The  innermost  apartment,  being  the  largest,  should  be 
occupied  by  the  most  numerous  body  of  fowls,  namely  :  the  hens  and  tur- 
keys ;  the  right-hand  one  by  the  geese  and  ducks ;  and  the  left-hand  one 
in  hatching,  to  which  access  is  given  by  a  trap-ladder  and  opening  through 
the  wall  at  the  road,  to  admit  the  laying  hens.  There  should  be  an  open- 
ing with  a  sliding-shut  in  the  outer  door,  as  well  as  one  in  the  doors  of  the 
geese-house  and  hatching-house,  to  give  admittance  to  the  bii'ds  when  dis- 
posed to  go  to  rest  in  the  afternoon ;  and  these  shuts  should  be  fastened 
every  night.  In  the  accommodation  thus  appropriated  to  every  class  of 
fowls,  each  apartment  will  be  taken  up  by  its  own  class.  The  usual  prac- 
tice is  to  put  all  kinds  of  fowls  into  the  same  apartment ;  and  the  small 
space  occupied  by  even  this  single  room  seems  to  be  grudged,  as  if  any 
sort  of  accommodation,  however  hampered  or  incommodious,  were  good 
enough  for  poultry.  How  breeders  and  feeders  of  stock  can  reconcile 
their  minds  to  such  indifference  toward  any  class  of  their  live-stock,  while 
possessing  the  desire  of  having  a  good  fowl  at  their  table,  is  more  than  I 
can  imagine,  unless  they  believe  that  quite  opposite  modes  of  treatment 
will  produce  similar  results  !  In  very  cold  weather  the  inner  apartment, 
occupied   by  the  hens  and  turkeys,  could  be  kept   sufficiently  warm  by 

(17) 


18  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


1 


heaping  the  horse-dung  from  the  work -stable  under  and  upon  the  feeding- 
trough  in  the  court  K,  immediately  liehiud  the  back  wall  of  the  hou-hduse, 
as  high  up  against  it  as  is  thought  desirable  ;  and  a  quantity  of  straw  could 
be  put  on  the  slated  roofs  of  all  the  apartments  during  a  continued  storm. 
Snow  forms  a  warm  covering  on  a  roof,  but  the  heat  from  fowls  roosting 
under  soon  melts  it ;  so  that  it  is  better  to  remove  the  snow  and  put  on 
sti'aw,  and  allow  the  snow  to  fall  upon  the  straw.  Fowls  thrive  best 
where  there  is  a  mild  temperature,  but  not  a  great  heat ;  and  such  expe- 
dients will  supply  them  with  a  sufficiency  of  heat  during  the  severity  of  a 
winter  storm. 

(1469.)  The  pigeon-house  is  placed  in  the  gable  of  the  boiling-house  U, 
fig.  8,  Plate  111.,  to  receive  warmth  in  winter  from  the  fire  usually  kept  in 
that  apartment.  When  pigeons  are  thus  artificially  supplied  with  heat, 
they  not  only  continue  to  hatch  longer  in  autumn,  but  will  recommence  in 
spring  sooner  than  they  would  otherwise  do.  Indeed,  by  a  little  manage- 
ment in  this  way,  and  taking  care  to  keep  the  house  always  pretty  full  of 
pigeons  to  retain  heat  among  themselves,  they  might  be  encouraged  to 
hatch  all  the  year,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  two  months  in  the 
depth  of  winter,  in  December  and  January.  Pigeons,  like  other  birds,  aie 
most  prolific  when  not  too  old  ;  and  as  old  cocks  are  exceedingly  tvran- 
nical  to  the  young  ones,  they  should  be  destroyed  as  well  as  the  oldest 
hens.  It  is  no  easy  matter  to  get  hold  of  flying  pigeons  to  kill  them,  as 
they  are  always  on  the  alert  and  make  their  escape ;  but  there  are  various 
ways  of  destroying  them,  and  a  favorite  one  is  shooting,  but  it  is  not  the 
best  in  this  case,  as  young  ones  may  be  wounded  while  aiming  at  the  old- 
er birds.  The  safest  plan  is  to  mark  the  birds  you  wish  to  destroy  daily 
for  some  time,  in  order  to  recognize  them  readily,  and  the  old  cocks  are 
easily  discernible  by  their  forward  manner,  and  the  interruption  they  give 
at  the  pigeon-holes  to  the  entrance  of  others.  These  remarks  apply  spe- 
cially to  the  recognition  of  old  cocks,  but  are  inapplicable  to  old  hens,  as 
they  never  conduct  themselves  so.  Other  means  must,  therefore,  be  taken 
to  recognize  them,  and  the  same  may  be  applied  to  the  cocks ;  and  these 
are  those  given  above  for  the  detection  of  dead  old  and  young  pigeons. 
The  marks  are  rough,  scaly  legs,  callous  soles  of  the  feet,  high  red  color 
of  the  scales,  strong  bill,  strong  wings,  thick  covering  of  feathers,  and 
brightness  of  the  play  of  colors  upon  the  neck.  All  these  marks  are  most 
conspicuous  in  winter,  the  very  season  when  the  process  of  cocking  a 
pigeon-house,  as  it  is  termed,  should  be  performed,  as  then  there  are  no 
young  to  be  unknowingly  deprived  of  their  parents.  The  safest  way  of 
doing  it  is  to  enter  the  pigeon-house  gently,  late  of  a  dark  night,  with  a 
light.  On  enteiing  with  the  light,  and  shutting  the  door,  it  will  bewilder 
the  pigeons,  and  the  first  movements  should  be  to  stop  up  the  holes  to  pre- 
vent them  escaping,  which  the  old  cocks  will  be  the  first  to  attempt  ;  and 
should  the  holes  be  beyond  the  reach  of  the  floor,  a  ladder  should  be 
taken  in  to  assist  in  effecting  the  purpose.  Two  persons  arc  required  to 
capture  the  pigeons,  as  they  will  endeavor  to  elude  every  attempt ;  and 
one  to  take  special  charge  of  the  light,  which,  if  taken  out  of  the  lantern — 
and  it  should  be  so  if  the  lantern  is  not  of  glass — to  afford  plenty  of  licrhr, 
is  apt  to  be  blown  out  by  the  wind  occasioned  by  the  pigeons  flying  about. 
Should  this  be  the  case,  a  lucifcr  match  should  be  in  readiness  to  rekindle 
it.  A  light  landing  net  used  by  anglers  is  a  convenient  instrument  for  en- 
trapping a  pigeon,  whether  sitting  or  flying.  Every  bird  that  is  caught 
should  be  examined  and  recognized,  and  every  one  exhibiting  signs  of  old 
age  should  be  destroyed,  by  |)ushing  the  point  of  the  thumb  with  force 
into  the  back  of  the  head,  and  severing  the  cervical  vertebras,  or  applying 

(18) 


TREATMENT  OF  FOWLS.  19 


the  teeth  for  that  purpose  ;  but  should  these  modes  be  disliked  or  imprac- 
ticable, rather  than  torture  the  poor  devoted  animals  by  abortive  attempts, 
let  their  heads  be  cut  off  at  once  by  a  sharp  table-knife.  When  this  pro- 
cess of  tveeding  is  performing,  it  should  be  done  effectually  at  once,  and 
not  repeated  in  the  same  season,  as  a  nocturnal  visitation  such  as  this  can- 
not fail  to  intimidate  the  whole  flock.  Nor  should  it  be  done  in  the  sea- 
son of  hatching,  though  done  w^ithout  fail  every  year,  and  the  consequence 
will  be  that  your  pigeon-house  will  be  stored  with  prolific  birds,  and  re- 
ceive no  annoyance  from  birds  which  have  become  barren.  Perhaps  a 
dozen  of  birds,  male  and  female,  so  destroyed,  may  suffice  at  a  time.  On 
removing  the  stopping  from  the  holes,  and  the  slain  birds,  and  closing  the 
door,  the  creatures  will  be  left  in  quietness. 

(1470.)  The  daily  treatment  of  fowls  maybe  conducted  in  this  manner: 
Some  person  should  have  special  charge  of  them,  and  the  dairy-maid  is 
perhaps  the  best  qualified  for  it.  As  fowls  are  very  early  risers,  she 
should  go  to  the  hen-house  in  the  morning,  on  her  way  to  the  byre,  and  let 
out  all  the  fowls,  giving  the  hens  and  turkeys  a  feed  of  light  corn  and  cold 
boiled  potatoes,  strewed  along  at  some  convenient  and  established  place 
out  of  the  way  of  the  general  passage  of  horses  and  carts  ;  such  as  be- 
tween the  hammels  N,  and  the  byre-court  /,  fig.  3,  Plate  III.  The  ducks 
should  get  the  same  food  either  near  the  horse-pond,  or  where  there  is  a 
pond  or  trough  of  water,  as  they  cannot  swallow  dry  food  without  the  as- 
sistance of  water.  Geese  thrive  well  upon  sliced  turnips,  a  little  of  which, 
sliced  small,  should  be  left  by  the  cattle-man  for  the  dairy-maid  at  any  of 
the  stores,  and  given  at  a  place  apart  from  the  hens.  When  stated  places 
are  thus  established  for  feeding  fowls  at  fixed  hours,  they  will  resort  to 
them  at  those  hours  ;  at  least  the  well-known  call  will  bring  the  hour  to 
tneir  recollection,  and  collect  them  together  on  the  spot  in  a  few  seconds, 
and  the  regular  administration  of  food  being  as  essential  for  their  welfare 
as  that  of  other  stock.  Ducks  pick  up  a  good  deal  of  what  falls  about  the 
stable,  and  near  the  corn-barn  door,  as  well  as  in  the  straw-barn  ;  and 
geese  will  help  themselves  to  the  turnips  that  may  chance  to  fall  from  the 
troughs  of  the  cattle  ;  and  they  are  also  fond  of  raw  potatoes.  After  her 
own  dinner,  say  1  o'clock  P.  M.,  the  dairy-maid  takes  a  part  of  the  pota- 
toes that  have  been  boiled  at  that  time,  and  while  a  little  warm,  gives 
them  crumbled  down,  from  their  skins,  with  some  light  corn,  to  the  tur- 
keys and  hens.  At  this  time  of  the  day,  the  spaces  below  the  stathels  of 
the  stacks  in  the  stack-yard  form  excellent  dry  sheltered  places  for  laying 
down  food,  and  the  stack-yard  is  a  very  probable  place  for  their  resort  af^ 
ter  their  morning  meal,  especially  when  it  rains  or  snows.  In  laying  down 
food  for  the  fowls,  the  pigeons  should  be  remembered,  as  they  will  feed  with 
the  hens,  and  on  the  same  sort  of  food.  Before  sunset  the  fowls  are  all 
collected  together  by  a  call,  and  put  into  the  house,  and  which  they  will 
readily  enter ;  and  many  will  have  taken  up  their  abode  in  it  already, 
especially  the  turkeys,  which  go  very  soon  to  roost.  The  ducks  are  the 
latest  idlers.  The  floors  of  the  different  apartments  should  be  littered 
with  a  little  fresh  straw  every  day,  sufficient  to  cover  the  dung,  and  the 
vyhole  cleaned  out  every  week.  Sawdust  or  sand,  where  they  are  ea- 
sily obtained,  form  an  excellent  covering  for  the  floor  of  hen-houses. 
Troughs  of  water  should  be  placed  in  the  court-yard,  and  supplied  fresh 
and  clean  every  day. 

(1471.)  This  mode  of  daily  treatment  will  maintain  fowls  in  a  condition 
tor  using  at  any  time,  and  it  cannot  be  said  to  involve  much  expense,  for 
the  riddlings  of  potatoes  boiled  and  light  corn  may  be  considered  as  the 
offal  of  the  farm  ;  but  the  truth  is,  food  administered  to  these  creatures  at 

(19) 


20  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

irregular  intervals,  tlioupfli  it  be  of  the  finest  quality,  will  be  comparatively 
thrown  away,  when  compared  to  the  gOf)cl  eHects  of  food  of  even  inferior 
nutriment  given  them  at  stated  /luurx.  This  jilan  contrasts  favorably  with 
that  which  gives  them  large  (juantities  of  food  at  long  intei'vals,  and  in  an 
unpleasant  state  ;  and  also  with  that  which  permits  fowls  to  shift  for  their 
meat  at  the  farmstead.  Either  of  these  ways  will  never  fatten  fowls;  fc»r 
food  given  in  overal)undance  at  one  time  and  restricted  at  another,  can 
never  fatten  any  animal  ;  nor  will  they  obtain  sufficient  food  at  all  times 
when  made  to  shift  for  themselves,  because  fowls  are  like  all  other  an- 
imals, some  can  forage  about  most  perseveringly,  while  others  are  indo- 
lent, and  some  careless  of  Ibod  when  it  is  not  placed  before  them.  A 
regular  ])lan  is  recommended,  which  is,  always  supply  them  with  a  certain 
quantitv  of  food,  ascertained  by  experience,  and  dependent  on  the  nature 
of  the  flock  ;  when  this  is  repeated  daily  at  stated  times,  their  condition 
must  increase,  because  it  cannot  decrease,  the  minimum  quantity  of  food 
being  always  sufficient  to  appease  hunger  ;  and  this  want  they  can  never 
feel  keenly  when  supplied  with  food  at  appointed  times.  Thus,  in  the 
long  run,  more  nutriment  will  be  derived  from  inferior  food  regularly  ad- 
ministered, than  from  richer  given  iiregularly.  Should  it  be  desired,  how- 
ever, to  be  particularly  indulgent  to  fowls  intended  for  immediate  use,  the 
following  materials  will  render  the  respective  sorts  of  fowls  perfectly  rijye 
in  a  short  time.  Boiled  potatoes,  warm,  and  light  wheat,  for  hens  ;  boiled 
potatoes,  warm,  and  firm  oatmeal  porridge,  warm,  for  turkeys  ;  boiled  po- 
tatoes, warm,  and  oats,  for  geese  ;  and  boiled  potatoes,  warm,  and  boiled 
barley,  warm,  for  ducks.  The  potatoes  and  porridge  should  be  crumbled 
down  in  small  pieces.  But  immediate  effiicts,  even  from  superior  food, 
can  only  be  expected  on  fowls  that  have  been  regularly  fed  as  recom- 
mended above,  up  to  the  time  the  superior  food  is  indulged  in.  Let 
starved  fowls  receive  the  same  ingredients,  and  a  long  time  will  elapse  ere 
they  exhibit  symptoms  of  improved  condition,  besides  the  risk  they  run, 
in  the  mean  time,  of  receiving  injury  from  surfeit  and  indigestion.  No 
doubt,  superior  feeding  would  incur  cost,  if  persevered  in  throughout  the 
season  ;  but  I  am  not  disposed  to  deny  that,  were  proper  breeds  of  fowls 
only  cultivated,  and  the  shortness  of  time  taken  into  consideration  in 
which  a  pure  breed  will  rijten  upon  it,  that  profit  would  be  derived  from 
its  use.  The  experiment  has  never  been  satisfactorily  attempted  by  the 
farmer,  and  all  the  accounts  we  know  of  superior  feeding,  apart  from  ex- 
periments by  men  of  science,  are  only  derived  from  the  establishments  of 
noblemen,  whose  object  is  not  to  obtain  profit,  but  the  possession  of  a  su- 
periorly fed  animal. 

(147l^)  Other  ingredients  may  be  and  are  used  for  the  feeding  of  fowls, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  brank  or  buckwheat,  rice,  and  Indian 
Cora.  Buckwheat  is  successfully  grown  in  England  ;  not  so  in  Scotland. 
It  is  said  to  fatten  poultry  well,  though  not  so  well  as  grain.  Rice  may 
be  given  either  raw  or  boiled  ;  in  the  former  state  fowls  will  pick  it  as 
readily  as  grain  after  feeding  on  boiled  potatoes,  and,  when  boiled,  it  will 
fatten  without  the  aid  of  potatoes,  but,  of  course,  it  is  more  expensive,  as 
even  good  damaged  rice  can  seldom  be  obtained  under  16s.  or  18s.  per 
cwt.,  which  is  nearly  2d.  per  lb.,  without  the  expense  of  cooking.  Fine 
barley,  weighing  CjQ  lbs.  per  bushel,  selling,  as  it  is  at  present,  at  3s.  6d. 
per  bushel,  is  only  -^  of  a  })enny  per  lb.  Indian  corn  is  employed  in 
America,  in  the  southern  part.s  of  Germany,  and  in  Lombardy,  for  feeding 
poultry,  and  they  become  very  fat  upon  it.  It  is  too  large  to  be  swallowed 
raw,  like  the  horse-bean  of  this  country,  but  when  steeped  in  water,  or 
boiled,  it  is  easily  eaten.     If  sold  at  even  8s.  per  bushel,  its  cost  would  be 

(20) 


TREATMENT  OF  FOWLS.  21 

under  2d.  per  lb.  "From  a  desire  to  save  expense,"  says  Boswell,  "  the 
bran  of  wheat,  and  sometimes  pollard,  or  middlings,  are  given  to  fowls  ; 
but  these  bruised  skins,  where  little  if  any  of  the  farina  of  wheat  remains, 
appear  to  contain  a  very  small  portion  of  nourishment  in  proportion  to 
the  cost  price.  M.  Reamur  found  by  experiment  that  it  is  little  or  no 
saving  to  substitute  bran  for  good  grain  in  feeding  poultry.  Bran  is  not 
given  dry,  but  mixed  with  water  to  the  consistence  of  paste.  Some  peo- 
ple boil  this  ;  but  it  does  not  increase  the  bulk,  except  in  a  very  trilling 
degree,  and  is,  therefore,  of  small  advantage.  He  found  that  2  measures 
of  dry  bran,  mixed  with  water,  were  consumed  by  fowls  in  the  same  time 
that  they  would  have  eaten  a  single  measure  of  boiled  barley,  equivalent 
to  f  of  a  measure  of  barley."*  Bran  of  itself,  therefore,  it  appears,  is  of 
no  use  to  fowls  as  food ;  but  it  may  be  made  the  means  of  conveying 
nourishing  food  to  them,  in  the  shape  of  fat,  broth,  and  other  rich  liquids 
from  the  kitchen,  which  they  could  not  otherwise  avail  themselves  of  but 
through  such  an  absorbent.  Fowls  are  very  fond  of  bread,  and  even  of 
butcher-meat,  cooked  or  raw  ;  and  they  will  pick  a  rough  bone  very  neatly. 
They  sometimes  also  display  carnivorous  propensities.  Many  a  time  have 
I  observed  them  watching  for  a  mouse  at  the  casting  down  of  a  stack  in 
the  stack-yard  ;  and  the  moment  one  was  seen  to  escape,  away  they  would 
run,  cocks  and  hens  together,  in  full  chase  after  it ;  and  on  mobbing  it, 
peck  it  not  only  to  death,  but  to  pieces,  and  then  swallow  it. 

(1473.)  I  have  said  that  eggs,  and  chickens  too,  maybe  obtained  in  win- 
ter by  good  management.  The  young  hens  of  the  first  broods  in  April 
will  be  old  enough  to  lay  eggs  in  winter.  A  few  of  these  should  be  select- 
ed for  the  purpose  ;  and  when  the  period  of  laying  approaches — which 
may  be  ascertained  by  their  chaunting  a  song  and  an  increased  redness  of 
the  comb — they  should  be  encouraged  by  better  feeding  and  warmer 
housing  at  night.  The  feeding  consists  of  warm  potato  and  firm  oatmeal 
porridge  twice  a  day — at  morning  when  they  are  let  out,  and  in  the  after- 
noon at  1  o'clock.  To  give  them  peace  in  feeding  upon  their  more  tempt- 
ing fare,  they  may  be  fed  by  themselves  in  the  court-yard  of  the  hen- 
houses, and  the  door  shut  upon  them  after  the  rest  of  the  fowls  have  left 
their  night's  quarters.  And  their  more  comfortable  housing  c(msists  in 
directing  them  into  the  hatching-house  betimes  every  afternoon,  and  there- 
in making  for  them  a  number  of  comfortable  nests  of  clean  oat-straw,  to 
choose  among ;  and  when  they  have  taken  to  the  one  each  selects  for  her 
own,  leaving  an  old  e^^^  in  it  for  a  nest-egg.  These  three  or  four  young 
hens  will  lay  as  many  eggs  every  day  ;  and  though  they  are  not  so  large 
as  those  of  more  matured  fowls,  being  only  pullets'  eggs,  still  they  will  be 
fresh  ;  and  it  is  no  small  luxury  to  enjoy  a  new-laid  eg^  at  breakfast  every 
winter  morning — a  luxury  which  I  enjoyed  for  as  many  years  as  I  lived 
in  the  countiy. 

(1474.)  With  regai'd  to  young  broods  in  winter,  I  believe  few  people 
will  impose  upon  themselves  the  trouble  of  setting  hens  on  eggs  so  lalc!  in 
the  season  for  the  purpose  of  rearing  chickens  in  winter;  and  yet  it  may 
be  done  without  difficulty  ;  but  sometimes  the  task  is  imposed  involunta- 
rily upon  one,  inasmuch  as  some  hens  will  secrete  their  nests  in  the  fields, 
among  corn,  or  at  a  hedge-root,  or  other  safe  place,  and  bring  out  strong 
broods  of  chickens  on  the  eve  of  winter.  In  such  an  event,  the  little  inno- 
cents, brous^ht  into  a  cold  world,  cannot  be  allowed  to  perish  merely  for  want 
of  care.  When  such  a  brood  makes  its  appearance,  or  is  purposely  brought 
forth,  it  should  be  kept  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  flock,  in  a  warm  and 

*  BoaweH'B  Pouiti-y  Yard. 
(21) 


22  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


sheltered  place ;  and  where  no  better  place  presents  itself,  it  may  he  com- 
fortably housed  in  a  comer  of  the  boiling-house,  (U,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.,) 
where  a  hamper  or  basket,  placed  over  mother  and  chickens,  or  a  fence  of 
some  kind,  eroctt'd  acn)83  a  comer  near  the  fire,  will  protect  them  from  ex- 
ternal danjjer.  Thence  they  should  l>e  let  out  in  the  forenoon,  to  enjoy  the 
air  and  bask  in  the  sun,  and  be  returned  to  their  shelter  long  before  sun- 
set. In  rainy  weather  they  should  be  conducted  to  a  shed  ;  and  in  hard 
frost  they  may  l»e  kept  in  the  house  altogether,  as  frost  soon  benumbs 
their  legs,  and  if  they  lose  the  power  of  which,  they  will  soon  droop  and 
die.  A  nest  of  straw,  elevated  some  inches  above  the  floor,  to  keep  them 
above  the  draft  of  air  that  sweeps  along  the  floor,  and  having  a  broad 
base  to  afford  the  chickens  an  easy  access  to  their  nest,  should  be  formed, 
for  the  hen  to  brood  them  on  at  night  ;  and  when  fresh  litter  is  given  them 
ever)'  evening,  a  little  of  the  cleanest  and  warmest  to  be  found  under  a 
cow  in  the  adjoining  byre,  where  she  has  lain,  will  be  most  acceptable  to 
the  tiny  limbs  of  the  active  brood.  Food  should  be  given  them  from 
morning  to  evening  every  three  hours.  It  may  consist  of  warm  boiled 
mealy  potatoes  crumbled  down  small,  picks  of  oatmeal  porridge,  mealy 
boiled  potatoes  warm,  mixed  with  oatmeal,  and  a  flat  dish  of  clean  water. 
With  a  little  vaiiety  of  food,  daily  attention,  and  temperate  housing,  they 
will  get  on  well,  and  by  spring  be  as  plump  as  parti idges  and  as  valuable 
as  ortolans.  I  am  surjjrised  to  observe  Mr.  Mowbray  say  that  "  to  uttnnpt 
to  rear  winter  chickens  in  this  climate,  even  in  a  caipeted  room,  and  with 
a  constant  fire,  would  in  all  probability  be  found  abortive.  I  have  repeat- 
edly made  the  experiment,"  he  adds,  "  with  scores,  without  being  able  to 
preserve  an  individual  through  the  winter."*  The  diflficulty  I  consider 
small,  though  the  trouble  may  be  unnecessary,  but  neither  a  "  cai-peted 
room,"  nor  a  "  constant  fire,"  will  assist  much  in  the  rearing  of  chickens, 
the  whole  secret  of  the  art  consisting  of  suitable  food,  moderate  deg^'ee 
of  temperature,  fresh  air  and  constant  attention. 

(1475.)  Such  is  the  way  I  would  recommend  the  feeding  of  poultry  on 
a  farm.  It  is  not  an  expensive  mode  in  a  pecuniar)'  point  of  view,  consist- 
ing entirely  of  ordinary  fare  and  regular  attention  ;  and  therein  consists 
the  entire  value  of  the  plan.  That  the  plan  is  valuable  and  woilhy  of  imi- 
tation has  been  proved  beyond  doubt,  by  its  supplying  fowls  of  every  kind 
in  their  respective  seasons,  in  high  condition — at  any  period  of  the  season 
they  were  required — and  without  any  previous  formal  preparation.  Thus, 
a  chicken,  a  young  cock,  a  hen,  were  at  command  throughout  the  year;  a 
ducklinir  throughout  the  autumn;  and  a  goose  or  a  turkey  from  Michael- 
mas to  March  ;  and  this  not  for  one  year,  or  only  in  a  favorable  season,  but 
year  after  year  for  fifteen  years,  as  long  as  I  had  opportunity  to  practice 
it.  In  sb-ort,  a  youns:  fat  fowl  and  a  fresh  GS!,%  were  never  wanting,  from 
January  to  December;  and  there  is  a  great  deal  of  truth  in  Cobbett's 
remark,  where  he  says,  "  one  thing  about  fowls  ought  always  to  be  borne 
in  mind.  They  are  never  good  for  anything  after  they  have  attained  their 
full  growth,  unless  they  be  capons  or  poullards."t 

(1476.)  In  regard  to  the  undue  means  used  for  pampering  fowls  to  fat- 
ness, I  quite  agree  with  Cobbett  that  "  crammed  fowls  are  very  nasty 
things;"  and  when  we  reflect  on  the  worse  than  imprisonment  practiced  for 
the  purpose,  by  coopinir  up  fowls  in  the  dark,  and  tyinij  their  feet  together, 
the  means  used  to  obtain  the  end  become  reprehensible.  Liebig  explains 
the  rationale  of  this  latter  practice.  "Experience,"  he  says,  "teaches  us 
that  in  poultry  the  maximum  of  fat  is  obtained  by  tying  the  feet  and  by  a 


•  Mowbray's  Pnctical  Treatise  on  Domeatic  Poultry.  t  Cobbett's  Cottage  Economy. 

(22) 


TREATMENT   OF   FOWLS.  23 


medium  temperature.  These  animals,  in  such  cii'cumstances,  may  be  com- 
pared to  a  plant  possessing  in  the  highest  degree  the  power  of  converting 
all  food  into  parts  of  its  own  structure.  The  excess  of  the  constituents  of 
blood  form  flesh  and  other  organized  tissues,  while  that  of  starch,  suo-ar, 
&c.,  is  converted  into  fat.  When  animals  are  fed  on  food  destitute  of  nitro- 
gen, only  parts  of  their  structure  increase  in  size.  Thus,  in  a  goose,  fat- 
tened in  the  method  above  alluded  to,  the  liver  becomes  three  or  foui" 
times  larger  than  in  the  same  animal  when  well  fed  with  free  motion, 
while  we  cannot  say  that  the  organized  structure  of  the  liver  is  thereby 
increased.  The  liver  of  a  goose  fed  in  the  ordinary  way  is  Jirf?i  and  elas- 
tic ;  that  of  the  imprisoned  animal  soft  and  spongy.  The  difference  con- 
sists in  a  greater  or  less  expansion  of  its  cells,  which  are  filled  with  fat."* 
This  practice  appears  to  me  the  more  reprehensible,  in  that  its  principal 
effect  is  to  increase  the  bulk  of  offal  only. 

(1477.)  Peacocks  may  be  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  turkeys;  and  as 
to  guinea-fowls,  notwithstanding  the  deliciouSness  of  their  eggs,  they  should 
never  be  tolerated  in  a  farm-yard,  both  on  account  of  the  horrid  noise  they 
make,  and  of  the  strong  propensity  they  always  evince  to  annoy  other  fowls. 

(1478.)  The  feathers  of  the  vaiious  sorts  of  fowls  used  are  either  dis- 
posed of  or  converted  into  domestic  use.  The  following  directions  on 
sweetening  and  managing  feathers  are  given  by  a  notable  housewife  of 
my  acquaintance  ;  and  as  they  very  nearly  accord  with  my  own  experi- 
ence, I  shall  transcribe  them  in  her  own  intelligent  words.  "  Every  one 
is  aware  that  the  feathers  of  cocks  and  hens  are  very  inferior  to  those  of 
geese  and  ducks  for  the  purpose  of  filling  beds  and  pillows  ;  and,  conse- 
quently, it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  mention  that  the  former  should  be  kept 
separate  from  those  of  the  latter  two  fowls.  As  the  birds  are  plucked,  the 
large  feathers  should  be  selected  and  placed  asunder.  Paper-bags  are  the 
best  recipients.  The  pinion  feathers  should  be  sti'ipped  from  the  quill,  and 
added  to  the  other  feathers ;  and,  if  great  caution  have  not  been  used 
in  plucking  the  birds,  they  should  be  carefully  looked  over,  that  no  part 
of  the  skin  has  been  toni  and  adhering  to  the  base  of  the  quills.  The 
bags  of  feathers  should  be  placed  in  the  bread-oven  on  the  day  after  it  has 
been  heated,  and,  after  some  hours,  removed  to  a  dry,  airy  place  ;  and  this 
ought  to  be  done  every  week."  On  this  part  of  the  subject,  I  may  mention 
a  less  troublesome  plan  than  the  oven,  where  the  adjoining  apartment  be- 
hind the  kitchen  fire  is  not  in  constant  use,  which  is  that  in  such  a  situation 
feathers  may  be  hung  up  in  bags  against  the  wall  behind  the  fire,  and  there 
they  will  soon  win.  *'  Notwithstanding,"  continues  our  instructress,  "  eveiy 
apparent  caution  shall  have  been  used,  the  feathers  are  fi'equently  found 
to  be  tainted,  either  from  carelessness  in  plucking,  or  by  neglecting  to 
attend  to  them  afterward ;  and  no  subsequent  baking  or  picking  will  be 
found  available  to  restore  them.  In  this  case,  the  only  method  to  render 
them  sweet  is  to  boil  them,  which  is  to  be  effected  in  the  folio  wins:  man- 
ner :  One  or  two  large  canvas  or  calico  bags  must  be  made,  into  which 
the  feathers  from  the  small  paper-bags  must  be  emptied  and  tied  up  ;  a 
washing-copper  must  be  nearly  filled  with  rain-water,  and  made  to  boil. 
The  calico  bags  then,  one  at  a  time,  are  to  be  dipped,  and,  by  means  of  a 
stick,  pushed  about,  and  squeezed  and  kneaded  for  the  space  of  four  or  five 
minutes,  then  lifted  out  and  taken  out  of  doors,  and  being  tied  together  and 
the  openings  kept  secure,  that  no  feathers  may  escape,  they  must  be  hung 
over  a  line  and  left  to  drain  and  diy.  Several  times  a  day  the  bags  are  to 
be  shaken  up  and  turned  over;   and  as  soon  as  the  feathers  appear  to  be 


*  Liehiij's  Animal  Chemietry. 
(23) 


24  THE  nOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

light  and  dryinir,  which  will  not  be  the  case  for  nearly  a  week,  the  Iwtrs 
must  be  liuiijT  uj)  (liiriniT  dry  weather  only,  and  taken  in  every  niijht.  In 
about  a  fortnight  the  feathers  will  Ixu-ome  perfectly  sweet  and  ready  for 
use  ;  and  the  water  in  which  they  were  boiled  will  sufficiently  indicate 
that  this  plan  was  not  only  necessary,  but  efficacious,  in  cleansing  them 
from  impurities  which  would  else  have  rendered  them  useless."  As  an 
attestation  of  the  practical  efficacy  of  the  plan,  the  lady  adds,  "  having  tried 
the  method  ourselves,  we  can  assure  our  readers  of  its  eligibility."* 

(1479.)  In  regard  to  the  diseases  of  fowls,  I  can  safely  say  that  if  fowls 
are  attended  to  in  a  systematic  manner,  with  wholesome  food  prepared  for 
them  every  day,  and  their  roosting  place  kept  clean  and  airy,  very  few 
diseases  will  affect  them  at  any  age. 

[The  reader  will  please  remember  that  only  Notes  are  promised  to  this  "Book  of  the  Farm," 
not  dissertations.     They  are  better  placed  in  another  part  of  this  journal. 

On  the  subject  ui  Poultry,  when  a  country  lad,  not  nnobscr\'ant  of  all  such  things,  our  experi- 
ence covered  the  whole  ground ;  and  who  tlia'  was  thus  reared  does  not  retain  in  his  memory, 
through  life,  lively  associations  as  connected  with  this  department  ot  his  juvenile  sports  and  ppncu- 
latious  ?  We  have  somewhere  seen  it  said  that  Mr.  Wkbsteu's  first  investment  was  in  a  Dom- 
inica cock,  which  he  carried  under  his  arm  in  a  smart  journey  on  foot,  stopping  to  fight  him 
against  every  cock  that  dared  crow  along  the  roadside  ;  and  this,  be  it  said  en  passant,  is  not  the 
only  point  in  which  the  "Great  Expounder"  has  evinced  Southern  propensities.  On  the  sub- 
ject of  poultry  management  generally,  our  observation  agrees,  in  the  main,  as  to  want  of  care  and 
system,  with  what  is  here  said. 

In  this  case,  as  in  many  others  badly  conducted,  common  sense  dictates  all  that  is  necessary  to 
be  borne  in  mind.  In  the  first  place,  if  the  barn-yard,  dung-hill  and  proper  range  of  the  poultry 
do  not  afford  sufficient  food  to  keep  them  in  good,  healthy  and  thriving  condition,  the  deficiency 
should  be  supplied  with  regularity ;  for  in  this,  as  in  all  other  instances,  it  shiiuld  be  a  cardinal 
maxim  with  every  farmer,  that  whatever  is  worthy  of  being  kept  at  all  is  worthy  of  being  irdl 
kept.  Be  it  a  rule  in  regard  to  everything  that  engages  your  time  and  consumes  your  substance, 
that  it  be  either  cared  for  or  killed  !  Then,  again,  as  to  poultry,  vermin  and  e.xposure  to  heat  and 
cold  are  great  obstacles  to  success  in  rearing  them  ;  and  of  course  too  much  attention  cannot  be 
paid  to  cleanliness  and  equable  temperature.  Farthermore,  not  one  in  twenty  of  husbandmen 
and  hou.sewives  keep  in  their  head,  or  otherwise,  a  register  of  the  age  of  their  breeding-fowls. 
Having  allowed  them  to  commence  breeding,  they  are  usually  left  to  die  of  age  and  disease, 
which  must  more  or  less  infect  the  health  of  the  whole  flock.  With  poultry,  as  with  sheep,  to 
keep  them  in  sound  condition,  none  should  be  allowed  to  survive  a  fixed  age.  When  they  have 
passed  the  period  of  the  highest  capacity  as  breeding-stock,  they  should  be  fated  for  sale  or  con- 
sumption ;  instead  of  which,  everything  is  left  to  chance,  and  thus  some  poultry  yards  that  we 
have  seen,  instead  of  presenting  a  lively,  beautiful  scene  of  varied  and  splendid  plumage,  rosy 
gills,  sparkling  eyes,  and  all  animate  with  health,  gallantry  and  courage,  are  more  like  hospitals 
dex  intuilidcs,  a  drooping  hen  in  one  corner,  and  a  sniffling  cock  in  another.  But,  as  we  before 
said,  this  is  no  place  for  a  treatise  on  Roaring  Poultry.  There  is  one,  however,  on  Rearing  Ducks, 
published  in  the  June,  1846,  number  of  this  journal,  written  by  a  verj-  learned  clergyman  of 
Charleston,  S  C  which  every  good  housewife  ought  to  have  at  her  fingers'  ends.  In  the  matter 
of  different  breeds  of  fowls,  there  is  much  room  for  indulging  the  imagination.  It  may  be  ranked 
among  the  "  fancy  stocks."  We  have  ourselves  been  fool  enough  to  give  S.'i  for  a  hen  of  the 
Ostrich  breed  that  would  weigh  t>  pounds  as  she  sat  on  her  roost ;  but  we  agree  in  one  thing 
with  MowDUAY,  the  author  of  a  vcrj-  cockney  sort  of  a  book  on  "  Pigs  and  Poultry,"  that 

"  Small-honed,  well-proportioned  poultrj- greatly  excel  the  large-boned,  long-legged  kind,  in 
color  and  fineness  of  fiesh  and  delicacy  of  fiavor  ;  for  it  is  held  pood  that,  of  all  animals  of  the  do- 
mestic kind,  thos»!  which  have  the  sniullest,  cleanest,  finest  bones,  arc  in  general  the  be.'Jl  propor- 
tioned, and  are  covered  vi  ith  the  best  and  finest  grained  meat,  besides  being,  in  the  opinion  of 
good  judges,  the  most  inclined  to  feed,  and  fatted  with  the  smallest  proportionable  quantity  of 
food  to  the  greatest  comparative  weight  and  size." 

It  is  said  that  the  Poland  fowl,  which  is  ratlier  under  size,  jet  black  with  top-knots,  are  the  best 
layers;  but  we  should  be  disposed  to  rely  on  the  true  old  "  game  breed."     Mr.  Colt  ha.i  this  top- 

*  Quarterly  Joumnl  of  Apriciilmrc,  vol.  x.     There  is  a  curious  fact  pivcn,  in  Ilrnd's  Home  Tour,  of  the 
modes  of  plucking  feathers  otT  fowls  of  TariouB  kinds  in  a  large  poulterer's  cstabhshment  in  Lincoln. 
(24) 


WHEAT  AND  FLOUR.  25 


knot  breed  milk-white.  We  have  no  doubt  of  the  truth  of  what  the  Author  asserts,  that  "  chick- 
ens never  eat  more  tenderly  than  when  killed  a  &hort  time  before  being  dressed ;  but  if  not  so 
soon  used,  they  should  hang  in  the  larder  for  three  or  four  daj's  in  winter" — or  in  the  ice-house  in 
Slimmer,  say  we. 

This  suggestion  of  cooking  immedialeli/  on  being  killed,  is  probably  against  the  general  im- 
jiri'ssion,  but  is  nevertheless  correct,  as  we  happen  to  know  by  experience;  and  we  are  confi- 
dent the  same  may  be  said  of  butchers'  meat.  Cook  immediately,  or  keep  for  some  days.  After 
tlif  animal  gets  dead  cold,  the  first  tendency  of  the  fibre  seems  to  be  to  get  stringy  and  tough  ; 
the  next  to  relax  and  break  up.  The  best  fried  chickens  to  be  met  with — what  in  the  Eastern 
States  they  call,  and  esteem  a  great  delicacy,  "  .«pring  chickens  " — are  to  be  had  at  the  old-fa.«hioned, 
oniinarj-looking,  but  clean,  well-kept  turnpike-road  tavern,  9  miles  from  Alexandria.  D.  C,  on 
the  road  to  Fairfax  Court-House,  kept  by  Mr.  Gooding  ;  and  there  the  process  is,  when  the  stage 
drives  up  to  breakfast,  the  scullion  counts  noses,  and  away  he  runs  to  wring  off  chickens'  heads 
in  a  given  proportion.  They  are  then  instantly  scalded,  picked  and  washed  out  clean  in  warm 
water ;  then  quartered  and  thrown  into  a  pan  of  ready  boiling,  clean  lard ;  and  being  in  a  min- 
ute or  two  "  done  brown,''  are  served  up  to  the  sharp-set  passenger,  hot  and  dry,  not  swimming 
again,  as  in  most  taverns,  in  dirty  grease.  In  this  way  the  fowl  never  gets  cold,  and  is  truly  "  as 
tender  as  a  chicken."  The  traveler  gets  his  penny-worth,  rubs  down  his  abdominals,  and  in  half 
an  hour  goes  his  way,  rejoicing  that  we  live  in  a  land  of  democratic  liberty  and  abundance,  sur- 
veying as  he  goes  one  of  the  most  glorious  and  the  most  abused  and  neglected  regions  that  the  suu 
shines  upon. 

Mr.  Gooding,  by  the  way,  is  esteemed  a  trump-card  in  his  line,  but  in  the  majority  of  such 
cases  we  have  observed  that  though  it  be  the  landlord  who  is  ever  foremost  to  receive  the  traveler 
and  run  away  with  all  the  "  credit "  as  well  as  the  change,  the  good  housewife  is  usually  more 
than  "  half  the  battle."  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 


3.    WHEAT    AND  FLOUR.* 

(1480.)  Systematic  writers  on  Agriculture,  and  most  others,  when  treating  of  the  various  plants 
nsually  cultivated  on  a  farm,  always  describe  their  characteristics  in  botanical  phraseology  ;  and 
though  this  way  of  describing  them  seems  a  proper  one,  when  different  genera  of  plantshave  to 
be  distinguished  from  each  other  ;  yet  when  more  varieties  of  the  same  species,  and  especially 
when  those  varieties  are  numerous,  have  to  be  treated  of  a  more  natural  method  of  des- 
cribing or  classifying  them  seems  desirable,  so  as  they  may  easily  be  distinguished  by  other  peo- 
ple than  botanists.  Thus,  Professor  Low,  when  treating  of  wheat,  enumerates  11  different  subdi- 
visionst  which  are  cultivated,  all  which  doubtless,  possess  distinct  botanical  characteristics;  but 
the  distinctions  betwixt  these  are  not  likely  to  be  apprehended,  far  less  applied,  by  the  majority 
of  farmers ;  and  much  less  likely  still  are  they  to  discriminate,  with  botanical  accuracy,  betwixt 
the  very  numerous  varieties  that  are  now  cuhivated  in  diff"erent  parts  of  the  empire.  Mr.  Law- 
son  has  described  83  varieties  of  wheat.t  and  Colonel  Le  Couteur  mentions  having  in  his  posses- 
sion, in  1836,  no  fewer  than  150  varieties  :||  and  the  Mu.seum  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural 
Society  in  Edinburgh  possesses  141  varieties.^  To  distinguish  between  all  these,  with  botanical 
exactness,  would  puzzle  any  farmer. 

(1481.)  For  this  rea.son,  it  has  occurred  to  me  that  some  method  should  be  established  of  re- 
cognizing the  diff'erent  kinds  of  grain  in  use,  by  their  external  cliaracters  in  the  ear  and  in  the 
grain.     Colonel  Le  Couteur  has  given  a  classification  of  wheat  involving  the  principle  I  have 

[*  It  may  be  of  some  satisfaction  to  the  reader  as  he  proceeds  in  the  perusal  of  what  is  here 
said  iu  reference  to  grains  which  constitute  important  staples  of  oar  own  country,  to  have  at  hand 
a  memorandum  of  the  amount  of  each  produced  in  the  United  States. 

Tlius,  according  to  the  Census  of  1839,  a  very  fallacious  authority  it  is  true,  but  the  only  one  we 
hi  .-.Mhe  crop  of  Wheat  in  all  the  United  States  was  84,823,272  bushels.  The  larges"t  crop  in 
any  .State  was  that  of  Ohio,  being  put  down  at  16,571,661  bushels.  The  second— Pennsylvania, 
13,-Jl 3,077,  and  the  third  on  the  list  is  that  of  New-York,  to  wit:  12,286.418. 

By  a  Census  of  the  State  of  New- York,  probably  taken  with  more  accuracy,  under  an  Act  of 
Assembly  passed  7th  May,  1845.  it  appears  that  the  whole  number  of  bushels  harvested  in  the 
State  that  year  was  13,391,757  bushels,  from  595,013  acres,  or  something  less  than  14  bushels  to 
l^i«  *<=''^'  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

t  Low's  Elements  of  Practical  Agriculture.  +  Lawson's  Agiiculturisf  s  Manual. 

II  Le  Couteur  on  Wheat.     Dedication.  §  Catalogue  of  the  Museum. 

(^5) 


26 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


mentioned,  and  he  givca  a  similar  reason  for  altemjilin^  it.  when  he  says —  "  No  one  has  done  so* 
ai4  a  braiicli  of  AtTJculturt^.  in  tliosc  plain  Ifrni!*  which  may  bo  intrllifiblc.  not  to  llie  botanist  or 
■rieiilifio  rciiiior  only,  but  lo  the  u'real  mass  of  fiirnnTtt."  And  the  principal  object  he  coll^^i(^er»  to 
tie  held  in  view,  in  attempting  surh  a  clasvilication.  is.  that  the  nature  and  real  cjualilics  of  each 
variety  may  be  a.«certained  as  to  their  properties  for  mal'.uig  bread." 

(Hti-J.)  In  prosccutiiii?  his  ideas  of  a  clai^silication.  Co  o'  <l  Le  Coutenr  divides  all  the  varieties 
of  wheat  into  two  classes,  namely,  beardlex*  and  benri1r<1.  In  «>  far  he  imitates  the  modern  bota- 
niitA,  who  divide  the  cultivated  varieties  of  wheat  into  ti'i-  two  AWimoii^cii  bnrbalum  and  imbcrlf. 
sisuifvin!^  the  above  characteri.'itica ;  but,  unfortunateK  Uit  the  stability  of  this  division,  the  dis- 
tinction is  immutable,  for  some  bearded  wheals  lo.so  tin  ii  beards  on  cultivation,  and  some  beard- 
less ones  are  apt  to  become  bearded,  when  cultivated  on  jioor  soils  and  expo.<ed  situiitions.  ."^ome 
of  the  other  grains  imlicate  a  tendency  tothissortof  deireneracy.  for  even  the  poialooat  assumes  a 
beard  when  sown  a  lonjr  lime  on  the  same  ground  in  a  poor  slate.  He  then  subdivides  beardless 
wheal  inlo  white,  red,  yellow,  and  livercoloied.  smoo:h  chaSed  and  velvet  chaffed  ;  and  the  beard- 
ed ho  divides  under  the  same  color.*.  Some  varieties  of  wheat  are,  no  doubt,  decidedly  dowiiv  on 
the  chart',  but  oiIht.s  apain,  are  .so  little  so  that  it  is  difF4ull  to  distinguish  them  from  some  of  the 
rouirhest  varieties  of  smooth  chaffed:  and  it  is  well  known  that  the  same  wheat  will  he  dillerent- 
ly  alfecled.  in  that  respect,  by  the  soil  upon  which  it  has  been  grown  ;  for  a  sharp  soil  has  a  ten- 
dency to  render  the  chattand  straw  smoolher  anil  hanler  than  a  deaf  ."oil,  which  has  a  tendency 
to  produce  .soft  and  downy  cliatt'  and  straw.  This  downiness,  therefore,  is  not  so  fixed  and  im- 
portant a  character  as  to  be  adopted  to  rank  one  t'reat  liivision  of  \\  heat  under  its  denomination. 
The  associating  together  the  characters  of  wheat  in  grain  and  in  the  ear.  is  also,  in  my  opinion, 
injudicious,  inasmuch  as  neither  character  sejiarately  can  positively  indicate  the  state  of  the  other, 
as  I  .-ihall  soou  show,  and  both  are  not  requireil  to  itidicate  the  flouring  properties  of  any  variety 
of  wheat,  in  respect  to  its  superiority  in  making  bread.  A  baker  will  at  once  distinguish  the 
grain  which  will  afford  the  flour  best  suited  for  bread,  but  he  could  indicate  nothing  of  its  propei- 
lies  by  an  ear  of  wheat  Colonel  Le  Conteur  puts  down  a  liver-color».'d  \vheat.  as  a  distinctive 
color.'along  with  others.  I  confess  I  cannot  distinguish  this  color;  for  I  never  remember  to  have 
seen  wheat  of  a  liver-brown  color.  1  think  all  the  colors  of  wheat  may  be  classed  under  two  of 
the  primary  colors,  yellow  and  red,  for  even  the  whitest  wheat  has  a  titige  of  yellow  in  it.  and  the 
brownest  wheal  is  deeply  tin.ged  with  red  ;  but  as  rchile  and  red  are  tlie  terms  by  which  the  co- 
Fig.  302. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   WHEAT    BT   THE    EAK.  EAK   OP  KTE.    ' 

lore  of  wheat  have  been  longest  known,  these  should  be  retained.  The  variety  of  wheat  which 
should  form  the  standard  of  each  color  has  never  yet  been  .settled  :  but  Jndtrincr  from  the  colliciimi 
of  wheal  in  the  Highland  anil  Agricultural  Society's  Museum,  1  should  say  that  the  Hunirarian 
white  wheat.  <7,   flg.  358,  indicates  the   purest  while,  and  the  blood  red  wheat  tlie  purest  red. 


•  Le  Couteur  on  Wheat 
(26) 


WHEAT    AND    FLOUR. 


27 


(1433.)  Were  I  to  attempt  to  classify  wheat  by  natural  marks,  I  would  make  two  classifica- 
tions, oue  by  the  ear  and  the  other  by  the  grain,  so  that  each  could  be  described  by  its  own  char- 
acteristics, and,  if  desirable,  either  could  be  illustrated  by  the  characteristics  ol  the  other.  In  this 
way  confusion  would  be  avoided  between  the  characters  of  the  ear  and  of  the  grain.  The  farm- 
er who  grows  the  wheat  in  the  ear  and  sells  it  in  the  grain  should  be  acquainted  with  both  ;  but 
the  baker,  who  is  only  acquainted  with  grain,  knows  nothing  by  the  ear.  Were  he,  however. 
to  receive  an  ear  of  each  variety  of  grain  he  purcha.sed,  he  would  be  able  to  describe  at  once  to 
the  farmer  what  particular  variety  afforded  him  the  flour  best  suited  for  his  purpose. 

(1434.)  Wkeat. — On  examining  the  ean  of  wheat  that  have  come  under  my  notice,  I  think  they 
may  be  divided  into  the  3  classes  as  represented  in  fig.  302,  and  which  may  be  distinguished 
thus  :  rt  is  a  clone  or  compact  eared  wheat,  which  is  occasioned  by  the  spikelets  being  set  near  each 
other  on  the  rachis  or  jointed  stem,  and  this  their  position  has  a  tendency  to  make  the  chaff  short 
and  broad,  and  the  spikelets  are  bo  also.  This  figure,  as  well  as  the  others,  shows  the  ear  half  the 
natural  size.  This  specimen  of  the  close  eared  wheat  is  Hickling's  Prolific.  The  second  class  of 
ears  is  seen  at  h,  the  spikelets  being  of  medium  length  and  breadth,  and  placed  just  so  close 
upon  the  rachis  as  to  screen  it  from  view.  The  ear  is  not  so  broad,  but  longer  than  a.  The  chaff 
is  of  medium  length  and  breadth.  This  specimen  is  the  well  known  Hunter's  white  wheal.  Tho 
third  class  is  seen  at  c,  the  spikelets  of  which  are  set  open,  or  so  far  asunder  as  to  permit  the  rachis 
to  be  easily  seen  between  them.  The  ear  is  about  the  same  length  as  the  last  specimen,  but  is 
much  narrower.  The  chatf  is  long  and  narrow.  This  is  a  specimen  of  Le  Coutcur's  Believue 
Talavera  white  wheat.  These  three  classes  of  varieties  constitute  the  Triticnm  sativum  im- 
berbe  of  botani.sts,  that  is,  all  the  varieties  of  the  beardless  cultivated  wheat.  Formerly  they  were 
divided  by  botanists  into  Triticnm  hybern'im  or  winter  wheat,  and  Tri'icum  a:<tivum  or  sum- 
mer wheat;  but  experience  has  proved  that  the  summer  wiieat,  so  called,  may  be  sown  in  win- 
ter, and  the  winter  wheat  sown  in  summer,  and  both  thrive.  Paxton  says  that  Triticum  is  de- 
rived from  •'  tritum,  rubbed  ;  in  allusion  to  its  being  originally  rubbed  down  to  make  it  eatable.* 
It  is  of  the  natural  order  Graminece.  and  of  the  third  class  Triandria,  and  second  order  Digt/nia, 
of  the  Linn<Ban  .system. 

(1435.)  In  d,  fig.  302,  is  represented  a  bearded  wheat,  to  show  the  difference  of  appearance 
which  the  beard  gives  to  the  ear.  The  bearded  wheats  are  generally  distinguished  by  the  long 
shape  of  the  chaff  and  the  open  position  of  the  spikelets,  and  therefore  fall  under  the  third  class. 
But  cultivation  has  not  only  the  effect  of  decreasing  the  strength  of  the  beard,  but  of  setting  the 
spikelets  closer  together,  as  in  the  specimen  of  the  white  Tuscany  wheat,  shown  at  d  in  the  cut, 
which  is  considered  the  most  compact  eared  and  improved  varietj'  of  bearded  wheat.  Bearded 
wheat  constitutes  the  second  division  of  cultivated  wheat  of  the  botanists,  under  the  title  of  Tri- 
ticum sn'ivum  barbatum.  The  term  bearded  wheat  is  used  synonymou.sly  with  spring  wheat, 
but  erroneously,  as  some  beardless  wheat  is  as  fit  for  sowing  in  spring  as  bearded,  and  some  beard- 
ed may  be  sown  in  winter.     Figure  e  is  a  specimen  oirye. 

(1436.)  In  regard  to  classifying  wheat  by  the  grain,  on  observing  a  great  variety  of  forms,  I 
think  they,  as  well  as  the  ears,  may  all  be  classed  under  3  heads.  The  first  class  is  shown  at  a, 
fig.  303,  where  all  the  grains  are 
short,  round,  and  plump,  with  the 
bo.som  distinctly  enoush  marked, 
and  well  filled  up.  In  the  cut,  the 
grain  to  the  left  is  seen  with  the  me- 
dian line  along  its  bosom  ;  another, 
belosv  it,  with  the  round  or  opposite 
side  lying  undermost :  and  the  third 
and  fourth  show  the  germ  and  radi- 
cal ends  respectively.  All  fine  vhite 
wheats  belong  to  this  class,  and  they 
are  enclosed  in  short,  round,  and 
generally  white  chaff,  which,  when 
ripe,  become  so  expanded  as  to  en- 
danger the  falling  out  of  the  grain. 
Very  few  red-  wheats  belong  to  this 
class.     In  reference  to  the  ear.  this 

class  is  found  in  short-chaffed  and  broad  spikelets,  which  are  generally  compact.  The  specimen  here 
is  Hungarian  white  wheat.  The  second  class  is  represented  b}-  b,  where  the  grains  are  long  and 
of  medium  size,  that  is,  longer  and  larger  than  the  grains  of  the  first  class.  The  chaff  is  also  medium 
sized.  In  reference  to  the  ear,  it  is  of  the  medium  .standard,  in  respect  to  breadth  and  closeness 
of  spikelets,  though  medium  sized  srain  is  not  confined  to  this  sort  of  ear;  for  it  is  found  in  the 
compact  ear,  as  in  Hickling's  Prolific  white  and  red  wheat  as  well  as  in  the  open  ear,  such  as 
the  red  Dantzic  creeping  wheat.  Most  of  the  red  wheats  belong  to  this  class  of  grain,  though 
ta?Lny  oi\he  whit^  medium  sized — such  as  Hunter's  white — also  belong  to  it.  This  specimen  is 
the  Cauca.sian  red  wheat,  whose  ear  is  bearded,  and  belongs  to  the  open-spiked  class  c,  fi?.  302, 
The  figure  at  c,  fig.  303,  represents  the  third  form  of  grain,  which  is  large  and  Ions  to  a  greater 
degree  than  the  last  class.  Its  chaff  is  long,  and  in  reference  to  the  ear,  the  spikelets  are  gener- 
ally open,  ti)ouu;h,  in  the  case  of  this  specimen,  the  Odessa  long  white  wheat,  the  ear  is  medium- 
sized,  though  the  chaff  is  long  as  well  as  the  grain.  The  three  sorts  of  wheat  in  the  cut  are  all 
placed  in  similar  positions,  and  are  of  the  natural  size. 

(1437.)  It  will  be  seen  from  what  has  been  stated,  that  no  direct  relation  exists  between  the 
ear  and  the  grain  ;  that  the  compact  ear  does  not  always  produce  the  round  grain  nor  the  white 
wheat;  that  in  the  medium  ear  is  not  always  found"  the  medium-sized  grain:  and  that  the 
open  ear  does  not  always  produce  the  large,  long  grain.     But  still,  there  exist  coincidents  which 

*  Paxton's  Botanical  Dictionary,  TVitfcum.    See  also  Hooker's  Britieh  Flora,  Edition  of  1831. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  -VTHEAT  BY  THE  GRAIX. 


28  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

connect  the  rA/»/f  and  llie  firain.  For  example,  the  Ifngth  of  the  ehnff  mdxctXen  the  leneth  of  the 
grain,  upon  w  liatevor  sort  of  ear  it  may  ho  loiiiid  :  and,  pcnorsilly.  the  color  of  the  chart'  deter- 
mines lliiit  of  th«'  i;riiiii.  As  iiIhi.  tlie  of>eniiiL'  Jiiiikt-lel  hears  pruin  of  ro,irwr  c)U!ilily  than  the  rom- 
iiaet.  On  \s  jshinu'.  therefore,  to  determine  the  K)rt  of  ariiin  which  any  number  of  earn  of  difjereut 
kindtt  of  wlieat  may  contain,  it  ia  the /V/rm  and  color  of  the  chnff\.\\a\.  detcrraiiiea  tl)e  point,  and  not 
wliother  the  ear  carries  compact,  medium,  or  open  spikelets,  or  whether  it  be  bearded  or  beard- 
less, or  whether  it  be  wtKilly  or  smooth. 

(l-li^f.|  But  a  more  important  consideration  than  il«  classification,  in  repard  to  wheat,  is  the 
mode  of  jutlt:in'!  it.  to  ascertain  the  purposes  to  which  it  may  be  best  employed,  in  the  partic- 
ular coiiditKin  in  which  it  may  he  iieen.  The^e  purposes  are,  tor  seed  and  and  for  the  making  of 
flour:  whether  the  tlour  is  to  be  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  bread  or  of  confections,  or  in 
some  of  the  arts,  such  aa  starch-makmp.  In  its  /«•»/  condition,  all  wheat,  whether  red  or  white, 
small  or  larpo.  lonp  or  round,  should  appear  (dump  within  its  skin,  not  in  the  least  shriveled  or 
shnink.  The  skin  should  be  fine  and  smooth,  not  in  the  least  scaly  or  uneven  in  its  surface.  The 
color,  be  what  tint  it  may,  should  be  bripht  and  lively  and  uniform,  not  in  the  least  dull,  bleached,  or 
parly-cohired.  The  grains  should  all  be  of  the  siime  size  and  form,  not  short  and  lonp.  round  and 
lone,  small  and  larpe.  The  prains  should  he  quite  perfect :  there  should  be  no  bruises,  or  holes, 
or  dried  rootlets  hancint:  from  the  dimpled  cm),  or  woolly  ajipendape  from  the  other  end.  If  per- 
fect in  all  these  respects,  wheat  is  tilted  f.ir  any  purpo.se,  and  may  be  (lurchaficd  by  llie  general 
merchant.     For  jiarticular  purposes  additional  properties  may  be  reparded. 

(N89.)  When  wheat  is  <|uite  opaque,  indicatinp  not  the  least  translucency.  it  is  in  the  best  state 
for  yieldiiiir  tli«-  finest  Hour,  such  flour  as  confectioners  us«'  for  pastry ;  and  in  this  state  it  will  be 
eacerly  piMrli:i>eil  by  them  at  a  larpe  price.  Wheat  in  this  stale  contains  the  largest  proportion 
of  fecnla  or  sia; cli.  ;iud  is  therefore  best  suited  to  the  starch  maker,  as  well  as  the  confectioner.  On 
the  other  liariii,  when  wheat  is  translucent,  [partially  transparent.]  secniinply  hard  and  flinty,  it  is 
besi  suited  to  the  common  baker,  as  afibrdinp  what  is  called  stroma  flour;  that  is.  flour  thai  rises 
bolilly  with  yeast  into  a  sponpy  douph:  or  in  other  words,  the  wheat  then  contains  the  largest 
profiortion  of  gluten.  Bilkers  will,  therefore,  pive  more  for  pood  wheat  in  this  state  than  in  the 
opa<|ue;  but  (c»r  bread  of  first  quality  the  flour  should  be  fine  as  well  as  strong,  and  therefore 
a  mixture  of  the  two  conditutns  of  wheat  is  best  suited  for  makinp  the  best  quality  of  bread. 
Baker.s,  when  they  purcha.se  their  own  wheat,  arc  in  the  habit  of  mixinp  wheals  that  respectively 
possess  those  qualities:  and  millers  who  are  in  the  habit  of  supplying  bakers  with  flour,  mix  such 
wheats  and  grind  them  together  for  the  special  purpose.  Some  sorts  of  wheat,  however  carefully 
they  may  have  been  preserved  pure,  naturally  pos-sess  huth  these  properties,  and  on  tliat  account 
are  great  favorites  with  bakers,  though  not  so  with  confectioners:  and  I  presume,  to  this  mixed 
property  is  to  bo  ascribed  ihe  preat  popularity  which  Hunter's  white  wheat  has  so  long  enjoyed. 
We  hear  of  '•  A»p/t  mixed"  Dantzic  wheal,  which  has  been  so  mixed  for  the  purpose,  and  is  in 
high  repute  among  bakers.  Generally  speakinp,  the  lightest-colored  white  wheats  indicate  most 
opacity,  and  of  course  yield  the  finest  flour,  and  red  wheats  are  mo.st  flinty,  and  therelbrc  yield 
the  stroniiest  flour;  for  a  translucent  red  wheat  will  yield  stronger  flour  than  a  translucent  white 
wheat,  and  yet  a  red  wheat  never  realizes  so  high  a  price  in  the  market  as  white,  because  it  con- 
tains a  larger  proportion  of  refuse  in  grinding. 

(1490.1  For  KFcd,  the  dimpled  end  of  the  grain  should  be  distinctly  marked,  and  the  site  from 
which  the  roollet-s  issue  should  be  rather  prominent;  and  the  end  from  which  the  blade  springs 
should  be  covered  with  a  slight  degree  of  woolincss  or  hairiness.  The  protuberances  of  the  :  oot- 
lets  and  woolly  ends  should  not  have  been  rubbed  off  by  anv  process,  such  as  sheeling,  as  the 
grain  is  thereby  rendered  unfit  for  seed  by  being  deprived  of  lis  vitality.  Nor  shouKI  the  grain 
have  been  kiln-dried,  because  that  process  may  also  deprive  it  of  vitality,  and  its  effects  may 
partly  be  delected  in  the  undue  hardness  of  the  grain,  and  partly  also  from  the  smoky  flavor 
which  the  grain  has  acquired.  But  hardness  alone  is  not  a  suiBcient  criterion,  as  some  wheats 
become  much  harder  in  ordinary  dryinp  than  others:  and  in  some  parts  of  ihe  Continent,  soch 
as  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  some  wheats  are  naturally  so  hard  as  to  induce  that  iu  the 
ordinary  state  to  be  called  soft.  If  no  sinokiness  can  be  detected  in  the  flavor,  the  surest  lest  of 
existing  vitality,  w  hen  time  is  allowed  to  apply  it,  is  to  germinate  the  wheat  near  the  fire,  is  a 
glass,  amonp  as  much  water  as  will  swell  the  grains. 

(HO  1.1  l)inii(i!!cd  wheat  may  be  detected  in  various  ways.  If  it  has  been  in  sea-water,  although 
it  may  not  be  eiilarped  by  moisture,  it  can  ni'ver  lose  the  saline  ta.sle  ;  and  although  it  may  have 
been  washed  in  fresh  water  and  dried  in  a  kiln,  still  the  wa.shing  gives  it  a  bleached  appearance, 
and  the  .■luhsi  quent  drjinp  may  be  detected  by  either  the  smell  or  the  tasle.  Wheat  thai  has  been 
sheeled,  to  make  it  look  round  and  plump,  may  be  detected  by  the  appearance  of  the  ends  being 
rubbed  down.  Wheat  that  has  been  heated  in  the  stack,  tliouph  not  affected  in  color,  will  taste 
bitter  on  herns;  chewed.  Wheat  that  has  been  long  in  the  granary  appears  dull  and  dirty,  though 
it  may  have  been  passt-d  through  the  fanners;  and  although  it  may  not  have  been  injured,  it 
always  conlracts  a  musty  smell.  Wheat  is  liable  to  tlie  attacks  of  in'sei  ts  in  the  granary,  which 
breed  w  itliin  its  shell  and  eat  the  kernel.  This  mode  of  destruction,  occasioned  by  the  weevil,  is 
easily  detected  by  the  grain  feelinp  light  in  hand,  and  the  holes  may  easily  be  seen  from  w  hich 
the  perfect  insect  has  ma>le  its  esca|»c.  Germinated,  swollen,  burst,  bruised  grains,  as  well  as  the 
admixture  of  <ither  kinds  of  grain  and  seeds,  are  easily  delected  by  the  eye. 

(H92.)  difference  of  opinion  exist  in  regard  to  the  Itexl  mode  of  preiterving  wheat  in  granaries. 
The  usual  practice  is  to  shovel  il»c  heap  over  from  the  bottom  everj-  few  weeks,  accordinp  to  the 
dryness  or  dampness  of  the  air,  or  heal  or  coldness  of  the  atmosphere.  In  this  mode  of  treatment, 
a  free  ventilation  of  the  air  is  requisite  in  the  pranary,  and  the  worst  stale  of  the  atmosphere  for  the 
grain  is  when  moist  and  irarm.  Extreme  heat  or  extreme  cold  are  preservatives  of  grain.  The 
practice  of  others  is  not  to  turn  over  their  wheat  at  all,  but  to  keep  it  in  very  tliick  masses,  reaching 
from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling,  and  quite  in  the  dark.  No  doubt,  if  air  eouldbe  excluded  effectually 
from  a  pranary,  the  grain  could  be  preserved  in  it  without  farther  trouble  ;  and  a  pood  plan  of  ex- 
cluding the  air  entirely  seems  to  be  to  heap  the  wheat  as  thick  together  as  possible.  There  is  as 
(28) 


WHEAT   AND   FLOUR.  29 


little  doubt,  however,  that  wheat  which  has  been  kept  long  in  heap  ^^•ithout  turning,  retains  its 
cofor  in  a  fresher  state  than  that  which  is  frequently  turned  ;  and  a  good  plan  for  preservinir 
the  color  seems  to  be  to  keep  wheat  in  the  dai-k.  The  ancients  used  to  preserve  grain  many 
years,  to  scrs'e  for  food  when  years  of  famine  overtook  them.  When  Joseph  was  in  Egypt,  wheat 
was  preserved  for  seven  years  in  the  stores  ;  but  this  might  not  be  a  difficult  matter  in  .<o  dry  a 
climate  as  Egypt ;  and  in  Sicily,  Spain,  and  in  the  northern  parts  of  Africa,  pits  were  wont  tobe 
formed  in  the  ground  to  preserve  grain;  and  the  Romans  were  so  impressed  with  the  necessity 
of  preserving  grain,  that  they  took  great  pains  in  the  construction  of  their  granaries,  wliich  are 
related  to  have  keep  wheat  for  50  and  millet  for  100  years.*  But  as  to  the  farmer,  the  question 
how  wheat  is  best  preserved  in  granaries  should  little  affect  him,  as  the  best  way  of  keeping  his 
wheat  is  in  the  straw  in  the  stack  ;  and  when  the  stacks  are  threshed  for  the  straw,  he  should  dis- 
pose of  his  wheat  immediately,  and  take  the  current  market  prices.  In  a  series  of  years,  during 
tile  currency  of  a  lease,  this  is  his  safest  practice  ;  and  besides  securing  him,  in  the  long  run,  of  an 
average  price,  it  saves  him  a  great  deal  of  trouble  in  looking  after  the  grain,  and  a  great  deal  of 
vexation  when  prices  fall  below  their  expected  amount.  Two  friends  of  mine,  farmers,  were 
both  great  losers  by  keeping  wheat  of  their  own  growth  on  speculation.  Thej'  each  stored  three 
years"  crop,  and  though  offered  £6  a  quarter  for  it,  they  kept  it  with  the  view  of  obtaining  more, 
but  were  never  offered  so  much  again  ;  and  after  prices  dropped  gradually  to  6.5s.  and  were 
not  likely  to  rise  immediately,  they  sold  off  the  whole  stock.  Such  is  most  likely  lo  be  the 
fate  of  mo.st  farmers  who  speculate  in  wheat,  even  of  their  own  growth  ;  but  when  tliey  venture 
on  purchasing  the  wheat  of  others,  they  forego  their  proper  profession,  and  become  merchants, 
and  thence  become  involved  in  the  intricacies  of  trade,  of  which  they  must  be  quite  ignorant;  and 
probably  only  become  sensible  of  their  ignorance  after  feeling  the  effects  of  their  tenieritv. 

(149:!.)  Wheat  is  prepared  for  the  use  of  man  by  being  ground  into  flour.  The  machinery 
u.sed  for  grinding  wheat,  consists  of  a  number  of  parts,  each  of  which  pertorms  its  separate  work, 
and  they  are  all  strongly  constructed.  The  first  process  which  wheat  undergoes  in  grinding,  is 
in  being  put  through  the  sheeling  cylinder,  which  rubs  off  any  extraneous  matter  belonging  or 
adhering  to  the  outer  skin  of  the  grain,  and  separates  everj-  foreign  matter  from  the  wheat.  In 
this  process  the  wheat  is  made  shorter  in  length,  brighter  in  color,  and  freed  from  every  impurity. 
The  quantity  of  black,  suffocating  dust  which  flies  off  from  the  cylinder  in  the  process  of  sheeling, 
and  the  seeds  and  other  substances  which  are  .separated  from  the  grain,  are  collected  together, 
surprise  every  one,  who  has  never  witnessed  the  process,  how  such  impurities  can  have  proceeded 
from  an  appnrenfly  clenti  sample.  After  the  sheeling,  the  prepared  wheat  is  put  into  a  large  hop- 
per, which  conveys  it  to  two  milLstones  of  French  burr,  to  be  ground. t  In  the  grinding,  the  wheat 
is  converted  into  flour,  which  still  contains  all  the  ingredients  of  the  wheat,  and  has  acquired  a 
high  degree  of  temperature.  In  order  to  cool  it,  which  should  be  done  as  quickly  as  possible,  il 
is  imme<iiately  carried  to  the  well  ventilated  cooling-room,  to  be  spread  upon  its  wooden  floor, 
and  turned  frequently  over  with  a  wooden  shovel,  should  the  grist  have  been  so  large  as  to  cause 
it  to  be  laid  thick  on  the  floor.  After  it  has  been  thoroughly  cooled,  it  is  made  to  descend  from 
the  cooling-room,  by  a  hopper,  into  the  boltinsr  or  dressius'  cylinder,  in  which  it  is  separated 
into  its  respective  parts  by  being  brushed  through  w^ire-cloth  of  different  sizes.  These  parts 
usually  v'onsist  offirat.t.  or  fine  flour  ;  of  secoiids,  v.t  .second  flour;  of  Ihirda,  cr  sharps ;  of  broad  or 
coarse  bran,  and  o(  fine  bran.  Sometimes  the  coarse  bran  only  is  taken  from  the  flour,  which  is  then 
said  to  be  ground  overhead,  and  makes  good  coarse  household  bread.  Sometimes  the  fine  bran  is 
taken  out  from  the  overhead  flour,  and  the  coarse  flour  makes  a  sweet  coarse  bread.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  .smaller  quantity  of  the  fine  is  taken  out  of  the  bulk  of  flour,  in  order  to  make  the 
finest  as  fine  as  possible,  and  this  is  used  for  pastry  and  fancy  bread ;  and  in  this  case,  the  seconds 
flour  becomes  finer,  and  makes  the  .seconds  loaf  of  superior  quality.  More  or  less  of  fine  flour  ia 
taken  out  in  dressing,  by  merely  shifting  a  hinged  board  under  the  dressing  cylinder,  so  as  to  em- 
brace a  larger  or  smaller  space  of  the  upper  or  finer  portion  of  the  wire-cloth  of  the  cylinder. 
When  a  large  proportion  of  the  bulk  is  made  into  first  flour,  this  flour  is  not  fine,  and  the  "seconds 
flour  is  thereby  reduced  in  quantity,  and  made  coarser.  The  sharps,  or  that  portion  which  con- 
sists of  the  heart  of  the  grain,  and  which  is  broken  and  escapes  from  between  the  millstones,  are 
used  by  biscuit-bakers.  The  first  or  broad  bran  is  used  for  bran-mashes,  and  mixing  with  horse- 
corn,  and  the  fine  bran  is  employed  to  feed  poultry  and  pigs.  As  you  have  seen  that  the  butchers 
of  London  cut  up  carcasses  of  meat  in  a  greater  number  of  pieces  than  those  of  this  country  ;  so 
the  millers  there  dress  the  flour  in  a  greater  number — no  less  than  seven  distinct — sorts.  These 
sorts  are  thus  divided  from  the  flour  of  a  quarter  of  wheat  of  8  bushels  :t 

Fine  tlour 5  bushels  3  pecks.     Bran 3  bushels  0  pecks. 

."econdi 0       ..       2       ..         Twenty-penny 3       ..       0 

Fine  middlings 0       ..       1       ..         Pollard 2       ..       0 

Coarse  middlings 0      ..      OJ     ..  

Total 14  bushels  2i  pecks. 


So  that  grinding  nearly  doubles  the  bulk  of  flour  and  bran  above  that  of  the  wheats 

(1494.)  Whether  flour  is  properly  ground,  is  judged  of  on  being  taken  into  the  hand  as  it  falls 


[t  Boussingault  found  as  much  as  38J  per  cent,  of  husk  or  bran  on  a  Winter  Wheat,  grown 
in  the  Botanic  Garden  of  Paris.  Three  lots  of  good  English  Wheat,  ground  at  Mr.  Robson's  mill, 
in  Durham,  gave — per  cent,  respectively 


Fine  Flour 74-2         75-1         779 

Borings OO  83  61 

Sharps 58  66  5  6 


Bran 78  7-0  69 

Waste 3-2  30  35 

Total lUO  100  100 

Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 


*  Dickson's  Husbandry  of  the  Ancients,  vol.  ii. 
t  See  Ure'8  Dictionary  of  the  Arts,  art.  Millstones,  for  an  account  of  this  remarkable  substance. 
(29) 


30  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

from  the  spout  leading  from  millstones.  It  is  rubbed  by  the  thamb  against  the  side  of  the 
fore-fiiiiier,  aud  if  it  lei-l  ploasanlly  limooth,  witliout  beiii^f  fireany  or  rouirh.  it  in  well.  When  the 
outer  edges  of  the  millstones  are  set  to<»  close,  the  Hour  feels  f:reasy.  because  it  has  been  loo  moch 
bruised — or  killed,  as  it  is  termed — and  it  dot's  not  then  easily  ris«;  u  itli  yeast  in  the  niakinp  of 
bread.  When  the  stones  are  set  loo  far  asunder,  the  grain  accumulates  under  the  eye  of  the  roilK 
fltone,  and  is  there  broken,  which  breaking  prevents  the  skin  of  the  grain  being  separated  from  the 
subsrancf,  and  the  consequence  is,  that  tlie  bran  feels  thick,  rough,  and  heavy,  and  there  is  much 
■waste  of  substance.  Whether  Hour  is  properly  drtfued,  is  ascertained  in  the  same  wa_\ .  by  rub- 
bing the  fine  flour  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  and  if  it  feel  smooth  and  even,  not  in  the 
least  rough  or  gritty,  it  is  well.  To  judge  still  farther  whether  the  flour  has  been  perfectly  dressed, 
if,  on  being  pressed  with  a  polished  article,  such  as  the  back  of  a  plain  gold  or  silver  watch,  or 
the  back  of  a  silver  spoon,  the  smooth-pressed  surface  present  no  minute  brown  spots  of  bran  to  a 
good  sight,  it  is  clean  dressed ;  and  if  any  such  cannot  be  detected  by  a  good  mai-'nifying-glass,  it 
is  as  perfectly  dressed  as  practicable  with  the  present  form  of  the  machinery-.  When  the  large 
bran  is  inspected,  and  it  is  found  to  be  entirely  skin  and  no  white  substance  of  the  wheat  adher- 
ing lo  it.  the  grinding  has  been  well  e.xeculed  ;  and  in  this  state  the  bran,  on  being  thrown  up- 
ward, will  fail  lightly  toward  the  ground,  being  in  large,  thin  flakes.  The  small  bran  has  alwa>8 
a  part  of  the  substance  of  the  wheat  attached  to  it :  because  it  is  chiefly  derived  from  the  groove 
which  (brnis  the  bosom  of  the  grain,  and  is  only  generated  after  the  large  bran  has  been  sloughed 
ofl',  and  a  portion  of  the  grain  itself  ground  down  to  the  level  of  the  groove.  There  is  no  means 
of  juileing  whether  any  parcel  of  flour  will  make  good  bread,  the  jUmr  of  the  opaque  and  flinty 
wlieaLs  being  undistingui.shahli!  from  one  another,  and  it  is  i)erhap8  this  difficulty  which  induces 
bakers  to  buy  wheat,  and  get  it  made  in  flour  on  their  own  account;  otherwise  the  simplest  plan 
for  them  would  be  lo  buy  the  sort  of  flour  they  want.  On  account  of  this  practice  of  the  bakers, 
many  of  the  flour  millers  in  Scotland  grind  only  on  hire. 

(1495.)  Flour  is  ])ut  up  in  what  arc  called  aavks.  of  280  lb.«..  or  20  stones  [of  14  pounds]  imperial. 
It  is  rendered  firm  in  the  sack  by  the  sack  being  occasionally  beaten  against  the  floor  by  means 
of  a  fork-lever,  when  filling  at  the  spout  leading  from  the  dreusingmaeliine.  Of  wheat  weighing 
about  C4  lbs.  per  bu.shel.  4J  or  5  bushels  will  be  reijuired  to  n.ake  a  sack  of  fine  flour.  Of  the 
fine  crop  of  181.5,  I  remember  of  the  late  Mr.  Brown.  Whitsome  Hill.  Berwickshire,  selling  to 
Mr.  Macka\-,of  Clarabud  Mill,  in  the  same  county,  800  bolls,  or  4,800  bushels  of  red  Dantzic  creeping 
wheat,  which  weighed  27  stones  per  boll,  or  G:i  lbs.  per  bushel,  and  yielded  24  stones  of  fine  flour, 
and  only  3  stones  of  refuse — that  is,  only  one-ninth  of  refuse  of  the  entire  weight.*  I  find  the  fine 
white  wheat  used  by  the  bakers  of  Edinburgh  yields  13J  stones  of  14  lbs.  of  flour  from  4  bushels, 
weighing  18  sts..  and  2  stones  of  odd,  seconds,  parings,  sharps,  aud  wa.'He.  and  2J  sts.  of  bran. 

(1496.)  Many  devices  are  practiced  to  adulterate Jlovr.  I  remember  a  miller  in  Cornwall  being 
fined  in  very  heavv  penalties  for  adulterating  his  flour  with  the  washed  felspar  obtained  from  the 
disintegration  of  tlie  granite  of  his  neighborhood.  Potato  flour  and  bean  flour  are  mixed  w  ith 
wheat  flour,  and  though  not  positively  unwholesome,  or  yierhaps  unlawful,  are  frauds  wlien  fo 
u.sed,  as  being  articles  of  inferior  value  to  the  flour  of  wheat.  There  are  modes,  however,  of 
detecting  any  kind  of  adulteration.  "If  potato  tlour  be  added,"  save  Dr.  Ure,  "  which  is  fre- 
quenily  done  in  France,  since  a  vessel  which  contains  1  lb.  of  wheat  flour  will  contain  \\  lbs.  of 
potato  flour,  the  proportion  of  this  adulteration  may  be  easily  estimated.  If  gypsum  or  ground 
bones  be  mixed  with  flour,  they  will  not  only  increase  its  density  still  more,  but  they  will  remain 
after  burning  away  the  meal."  "Bean  or  pea  flour  may  be  detected  by  pouring  boiling  water 
upon  it,  which  develops  the  peculiar  smell  of  these  two  substances."  '•  Nitric  acid  has  the  prop- 
erty of  coloring  wheat  flour  of  a  fine  orange  yellow,  whereas  it  does  not  affect  the  color  of  potato 
flour."  ••  Pure  muriatic  acid  colors  wheat  flour  of  a  deep  violet,  but  dissolves  potato  fecula."  "  As 
fecula  absorbs  less  water  than  flour,  this  affords  a  ready  means  of  detection."  "  Alum  may  be 
delected  in  bread  by  treating  the  bread  in  water,  and  pouring  a  few  dropi  of  nitrate  or  muriate 
of  barytes  in  it,  when  a  heavy  white  precipitate  will  follow,  indicating  the  presence  of  sulphuric 
acid.'t  "  Guaiacum,"  says  Dr.  Thomson,  "  is  rendered  blue  by  various  animal  and  vegetable 
sub.<tance8.  It  becomes  blue,  according  to  Tadei,  when  rubbed  in  the  state  of  powder  with 
gluten  of  wheat,  or  with  the  farina  which  it  contains."^  If  a  little  of  this  gum  and  water  be 
put  among  flour,  it  is  a  very  eood  and  ea.sy  test  of  its  soundness  when  the  flour  becomes  blue. 
'•  It  has  been  found  so  difficult  to  detect  the  adulteration  of  flour,"  remarks  Mr.  Babbaee,  "  and 
to  measure  its  good  (jualities,  that,  contrary  to  the  ma.xim  that  Government  can  generally  pur- 
chase any  article  at  a  cheaper  rate  than  that  at  which  they  can  manufacture  it,  it  has  been  consid- 
ered more  economical  to  build  extensive  flour  mills,  and  to  grind  their  own  com,  than  to  verify 
ea<'h  sack  purcha.sed,  and  to  employ  persons  in  continually  devising  methods  of  detecting  the 
new  modes  of  adulteration  which  might  be  resorted  to  "|) 

(1497.)  Any  one  may  analyze  flour  in  this  way  :  "  A  ductile  paste  is  to  be  made  wiih  1  lb.  of 
flour  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water,  ami  left  at  rest  for  an  hour;  then  having  laid  across  a 
howl  a  piece  of  silken  sieve  stuff"  a  little  below  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  bowl,  the  paste  is 
to  be  laiil  on  the  sieve,  on  a  level  with  the  water,  and  kneaded  tenderly  with  the  hand,  so  as 

merely  to  wa.sh  the  starchy  particles  out  of  it The  water  must  be  several  times  renewed, 

until  it  ceases  to  become  milky.     The  gluten  remains  on  the  sieve. "^ 

(1498.)  The  analysis  of  wheat  and  nour  by  the  celebrated  Vauquelin  pave  the  following  re- 
sult.s.  It  may  be  observed,  however,  of  the  wheat  and  flour  subjected  lo  this  analysis,  that  they 
were  of  fon-icn  growth,  and  the  results  cannot  be  adopted  for  practical  purposes  iii  this  country, 
as  if  they  had  been  obtained   from   British  wheat  and  flour.     "In  general,"  says  Davy,  "  ilje 

'  As  HH  inftsncenf  the  event  fliictuntion  in  the  price  of  wheat  occHsioned  by  a  difference  in  sratons,  fniay 
mention  thai  piirt  of  this  tine  wheal  wns  fold  in  181.')  for  32s.  per  boll  of  (>  bushels,  or  Ss.  4d.  per  bushel ; 
iind  in  Ausuct.  1816,  a  very  wet  FCBSon.  part  whs  cold  for  10."is.  \>ct  boll,  or  17s.  6d.  per  bushel. 

t  Uie's  Dictionsry  of  the  Art*,  art.  Flour  of  Whrat.     {  Thomson's  Organic  Chemistry,  VegctabUt. 

II  I'.nbbage  on  the  Economy  of  Machinery  and  Manufactures.  §  Ure's  Diriionary  of  the  Arts,  art.  Brtad. 
(30) 


WHEAT  AND  FLOUR. 


whfat  of  warm  climates  abounds  more  in  gluten,  and  in  insoluble  parts ;  and  it  is  of  greater  spa 
ttilic  srravity,  harder,  and  more  difficult  to  grind."* 


Components. 

French 
wheat. 

Odessa 

hard 

wheat. 

Odessa 

soft 
wheat. 

Ditto. 

Flour  of 
Paris 
baiters. 

Do.  of  {;ood 
quality,  and 
in  public 
establish- 
ments. 

1 
Ditto, 
iuferior 
kind. 

Starcli 

Gluten 

Sugar 

Gum 

Bran 

Water 

71-49 

10-96 

4-72 

3-32 

10-00 

56-5 
14-55 
8-48 
4-90 
2-30 
12-00 

62-00 

12-00 

7-56 

5-80 

1-20 

1000 

72-00 
7-30 
5-42 
3-30 

12-00 

7-2-8 

10-2 

4-2 

2-8 

100 

71-2 

10-3 

4-8 

3-6 

80 

67-78 
902 
4-80 
4-60 
200 

12-00 

Total 

107-49 

98-73 

98-56 

10002 

1000 

97-9 

100-20t 

It  appears  that  Odessa  wheat  contains  more  sugar  than  French  wheat.  The  gluten  mentioned 
here  is  a  mixture  of  gluten  and  albumen.  The  gum  has  a  brown  color,  and  contains  azote.  It 
is  the  gluten  which  gives  to  a  mixture  of  flour  and  water  its  tenaciousness,  ductility,  and  elasti- 
city, and  forms  the  nourishing  property  of  loaf-bread.  Gluten  has  a  great  resemblance  to  animal 
tendon  or  membrane,  containing  no  less  than  14^  per  cent,  of  azote.  When  subjected  to  ferment- 
ation, which  is  of  a  peculiar  character,  and  has  thereby  obtained  the  appellation  of  panary  fer- 
mentation, a  considerable  volume  of  carbonic  acid  gas  is  evolved,  but  which  is  retained  in  the 
mass  of  the  dough  by  the  tenacity  of  the  gluten.  Thus  confined  during  its  evolution,  the  gas  ex- 
pands the  dough  to  nearly  double  its  pristine  volume,  and  gives  it  its  vesicular  texture  ;  and  it  is 
the  infinite  number  of  these  cellules  filled  with  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  apparently  lined  with  a 
glutinous  membrane  of  a  silky  softness,  that  gives  to  the  well-baked  loaf  that  light,  elastic,  po- 
rous constitution  which  good  bread  always  possesses.^: 

(1499.)  Leaven  was  at  first  used  to  produce  the  fermentation  spoken  of  in  dough.  It  is  nothing 
more  than  a  piece  of  dough  kept  in  a  warm  place  until  it  undergoes  a  process  of  fermentation, 
swelling,  becoming  spongy,  or  full  of  air  bubbles,  at  length  disengaging  an  acidulo-spiritous  va- 
por, and  contracting  a  sour  taste.  A  much  better  promoter  of  the  panary  fermentation  is  yeast. 
which  is  the  viscid  froth  that  rises  on  the  surface  of  beer  ia  the  first  stage  of  its  fermentation. 

(l.iOO.)  With  good  wheaten  flour,  the  proportion  given  by  the  bakers  to  make  bread  is  | 
weight  of  flour  and  \  of  yeast,  water,  and  salt.  The  bread  loses  1-7  of  its  weight  in  baking. 
With  these  proportions,  a  sack  of  flour  of  280  lbs.  yields  92  loaves  of  4  lbs.  each,  [368  pounds.] 

(1501.)  It  is  not  unusual  for  farmers  to  bake  their  household  bread,  and  it  may  be  done  in  this 
way  :  Take,  say  24  lbs.  of  flour,  whether  tine  or  ground  overhead,  and  put  it  in  a  hollow  clay 
dish.  Make  a  deep  hollow  in  the  middle  of  it ;  and  sprinkle  a  handful!  of  salt  over  it.  Then  take 
\  a  pint  of  thick,  sweet,  fresh,  well  washed  yeast,  about  5  quarts  of  milk-warm  water,  from  65'-'  to 
70^  Fahr.,  and  a  pint  of  bran,  and  stir  them  together  in  a  pitcher.  Too  hot  water  will  stop,  and 
too  cold  will  prevent  fermentation.  Pour  the  water  and  yeast  over  the  flour  through  a  sieve,  and, 
mixing  all  lightly  together,  set  the  mass  before  the  fire,  covering  it  with  a  cloth.  Light  the  oven 
fire,  and  bring  it  to  a  due  heat.  In  about  an  hour  the  sponge  will  have  risen  sufliciently,  when  it 
should  be  kneaded  with  considerable  force  for  about  15  or  20  minutes.  The  dough  should  not 
be  worked  too  stiff,  though  it  requires  to  be  a  little  stiflfer  when  the  loaves  are  fired  on  their  own 
soles  than  when  fired  in  pans.  The  kneaded  dough  is  again  set  before  the  fire,  and  covered  with 
a  cloth  as  before,  when  a  new  fermentation  ensues,  which  will  have  proceeded  far  enough  when 
the  dough  increases  half  more  in  bulk,  that  is,  in  about  an  hour,  when  the  dough  is  portioned  out 
into  the  size  of  the  loaves  desired,  and  placed  in  the  oven  to  be  fired.  If  the  oven  is  too  hot, 
the  dough  will  be  incrusted  on  the  surface  too  much  and  too  soon,  and  if  too  cold,  the  bread  will 
be  heavy,  and  not  rise  sufficiently  in  the  firing.  Experience  must  teach  these  particulars.  This 
quantity  will  make  31  lbs.  of  bread. 

(150-2.)  The  danger  of  making  the  bread  so^ir  is  incurred  between  the  first  and  second  processes 
of  fermentation.  In  the  first  it  is  the  vinous  fermentation,  which  of  itself  is  innocent,  but  if  in- 
creased heat  is  applied,  or  the  sponge  allowed  to  stand  too  long,  it  is  apt  to  run  into  the  acetous 
fermentation.  This  tendency  is  checked  during  the  first  process  by  kneading  the  dough  in  time. 
If,  however,  the  second  fermentation  is  allowed  to  continue  longer  than  it  should  be,  the  acetous 
fermentation  will  rapidly  appear,  and  then  the  bread  will  inevitably  be  sour  unless  some  coun- 
teracting expedient  is  adopted,  such  as  the  application  of  an  alkali,  as  carbonate  of  soda,  or  of  an 
alkaline  earth,  as  magnesia  or  chalk.  It  is  certainly  better  to  employ  these  neutralizing  ingredi- 
ents than  to  allow  the  batch  of  bread  to  become  sour,  but  better  still  to  use  the  means  of  making 
the  batch  into  sweet  bread  than  to  rectify  that  acidity  in  it  which  ought  never  to  have  overtaken 
It ;  and  the  means  of  avoiding  acidity  are,  to  make  the  sponge  fresh  in  the  morning,  a  short  time 
before  the  bread  is  to  be  fired,  and  not  to  allow  it  to  stand  over  night  in  the  kitchen,  in  a  low  tem- 
perature.   I  speak  from  experience,  and  can  safely  aver  that  with  these  precautions  not  a  sour 


[I  Under  more  appropriate  heads,  shall  we  note  the  results  of  a  great  variety  of  more  modern 
experiments  and  analyses,  touching  this  important  subject  in  every  light.  Professor  Johnston  is 
ot  opinion  that  the  quantity  of  gluten  contained  in  English  Wheat  has  generally  been  stated 
much  too  high.  He  concludes,  on  a  view  of  all  that  has  been  said  and  done,  that  the  quantitj^  of 
gluten  in  English  flour  is  seldom  more  than  ten  per  cent.]  Ed.  Farm.  Lib  ] 

-  Davy's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chfiinistry,  Edition  of  1839. 
\  Thomson's  Organic  Chemistry,  Vvgetablts. 
(31) 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


I>>af  was  seen  in  ray  hoasc  for  many  years.  I  do  not  say  that  a  sponge  left  over  night  mu»t  he- 
ctiinc  njiir,  h\il  oiAy  thai  h  iii  much  mure  opt  lo  bocoiue  »>o  tliau  when  fresh  nia<lc.  When  the 
8»'foiid  fernKMitutidti  in  alloweil  to  proceed  too  tar,  both  ihc  lactic  and  arclic  acidw  are  formed  ; 
the  lornior  most  sensibly  atiects  the  taste,  and  the  latter  the  smell ;  and  both  combine  to  make 
bread  sour. 

(1:^03. J  Brewer's  barm  makes  tlie  lightest  and  best  vea»/  for  family  ose,  and  what  of  it  may  not 
be  used  at  one  time  may  be  kept  sweet  for  some  weeks  in  the  following  manner.  "  As  this  sub- 
stance works  out  of  the  barrels,  it  should  bo  placed  in  deep  pans,  and  left  to  settle  lor  a  (in y  or 
two.  The  thin  tluid  should  then  be  poured  off,  and  the  pan  filled  with  cold  fresh  spring  wai.-r, 
stirring  the  thick  yeast  welt  up.  Everj'  day  this  operation  is  to  be  repeated,  and  occasionullv  it 
ought  to  be  strained  through  a  sieve  into  another  vessel.  It  will  thus  always  be  ready  for  iihe." 
Experience  alone  can  tell  whether  the  scent  or  appearance  of  yeast  procured  at  a  brewery  ure 
those  tlie  mo^t  desirable  ;  but  these  hints  may  prove  useful.  "  II  it  be  fit  for  the  purpose,  it  vi  ill 
smell  rather  fragrant:  if  stale  it  will  have  a  strong  acid,  and  slightly  putrid  scent  in  this  stale, 
we  have  known  it  to  be  recovered  and  rendered  availa)'le,  by  adding  a  teaspoonfull  of  flour,  the 
same  of  sugar,  a  saltspoonfull  of  sail,  and  a  tea-capfull  of  warm  water,  to  a  J  pint  of  yeast,  and  set- 
ting it  near  ihe  fire  to  rise,  having  well  stirred  it.  Tliis  should  be  done  about  an  hour  before  it  is 
intended  to  be  mixed  with  the  flour  ;  for  that  lime  is  required  inorder  to  watch  whether  the  lermcn- 
tative  principle  is  strong  enough  to  work  the  bread.  In  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  the  mass  will  have 
nearly  reached  its  bight,  and  a  fine  head  will  have  formed.  This  must  be  looked  at  carefully. 
If  it  continue  up  and  appear  opaque,  it  may  be  trusted  ;  but  if  it  '  go  back,'  that  is,  sink,  look  hol- 
low and  watery,  and  the  bubbles  break,  it  will  infallibly  spoil  the  batch  ;  it  must  be  thrown 
away.  Bran  ought  alirays  to  be  «,<e<f.  however  fresh  and  good  the  ferment  may  be  found.  Bran 
contains  an  acid  principle  which  tends  to  subdue  the  bitter  taste  of  the  hop,  and  it  also  (lossesscs 
much  fermentative  matter  that  assists  the  action  of  the  yeasL"  In  this  way,  "  we  have  ourselves 
baked  bread  that  was  made  with  the  barm  for  our  own  home-brewed  beer  for  six  successive 
weeks  ;  not  from  necessity,  but  in  order  to  ascertain  the  extent  of  time  to  vk  hich  ycajit  might  be 
kept  sweet."* 

(l.'>04,)  Itisas.snmed  by  some  people,  that  a  mixture  of  potatoes  among  wheatcn  flour  ren- 
ders bread  lighter  and  more  wholesome.  That  it  will  render  bread  whiter  I  have  no  doubt:  but 
I  have  as  little  doubt  that  it  will  render  it  more  insipid,  and  more  than  tbi.s,  it  is  demonstrable 
that  its  use  is  less  economical  than  wheaten  flour.  Thus,  take  a  bushel  of  •■  seconds"  flour, 
weighing  .56  lbs.  at  5s.  6d.  A  batch  of  bread,  to  consist  of  '-'1  lbs.,  will  ab.eorb  as  much  water, 
and  require  as  much  yeast  and  salt,  as  will  yield  7  loaves,  of  4  lbs.  each,  for  Cs.  4d.  per  loaf  "  If, 
instead  of  7  lbs.  of  the  flour,  the  same  weight  of  raw  potatoes  be  substituted,  with  the  hope  of 
saving  bj-  the  comparatively  low  price  of  the  latter  article,  the  quantity  of  bread  that  will  be 
yielded  will  be  but  a  trifle  more  than  irould  have  been  produced  from  14  lbs.  of  flour  only,  with- 
out the  addition  of  the  7  lbs.  of  potatoes :  for  the  starch  of  this  root  is  the  only  nutritive  part,  and 
we  have  proved  that  but  1-7  or  ^  of  it  is  contained  in  every  pound,  the  remainder  being  water 
and  innutritive  matter.  Only  20  lbs.  of  bread,  therefore,  instead  of  28  lbs.,  will  be  obtained; 
and  this,  though  white,  will  be  comparatively  flavorless,  and  liable  to  become  dry  and  sour  in  a 
few  days ;  whereas,  without  the  latter  addition,  bread  made  in  private  families  will  keep  ircll  for 
3  weeks,  though,  after  a  fortnight,  it  begins  to  deteriorate,  especially  in  the  aatumo."  The  cal- 
culation of  comparative  cost  is  thus  shown  : — 

Flour,  14  lbs.,  say  at  Ijd.  per  lb =    Is.  5}d. 

Potatoes,  7  lbs.,  say  at  os.  per  sack =:    0    2 

Yeaat  and  fuel =    Q    ij 

2s.  Od. 

Tlie  yield  20  Iba.,  or  5  loaves  of  4  lbs.  each,  will  be  nearly  5d.  each,  which  is  dearer  than  the  wheaten 
loave8,which  were  4d.  each,  and  the  bread  besides  of  inferior  quality.  "  There  are  persons  who 
assert — for  we  have  heard  them — that  there  is  no  economy  in  baking  at  home.  An  accurate  and 
constant  attention  to  the  matter,  with  a  close  calculation  of  every  week's  results  for  several 
years — a  calculation  induced  by  the  sheer  love  of  investigation  and  experiment — enable  us  to  as- 
sure our  readers  that  a  gain  is  invariably  made  of  from  Ijd.  to  2d.  on  tlie  4d.  loaf.  If  <ill  be  in- 
trusted  to  servants,  we  do  not  pretend  to  deny  that  tlie  waste  may  neutralize  the  pmflt ;  but,  with 
care  and  investigation,  we  pledge  our  veracity  that  the  saving  will  prove  to  be  considerablc.'t 
These  arc  the  observations  of  a  notable  housewife. 

(l.'iOS.i  The  microscope  has  ascertained  the  xlructure  of  ichenlen  flour.  "The  largest  grains  of 
the  fecula  of  wheat."  says  Kaspail,  "  do  not  generally  exceed  .002  of  an  inch  in  size.  They  are 
spherical,  and  aloui;  with  them  we  see  empty  and  lorn  membranes,  resulting  from  tin,-  bruising 
of  the  grains  by  the  mill.  They  are  mucn  smaller,  rounder,  and  better  pre8»'r>eil.  when  they 
are  extracted  from  the  grain  while  it  is  greenish,  and  not  ripened  on  the  stalk."  "Paiiificatiun," 
he  observes,  "  is  a  process  whose  object  is  to  burst  all  the  grains  of  fecula.  which  are  in  the  fa- 
rina, ai«aociated  with  a  ver\-  fermentable  substance  called  gluten.  The  finest  and  best  baked 
bread  is  what  is  made  of  farina  abounding  in  an  elastic  gluten  :  for  this  gluten,  rising  in  large 
blisters  by  the  dilatation  of  the  gases  imprisoned  within  it,  allows  each  feculent  grain  to  partici- 
pate in  the  communication  of  the  heat,  and  to  burst,  as  it  would  by  boiling.  Hence,  alter  paiiifi- 
cation.  if  the  pa.«te  has  been  well  kneaded,  we  do  not  find  a  single  grain  of  fecula  entire.  The 
bread  will  be  duller  and  less  [iroperly  baked,  if  it  contains  less  of  thi.s  gluten.  This  is  the  rea 
pou  why,  other circunistano'g  being  alike,  the  bread  of  rje  and  barley  is  less  nouri.xhing  than 
that  of  wheat.  Wheaten  bread  will  likewise  be  heavier  and  less  perfect,  according  as  the 
flour  has  been  more  or  less  mixed  with  other  grain  or  with  fecula.  It  has  been  observed,"  he 
continues,  "  that  the  more  of  foreign  fecula  we  mix  with  flour  the  less  increase  of  weight  does 


*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  toL  tx.  t  Ibid.  vol.  ix. 

(32) 


WHEAT   AND   FLOUR.  33 


tlie  bread  acquire.  Thus,  6  lbs.  of  flour  produce  8  lbs.  of  bread  ;  but  3  lbs.  of  fecula  of  the  po- 
tato, will)  3  Ib.s.  of  flour,  produce  only  6  lbs.  of  bread.  The  reasou  of  this  is  the  IbUuwing  : — 
The  grains  of  lecula  do  not  imbibe  the  water,  but  only  are  moistened  by  it ;  in  other  words,  it 
only  adheres  to  them.  The  gluten,  on  the  other  hand,  imbibes  it  as  a  sponge  would  do.  and  the 
moi-e  it  is  kneaded  the  more  it  imbibes,  and  the  water  thus  imbibed  adds  to  the  weight  ol'  the 
bread.  There  are  two  rea-ons,  then,  against  this  sort  of  mixtures  ;  and  this  adulteration,  though 
it  be  not  a  crime,  is  still  a  fraud,  because  the  immediate  result  of  it  is  to  diminish  at  once  the 
weight  and  the  nutritive  quality  of  the  bread."  Thus  the  minutest  scientitic  research  corrobo- 
rates facts  evolved  by  practice. 

(1506.)  IVheat  contains  more  gluten  than  any  of  the  other  grains,  and  it  is  this  substance 
which  confers  the  relative  value  on  wheat  as  an  article  of  food.  It  is  most  developed  when  used 
in  the  form  of  bread.  "  If  we  prepare  two  masses  of  gluten  by  kneading,"  says  Raspail,  "  we 
shall  not  be  able  to  make  them  unite  by  simple  contact ;  but  if  we  tear  open  the  side  of  each,  and 
bring  the  edges  together,  the  smallest  effort  will  be  sufficient  to  unite  the  two  masses  into  one. 
The  object  of  kneading,  then,  is  to  press  the  two  edges  of  the  glutinous  parcels  against  each 
other.  Hence  the  quantity  of  gluten  will  vary  according  to  the  mode  of  kneading  employed. 
Thus  Beccaria,  who  contented  himself  with  placing  the  farina  in  a  sieve,  and  keeping  it  under  a 
strciim  of  water,  but  without  stirring  it,  obtained  less  gluten  than  Kesselmej-er,  who,  in  the  first 
place,  made  a  paste  of  the  farina,  and  then  kneaded  it  continually  under  a  stream  of  water,  till  the 
water  ceased  to  pass  ofl' milky.  In  the  former  process,  the  weight  of  the  water  falling  on  the 
farina  brought  a  few  parcels  together,  but  kept  asunder  or  disunited  the  greater  number,  which 
consequently  passed  through  the  sieve.  In  the  second  process,  on  the  contrary,  the  hand  in 
kneading  compressed,  turned  in  every  direction,  and  brought  together  by  every  point  of  contact, 
the  scattered  parcels,  and  scarcely  allowed  the  water  to  carry  off  anything  but  the  round  and 
smooth  grains  of  fecula.  I  have  ever  found  that,  in  this  proces.s,  we  obtain  more  or  less  gluten, 
according  as  the  paste  is  pressed  in  different  ways ;  for  when  it  is  merely  compressed  perpendic- 
ularly, we  lose  a  good  deal  more  of  the  gluten  than  when  it  is  rolled  upon  itself  with  some  force.'' 

(I.VJ7.)  In  regard  to  the  nutritive  pmpertie^  of  gluten,  there  is  no  doubt  they  are  of  a  superior 
order,  thougli  not  for  the  reason  ascribed  by  Magendie,  who  concluded  that  gluten  is  nutritious 
because  sugar,  which  contains  no  nitrogen,  could  not  support  dogs  in  life  beyond  a  certain  time ; 
while  Parmentier  was  led  to  infer  that  gluten  remains  undigested.  "  But  who  does  not  perceive,'' 
junly  asks  Raspail,  -'that  animals  till  then  accustomed  to  live  on  flesh,  must  suffer  on  being  all 
at  once  deprived  of  this  aliment,  just  as  a  horse  would  suffer  from  being  fed  on  flesh  instead  of 
hay  ;  for  as  digestion  is  a  complex  operation,  why  should  we  seek  to  study  it  by  violating  its  ele- 
ments ?  Sugar  will  not  ferment  by  itself^why,  then,  expect  that  it  should  ferment  without  albu- 
men in  the  stomach  ?  If  this  mode  of  experimenting  entitle  us  to  erase  sugar,  oil,  and  gum 
from  the  list  of  nutritive  substances,  we  must  also  erase  pure  gluten  and  even  pure  albumen; 
for  if  an  animal  be  fed  on  tliem  alone  it  will  die  just  as  certainly  as  if  it  had  been  fed  exclusively  on 
sugar.  This  is  one  of  these  questions,"  he  concludes,  "in  which  both  sides  are  wrong,  and  the 
truth  lies  in  blending  the  opposite  opinions  together.  Neither  gluten  nor  sugar,  taken  singly,  is 
nutritive  ;  but  they  become  alimentary  when  united." 

(1508.)  Wheat  is  used  in  s/arc/tmaking.  "In  starching  linen,"  says  Raspail,  "the  fecula  of 
the  potato,  of  the  horse-chestnut,  &c.  may  be  used,  as  well  as  that  of  wheat ;  $nd  it  may  be  used 
either  hot  or  cold,  in  the  state  of  starch  or  of  powder.  The  effect  will  be  the  Same,  provided  tlie 
irons  used  be  sufficiently  heated.  It  is  sufficient  to  mix  the  fecula  with  a  little  water,  to  dip  the 
linen  in  it,  clapping  it  with  the  hand,  and  to  apply  the  hot  iron  while  the  linen  is  still  moist.  The 
grains  of  fecula  will  burst  from  the  action  of  the  heat,  the  membranes  will  dilate  as  they  com- 
bine with  a  portion  of  the  water  that  is  present,  the  soluble  mass  will  be  freely  dissolved  in  the 
rest  of  it,  and  the  linen  will  be  starched  and  dried  by  one  process."  Fecula  is  used  in  making 
size  for  paper  as  well  as  glue;  and  "it  is  known  that  weavers  are  obliged,  in  order  to  preserve 
the  humidity  of  the  Joiner  used  in  dressing  the  threads,  to  work  habitually  in  low,  damp,  and 
consequenth'  unwholesome  places.  Dubuc,  an  apothecary  at  Rouen,  proposed  to  add  to  the 
dressing  a  deliquescent  chloride,  which,  by  attracting  the  moisture  of  the  air,  might  prevent  the 
drying  of  the  batter,  and  thus  admit  of  the  workman  carrying  on  his  labor  in  drier  and  more 
healthy  places.  Vergnaud  recommends  the  use  of  the  fecula  of  the  horse-chestnut,  which  con- 
tains a  proportion  of  potash  sufficient  to  prevent  the  batter  from  drying."*  "  The  wheat  of  the 
south  of  Europe,  in  consequence  of  the  larger  quantity  of  gluten  it  contains,  is  peculiarly  fitted 
for  making  macaroni  and  other  preparations  of  flour,  in  which  a  glutinous  quality  is  con.sidered  as 
an  excellence. ''t  The  macaroni  is  formed  into  different  sized  tubes,  by  the  dough  being  pressed 
from  a  machine  in  broad  fillets,  the  edges  of  which  are  brought  into  contact  and  adhere,  while 
the  dough  is  yet  moist.     Macaroni  makes  the  finest  flavored  dish  with  Parmesan  cheese.j; 


[*  It  seems  proper  to  advise  the  reader  here,  that  this  chapter  does  not  embrace,  by  any  means 
all  that  is  said  by  the  author  on  the  subject  of  Wheat.  It  will,  hereafter,  be  treated  under  the 
heads — Insects  and  Diseases  affecting — Proper  Degree  of  Ripeness  for  Cutting — Cutting  and 
Stocking — Carrying  in  and  Stacking — Comparative  Weights  of  Grain,  Straw,  and  Roots — Au- 
tumn Sowing.  Plowing  land  for  it — various  modes  of  doing  this — Importance  of  Thorough  Drain- 
ing—Preparation  of  the  Seed  and  Sowing— Best  Varieties— Sowing  by  Dibbling— By  Trans- 
planting—Expenses  of  this,  and  Sowing  of  Seed — Description  of  the  Process  and  Germination 
&c.  All  these  points  will  be  embraced  in  this  volume,  and  we  could  wish  to  introduce  them 
now,  in  reference  to  the  coming  season  ;  but  there  are  obvious  reasons  why  we  cannot  break  in 
upon  the  systematic  arrangement  of  the  author.]  [Ed.  Farm.  Lib. 

*  Ra.5pnil'8  Organic  Chemistry.  t  Davy's  Lectures  on  Asrricultural  Chemistry,  Edition  of  1839. 

(33) 3 


34 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


Fig.  304. 


(1509.)  Barley.*— liB  botanical  poaiiion  ia  the  3d  claas  Triandria,  2d  order  Dig^nia.  genus  Hor 
deum  o|  the  Liniiipan  gystem,  and  in  the  natural  order  of  the  Graminrtr.  Profewwr  Low  divides 
the  cultivated  barley  into  two  dlBtinctions,  namely  the  2-rowed  and  the  6  rowed,  and  each  of  thc§e 
comprehends  the  ordinary,  the  naked,  and  the  (prat  or 
battledore  forms.t  Mr.  Lawson  dewriben  20  varieties 
of  hurley;*  while  the  Mutu-um  of  the  Hichland  and 
Agricultural  f?(K'icty  contjiins  Bjiecinieng  of  30  varie 
tles.||  The  natural  claiuiifiraLion  of  Harley  by  the  ear 
is  obviously  of  three  kindx.  4  rowed,  tirowed.  and 
2-rowed.  Fig.  304  represents  the  three  forms,  where 
a  is  the  4-rowed,  or  here  or  bigg  :  c  is  the  firowed  :  and 
b  the  2rowed  ;  all  of  which  figures  represent  barley  in 
half  its  natural  size.  Of  these  the  here  or  bigg  was 
tliat  which  \\u.t  cultivated  until  a  recent  perioti,  when 
tJie  2  rowed  has  almost  entirely  supplanted  it.  and  is 
now  the  most  commonly  cultivated  variety,  the  G-rowoii 
being  rather  an  object  of  curiosity  than  culture. 

(1510.)  In  classifying  barley  by  the  sr>'ain,  there  are 
just  two  kinds,  bere  or  l"irg.  and  barley  ;  and  thouL'li 
both  awned.  are  sufficiently  marked  to  constitute  dis- 
tinct varieties.  In  the  here,  the  median  line  of  the 
bosom  is  so  traced  as  to  give  llie  grain  a  twisted  form, 
one  of  its  sides  appearing  larger  than  the  other.  In  the 
barley  the  line  passes  straight,  and  divides  the  grain 
into  two  equal  sides.  They  are  both  represented  in 
tig.  305,  where  a  is  the  bigg,  with  the  twisted-like 
grain,  and  lengthened  point  from  which  the  awn  has 
been  broken  otf ;  and  h  is  the  barley,  whose  shortness 
and  plumpness  give  it  a  character  of  superiority.  Both 
iliese  clusters  of  grain  are  of  the  natural  size.  The 
bigg  has  long  been  recognized  in  Scotland,  and  even  a 
2-rowcd  variety,  under  tlie  name  of  common  or  Scotch 
barley,  has  lon^  been  in  cultivation  ;  but  several  of  the 
English  varieties  are  now  naturalized,  and  in  their 
new  sphere  sliow  a  brighter  and  fairer  color,  plumper 
and  shorter  grain,  quicker  in  the  property  of  malting, 
though  less  hardy  and  prolific,  than  the  common  bar- 
ley. The  crenulated  or  shriveled  skin  across  both  sides 
of  the  median  line  in  the  Engli.sh  barleys  is  a  good  cri- 
terion of  malting ;  and  as  most  of  the  barley  raised  in 
his  country  is  converted  into  beer  or  spirits,  both  of  which  require  malt  to  produce  them  of  the 
finest  quality,  it  is  not  surprising  that  those  varieties  which  yield  the  greatest  return  of  malt 
should  always  realize  the  highest  prices.^ 

(1511.)  A  good  crop  of  barley  j-ields  a  re- 
turn of  fuom  48  to  60  bushels  the  imperial  acre. 
Good  barley  weighs  from  55  lbs  to  59  lbs.  per 
bushel.  A  crop  of  60  bushels  per  acre  will  yield 
of  straw,  in  the  vicinity  of  a  town,  176  stones  of 
H  Ib.s.  to  the  stone,  or  1  1-10  ton,  and  the  weight 
of  the  grain  of  that  crop,  at  56  lbs.  per  bushel,  will 
be  \\  tons.  It  takes  of  bigg  111  grains  to  weigh 
1  drachm  ;  of  6-rowed  barley,  93  ;  and  of  Cheva- 
lier barley,  80  grains.  Of  "the  three  kinds,  the 
Chevalier  is  much  the  heaviest. 

(1512.)  By  far  the  largest  proportion  of  the  best  barley  grown  in  this  country  is  converted  into 
malt  for  making  malt  liquor  and  spirits,  and  barley  is  alw)  used  for  distillation  in  a  raw  state.  In 
three  years,  the  following  quantities  of  malt  paid  duty,  viz. : 


4-HOWED 

6-BOWED 

2-KOWKD 

BERE   OR 

BARLEY. 

CHEVALIER 

BIGG. 

BARLEY. 

Fig.  305. 


ENGLISH  BARLEY. 


SCOTCH  BEKE  OB  BIGG. 


ENGLAND. 

SCOTLAND. 

IRELAND. 

TOTAL. 

1S3J.. 

Bushels. 
J        34,949,646 

BushelH. 
3.580,7,58 
£462.514 
3.604,816 
£465,622 
4,168,854 
£538,477 

Buehpls. 
1,776,883 
£229.514 
1.825,300 
£235.767 
1.872,104 
£241.813 

Ku«heU. 

40..307,287 
£.5,141.775 

41, .508,971 
£.5,361, .574 

43,237,9.56 
£5,584,902 

1835.. 

/       £4,449,745 
\        36,078,855 

1836.. 

\      £4,660,185 

C       37.196.998 

I      A4,e04,C12 

(*  The  Barley  Crop  of  tlie  U.  States,  by  the  last  Census,  was  4,161, .504  bushels,  much  more  than 
half  of  which  was  grown  in  New-York.  Maine  produced  355,161 ;  Ohio,  212,440  ;  Pennsyl- 
vania. 209,893  ;   Michigan,  tF"  127.802  ;   and  Virginia  only  87,430.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

[^  Professor  .lohnston.  in  his  Table  of  the  nutritive  matter  of  different  kinds,  from  an  acre  of 
the  usually  cultivated  crops,  puts  down  Barley  thus  :  Gross  produce,  bushels  35 — pounds  1800 — 
Husk  or  woody  fibre,  270 — Surch,  Sugar,  itc,  1,080 — Gluten.  &c.,  from  210  to  260 — Oil  or  Fal 
36  lo  54— Saline  matter.  .50.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib] 

t  Low's  Elements  of  I'rHctical  Agriculture.  %  Laweon's  Manunl..  |i  Caihlogue  nf  iht  Miitiunj. 

•  ,34; 


BARLEY  AND  MALT.  35 


Pot  and  pearl  barley  are  made  from  barley  for  culinary  purposes ;  and  both  meal  and  flour  are 
manufactured  from  barley  for  the  purpose  of  making  unleavened  bread,  which  is  eaten  by  the 
laboring  class  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  and  barley  bannocks  are  esteemed  a  luxury  by  people 
in  towns.  Porridge  of  barley-meal,  with  rich  milk,  is  accounted  a  pleasant  and  light  supper,  and 
less  heating  than  that  of  oatmeal. 

(l.'in.)  The  barley  has  received  great  attention  from  the  cliemist,  both  on  account  of  its  impor- 
tance as  a  fermentable  substance,  and  partly  to  discover  its  constituent  parts.  "  The  following  are 
the  proportions  of  the  constituents  obtained  by  Einhoff  from  3,840  parts  of  barleycorns : 

Volatile  matter 430  I  Meal 2,690 

Husk 720  I        -r^jjj^i -5;^ 


From  the  same  quantitj'  of  barley-meal  he  obtained — 


Volatile  matter 360 

Albumen 44 

Saccharine  matter 200 

Mucilage 176 

Phosphate  of  lime,  with  some  albumen.         9 

Total 3,840 


Gluten 135 

Husk,  with  some  gluten  and  starch 260 

Starch,  not  quite  free  from  gluten 2,580 

Loss 76 


Besides  these  substances,  Fourcroy  and  Vauquelin  ascertained  the  presence  of  phosphates  of 
lime  and  magnesia,  and  of  silica  and  iron;  and  I  found  in  it  phosphate  of  potash  and  nitrate  of 
soda.  Barley-meal,  on  being  macerated,  yields  an  oil.  which  is  supposed  to  give  its  peculiar 
flavor  to  spirits  from  raw  grain.  If  this  opinion  is  well  founded,  the  oil  must  be  dissipated  or 
destroyed  by  the  process  of  malting."* 

(1514.)  The  grains  of  the  fecula  of  the  barley  are  very  fine,  not  exceeding  .00098  of  an  inch  in 
size.  Barley  flour  only  contains  3  per  cent  of  gluten,  and  is  therefore  much  less  nutritive  than 
wheaten  flour.  The  hordein,  ascribed  by  Proust  to  act  so  important  a  part  in  the  germination 
of  barley,  is  asserted  by  Raspail  to  be  nothing  more,  under  the  microscope,  than  bran.  "  That  this 
is  the  case,"  he  says,  '•  is  proved  by  dissection ;  for  if  w^e  make  a  transverse  slice  of  each  of  the 
grains  of  wheat  and  barley,  we  shall  perceive  that  the  pericarp  of  the  wheat  peels  oflf  entire  like  a 
circular  band,  while  that  of  the  barley  can  only  be  detached  in  verj'  small  fragments.  Now,  what 
takes  place  under  the  edge  of  the  scalpel,"  he  alleges,  "  will  also  happen  under  the  pressure  of 
the  millstone  ;  consequently  the  bran  will  be  much  more  minutely  divided  in  the  farina  of  barley 
than  ill  that  of  wheat.  In  bolting  flour,  therefore,  it  will  remain  in  the  sieve;  while,  in  the 
other,  its  almoist  microscopic  fragments  will  pass  through  with  the  fecula  and  gluten,  and  will  be 
almost  inseparable,  by  mechanical  means,  from  the  farina."  Hence,  if  pearl  barley  "  be  ground, 
■we  obLain  from  it  a  farina  as  white  as  that  of  wheat,  and  containing  only  a  very  minute  portion  of 
hordein,  equivalent  to  the  amount  of  those  fragments  of  the  pericarp  which  had  been  protected  by 
their  situation  in  the  posterior  groove  of  the  grain."  t 

(1515.)  '-The  meal  so  highly  commended,  by  the  Greeks  was  prepared  from  barley.  ....  It 
w^as  not  until  after  the  Romans  had  learned  to  cultivate  wheat  and  to  make  bread,  that  they  gave 
barley  to  the  cattle.  They  made  barley-meal  into  balls,  which  they  put  down  the  throats  of  their 
horses  and  asses,  after  the  manner  of  fattening  fowls,  which  was  said  to  make  them  strong  and 
lusty.  Barley  continued  to  be  the  food  of  the  poor,  who  were  not  able  to  procure  better  provi- 
sion ;  and  in  the  Roman  camp,  as  Vegetius  has  informed  us,  soldiers  who  had  been  guilty  of  any 
ofience  were  fed  with  barley  instead  of  bread  com."  % 

(1516.)  Malting. — This  process  produces  a  considerable  change  in  the  constitution  of  the  grain. 
The  barley  is  steeped  in  cold  water  for  at  least  40  hours,  according  to  law.  Here  it  imbibea  mois- 
ture, increases  in  bulk,  and  emits  a  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  not  exceeding  2  per  cent..  The 
moisture  imbibed  is  0.47,  that  is  to  say,  every  100  lbs.  of  barley,  when  taken  out  of  the  steep, 
weighs  147  lbs.  The  increase  of  bulk  is  1-5,  that  is,  100  bushels  of  grain  measures  out  120  bushels. 
The  steep-water  dissolves  from  1-50  to  1-100  of  the  husk  of  the  barley,  and  hence  barley  be- 
comes paler  by  steeping.  The  steeped  barley  is  then  put  on  a  floor  in  a  heap  16  inches  deep,  to 
remain  so  for  26  hours.  It  is  then  turned  with  wooden  shovels,  and  diminished  in  depth  to  a  few 
inches  by  repeated  turnings.  In  96  hours  the  grain  becomes  10°  hotter  than  the  air,  and  then 
sjccals.  when  it  is  frequently  turned,  the  temperature  being  preserved  in  the  grain  from  55°  to 
62°.  The  roots  now  begin  to  appear,  the  stem  called  acrospire  springs  from  the  same  end,. and  ad- 
vances within  the  husk  to  the  other  end  of  the  grain ;  but  the  process  of  malting  is  stopped  by  kiln- 
drying  before  the  germ  has  made  much  progress.  The  kiln,  at  first  90°.  is  raised  gradually  to 
140°.  The  malt  is  then  cleaned,  and  the  rootlets  removed,  as  they  are  considered  injurious,  "and 
are  called  cominx.  Malt  is  from  2  to  3  per  cent,  greater  in  bulk  than  the  barley,  and  it  loses  1-5  or 
20  per  cent,  in  weight,  of  which  12  per  cent,  is  loss  by  drying ;  so  the  real  loss  is  only  8  per  cent., 
accounted  for  by  the  steep-water  carrying  away  IJ  per  cent.,  dissipated  on  the  floor  3  per  cent., 
roots  cleaned  away  3  per  cent,  and  waste  i  per  cent.  The  roots  take  away  the  glutinous  portioii 
of  the  grain,  and  the  starch  is  converted  into  a  sort  of  sugar. 

(1517.)  Beer. — Beer  is  a  beverage  of  great  antiquity.  "  The  earliest  writer  who  mentions  be(»;" 
commences  Dr.  Thomson  in  his  account  of  the  process  of  malting,  of  which  the  foregoing  para- 
graph is  the  substance,  •'  is  Herodotus,  who  was  born  in  the  first  year  of  the  74th  Olympiad,  or  444 
years  before  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era.  He  informs  us  that  beer  was  the  com- 
mon drink  of  the  Egyptians,  and  that  it  was  manufactured  from  barley,  because  wines  did  not 
grow  in  their  country.  In  the  time  of  Tacitus,  whose  treatise  on  the  Manners  of  the  Germans 
was  written  about  the  end  of  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era.  beer  was  the  common  drink 
of  the  Germans.     Pliny  mentions  beer  as  employed  in  Spain,  under  the  names  of  ctelia  and  ciriti, 

*  Thomson's  Organic  Chemistry.  Vegetables.  t  Raspail'e  Organic  Chemietry. 

X  Phillips's  History  of  Cultivated  Vegetables,  vol.  i. 


36 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


and  in  Gaul  under  the  name  of  cervisia.  Almont  every  specicB  of  com  has  been  asod  in  the 
manufaoture  of  beer.  In  Europe  it  ia  usually  made  from  hnrlry,  in  India  from  rice,  in  the  interior 
of  Africa,  according  to  Park,  from  the  seeds  of  the  Uolnix  apicnhif.  But  whatever  erain 
is  employed,  the  process  is  nearly  the  same,  and  it  is  usual  in  the  first  place  to  convert  it  into 
malt "  "  t 

(1518.)  Oatit. — Oats  are  cultivated  on  a  large  extent  of  ground  in  Scotland,  and  it  is  believed 
that  no  country  produces  greater  crojis  of  them  or  of  finer  quality.  The  plant  belongs  to  the  natu- 
ral order  of  fSraviiiuir.  and  it  occupies  the  3d  class  Triandria,  2d  order  Dtgynia,  genus  Arena, 
of  the  Linniean  system.  Its  ordinary  botanical  name  is  Arena  na/iva,  or  cultivated  oat  The  term 
oat  is  of  obscure  origin.  Paxton  conjectures  it  to  have  l>een  derived  from  the  Celtic  eftin,  to  eat4 
There  are  a  great  number  of  varieties  of  this  grain  cultivated  in  this  country.  Mr.  Lav^-son  de- 
scribes 37  ;  11  and  .'i4  are  ileposited  in  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society's  Museum. $  The  natu- 
ral claHsification  of  this  plant  by  the  ear  is  obvious.  One  kind  has  its  panicles  spreading  and  equal 
on  all  sides,  and  tapering  toward  the  top  of  the  spike  in  a  conical  form.  The  other  has  its  panicles 
shortened,  nearly  of  equal  length,  and  all  on  the  same  side  of  the  rachis.    Fig.  306  represents  both 


Fig.  306. 


THE   TARTARIAN   OAT. 


THE    POTATO    OAT. 


the  kinds,  a  showing  the  first  and  f>  the  second,  where  they  both  appear  somewhat  confined 
or  squeezed  toward  the  racliis,  tlie  object  being  to  exhibit  the  grain  in  the  straw  as  taken  from 
the  stack,  rather  than  wiien  pulled  green  from  the  field,  a  is  the  prolific  potato  oat,  which  is 
beanlless,  commonly  cultivated  in  Scotland  for  the  sake  of  its  meal,  and  b  is  the  white  Tartarian 
oat,  which  ia  bearded,  and  extensively  cultivated  in  England  for  horse-corn.    The  natural  classi- 


[t  For  a  valuable  Essay  on  the  culture  of  Barley  in  the  United  States,  from  the  pen  of  H.  S. 
Randall,  Esq.,  see  Thk  Faumkiis'  LiniiAHY  andMonthly  Journal  of  Agriculttjbe,  Vol.  II., 
page  233.  It  will  be  farther  treated  in  this  "Book  of  the  Farm,"  under  the  heads — Insects  and 
Diseases  incident  to  it — Stooking — Precdutions  necessary  against  its  Heating  in  the  Slack — Quan- 
tity annually  Malted  in  Great  Britain — Its  Chemical  Composition,  and  that  of  Barley  Meal — 
Grinding  and  Malting — Comparative  Weight  of  Grain,  Straw  and  lloou— &c.    Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 


*  Thomson's  Organic  Chemistry,  Vegctahlts. 
li  Lawson's  Agriculturist's  Manual. 
(36) 


X  Paxton's  Botanical  Dictionary,  art.  Avena. 
§  Catalogue  of  the  Musuem. 


OATS  AND  OATMEAL. 


37 


fication  by  the  g^ain  consists  also  of  two  forms ;  the  one  a  round,  plump  grain,  like  a,  ^^.  307.  and 
an  elongated,  thin  grain,  having  a  tendency  to  show  awns,  as  at  ^;  the  a  kind  being  cultivated  on 
the  best  lands  in  the  low  country,  the  other 


Fig.  307, 


THE  POTATO  OAT. 


WHITE  SIBEBIAN  EABLY  OAT. 


on  poorer  soils  and  in  high  districts.  The 
first  is  tender,  and  liable  to  shake  with  the 
wind  ;  the  other  is  hardy,  and  able  to  resist 
Uie  tempest.  The  former  is  cultivated  chief- 
ly for  human  food,  yielding  meal  largely, 
the  latter  being  raised  chiefly  for  the  food 
of  horses.  The  straw  of  the  former  kind  is 
strong  and  inclined  to  reediness ;  that  of 
the  latter  is  fine,  pliable,  and  makes  an  ex- 
cellent dry  fodder  for  cattle  and  horses, 
there  being  a  good  deal  of  saccharine  mat- 
ter in  the  joints;  the  former  is  considered 
late  in  coming  to  maturity,  the  latter  early, 
and  is  consequently  so  designated, 

(1519.)  The  crop  of  oats  varies  from  40  to  75  bushels  per  imperial  acre,  according  to  the  kind 
and  the  circumstance  of  soil  and  situation.  Oats  varj'  in  weight  from  36  lbs.  to  48  lbs.  per  bushel. 
Whiteness,  of  a  silvery  hue,  and  plumpness,  are  the  criterions  of  a  good  sample.  The  potato  oat, 
47  lbs.  per  bushel,  gave  134  grains  to  1  drachm  ;  the  Siberian  early  oat,  weighing  46  lbs.  per 
bushel,  gave  109  grains ;  and  the  white  Tartarian  oat  gave  136  grains.  A  crop  of  potato  oats, 
yielding  60  bushels  to  the  acre,  at  47  lbs.  per  bushel,  will  weigh  of  grain  1  ton  5  cwt.  20  lbs.,  and 
will  yield  of  straw  1  ton  5  cwt.  16  lbs.,  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  large  town  ;  or,  in  other  words, 
will  yield  8  kemples  of  40  windlings  each,  and  each  windling  9  lbs.  in  weight.  But  I  have  been 
made  acquainted  with  a  crop  of  Hopetown  oats  near  Edinburgh  of  no  more  than  60  bushels  to  the 
imperial  acre,  yielding  2  tons  18  cwt.  16  lbs.  of  straw.  The  common  oats  yield  more  straw  in  pro- 
portion to  the  grain  than  the  potato  variety. 

(152U.)  The  portion  of  the  oat-ci op  consumed  by  man  is  manufactured  into  meal.  It  is  never 
called  flour,  as  the  millstones  are  not  set  so  close  in  grinding  it  as  when  wheat  is  ground,  nor  are 
they  usually  made  of  the  same  material,  but  most  frequently  of  sandstone.  Oats,  unlike  wheat, 
are  always  kiln-dried  before  being  ground ;  and  they  undergo  th's  process  for  the  purpose  of  al- 
lowing the  thick  husk,  in  which  the  substance  of  the  grain  is  enveloped,  to  be  ground  off,  which 
it  is  by  the  stones  being  set  asunder ;  and  the  husked  grain  is  then  winnowed  by  fanners,  which 
blow  away  the  husk  and  retain  the  grain,  which  is  then  called  groats.  The  groats  are  ground  by 
the  stones  closer  set,  and  yield  the  meal.  The  meal  is  then  passed  through  sieves  to  separate  the 
remaining  husk  from  the  meal.  The  meal  is  made  in  two  states ;  one  Jine,  which  is  the  state  best 
adapted  for  making  into  bread,  in  the  form  called  oat-cake  or  bannocks ;  and  the  other  is  coarser 
or  rounder  ground,  and  is  in  the  best  state  for  making  the  common  food  of  the  country  people, 
porridge,  Scotice,  parritch.  A  difference  of  practice  prevails  in  respect  to  the  use  of  these  two 
different  states  of  oatmeal  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  the  fine  meal  being  best  liked  for  all 
purposes  in  the  northern,  and  the  round  or  coarse  meal  in  the  southern  counties ;  but  as  oat-cake 
is  chiefly  eaten  in  the  North,  the  meal  is  there  made  to  suit  the  purposes  of  bread  rather  than  of 
porridge  :  whereas,  in  the  South,  bread  is  made  from  another  grain,  and  oatmeal  is  there  used 
only  in  the  shape  of  porridge.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  round  meal  makes  the  best  porridge 
when  properly  made,  that  is,  when  boiled  as  long  as  to  allow  the  particles  to  swell  and  burst, 
when  the  porridge  becomes  a  pultaceous  mass.  So  made,  with  rich  milk  or  cream,  there  are  few 
more  wholesome  meals  for  any  man,  or  upon  which  a  harder  day's  work  can  be  wrought.  Chil- 
dren of  all  ranks  in  Scotland  are  brought  up  on  this  diet,  verifying  the  poet's  assertion, 

"  The  haleaome  parritch,  chief  o'  Scotia's  food." — Burns. 

(1521.)  In  regard  to  the  yield  of  meal  from  any  given  quantity  of  oats,  it  is  considered  that 
when  they  give  what  is  called  even  meal  they  yield  half  their  weight  of  meal ;  that  is.  supposing 
that  a  boll  of  oats  of  6  bushels  weighs  16  stones,  it  should  give  8  stones  of  meal,  and,  of  course,  8 
stones  of  refuse  ;  but  the  finer  class  of  oats  will  give  more  meal  in  proportion  to  weight  than  this, 
more  nearly  9  stones,  and  some  even  12  stones.  The  market  value  of  oats  is  thus  estimated  by 
the  meal  they  are  supposed  to  yield,  and  in  discovering  this  property  in  the  sample  millers  be- 
come very  expert.  When  oats  yield  less  than  even  meal  they  are  considered  to  give  ill,  and  are 
disposed  offer  horses,  or  kept  at  home  for  that  purpose. 

(1522.)  The  oat  has  not  received  that  attention  from  the  chemist  as  the  barley  or  wheat.  The 
principal  characteristic  of  oatmeal  is,  that  it  contains  a  large  proportion  of  starch.  "  Vogel  found 
that  100  parts  of  oats  consisted  of  meal  66,  and  of  husk  34.    The  dry  meal  yielded 


Fat  yellowish-green  oil 2 

Bitter  extract  and  sugar 8-25 

Gum 2-5 


A  gray  substance  like  albumen 4-3 

Starch 59-0 

Moisture  and  loss 23-95 


Total 10000"* 

"  The  farina  of  the  oat  seems,  to  the  unassisted  eye,  cottony,  or  as  it  were  felted,  from  the  presence 
of  an  innumerable  quantity  of  hairs  with  which  the  seeds  are  covered.  The  grains  of  the  fecula 
have  a  size  of  about  .00276  by  .0018  of  an  inch.  They  appear  in  general  yellowish,  and 
strongly  shaded.  Some  of  these  have  the  appeai-ance,  but  not  the  form,  of  the  fecula  of  the 
potato."! 

(1523.)  "We  find  no  mention  made  of  oats  in  Scripture,"  says  Phillips,  "  which  expressly  states 


•  Thomson's  Organic  Chettuatxy— Vegetables. 
(37) 


t  Raspail'a  Organic  Chemistry. 


»S  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


that  Solomon's  horses  and  dromedaries  were  fed  with  barley  :"  but  •'  the  use  of  oats  as  a  proven- 
der for  horses  appears  to  have  been  known  in  Hume  as  early  as  tlie  Chisiian  Era.  as  we 
find  that  that  capricious  and  proliigate  tyrant  Ciilignla  fed  Jiiritnlns,  liis  fiivorile  liorfe,  with  irill 
onl*  out  of  a  poldi'n  cup."  OatH  are  mixed  with  hurley  in  the  diNtillation  of  cpirils  from  raw 
grain  ;  and  "  the  Musooviics  make  an  ale  or  drink  of  oats,  wliich  is  of  so  hot  a  nature,  and  soxtronf;, 
that  it  intoxicates  sooner  than  the  richest  winc."''t 

(1524.)  Rt/e. — Kotanically,  this  plant  occupies  the  same  place,  both  in  the  natural  and  sexaitl 
systems,  as  the  other  grains  which  liave  been  described.  It  is  the  Secale  cereale  of  the  botanists, 
so  called,  it  is  said,  ii  sccamlo,  from  cutting,  as  opposed  to  leguminous  plants,  whose  fruits  used  to 
be  gathered  by  the  hand.  A  figure  of  the  spike  of  rye  may  be  seen  at  e.  fig.  2T>^.  It  is  a  narrow 
small  grain,  not  unlike  shelled  oats.  There  is  only  one  species  of  this  plant,  which  is  said  to  be  a 
native  of  Candia.  and  was  known  in  Egypt  3.300  years  ago  :  but  there  are  several  varieties  which 
are  raised  as  food,  4  of  which  are  describeii  by  Mr.  Lawson{  and  7  to  be  seen  in  the  Museum  of 
the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society. |(  The  produce  of  rye  may  be  about  24  bushels  per  acre, 
and  the  weight  of  the  grain  is  stated  at  Irom  .'J2  lbs.  to  57  lbs.  per  bushel ;  the  number  of  grains  in 
1  drachm  weight  being  165. 

(1.V25.)  The  rye  is  not  much  cultivated  in  this  country,  particularly  in  Scotland,  where  only  a 
patch  here  and  there  is  to  be  seen.  It  is,  liowever,  extensivc-ly  cultivated  on  the  Continent,  espe- 
cially in  sandy  countries,  and  indeed  forms  the  principal  article  of  food  ofihe  laboring  classes.  I 
have  been  in  many  parts  of  Germany  where  none  but  rye  bread  could  be  )iurcha.sed.  Hye  bread 
is  denser  than  wheaten  bread,  an<l  darker  in  color,  and,  when  baked  in  the  sweet  state,  is  rather 
agreeable  to  the  palate ;  but  when  baked  sour,  in  which  state  it  is  commonly  used  in  many  places, 
it  requires  custom  to  make  one  become  reconciled  to  its  taste.  Horses  on  the  Continent  get  it  on  a 
journey  in  lieu  of  corn,  and  seem  very  fond  of  it. 

(1526.)  Einhotr  analyzed  rye-seeds  and  meal  with  great  care  :  3,840  parts  of  good  rye-seeds 
were  composed  of 

Husk 930  I  Pure  Meal 2520 

Moisture 390  |  

Total 3840 

]  00  parts  of  good  rye-meal  contained 

Albumen 3-27 


Gluten,  not  dried 9' 48 

Mucilage 11-09 

Starch 6109 


Saccharine  matter 3-27 

Husk 6  38 

Loss 5-42 


Total 10000 

•'But  the  proportion  of  these  substances  must  vary  extremely  according  to  the  soil,  the  climate 
and  the  age  of  the  rye.  The  gluten  of  rye  differs  in  several  particulars  from  that  of  wheat.  It  is 
less  tenacious  and  more  soluble.  When  it  is  allowed  to  ferment,  Einhoff  perceived  a  strong 
smell  of  nitric  acid,  which  is  peculiar  to  this  species  of  gluten.  The  starch  of  rye  bears  a  striking 
resemblance  to  that  of  wheat.  Like  this  last,  it  does  not  form  a  colorless  solution  with  boiling  wa- 
ter, and  always  precipitates  at  la.st,  when  the  solution  is  left  a  sufficient  time  to  rest."$ 

(1527.)  The'  grains  of  the  fecula  of  rye-meal  are  peculiariy  shape*!.  •'  The  largest  grains  of  this 
fccula."  says  Raspail,  "  are  about  002  of  an  inch  in  size  ;  but  what  distinguishes  them  from  all  the 
other  varieties  is,  that  they  are  flattened,  and  with  sharp  edges  like  disks,  and  for  the  most  part, 
marked  on  one  of  their  sides  with  a  black  cross,  or  three  black  rays  united  at  the  center  of  the 
grain."1I  "* 

(1528.)  Beans.  Beans  belong  to  a  very  different  tribe  of  plants  to  ihose  we  have  been  consider- 
ing. They  belong  to  the  natural  order  of  I.cgiiminoaa:  ,  because  they  bear  their  fruit  in  legumes 
or  pods;  and  in  the   Linnaan  system    they  occupy  the  class  and  order  Diadelphia  dccandria 


l*  The  oat  crop  of  the  United  States,  as  set  down  in  the  last  Census,  was  123,071,341  bushels.  A 
close  run  between  New-York,  20,675,847,  and  Pennsylvania,  20,641,819.  The  next  largest  pro- 
ducer was  Ohio,  14,393,103,  Virginia  being  the  fourth  on  the  list— 13,451,062  bushels.  Profes- 
sor JoK'NS70N  may  be  here  quoted,  thus: 


Special  Manubk  fob  Oats. — To  replace  100 
pounUa  of  the  inorgnnic  mHllor  of  the  OMt,  accord- 
ing to  the  nicsn  composition  of  it«  ash,  the  following 
mixture  is  adapted  : 


Carbonate  of  soda 10  lbs. 

Carbonate  of  maynesia   14   .. 

Total -   174  lbs. 

Five  bushels  of  oat«  contain  6  pounds  uf  inorganic 
mRtlor.  A  crop  of  ."iO  bushels,  tnercfore,  will  carry 
oft'  (X)  poundd,  «nd  will  require  105  pounds  of  the 
abovo  nii.xuiri"  to  rcplHce  it. 


IW-dust....    88K32,^g 

i^ulpnuric  Bcul 44  > 

Carbonate  of  potash,  (pcarlHsh) 18   .. 

This  grain  will  be  farther  discussed  under  tl;e  heads — Diseases  to  which  subject— Insects 
attacking  it — Weeds  to  which  it  is  subject — How  to  remove  them — Cutting,  St(X)king  and  Stack- 
ing  Average    Crop   yielded    by  it,    and    its  Value — Its  Straw — Comparative  Weight  of  Straw, 

Grain  and  Hoots— &c.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

["•  Rye  crop  of  the  United  States  in  1839,  18,645,567.  Here  Pennsylvania  runs  far  in  the  lead» 
growing  6.613,873,  while  the  next  on  the  list,  New-York,  gives  but  2,979,323.     Strange  to  say,  the 

f  Phillips'  llif-tory  of  CuliivBtcd  Vegetables. 

<  I.iiwsim's  Apriculturist'd  Mnnunl.  jj  Cataloinic  of  the  Museum. 

^  Thomson's  Orjjanic  Chemistry— K«yrtoW«.  11  RaspaiVa  Organic  Chemistry. 

(38) 


BEANS  AND     BEAN-MEAL.  39 

Their  generic  term  is  Faha  vulgaris  ;  formerly  they  were  classed  among  the  vetches  and  called 
Vicia  Faba.  The  common  bean  is  divided  into  two  classes,  according  to  the  mode  of  culture  to 
which  they  are  subjected,  that  is,  the  field  or  the  garden.  Those  cultivated  in  the  field  are  called 
Faba  rtilgaris  arvensin,  or  as  Loudon  calls  them,  Faba  valgaris  equina,  because  they  are  cultiva- 
ted chiefly  for  the  use  of  horses,  and  are  usually  termed  horse-beans.  The  garden  bean  we  have 
nothing  to  do  with,  though  some  farmers  attempt  some  of  the  garden  varieties  in  field  culture,  but 
I  believe  without  success.  All  beans  have  butterfly  or  papilionaceous  flowers.  Mr.  Lawson  hag 
described  8  varieties  of  the  field  bean  ;  and  10  varieties  are  placed  in  the  Highland  and  Agricul- 
tural Society's  Museum.*  The  variety  in  common  field  culture  is  thus  well  described  by  Mr. 
Lawson.  "  In  length  the  seed  is  from  ^  to  |  of  an  inch,  by  §  in  breadth,  generally  slightly  or  rather 
irregularly  compressed  and  wrinkled  on  the  sides,  and  frequently  a  little  hollowed  or  flattened 
at  the  end  ;  of  a  whitish  or  light-brown  color,  occasionally  interspersed  with  darker  blotches,  par- 
ticularly toward  the  extremities ;  color  of  the  eye  black.  Straw  from  3  to  5  feet  in  length.  There 
is  perhaps,"  continues  Mr.  Lawson,  "  no  other  grain  over  the  shape  and  color  of  which  the  climate, 
soil,  and  culture,  exert  so  much  influence  as  in  the  bean.  Thus,  in  a  dry,  warm  summer  and  har- 
vest, the  sample  is  always  more  plump  and  white  in  color  than  in  a  wet  and  cold  season ;  and 
these  more  so  in  a  strong,  rich  soil,  than  in  a  light,  and  more  so  in  a  drilled  crop  than  in  one  sown 
broadcast."!  I  omitted  to  mention  in  the  proper  place,  under  the  head  of  our  subject  of  barn- 
work,  that,  as  the  bean  is  easily  separated  from  its  pod,  the  fast  motion  of  the  threshing-machine 
should  be  put  on  when  beans  are  to  be  threshed,  and  in  case,  even  with  the  fast  motion,  the  straw, 
being  brittle,  should  be  much  broken,  the  best  plan  to  avoid  this  effect  is  to  feed  the  sheaves  thin 
sideways,  instead  of  lengthways,  into  the  feeding-rollers.  The  pods  being  covered  with  a  sort  of 
down,  which  becomes  black  on  winning  the  crop,  the  threshing  throws  off  this  down  like  a  thick 
black,  impalpable  dust,  which  entering  the  mouth  and  nostrils  and  blackening  the  clothes,  makes 
the  threshing  of  beans  a  di.sagreeable  process  ;  and  the  noise  occasioned  by  their  impinging 
against  the  iron  lining  of  the  drum-case,  is  almost  deafening,  and  almost  overpowering  to  human 
speech. 

(1529.)  The  produce  of  the  bean  crop  varies  from  20  to  40  bushels  per  imperial  acre,  much  of 
the  prolificacy  of  the  crop  depending  on  the  nature  of  the  season.  The  average  weight  may  be 
stated  at  66  Ib.s.  per  bushel.  It  only  requires  5  beans  to  weigh  1  drachm.  I  have  not  cultivated 
the  bean  so  much  as  to  enable  me  to  ascertain  the  weight  of  a  good  crop  of  straw  or  haulm,  in  com- 
parison with  that  of  the  grain,  for  it  is  seldom  that  the  same  season  gives  the  largest  return  of 
both  ;  but  I  have  seen  it  stated  that  "  it  has  been  known  to  yield  2  tons  per  acre."t  A  crop  of 
50  bushels,  at  66  lbs.  per  bushel,  gives  1  ton  3  cwt.  64  lbs.  per  acre. 

(1530.)  Beans  are  administered  to  the  horse  either  raw,  whole,  or  boiled  whole  or  bruised. 
They  are  given  to  cattle  in  the  state  of  meal,  that  is,  husk  and  grain  ground  overhead,  and  that 
not  very  finely.  Beans,  however,  can  be  ground  into  fine  flour  ;  and  in  this  state  are  used  to  adul- 
terate the  flour  of  wheat.  Their  presence  is  easily  detected  by  the  peculiar  smell  arising  from  the 
flour  when  warm  water  is  thrown  upon  it.  Beans  are  of  essential  service  to  support  horses  that 
have  fatiguing  work.  '•  If  beans  do  not  afford  more  nutriment,"  says  Stewart,  "  weight  for 
weight  of  oats,  they  at  least  produce  more  lasting  vigor.     To  use  a  common  expression,  they 

keep  the  stom  ach  longer.     The  horse  can  travel  farther  ;  he  is  not  so  soon  exhausted In 

the  coaching  stables,  beans  are  almost  indispensable  to  horses  that  have  to  run  long  stages. 
They  afl^ord  a  stronger  and  more  permanent  stimulus  than  oats  alone,  however  good.  Washy 
horses,  those  of  slender  carcass,  cannot  perform  severe  work  without  a  liberal  allowance  of  beans ; 
and  old  horses  need  them  more  than  the  young.  The  quantity  varies  from  3  to  6  lbs.  per  day  ; 
but  in  some  of  the  coaching  stables  the  horses  get  more,  1  lb.  of  oats  being  deducted  for  every 
1  lb.  of  beans.  Cart-horses  are  often  fed  on  beans,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  corn,  but  they  are 
always  given  with  dry  bran,  which  is  necessary  to  keep  the  bowels  open,  and  to  insure  mastica- 
tion, and  for  old  horses  they  should  be  always  broken."  •'  There  are  several  varieties  of  the  bean 
in  use  as  horse-com ;  but  I  do  not  know  that  one  is  better  than  another.  The  small,  plump  Bean 
is  preferred  to  the  large,  shriveled  kind.  Whichever  be  used,  the  bean  should  be  old,  sweet,  and 
sound  ;  not  mouldy,  nor  eaten  by  insects.  New  beans  are  indigestible  and  flatulent ;  they  pro- 
duce colic,  and  founder  very  readily.     They  should  be  at  least  a  year  old."|| 

(1-^31.)  Einhoff  carefully  analyzed  the  small  field-bean.  "  From  3,840  parts  of  the  ripe  beans 
he  obtained  the  following  substances : 


Volatile  matter 600 

Skins 386 

Starchy,  fibrous  matter 610 

Starch 1312 

Vegeto  animal  matter 417 

Total 


Albumen 31 

Extraction,  soluble  in  alcohol 136 

Gummy  matter 177 

Earthy  phosphate 371 

Loss I33i 


3840 

Vauquelin  could  detect  no  sugar  in  it.     He  and  Cornea  de  Serra  found  in  the  skins  of  the  beans. 
tannin  striking  a  blue  with  the  persalts  of  iron,  animo-vegetable  matter  mixed  with  tannin,  insol- 


comparatively  small  State  of  New- Jersey,  with  her  sandy  soil,  comes  in  next,  before  Virginia, 
giving  1,665,820  bushels— Virginia,  1,482,799.     Kentucky  next— 1,321,373. 

Special  Manure  for  Rye.— The  following  mix- 
ture is  adapted  to  the  composition  of  the  iish  of  the 
grain  of  rye  : 


Hone-dust 190  i 

Sulphuric  acid ".'..'...... .     95  (   ^^  't)3. 


Carbonate  of  potash,  (dry) .'IS  lbs 

Carbonate  of  soda,  (dry) 20  .. 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 22  . . 


Total 3.i9  . 

Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 
'  Catalosnie  of  the  Museum, 
t  Lawscn's  Agriculturist's  Manual.  %  British  Husbandry,  vol.  ii.  ||  Stewart's  Stable  Economy. 


40 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


able  in  water,  bat  eolublc  in  potash.  The  cotyledons  contained  a  sweet-tasted  eubetance,  starch 
tegumei),  albumen,  an  uncombined  acid,  with  carbonate  of  potasli,  phosphates  of  lime,  magnesia 
and  iron.  The  gcrmcit  of  the  bean  cuuiaiued  white  tallow,  legumen,  albumen,  phosphate  ol'  lime 
and  iron."* 

(1532.)  The  grains  of  the  ferula  of  the  bean  "  are  egg  or  kidney  shapetL  often  presenting  an  in- 
terior grain,  as  if  inclosed  in  the  principal  one.  Some  of  them  are  tbuud  broken  down  and  empty. 
They  attain  the  size  of  002  of  an  inch.'t 

(1533.)  The  ancients  entertained  some  curious  notions  in  regard  to  the  bean.  The  Epyptian 
priests  held  it  a  crime  to  look  at  beans,  judging  the  very  sight  unclean.  But  the  bean  was  not 
everywhere  ilius  contemned,  for  Columella  notices  them  in  his  time  as  food  for  peasants,  and  for 
them  only. 

"  And  herbs  they  mix  with  beans  for  vulgar  fare." 

"  The  Roman  husbandmen  had  a  religious  ceremony  respecting  beans  somewhat  remarkable : 
When  they  sowed  com  of  any  kind,  ihey  took  care  to  bring  some  bean.s  from  the  field  for  good 
lack's  sake,  superstitiously  thinking  that  by  such  means  their  com  would  return  home  again  to 
them.  The  Uomans  carried  their  superstition  still  farther,  for  they  thought  that  beans,  mixed 
Nvith  goods  oftered  for  sale  at  the  ports,  would  infallibly  bring  good  luck  to  the  seller."  They 
used  them,  however,  more  rationally,  when  beans  were  employed  "in  gathering  the  votes  of  the 
people,  and  for  electing  tlie  magistrates.  A  rchife  bean  signified  absolution,  and  a  black  one  con- 
demnation. From  this  practice,  we  imagine,  was  derived  the  plan  of  blackhnllins  obnoxious 
persons.''^  It  would  appear,  from  what  Mr.  Dickson  states,  that  xhafaha  of  the  Romans,  a  name, 
by  the  way.  said  to  be  derived  from  Haba,  a  town  of  Elruria,  where  the  bean  was  culiivated,  is 
the  same  as  the  small  bean  of  our  fields.]]^ 

(l.">34.)  Peas. — The  pea  occupies  a  similar  position  in  both  the  natural  and  artificial  systems  of 
botany,  as  the  bean.  The  plant  is  cultivated  both  in  the  field  and  in  the  garden,  and  in  the  latter 
place  to  great  extent  and  Variety.  The  natural  distinction  betwixt  the  field  and  garden  pea  is 
ibund  in  the  fiower,  the  field  pea  always  having  a  red-colored,  and  the  garden  i>ea  almost  always 
a  white  flower;  at  least  the  exceptions  to  this  mark  of  distinction  are  few.  Tlie  botanical  name 
oi  ihe  ^ca.\s  Pisitm  sativum,  \h(i  cultivated  pea,  and  those  varieties  cultivated  in  the  field  are 
called  in  addition  a/TeH.<e,  and  those  in  the  garden  Ao;/r«.<c.  The  name  is  said  to  have  been 
given  to  it  by  the  Greeks,  from  a  town  called  Pisa,  in  Elis,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which  this 
pulse  was  cultivated  to  great  extent.  Mr.  Lawson  has  described  9  varieties  of  the  field  pea,  and 
the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society's  Museum  contains  14  varieties.^  Of  these  there  are  a  late 
and  an  early  variety  cultivated,  the  late  kind,  called  the  common  gray  f  eld-pea,  or  cold-seed,  is 
suited  for  strong  land  in  low  situations,  and  the  early,  the  partridge,  gray  maple,  or  Marlborough 
pea,  is  suited  ior  light  soils  and  late  situations,  and  it  is  superseding  the  old  gray  Hastings,  or  hot- 
seed  pea.  The  gray  pea  is  described  as  having  "  its  pod  semi-cylindrical,  long,  and  well-filled, 
often  containing  from  6  to  8  peas.  The  ripened  straw  indicates  3  varieties — one  spotted  with  a 
bluish-green  ground,  one  light  blue,  and  one  bluLsh  green  without  spots."  The  partridge  pea 
has  its  "  pods  broad,  and  occasionally  in  j)airs,  containing  from  5  to  7  peas,  of  a  medium  size, 
roundish,  and  yellowish-brown  speckled,  with  light-colored  eyes.  The  ripe  straw  is  thick  and 
soft  like,  leaves  large  and  broad,  and  average  bight  4  feet."** 

(LOSS.)  The  produce  of  the  pea  crop  is  either  in  abundance  or  a  complete  failure.  In  warm 
weather,  with  occasional  showers,  the  crop  may  amount  to  46  bushels,  and  in  cold  and  wet  it  may 
not  reach  12  bushels  the  acre.  The  grain  weighs  64  Ib.i.  the  bushel,  and  it  gives  13  grains  to  1 
drachm.  In  threshing  it,  the  feeding-rollers  are  put  on  the  fast  motion,  and  the  sheaf  is  allowed 
to  be  taken  in  by  them,  while  the  feeder  holds  on  by  the  sheaf,  and  pulls  it  thinner  and  thinner. 
Peas  are  as  easily  threshed  out  as  beans ;  but  the  process  does  not  create  such  an  oft'ensive  dust, 
though  the  noise  attending  it  is  very  great.  Peas  are  riddled  with  the  oat-riddle,  the  refuse  gen- 
erally being  small  clods  of  earth  and  shriveled  grains,  which  are  left  in  the  riddle,  and  given  to 
the  pigeons. 

(1536. J  Chemists  have  examined  the  pea.  "  From  ripe  peas,  by  macerating  them  in  water,  and 
employing  a  mode  of  analysis  similar  to  that  used  in  ascertaining  the  constituents  of  barley,  Ein- 
boti' obtained  tlie  following  products;  the  quantity  employed  was  3,840  parts: 


"Volatile  matter 540 

Starchy  fibrous  matter,  with  the  coats  of 

the  peas 840 

Starch 1265 

Animo-vegetable  matter 559 


Albumen 66 

Saccharine  matter 81 

Mucilage 249 

Earthy  phosphates 11 

Loss 229 


Total 3840" 

In  regard  to  the  substance  named  animo-vegetable  matter,  "  it  approaches  most  nearly  to  gluten; 

[$  The  reader  may  judge  of  the  dependence  to  be  placed  on  the  Census  as  a  presentment  of 
our  National  Industry  and  the  amount  contributed  to  the  public  wealth  by  the  cultivators  of  the 
soil,  by  noting  the  fact  that  no  mention  is  made  in  it  whatever  of  beans,  peas,  feathers,  flax- 
eeed,  com-fodder,  &c.  The  corn-fodder,  according  to  the  lowest  estimate  that  can  be  made,  may 
be  valued  at  more  than  S.IO.OOO.OOO.  We  have  no  means  of  estimating  the  amount  of  the  bean 
and  pea  crop,  but  looking  at  the  returns  for  the  State  of  New-York  alone,  taken  in  1845  under  the 
State  Law,  we  find  the  Beans  put  down  at  162,171  bushels  from  16,211  acres,  being  10  bushels  to 
the  acre.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 


*  Thomson's  Orpsnic  ChemUtry,  I'tgttahU*. 
X  riiillips's  HitKiry  of  Cullivaltd  Vegetables,  vol.  i. 
i;  CniHlogue  of  the  Museum. 
(40j 


t  Raspail'fl  Organic  Chemirtry. 
II  Dickson's  Husbandry  of  the  Ancients,  vol.  iL 
**  Lawson's  Agriculturist's  ManuaL 


PEAS. STRAW. 


41 


but  as  it  differs  in  several  particulars  from  trluten  and  from  all  other  vegetable  constituents,  we 
must  eonsiiler  it  as  a  peculiar  principle."  "  Wlien  dried,  it  assume.i  a  lightbrav\'n  color,  and  the 
scuiitransparency  of  glue,  and  is  easily  reduced  to  powder.  EinliofF  remarks  that  he  hns  seen 
the  L'hiten  of  wheat  assume  this  appearance.  I  have  observed  the  same  thing,"  says  Dr.  Tiiom- 
son.  •'  twice.  In  both  ca.ses  the  wheat  was  very  inferior  in  quality,  and  had  been  the  growth  of 
a  very  rainy  season."* 

(I'.'i?.)  "The  grains  of  the  feculaof  the  pea  are  nearly  of  the  same  size  as  those  of  the  bean,  and 
of  i!ie  form  oftho.se  of  the  potato.  When  fresh  they  are  as  strongly  shaded  at  the  edges  as  tho-se 
of  the  bulbs  of  the  Alstrcemeria  pelegriiia.  Their  surface  is  unequal.  The  largest  of  them  is 
about  002  of  an  inch."t 

(]."i.TS.)  The  pea  was  formerly  much  cultivated  in  this  country  in  the  field,  and  even  used  as 
food,  both  in  broth  and  in  bread,  penx  hannocka  having  been  a  favorite  food  of  the  laboring  class ; 
but  since  the  extended  culture  of  the  potato  its  general  use  is  greatly  diminished.  It  is  now 
chieliy  given  to  horses,  but  is  also  split  for  domestic  purposes,  such  as  making  pea-soup — a  favor- 
ite dish  with  families  in  winter.  Its  flour  is  used  to  adulterate  that  of  the  wheat,  but  is  easily  de- 
tected by  its  peculiar  smell,  which  is  given  out  with  hot  water.  Peas-meal  in  brose  is  adminis- 
tered in  some  cases  of  dyspepsia.  Peas-pudding  is  eaten  as  an  excellent  accompaniment  to  pick- 
led pork.  It  used  to  be  customary  in  the  country  to  burn  a  Sheaf  of  peas,  by  which  the  peas 
were  roasted,  and,  when  mixed  with  butter  and  served  up  while  hot  at  supper,  were  eaten  as  a 
treat  under  the  name  of  carulins.  In  some  towns  where  ancient  customs  still  linger,  roasted  peas 
are  sold  in  winter  in  the  hucksters'  stalls.  Pigeons  are  excessively  fond  of  the  pea,  and  1  have 
heard  it  alleged  tiiat  they  can  eat  their  own  weight  of  them  every  day.  "  The  ancients  gave 
peas  to  stallion  horses,  on  account  of  a  particular  virtue  which  they  were  thought  to  possess."^  || 

(l.'):i9.)  The.se  are  the  confifituent>:  in  100  lbs.  of  the  ashes  of  the  different  sorts  of  grain  we  have 
been  treating  of  Instead  of  giving  the  constituents  of  each  separately,  I  have  collected  them  to- 
gether, in  order  to  show  their  comparative  proportions: 


l-'ONSTITUENTS. 


Potash 

Soda 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Alumina 

O.side  of  i.'on 

Oxide  of  manganese 

Silica 

Sulphuric  acid 

Phosphoric  acid 

Chlorine 


Wheat. 


Total . 


Lbs. 
19 
20  i 


34 
4 

1 


Barley. 


Lbs. 

12 

12 

41 

8 

1 
a  trace. 

50 

9 
1 


Onts. 


Lbs. 
6 
5 
3 
21 

"2 

761 

1^ 

3 

Oh 


100 


Rye. 


Lbs. 
51 

lOJ 

41 
^2 
01 

~2 

4 

31 
15J 
2| 
H 
1 


100 


Beans. 


Lbs. 
191 

381 
'? 

u 


6 

m 
n 


100 


Peas. 


Lbs. 
32| 
30 
01 

~2 

oi 

161 
2i 

H 


On  comparing  the  numbers  in  these  columns  we  may  observe  how  much  more  potash  peas  con- 
tain compared  to  beans  ;  now  beans  contain  double  the  quantity  of  soda  to  that  of  potash  ;  how 
there  is  as  much  magnesia  as  lime  in  the  bean;  how  large  a  quantity  of  the  oxides  of  iron  and 
manganese  are  found  in  rye  compared  to  all  the  rest  of  "the  grains ;  how  large  a  proportion  of 
silica  the  oat  contains  in  comparison  of  the  rest  of  the  grains  ;  and  how  large  a  proportion  of 
phosphoric  acid  the  bean  contains  to  other  grains.  The  following  statement  exhibits  the  iceio'ht 
cif  ashes  leftby  100  lbs.  of  the  sorts  of  grain  spokenef  above,  according  to  the  analysis  of  Sprengel : 

The  grain  of  wheat  leaves M8  lbs.  percent,  of  ash. 

barley     2-35    .. 

dried  at  212  °  ...2-52    ..         ..  .'. 

oats         2-58    .. 

beans      2-14    .. 

peas        2-46§.. 

(1540.)  Straio.—AB  the  straw  of  the  various  kinds  of  grain  which  I  have  just  treated  of,  pos- 
sess different  properties,  and  as  they  are  best  applied  to  different  purposes,  a  few  remarks  on' their 
peculiarities  may  be  useful. 

(l.-)41.i  Wheai-straw.—Whea.Vslraw  is  generally  long.  I  have  seen  it  upward  of  6  feet  in 
Icnsrth  in  the  Carse  of  Gowrie,  and  it  has  always  strength,  whatever  may  be  its  length.  Of  the 
two  sorts  of  wheat,  white  and  red,  the  straw  of  white  wheat  is  softer,  more  easily  broken  by  the 
thresluns:  mill,  and  more  easily  decomposed  in  the  dunghill.  Red  wheat-straw  is  tough.  The 
str  UN-  oi  some  sorts  of  wheat  of  both  kinds  pos.sess  their  respective  properties  in  a  greater  and  less 
df^-ree  than  others.  The  strength  and  length  of  wheat-straw  render  it  useful  in  thatching,  wheth- 
er houses  or  stacks.  It  is  yet  much  employed  in  England  for  thatching  houses,  and  perhaps  the 
nv.-.!  (jfuutitul  thatchers  are  to  be  found  in  the  County  of  Devon.  Since  the  general  use  of  slates 
m  >  ■oilaud,  the  thatching  of  houses  with  straw  has  almost  fallen  into  desuetude  in  that  country. 

Hi  This  crop,  as  already  stated,  is  not  noticed  in  the  Census.  The  crop  in  New- York  in  1845 
was  1.7(31,487  bushels,  gathered  from  113,020  acres,  or  15  bushels  to  the  acre.  Both  this  and  the 
bean  will  be  yet  much  more  fully  treated  hereafter,  in  other  points  of  view  not  necessary  to 
particularize.  ^^  ^^^„  2,26.] 

t   PhinT'^rw".''^''"'';^^?'"'''^'  ^'S'etablef.  t  RaspaU's  Organic  Chemistry. 

,  I  Philhps  8  Hiatory  of  Cultivated  Vegetables,  vol.  u.  1  f  B 

§  Compilea  from  Johnston's  Elements  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  and  Lectures  on  Ag.  Chem. 


42  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


An  existiiiL'  tli:iirh-roof  may  yet  b«  rppnin-il  in  preference  to  tlie  a'lnpt'on  of  a  slateil  one,  bat  •  o 
uew  roof  is  tliati-lKHl  with  struw.  Wheal  81  rnw  makeH  the  besf'halrliinjj  for  com  ftarkn.  its  lensih 
anil  Ktriiiu-litiii'ss  insuring  Mifcty.  nealnepH.  ami  (tis|mlrli  in  ihe  prort>«.  in  llie  busy  period  of  w- 
curintr  tin-  fruits  of  the  enrtli.  It  fonns  an  niliiiinible  boltoniini:  to  the  beddini:  in  every  rourt  and 
hummel  of  till"  stoadin?.  Ah  liltcrinir  straw,  wheat  straw  possesses  superior  (jualities.  It  is  not  so 
suited  for  lodder  to  slock,  its  hardness  ami  lenL-tli  beiiiii  unfavorable  to  mastication  ;  yet  I  have 
seen  farniliorses  very  fonil  of  it.  Horses  in  general  are  fond  of  a  hard  bite,  and  were  w  beat- 
straw  cut  for  lh''m  by  tlie  chatl"euller  of  a  proper  lenelh.  I  have  no  doubt  they  would  preft-r  it  to 
every  otiier  kind  of  straw  as  fodder.  The  r/i«//'of  wheat  does  not  seem  to  be  relished  by  any  slock  ; 
and  is  therefore  strewn  on  the  dunt;hill.  or  upon  the  lairs  of  the  cattle  within  the  sheds.  When  it 
fennenls.  it  cau.<»>s  a  threat  iieat.  and  on  this  account  I  have  snp[io.sed  that  it  would  be  a  valuable 
insiredient  in  !ij<si.stinfr  to  maintain  a  heat  around  the  frames  of  forcing'-pits.  The  odor  arising  from 
wheat  straw  and  chaff  fresh  threshed  is  cb'tinou.s. 

(1542.)  Bnrli'y-s/riiir  is  always  soft,  and  has  a  somewhat  clammy  feel,  and  its  odor,  with  its  chaff, 
when  new  thvcsiied.  is  heavy  and  malt-like.  It  is  reli.sbed  by  no  .sort  of  stock  as  fodder;  on 
the  contrary,  it  is  said  to  be  lieleterious  to  horses,  on  whom  its  use  is  alleired  to  enf:ender  urease  in 
the  heels.  Barley-chaff,  however,  is  much  relished  by  cattle  of  all  ages,  ami  rouqh  as  the  awns  are, 
they  never  injure  their  mouths  in  mastication.  Harley-straw  is  thus  only  used  a.s  litter,  and  in  this 
respect  it  is  much  inferior  to  wheat  straw  eillier  for  cleanliness,  durability,  or  comfort.  It  docs  not 
make  a  tood  thatch  for  stacks,  beinj?  too  soft  and  difficult  to  assort  in  lenpths.  apt  to  let  through  tlie 
rain,  and  rot.  Barley-chaff  soon  heats  in  the  chaff-house,  and  if  not  removed  in  the  course  of  two  or 
three  days,  di-pendent  on  the  slate  of  the  air,  decomposition  will  rapidly  ensue.  Barley-straw  and 
chaff  .seem  lo  contain  some  active  principle  of  fermentation. 

(l.')4.'!.)  Oiifsttair. — This  straw  is  n)o.«t  commonly  used  as  fodder,  beins;  con.sidered  too  valuable 
to  be  administered  in  litter.  It  makes  a  sweet,  soft'  fodder,  and.  when  new  threslied,  its  odor  is  al- 
ways refresh intr.  Its  chaff  is  not  much  relished  by  cattle.  Oat-.straw  is  very  clean,  raisins  little 
or  no  dust,  and  so  is  its  chaff;  and  on  this  account,  as  well  as  its  elasticity,  the  latter  is  ver>-  com- 
monly used  in  the  country  to  make  b'ds  with  tickings,  for  wliich  purpose  the  chaff  is  riddled 
through  an  oat  riddle,  and  the  larger  refuse  left  in  the  riddle  thrown  aside.  Sheep  are  very  fond 
of  oat-slraw,  and  will  prefer  it  to  bad  hay  :  and  even  on  the  threatening  of  a  coming  storm,  when 
on  turni[is,  I  have  seen  them  prefer  it  to  good  haj'.  Of  the  liitlerent  sorts  of  oat-.straw,  that  of  tlie 
comnjoi)  o:Us  is  preferred,  being  softer,  sweeter,  and  more  like  hay  than  that  of  the  potato  oat 
When  oats  are  c-nt  a  little  green,  the  straw  is  much  improved  as  lodder. 

(154-1.)  I'l/fs/rnir. — This  kind  of  straw  is  small,  hard,  and  wiry,  quite  unfit  for  fodder,  and  per- 
haps would  make  but  uncomfortable  litter  in  a  stable,  though  it  would,  no  doubt,  be  useful  in  a 
court  for  laying  a  durable  bottoming  for  the  dunghill ;  but  it  forms  most  beautiful  thatch  for  houses, 
and  would,  of  course,  do  for  stacks,  if  it  were  not  to  expensive  an  article  for  tlie  purpose.  It  is 
much  sought  for  by  saddlers  for  stuffing  collars  of  posting  and  coach-horses,  and  in  default  of  this 
wheat-straw  is  substituted.  It  is  aLso  in  great  request  by  brick-makers,  \\  ho,  as  stated  by  a  writer, 
gave  as  much  as  £^  per  load  for  it  in  the  neighborhood  of  London  in  the  winter  of  1834-.').  but 
from  what  particular  reason  is  not  mentioned.*  Its  ordinary  price  is  i.'2  per  load.  The  plaiting 
of  rye  straw  for  hats  was  practiced  so  long  ago  as  by  even  the  ancient  Britons,  and  was  certainly 
not  out  of  u.se  in  Shakspeare's  days,  who  thus  notices  the  custom  of  wearing  this  elegant  head- 
gear on  holidays : 

"  You  Bun-bumed  ticklemen,  of  August  weary, 
Come  hither  from  the  furrow,  and  be  merry  : 
Make  holy-day  ;  your  rj-e-eiraw  hats  put  on, 
And  then  freeh  nymphs  encounter  every  one, 
In  countiy  footing." 

The  Tkmpest. 

I  have  seen  very  useful  hats  and  bonnets  for  field-work  made  by  laborers  and  field-workers  from 
the  upper  joint  of  wheat-straw.  Beehives  and  rimkies — that  is,  baskets  for  supplying  the  sowers 
with  seed — are  beautifully  and  lightly  made  of  rye-straw  ;  but  where  that  commodity  is  scarce, 
which  it  usually  is  in  Scotland,  wheat  straw  is  sub.slituted. 

(I.'i4.').|  PeoK  and  Benn-slrair,  or  hatthn. — It  is  difficult  in  some  seasons  to  preserve  the  straw  of 
the  pulse  crops,  but,  when  properly  preserved,  there  is  no  kind  of  straw  so  great  a  favorite  as 
fodder  with  every  kind  of  stock.  An  ox  will  eat  peas-straw  as  greedily  as  he  will  liay  ;  and  a 
Lorse  will  chump  bean-straw  with  more  gusto  than  ill-made  rye-grass  hay.  Young  cattle  are  ex- 
ceedini.'lj'  fond  of  bean  and  peas  chaff;  and  sheep  enjoy  peas-straw  as  much.  These  products  of 
the  pulse  crojis  are  considered  much  too  valuable  to  be  given  as  litter.  Since  bean-chaff  is  so 
much  relished  by  cattle,  there  is  little  doubt  that  bean  and  pea  haulm,  cut  into  chaff,  would  not 
only  be  relished,  but  be  economically  administered  ;  and  were  this  practice  attended  to  in 
spring,  the  hay  usually  given  to  horses  at  that  season  might  be  dispen.sed  with  on  farms  wliich 
grow  beans  and  peas.  It  is  said  that  when  work  horses  are  long  kept  on  bean-straw  tlieir  wind 
becomes  affected. 

(l.'Mfi )  Of  all  the  different  sorts  of  straw,  it  appears  that  wheat,  oats,  pen.s,  and  bean-straw  are 
used  for  fodder,  and  that  barley  straw  is  fit  only  for  litter;  and  that  where  there  is  a  sufficiency  of 
oat  and  beau  straw,  wheat-straw  might  also  be  dispensed  with  as  fod;ier.  This  being  tlie  relative 
positions  of  the  different  kinds  of  straw,  their  supply  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  prevent  the  waste 
of  tbilderstraw  in  litter,  and  this  may  be  easily  accom[ilished  by  having  oat-straw  in  the  straw- 
barn  with  barley  or  wheat  straw.  The  procedure  should  be  in  this  v\-ise  :  In  the  early  part  of  the 
winter,  the  grain  chicHy  in  di'nianil  is  barley.  Barley  straw  should  therefore  be  supplied,  stack 
after  stuck,  until  all  the  stock,  with  the  exception  of  the  seed-corn,  is  disposed  of  During  winter, 
the  corn  for  the  horses  should  be  threshed,  and  laid  up  in  granary,  and,  as  common  oats  are  usual- 
ly given  to  horses,  the  best  sort  of  fodder  could  thus  be  supplied  simultaneously  with  the  litier- 

*  liiiiish  Husbandry,  vol.  iL 
^42, 


STRAW. 


43 


straw  of  barley.  After  the  barley  13  disposed  of,  toward  spring,  the  demand  for  wheat  com- 
mences, and  then  the  wheat-straw  should  come  in  lieu  of  that  of  the  barley  for  litter.  Farther  on  in 
spring,  the  bean-straw  conies  in  lieu  of  oat  straw  for  fodder.  In  this  way  the  time  may  pass  on  until 
grass  is  ready  for  stock.     See  (13). 

(1547.)  The  color  of  the  fodder-straw  affects  the  color  of  the  dung  of  the  various  animals;  tlius, 
peas  and  bean-straw  and  chaff  make  the  dung  quite  black,  wheat  straw  gives  a  bleached  appearance 
to  the  dung  of  horses,  and  oat-straw  gives  it  a  yellow  hue. 

(1548.)  i  do  not  know  that  the  specific  gravity  of  straw  has  ever  been  ascertained  by  experi- 
ment ;  but  I  should  say,  judging  only  by  surmise,  that  oatstraw  is  the  lightest,  and  wheat-straw 
heaviest. 

(1549.)  It  may  be  interesting  to  you  to  give  the  constituents  of  the  different  sorts  of  straw  spoken 
of.  These  consist  of  organic  and  inorganic  substances.  The  organic  substances  resolve  ihem.selves 
ultimately  into  the  four  elements  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  and  nitrogen.  The  inorganic  consist 
of  a  considerable  number,  a  tabular  view  of  which  is  here  given  under  each  sort  of  straw,  for  the 
purpose  of  comparison.     According  to  the  analysis  of  Sprengel, 


1000  lbs.  of  wheat  straw  leave  3.5-18  lbs.  of  ash. 
barley         ..  52-42 

oat  ..  57-40 


1000  lbs.  of  rye-straw  leave.  ..27-93  lbs.  of  ash. 
bean  ..  31-21 


pea 


49-71 


And  100  lbs.  of  the  ash  of  each  of  these  sorts  of  straw  gave  the  following  constituents ; 


Constituents. 


Potash 

Soda 

Lime 

Mrgnesia 

Alumina 

Oxide  of  iron 

Oxide  of  manganese 

Silica 

Sulphuric  acid 

Phosphoric  acid 

Chlorine 

Total 


Wheat 
Straw. 


lbs. 
01 

7 
1 
02 


81 
1 
5 
1 


Barley 
.Straw. 


lbs. 

31 

1 
101 

3 

0^ 

731 

2 

3 

u 


Oat 

Rye 

Bean 

Peas 

Straw. 

Straw. 

Straw. 

Straw. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

15 

1 

531 

45 

a  trace. 

0^ 

n 

03 
~5 

6 

20 

54| 

0^ 

0^ 

H 

fij 

a  trace. 

\      1 

H 

H 

a  trace. 

\  "* 

01 

H 

30 

80 

82i 

7 

1^ 

6 

1 

6? 

H 

0 

H 

4f 

a  trace. 

n 

n 

Oi 

100 

100 

100 

100 

On  comparing  the  numbers  in  these  columns,  we  cannot  fail  to  remark  how  much  potash  there  is 
in  the  straw  of  the  bean ;  how  small  a  trace  of  soda  there  is  in  all  the  straws;  how  large  a  propor- 
tion of  lime  there  is  in  the  straw  of  the  pea,  compared  to  that  of  the  bean  ;  how  large  it  is  com- 
pared to  that  in  the  grain  of  the  pea  itself;  how  much  more  silica  in  the  straw  of  the  pea  than 
in  that  of  the  bean  ;  but  how  much  more  phosphoric  acid  in  bean-straw  than  in  that  of 
the  pea. 

(1550.)  "  The  inorganic  matter  contained  in  different  vegetable  productions  varies  from  1  to 
12  per  cent,  of  their  whole  weight.  The  following  Table  exhibits  the  weight  of  ash  left  by 
100  lbs.  of  the  dry  straw  of  the  more  commonly  cultivated  plants,  according  to  the  analysis  of 
Sprengel  : 


Dry  straw  of  wheat  3-51  lbs.  per  cent. 

barley   5-24 

oats        5-74 


Dry  straw  of  rye        2.79  lbs.  per  cent, 
beans     312 
peas       4-97  "*     •- 


(1551.)  Such  are  the  kinds,  uses,  and  constitution  of  the  straw  usually  found  on  farms  ;  and  the 
proper  management  of  them,  so  as  to  confer  the  greatest  comfort  to  stock,  and  procure  the  largest 
amount  of  manure  to  the  farm,  is  a  matter  deserving  much  consideration.  I  fear  there  is  too  much 
truth  in  the  observation  of  Sir  John  Sinclair,  when  he  says  on  this  subject,  that  "  the  subject  of 
straw  is  of  greater  importance  than  is  commonly  imagined  ;  and  the  nature  of  that  article,  taken  in 
the  aggregate,  entitles  it  to  more  attention  than  has  hitherto  been  bestowed  upon  it.  Farmers  are 
apt  to  consider  it  as  of  little  or  no  worth,  because  it  is  not  usually  salable,  ami  is  rarely  estimated 
separately  from  the  yearly  produce  of  the  soil.  But  though  seldom  salable,  except  in  the  vicini- 
ty of  towns,  it  has  an  intrinsic  value  as  a  fund  for  manure,  and  a  means  of  feeding  stock. "t 

(1552.)  The  proper  management  of  straw  which  1  allude  to,  is  that  the  respective  kinds  shall 
always  be  appropriated  to  their  best  uses — that  is,  the  straw  best  adapted  for  litter  shall  not  be 
administered  as  fodder,  for  if  it  be,  the  animals  will  thereby  be  rendered  discontented  ;  if  barley- 
straw,  for  instance,  is  put  before  cattle  that  have  been,  or  should  have  been,  accustomed  to  oat- 
straw, they  \yill  not  only  not  eat  the  usual  quantity  of  fodder,  but  eat  that  which  they  are  obliged 
to  eat  with  disrelish.  On  the  other  hand,  if  fodder-straw  is  strown  abroad  for  litter,  it  is  not  used 
to  the  best  advantage,  being  partly  wasted.  Again,  if  more  straw  is  threshed  at  a  time  than  can 
be  consumed  in  a  few  days  in  fodder,  what  of  it  remains  to  the  last  becomes  dry  and  brittle,  and 
unfit  for  the  use  of  stock  ;  and  even  litter  straw,  if  kept  for  a  long  time  before  it  is  used,  becomes 
much  lighter,  and,  of  course,  loses  a  portion  of  its  value.  So  far,  therefore,  as  the  .straw  is  con- 
cerned, it  is  bad  practice  to  stack  up  threshed  straw  for  a  long  time,  as  some  farmers  seem  fond 


Compiled  from  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistrv. 
(43, 


t  Sinclair's  Code  of  Agriculture. 


44  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


of  doing-,  for  it  then  certainly  wastes  some  of  its  properties  as  fodder  or  litter.  The  plan  is.  to 
thresh  the  straw  when  and  as  often  aa  it  is  required,  both  lor  fodder  and  litter,  ui:d  it  will  be 
always  in  the  fro!?liest  state  for  um:  in  both  wa^'s.  But  to  follow  out  this  plan  successfully  requires 
the  previous  consideration  whether  there  is  a  suthciLUt  numbt  r  of  stacks  in  the  stack  yard,  for 
tlie  purposes  of  fodder  and  litter  throughout  the  season,  and  if  there  is,  then  those  sliould  be  se- 
lected which  are  best  suited,  of  the  respective  kinds,  for  those  purposes,  during  the  winter,  when 
tlie  utility  of  good  straw  is  most  appreciated.  The  remainder  can  be  used  for  the  inferior  pur- 
poses of  bottoming  the  courts  and  stacks  of  the  ensuing  crop  and  season.  Should  the  whole  quan- 
tity of  straw,  however,  seem  inadequate  to  the  demands  upon  it,  then  it  should  be  threshed  only 
as  re(juired,  and  dealt  out  with  an  economical  and  judicious  hand,  so  that  no  part  of  ilie  season 
should  be  worse  or  better  supplied  than  the  rest.  Do  these  considerations  usually  engatre  the 
attention  of  farmers  ?  1  fear  not,  but  certainly  not  so  much  as  they  deserve.  I  am  aware  that  it 
may  here  be  observed,  that  it  is  of  much  greater  import  for  the  interest  of  the  farmer  to  study  the 
slate  of  tile  market  for  grain,  than  to  lose  that  advantage  by  not  threshing  out  the  straw^.  This  is 
feasible,  but,  at  the  same  time,  is  the  farmer  aware  how  much  injury  he  may  receive  by  loss 
of  condition  in  stock,  and  deterioration  in  diin^,  by  being  inattentive  to  the  state  of  his  straw?  I 
suspect  the  subject  has  received  but  little  of  hrs  consideration. 

(.1553.)  It  was  at  one  lime  a  prevalent  notion  that  straw  could  not  be  converted  into  good  ma- 
nure, unless  it  were  consumed  by  cattle  and  horses;  and  the  celebrated  Bakewell  carried  this 
idea  to  such  a  hit:ht  that  if  he  had  not  stock  sutiicient  of  his  own  to  consume  his  straw,  he  took  in 
those  of  others  for  tlie  purpose.  But  he  lived  to  see  his  en-or.  Opinion  changed  to  the  opposite 
extreme,  so  that  many  farmers  persuaded  themselves  into  the  belief  that  straw  consumed  by 
stock  was  wasted,  and  that  it  should  only  be  used  as  litter.  This  latter  opinion  is  nearer  the  truth 
than  the  former,  but  goes  beyond  the  truth ;  for  although  it  is  quite  correct  to  say  that  stock  ought 
to  drperid  on  green  crops  tor  food  to  fatten  them,  yet  it  is  af-jo  true  that  that  food  is  much  assisted 
in  its  assimilation  into  the  animal  system  by  a  participation  of  fodder.  It  is  not  merely  that  the 
stomach  requires  to  be  distended  by  food,  but  sweet,  dry  fodder  is  an  agreeable  change  to  the  ox 
after  a  hearty  meal  ot  turnips.  Feeding  stock  really  consume  very  little  fodder ;  and  when  it  is 
placed  before  them  at  pleasure,  they  may  either  partake  of  it,  or  pick  out  a  few  choice  straws,  or 
let  it  alone  altogether ;  thus  atibrding  creatures  as  much  liberty  of  choice  in  their  food  as  their 
confined  situation  will  admit. 

(1554.)  The  value  of  straw  may  be  estimated  from  the  quantity  usually  yielded  by  the  acre,  and 
the  price  which  it  usually  realizes.  Arthur  Young  estimated  the  straw  yielded  by  the  ditterent 
crops — but  rejecting  the  weaker  soils — at  1  ton  7  cwts.  per  English  acre.  Mr.  Middleton  esti- 
mated the  dittereut  crops  in  these  proportions : 

Cwts.      Lbs.  I  Cwts.      Lbs. 


"Wheat  straw 31  or  3.47-2  per  acre. 

Barley 20       2,440 

Oats 25       2,800 

Average  rather  more  than 25       2,862  per  acre. 


Benns 25  or  2,800  per  acre. 

Pease 25       2,800 


or  1  ton  5  cwts.  per  English  acre.    Mr.  Brown,  Markle,  East-Lothian,  computed  the  produce  of 
straw  as  follows,  in  stones  of  22  lbs.  per  Scotch  acre,  which  I  have  contrasted  with  the  imperial : 

Stones.      Lbs.      Cwts.  Lbs. 

Wheat-straw 160  or  3,520  or  31  48  per  Scotch  acre. 

Barley-straw 100         2.200       19  72 

Oat-straw 130         2,860        25  60 

Beans  and  Peas 130        2,860       25  60 


Average 130   or  2,860  or  25        60  per  acre. 

or  1  ton  5  cwts.  60  lbs.  per  Scotch  acre,  or  1  ton  0  cwt.  76  lbs.  per  imperial  acre.*    In  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  Edinburgh,  the  produce,  both  in  Scotch  and  imperial  measures,  per  acre,  is  this: 

Stones.  Lbg.      Cwts.  Qrs.  Lbs. 

Wheat  straw 9  kemplesofiests.  of  22  lbs.  =  144  or  3,168  or  28         1         4 

Bar'iev  straw 7  ..         ..  ..       =112  2.464        22        0        0 

Oatstraw 8  ..  ..  ..        =128  2,816        25  0  16 

Average TTl  ..         ..  ..       =128  or  2,816  or  25        0     Te 

or  1  ton  5  cwts.  16  lbs.  per  Scotch,  or  I  ton  0  cwt.  13  lbs.  per  imperial  acre.  On  comparing  this 
result — from  the  vicinity  of  a  large  town  where  a  large  supply  of  manure  can  always  be  ob- 
tained— with  Mr.  Brown's  general  estimate  for  the  whole  country,  and  finding  the  quantity  less, 
we  must  conclude  that  Mr.  Brown's  estimate  is  above  the  mark  as  aii  average  one  for  the  coun- 
try ;  and  unless  the  production  of  straw  be  very  much  greater  in  En;.'land  than  in  Scotland,  we 
must  also  conclude  that  the  estimates  of  both  Arthur  Young  and  Mr.  Middleton  are  above  the 
general  average  ;  1  ton  the  imperial  acre  of  weight  for  straw  is  too  hiijh  an  average  for  Scotland. 
(1554.)  In  regard  to  the  market  value  of  straw,  it  being  usually  prohibited  to  be  sold  except  in 
the  vicinity  of  towns  where  manure  can  be  received  in  return,  it  is  only  from  the  value  received 
for  it  in  towns  that  we  can  form  an  estimate  of  its  value.  In  Edinburgh,  the  usual  price  for 
wheat-straw  is  128.  per  kempleof  16  stones  of  22  lbs.,  or  9d.  per  stone;  and  for  oat-straw  10s.  the 
kemplc,  or  7Jd.  per  stone.  This  statement  brings  out  and  contrasts  the  values  in  Scotch  and  im- 
perial measures : 


Sinclair's  Code  of  Agriculture. 
(44) 


WAGES    OF  FARM-SERVANTS.  45 

Wheat-straw,  144  sts.  of  22  lbs.  at  9d.  per  st.  ^  £5  6s.  4d.  per  Scotch  acre  of  10  bolls  of  4  bushels, 

=  10s.  7d.  per  boll. 
Os-t-straw,  128  sts.  of  22  lbs.  at  7^d,  per  st.  =  £4  per  Scotch  acre  of  10  bolls  of  6  bus.^  8s.  pr  boll. 

Equivalent  to 
Wheat  straw,  181  sts.  of  14  lbs.  at  5|d.  per  st.  =  £i  6s.  9d.  per  imperial  acre  of  8  bolls  of  4  bushels, 

=  10s.  9d.  per  boll. 
Oat-straw,  161  sts.  of  14  lbs.  at  45d.  per  8t.=£3  48.  per  imp.  acre  of  8  bolls  of  6  bushels  ^8s.  per  boll. 

In  thjse  parts  of  the  country  where  straw,  with  its  com,  is  allowed  to  be  sold  on  foot — that  is,  as 
it  grows  in  the  iield — but  prohibited  from  being  sold  by  itself,  the  price  for  wheat-straw  is  6s.  per 
boll  of  4  bushels,  and  5s.  per  boll  of  oat-straw  of  6  bushels.  The  quantity  of  straw  per  boll  and 
per  bushel  will  stand  thus  : 

Wheat-straw,  14  sts.  8  lbs.  of  22  lbs.  per  boll  of  4  bushels  =  3  sts.  11  lbs.  per  bushel. 

Oat-straw,        12  ..  17       ..     ..  ..         6       ..      =  2  sis.    3 

Or  WHieat-straw,  18  ..    1       ..     11  --         4       ..      =  4  sts.    7 

Oat-straw,         16  ..    1       ..     ..  --         6       ..      =2  sts.    9 

(1556.)  The  Homans  used  straw  as  litter,  as  well  as  fodder,  for  cattle  and  sheep.  They  consid- 
ered millet-straw  as  the  best  for  cattle,  then  barley-straw,  then  wheat-straw.  This  arrangement 
is  rather  against  our  ideas  of  the  qualities  of  barlej-  and  wheat-straw  ;  but  very  probably  the  hot 
climate  of  Italy  may  improve  the  quality  of  the  barley-straw  by  making  it  drier  and  more  crisp, 
and  render  that  of  the  wheat  too  hard  and  dry.  The  haulm  of  pulse  was  considered  best  for 
sheep.  They  sometimes  bruised  straw  on  stones  before  using  it  as  litter,  which  is  analogous  to 
having  it cutWith  the  chaff-cutter,  as  has  been  recommended. 

(1557.)  Where  straw  is  scarce,  thej-  recommend  the  gathering  of  fern,  leaves,  &c.,  which  is  a 
practice  that  may  be  beneficially  followed  in  this  countn,-,  where  opportunity  occurs.  Varro 
says:  '■  It  is  the  "opinion  of  some  that  straw  is  called  dramentum  because  it  is  strewed  before  the 
cattle."* 


4.    THE  WAGES  OF  FARM-SERVANTS.t 

"  The  husbandman  that  laboreth  must  be  first  partaker  of  the  fruits." 

St.  Paul. 

(1558.)  Winter  is  the  time  in  which  wages  in  kind  are  paid  to  farm- 
servants  ;  and  the  part  of  that  season  chosen  for  the  purpose  is  about  the 
end  of  the  year.  It  is  requisite  that  harvest  shall  be  completely  over  in 
the  latest  season,  and  every  preparatory  operation  connected  with  the  ac- 
commodation of  stock,  either  on  turnips  or  in  the  steading,  be  gone 
through,  before  the  business  of  threshing  the  crop  in  a  regular  order  be 
commenced.  In  connection  with  threshing  the  crop,  a  plan  should  be 
adopted  for  supplying  straw  for  fodder  and  litter,  as  recommended  in 
(1457),  as  well  as  for  placing  a  quantity  of  new  oats  in  the  granary,  to  be 
drying  and  to  be  ready  for  use  by  the  time  the  perhaps  small  stock  of  old 
corn  shall  be  consumed.  After  all  these  preparatory  operations  inciden- 
tal to  winter  have  been  accomplished,  and  before  much  of  the  new  crop 
has  been  disposed  of  at  market,  farther  than  to  ascertain  its  general  quality 

[t  We  need  not  say  that  in  copying  this  chapter,  we  suppose  that  there  is  much,  if  any  of  it, 
susceptible  of  adaptation  to  our  country — still,  the  system  of  farm  wages  is  one  so  obviously  and 
intimately  interwoven  with  the  agincultural  economy  of  every  country  that  every  gentleman  may 
be  presumed  to  be  curious  to  know  how  these  systems  differ  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  The 
high  price  of  wages  in  this  country,  and  the  scarcity  of  that  and  capital  in  their  proportions  to  the 
price  of  land,  not  only  prevent  the  restoration  of  exhausted  lands  in  the  old  Atlantic  States,  but 
are  fruitful  sources  of  exhaustion  and  abandonment  of  Stales  comparatively  new — as  Western 
New-York  for  example. 

What  constitutes  of  itself  a  great  advantage  in  favor  of  laboring  people  in  the  United  States  is, 
that  they  are  almost  invariably  "  found,"  or  boarded  by  their  employers,  and  in  the  Free  States  in 
most  cases  eat  at  the  same  table,  three  times  a  day,  with  the  farmer  and  his  family.  For  a  head 
man  on  a  farm.  $12  may  be  put  down  as  the  usual  wages,  and  for  hands  or  "  helps  "  by  the 
month  from  $8  to  SlO.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

'  Dickson's  Husbandry  of  the  Ancients,  vol,  ii. 
(45) 


46  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

and  price,  the  first  leisure  afforded  by  them  is  taken  for  paying  the  farm- 
servants  their  yearly  wages  of  corn  ;  and  as  the  quantity  distributed  is 
considerable  on  a  large  farm,  and  as  all  the  servants  should  receive  their 
wages  at  the  same  time,  to  avoid  jealousy,  there  will  be  a  considerable 
quantity  of  threshed  grain  in  the  bam  before  the  distribution  takes  plare. 
The  servants  receiving  a  variety  of  com,  that  kind  shoidd  be  first  distrib- 
uted which  is  found  most  convenient  for  the  farmer  to  thresh  ;  and  each 
kind  should  be  delivered,  and  the  barn  cleaned  out,  before  another  is  in- 
terfered with. 

(1559.)  I  have  already  enumerated  the  different  classes  of  laborers  em- 
ployed on  a  farm  from  (241)  to  (252)  ;  and  I  may  here  mention  generally, 
that  the  wages  of  all  may  be  classed  under  three  heads  :  1st,  Those  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  kind,  that  is,  of  the  produce  of  the  farm,  and  but  a  small 
sum  in  cash  ;  2d,  Those  consisting  of  a  large  proportion  of  cash  and  small 
amount  o£  hind  ;  and,  3d,  Those  which  consist  entirely  of  cash.  The  re- 
cipients of  the  first  and  third  classes  may  \>e  engaged  on  the  same  farm, 
and  the  third  class  may  be  found  exclusively  on  a  farm,  but  the  first  and 
second  classes  are  never  found  together  ;  and  as  all  three  modes  of  paying 
wages  coexist  in  this  kingdom,  though  in  different  parts  of  it,  they  afford 
a  criterion  for  judging  which  is  the  best  mode  fi»r  all  parties,  for  master 
and  servant  ;  which  the  most  convenient  for  the  master,  which  the  most 
conducive  to  the  servants'  comfort  and  moral  habits.  Plowmen  or  hinds 
constituting  the  principal  or  staple  class  of  laborers  on  a  farm,  like  the 
battalion-men  in  a  regiment,  the  terms  of  their  wages  are  taken  as  a  stand- 
ard of  comparison  for  those  of  the  rest. 

(15G0.)  Plou-men's  wages. — These  are  paid  in  all  the  three  modes  enu- 
merated above  (1559),  the  first  mode  being  in  general  adoption  in  the  bor- 
der counties  of  England  and  Scotland ;  the  second  mode  being  practiced 
in  the  midland  and  northern  counties  of  Scotland  ;  and  the  third  having 
long  been  adopted  in  the  southern  counties  of  England. 

(1561.)  Wages  in  kind  and  money  differ,  in  their  constituent  items,  in 
different  counties,  but  only  in  a  slight  degree  ;  the  aggregate  items  afford- 
ing sufficiency  of  food  to  support  a  plowman  and  his  family.  I  shall  enu- 
merate the  particulai's  received  by  the  plowmen  of  Berwickshire  and 
Northumberland : 

In  Beririckshire. 

10  bolls  =  60  bushels  oau,  at  128.  lOJd.  per  boll £6     8  9 

3     ..    =18       ..       barley,  at  19f>.  IQid 2  19  7J 

1     ..    =    6       ..       peas  at  238. 3d.             1     3  3 

12     ..    =  1200  yards  potatoes  at  48 2     8  0 

A  cow's  keep  for  the  year 8    0  0 

Cottage  and  garden 1   10  0 

Carriage  of  coals 2     0  0 

Cash 4     0  0 

Equal  to  lOs.  Hid.  per  week .£28    9  TJ 

In  Northumberland. 

6  bolls  =  36  bushels  oats,  at  128.  10 Jd.  per  boll £3  17  3 

4    ..     =24       ..        barlov,  at  1!>8.  lOJd 3  19  6 

2     ..     =12       ..        peas.' at  23s.  .Id 2     6  6 

3       ..        wheat,  at  47s.  2d.  per  quarter 0  17  8j 

3       ..        r>e,  at  298.  4d Oil  0 

40       ..        potatoes,  at  Is 2     0  0 

24  lbs.  of  wool,  at  Is 14  0 

A  cow's  keep  for  the  year 9    0  0 

C.irriage  of  coals 2    0  0 

Cash 4     0  0 

Equal  to  lis.  5d.  per  week £2!)  lullj 

To  the  money  value  of  both  particulars  I  attach  no  impoi-tance,  fan!  <'r 
than  giving  to  them  a  tangible  form  ;  for  the  prices  of  agrictiltui-il   jmo- 

(46) 


WAGES  OF  FARM-SERVANTS.  47 

duce  affect  neither  master  nor  servant  in  their  relation  to  one  another,  the 
point  simply  being,  that  the  master  supports  the  servant  in  an  adequate 
manner.  Any  difference,  therefore,  show^n  in  the  w^eekly  visages  between 
10s.  lljd.  and  lis.  5d.  as  brought  out  in  estimating  the  money  value  of 
the  particulars  does  not  in  fact  exist,  because  the  plowmen  of  both  coun- 
ties live  equally  well.  Instead  of  taking  an  imaginary  rate  of  prices,  I 
have  selected  the  aggregate  average,  as  given  in  the  Universal  Corn  Re- 
porter of  20th  January,  1843.  Besides  working  a  pair  of  horses,  the  plow- 
man is  bound  to  supply  a  field-worker,  whether  a  woman  or  a  boy,  usu- 
ally the  former,  whenever  the  farmer  requires  her  services,  and  who  re- 
ceives for  her  work  lOd.  a  day,  and  in  harvest  2s.  6d.  a  day,  besides 
victuals.  In  harvest-wages  there  is  a  difference  between  the  two  counties, 
and  it  is  explained  in  this  way.  In  Northumberland,  it  will  be  observed 
that  the  rent  of  the  house  and  garden  is  set  down  at  d£3  a  year,  while  the 
plowman  receives  2s.  6d.  a  day,  and  victuals,  for  the  field-worker  in  har- 
vest ;  whereas,  in  Berwickshire,  the  plowman  is  bound  to  work  the  har- 
vest as  rent  for  his  house  and  garden,  receiving  only  victuals,  which  I  have 
estimated  at  that  season  at  Is.  a  day  for  30  days,  which  is  as  long  a  period 
as  harvest  may  be  expected  to  last,  and  which  should  be  deducted  from 
c£3  of  rent.  There  is  also  a  difference  in  the  cow's  keep.  In  Berwick- 
shire, the  allowance  is  60  stones  of  22  lbs.  of  hay  in  winter  in  lieu  of  tur- 
nips ;  but  turnips  are  always  preferred,  and  these  are  given  to  the  amount 
of  6  double  horse-loads,  3  of  white  and  3  of  Swedes.  In  Northumbeiland, 
10  cart-loads  of  white  turnips  are  given,  or  5  uf  white  and  3  of  Swedes ; 
or,  in  lieu,  1  ton  of  hay,  or  100  stones  of  22  lbs.;  so  that  the  Northumber- 
land cow  is  better  off  by  =£1  in  winter  than  the  Berwickshire,  and  the  dif- 
ference is  certainly  so  far  an  improvement  on  the  condition  of  the  English 
hind.  Both  cows  have  as  much  straw  as  they  can  use.  The  grain  which 
the  plowman  can  claim  is  next  in  quality  to  the  seed-corn  ;  and  in  Ber- 
wickshire he  receives  it  in  advance  at  the  end  of  the  year,  which  is  in  the 
middle  of  the  year's  engagement  from  Whitsunday  (May)  to  Whitsunday. 
In  Northumberland,  the  corn  is  paid  in  advance  once  a  quarter.  The  corn 
is  ground  in  any  way  the  plowman  pleases,  at  one  of  the  small  mills  of  the 
country,  for  the  mere  miller's  multure  ;  so  he  saves  the  profits  of  the  re- 
tail dealer.  If  he  cannot  consume  all  his  com,  the  farmer  willingly  takes 
what  he  has  to  spare  at  the  current  market  price.  The  produce  of  the 
cow,  over  and  above  what  is  required  to  serve  the  plowman  and  his  family, 
may  be  disposed  of;  and  if  the  cow  is  a  good  one,  and  the  season  favora- 
ble, and  the  wife  a  good  dairymaid,  a  considerable  sum  may  be  realized 
from  the  cow  during  the  year.  Her  calf,  if  early  and  gotten  by  a  well- 
bred  bull,  will  fetch  ,£2,  and  perhaps  more  ;  if  late,  it  may  still  be  worth 
20s.  The  refuse  of  the  dairy,  of  the  garden,  and  the  house,  enables  the 
plowman  to  fatten  two  pigs  every  year;  one  for  his  own  use,  and  the 
other  to  dispose  of.  The  cow  is  the  plowman's  own  property ;  and  to 
lose  her  by  death  is  a  serious  affliction  upon  him.  I  have  seen  men  with 
families  much  injured  by  such  a  loss,  and  could  never  refrain  from  render- 
ing the  poor  fellows  some  assistance.  To  avert  so  serious  a  calamity  to  a 
poor  man,  cow-clubs  have  been  established,  to  purchase  cows  for  the  mem- 
bers who  may  have  the  misfortune  to  lose  them.  Farmers  subscribe  ac- 
cording to  their  number  of  plowmen,  and  each  plowman  who  wishes  to 
enjoy  the  benefit  subscribes  Is.  a  quarter  to  the  funds  of  the  club. 

(1562.)  Wages,  7>iorc  in  cash  than  in  kind,  are  more  extensively  given 
in  Scotland  than  the  plan  which  I  have  just  described.  Tho.se  who  re- 
ceive this  species  of  wages  are  chiefly  sinq-'le  men,  living  either  in  the  farm- 
er's house,  or  in  a  house  by  themselves  called   a  bothi/.     The  practice  of 


48  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

allowing  farm-servants  to  take  their  meals  in  the  fanner's  house  is  falling 
fast  into  desuetude,  and  its  abandonment  is  much  to  be  regretted,  for  it  is 
a  far  better  plan  for  the  comfort  of  the  men  tliemselves  than  the  bothy 
system.  But  married  men  are  also  supported  in  this  form  of  wages,  though 
their  condition  is  not  so  good  as  that  of  the  plowmen  on  the  preceding 
plan,  but  it  is  certainly  preferable  to  the  bothy  system. 

(1563.)  The  portion  of  wages  received  in  kind  consists  of  oatmeal  and 
milk.  The  meal  amounts  to  2  pecks  per  week  for  each  man,  that  is,  1 
stone  of  17-^  lbs.,  which  makes  6^  bolls  per  annum,  or  65^  stones  of  14  lbs.; 
and  this  at  Is.  per  peck  gives  a  money  value  of  <dl5  4s.  a  year.  The  milk 
is  supplied  either  fiesh  fiom  the  cow  or  after  the  cream  has  been  skimmed 
off,  according  to  agreement.  In  the  former  state  it  is  given  to  the  amount 
of  1  Scotch  pint  or  2  quarts  a  day ;  and  in  the  latter  state,  3  quai  ts  are 
given  in  summer,  and  2  in  winter.  The  value  of  the  milk  is  usually  es- 
timated at  c£4  a  year.  In  some  cases  a  cow  or  cows  are  supplied  to  the 
men,  who  milk  them,  and  are  exchanged  for  others  when  they  go  dry  ;  but 
supplying  milk  is  the  least  troublesome  plan  for  the  master.  These  items 
o£  kifid,  with  from  c£10  to  <£  14  a  year  of  cash,  varying  with  the  rate  of  . 
wages  in  the  country,  or  according  to  the  skill  of  the  plowman,  constitute 
the  earnings  of  a  plowman  on  this  system.  It  is  only  in  the  amount  of 
cash  that  these  wages  vary  at  any  time,  for  what  is  given  in  kind  is  con- 
sidered invariable,  being  no  more  food  than  a  stout  man  can  consume ; 
but  some  cannot  consume  it  all,  and  save  a  part  of  the  meal,  which  they 
either  dispose  of  to  the  farmer  or  to  dealers.  In  stiict  fairness,  the  meal 
should  be  given  to  the  men  every  week,  but  to  save  trouble,  it  is  dealt  out 
once  a  month  or  once  a  fortnight.  The  milk,  of  course,  is  supplied  every 
day. 

(1564.)  Besides  these  principal  ingredients,  the  mamed  men  get  a 
house  and  garden  rent  free,  and  coals  are  driven  free  to  their  house.  The 
single  men  are  provided  with  a  room  containing  a  number  of  beds,  which 
are  occupied  each  by  two  men ;  and  the  bed-clothes,  consisting  of  a  chaff 
ticking  and  bolster,  blankets,  sheets  and  coverlid,  are  provided  by  the  mas- 
ter, and  replaced  clean  every  month.  This  room  is  called  the  hothy,  and 
it  usually  forms  both  the  sleeping-chamber  and  cooking-apartment  of  all 
its  inmates,  which  may  amount  to  as  many  men  as  there  are  plowmen  em- 
ployed on  the  farm.  The  men  are  supplied  with  fuel  all  the  year  round, 
with  which  to  cook  their  victuals,  and  which  they  do  for  themselves.  The 
fuel  consists  of  wood,  brushwood,  or  coal,  according  to  the  supplies  of  the 
locality  ;  but  in  winter,  coal  is  always  laid  in  to  the  extent  of  1  ton  each 
man.  Salt  is  also  provided  by  the  master ;  and  he  also  furnishes  a  pot 
for  cooking  in,  a  dish  for  holding  milk,  and  some  forms  and  perhaps  a  ta- 
ble ;  but  this  last  article  of  furniture  is  often  dismissed  from  the  bothy  with 
little  ceremony,  a  form,  or  the  lap,  making  a  much  more  desirable  dinner- 
board.     A  few  potatoes  are  generally  given  in  winter. 

(1565.)  The  oatmeal  is  usually  cooked  in  one  way,  as  hrose,  as  it  is 
called,  which  is  a  different  sort  of  pottage  to  porridge.  A  pot  of  water  is 
put  on  the  fire  to  boil,  a  task  which  the  men  take  in  turns  ;  a  handful!  or 
two  of  oatmeal  is  taken  out  of  the  small  chest  with  which  each  man  pro- 
vides himself,  and  put  into  a  wooden  bowl,  which  also  is  the  plowman's 
property  ;  and  on  a  hollow  being  made  in  the  meal,  and  sprinkled  with 
salt,  the  boiling  water  is  poured  over  the  meal,  and  the  mixture  receiving 
a  little  stimng  with  a  horn  spoon,  and  the  allowance  of  milk  poured  over 
it,  the  brose  is  ready  to  be  eaten  ;  and  as  every  man  makes  his  own  brose, 
and  knows  his  own  appetite,  he  makes  just  as  much  brose  as  he  can  con- 
sume.    The  bowl  is  scraped  clean  with  the   spoon,  and  the  spoon  licked 

(48} 


WAGES    OF   FARM-SERVANTS.  49 

clean  with  ihe  tongue,  and  the  dish  is  then  placed  in  the  meal-chest  for  a 
similar  purpose  on  the  succeeding  occasion.  The  fare  is  simple,  and  is  as 
sim])ly  ni'idc^;  but  it  must  be  wholesome,  and  capable  of  supplying  the  loss 
of  substance  occasioned  by  hard  labor;  for  I  believe  that  no  class  of  men 
can  endure  more  bodily  fatigue,  for  ten  hours  every  day,  than  those  plow- 
men of  Scotland  who  subsist  on  this  brose  thrice  a  day. 

(1566.)  The  plowmen  who  receive  cash  for  wages,  are  in  the  same  con- 
dition as  day  laborers,  who  receive  their  earnings  once  a  week  and  pur- 
chase their  subsistence  at  retail  dealers'  in  country  towns  and  villages. 
This,  I  believe,  is  the  condition  of  most  of  the  plowmen  in  the  southern  coun- 
ties of  England.  There  is  one  obvious  remark,  occasioned  by  this  state- 
ment, which  cannot  fail  to  be  considei-ed  by  every  farmer,  which  is,  that 
unless  money  wages  adapt  themselves  to  the  fluctuating  prices  of  the 
commodities  upon  which  fa nu- servants  subsist,  servants  so  paid  must  sufier 
much  privation  on  a  rise  in  the  price  of  provisions ;  and  on  the  other  hand, 
when  prices  again  fall ,  they  receive  higher  wages  than  they  are  entitled  to. 
They  are  thus  subjected  to  vicissitudes  in  their  condition,  fiom  which  the 
former  two  classes  of  plowmen  are  exempt. 

(1567.)  The  wages  of  stewards  are  in  all  respects  similar  to  those  of  the 
plowmen  of  whom  tj^ey  have  the  charge,  the  only  diflerence  being  in  the 
amount  of  cash  received,  which  is  always  greater  than  that  given  to  the 
plowmen.  Instead  of  ^4,  given  to  the  former  class  of  plowmen,  they  may 
receive  .^12  or  £.15,  and  instead  of  c£12  or  c£14  given  in  cash  to  the  latter 
class,  they  may  receive  from  >i620  to  c£25  ;  and  if  there  is  any  difference  in 
the  size  or  situation  of  the  servants'  houses,  the  best  is  appropriated  to 
them.  In  most  cases  the  steward  is  exempt  from  attendance  on  the  farm 
on  Sundays,  while  in  others  he  takes  his  turn  along  with  the  other  men, 
which  latter  is  the  better  plan  for  the  master,  as  the  steward  can  then  have 
much  better  opportunity  of  observing  whether  the  men  fulfill  their  duties 
properly. 

(1568.)  The  shepherd  receives  the  same  amount  of  kind  and  money  as 
the  plowman ;  but  as  he  is  accounted  a  skillful  servant,  and  his  hours  of 
attendance  extend  every  day  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  he  has  leave  to  keep 
a  small  flock  of  sheep  of  his  own,  which  is  maintained  by  his  master,  and 
the  produce  of  which  he  is  entitled  to  dispose  of  every  year.  His  flock 
consists  of  breeding-ewes,  which  vary  in  number  from  half  a  score,  such 
as  of  Leicester  ewes  in  the  low  country,  to  perhaps  twoscore  of  Black- 
faced  ewes  in  the  highest  districts.  About  \  of  the  number  of  the  ewes 
being  disposed  of  every  year,  -he  is  entitled  to  retain  as  many  ewe-lambs 
Df  his  flock  as  will  maintain  the  full  number  of  his  breeding-ewes.  The 
shepherd's  dog  is  his  own  property,  often  purchased  at  a  high  rate,  and 
trained  with  much  trouble  and  solicitude. 

(1569.)  The  hedger,  being  considered  a  day  laborer  or  spadesman,  gets 
a  smaller  proportion  of  kind  than  the  first  class  of  plowmen,  and  more 
money,  and  generally  no  cow's-keep ;  and  where  the  second  class  of 
plowmen  exist,  no  hedger  is  kept  as  a  hired  servant,  but  is  viewed  in  the 
light  of  a  day-laborer,  and  is  paid  money-wages  accordingly.  Being  a 
skillful  man,  the  hedger  never  receives  less  than  c£40  a  year  in  value,  and 
more  frequently  £1  a  week.  He  can  sow  corn,  build  stacks,  and  do  any- 
thing that  the  steward  can,  and  sometimes  all  that  the  shepherd  can  be- 
sides. 

(1570.)  The  cattle-man,  being  viewed  as  a  laborer,  receives  some  of  his 
wages  in  kind  and  the  rest  in  cash,  and  is  seldom  indulged  with  a  cow. 
Being  generally  a  person  somewhat  advanced  in  life,  the  rate  of  his  wages 
is  not  high — perhaps  9s.  a  week ;   and  it  is  well  when  such  a  post  as  this 

(97) 4 


60  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

can  be  given  on  a  farm  to  an  old  and  faithful  plowman  or  shepherd,  whose 
growing  infirmities  disable  him  from  undertaking  his  former  active  duties. 
(1571.)  'Y\\e  field-ivorkcr  is  simply  a  day-laborer,  and  receives  lOd.  a  day, 
without  any  wages  in  kind,  from  the  farmer.  This  person  is  usually  a 
woman.  The  first  class  of  plowmen  are  each  bound  to  supj)ly  a  field- 
worker  for  the  farm  during  the  year,  they  receiving  the  wages  earned  by 
the  workers  in  that  time.  They  hire  the  women  in  the  public  markets 
and  support  them  in  their  houses  with  bed  and  board  and  wages.  Should 
the  field-worker  obtain  constant  employment  on  the  farm,  the  plowman 
may  profit  by  the  anangement.  On  large  i'arms  field-workers  are  almost 
constantly  employed.  The  practice  had,  no  doubt,  arisen  at  a  time  when 
few  women  could  be  persuaded  to  work  in  the  fields  ;  and  the  circum 
stance  of  plowmen  being  bound  by  agi-eement  to  supply  such  laborers, 
these  latter  have  long  been  designated  by  the  odious  name  of  bondagers, 
an  epithet  no  doubt  left  us  in  legacy  by  our  feudal  forefathers.  The  prac- 
tice has  been  found  fault  with,  and  even  represented  as  a  species  of  slavery, 
probably  because  of  the  odious  designation  given  to  the  condition  of  the 
women ;  but  the  tmth  is,  there  is  no  more  binding  or  slavery  about  the 
matter  than  in  the  case  of  the  plowmen  themselves,  and  even  less,  for  they 
are  bound  by  agi-eement  to  work  for  a  year,  wherea^  the  hondager's  term 
is  only  for  six  months.  The  epithet  is  a  nick-name,  and  should  be  relin- 
quished for  the  proper  name  of  field-worker ;  but  the  practice  is  good, 
because  it  enables  the  farmer  to  command  a  certain  number  of  hands  at 
all  times,  and  also  to  accomplish  his  ends  by  his  own  resources,  independ- 
ent of  extraneous  aid.  It  is  no  answer  to  say  that  women  may  be  hired 
out  of  villages  when  their  services  are  required,  because  many  large  farms 
are  situate  far  from  any  village  ;  and  even  the  vicinity  of  a  village  will  not 
secure  a  supply  of  field-workers,  as  I  have  myself  experienced  to  my  vex- 
ation ;  for  whenever  trade  is  brisk,  manufact\irers  not  only  pick  up  all  the 
hands  they  can  procure,  but  the  work  which  they  supply  being  done  by 
the  piece,  at  which  greater  wages  than  at  field-work  can  be  earned  in  long 
hours  of  labor,  a  temptation  is  presented  to  women  laborers  to  desert  the 
fields ;  and  to  such  a  degree  of  stringency  is  this  monopoly  of  labor  car- 
ried by  manufacturers  that  they  will  not  allow  their  people  to  go  and  as- 
sist at  harvest.  A  resource  of  labor  like  the  Border  system  should,  there- 
fore, not  be  yielded  by  the  farmer,  until  a  better,  or  one  as  efficient,  can 
be  substituted.  Its  hardship,  however,  is  not  imputed  to  the  workers  them 
selves  but  to  the  plowmen  who  must  hire  them  ;  but  if  there  is  any  hard- 
ship in  it  to  the  plowmen,  they  nevertheless  engage  in  it  voluntarily  with 
all  its  inconveniences,  rather  than  abandon  their  profession  ;  though,  no 
doubt,  if  a  man  have  no  family,  and  the  work  is  but  limited,  the  fiu])port 
of  a  field-worker  may  press  hard  upon  his  gains,  but  there  is  this  allevi- 
ating circumstance,  even  in  such  a  case,  that  the  burden  is  imposed  upon 
a  man  who  has  no  family  to  support;  whereas,  a  family  of  daughters  is  a 
great  source  of  income  to  a  plowman,  one  doing  the  bondage  work,  others 
being  paid  for  their  labor,  and  all  contributing  to  the  support  of  a  com- 
mon fund.  The  system  has  no  bad  effect  on  the  bondagers  themselves  ; 
for  they  are  cheerful  and  happy  at  work,  and  are  well  clad  on  Sundays. 
Nor  are  they  ever  put  to  any  labor  beyond  their  strength;  for  as  to  the 
alleged  "  unfenuiiiM.  practice  of  females  driving  dung-carts,"*  the  practice 
is  not  more  unfeminine  than  helping  to  fill  dung-carts,  or  turning  dung- 
hills ;  but  the  fact  is,  women  do  not  drive  carts,  in  the  usual  sense  of  that 
term  ;  they  only  walk  beside  the  cart,  in  the  absence  of  the  driver  at  more 
laborious  work,  to  and  from   the  dunghill  to  tlie  place  of  its  destination, 

•  Report  of  the  Cottage  Improvement  Society  of  North  Northumberland  for  1842. 
(98) 


WAGES  OF  FARM-SERVANTS.  51 

merely  to  keep  the  carts  clear  of  one  another,  and  when  so  employed  they 
have  nothing  to  do  with  the  yoking  or  loosening  of  the  horse,  or  filling  or 
emptying  of  the  cart,  or  turning  in  or  out  of  the  landings.  In  the  north- 
ern counties  of  Scotland  no  such  obligation  exists  on  the  plowmen,  nor  in- 
deed can  be,  for  it  would  be  impossible  to  coexist  with  the  bothy  system, 
whex'e  a  plowman  has  not  a  house  for  himself,  far  less  for  any  worker  ;  and 
hence  in  those  parts  of  the  country  field-labor,  in  as  far  as  the  manual 
operations  are  concerned,  is  very  much  inferior  to  that  executed  on  the 
Borders,  because  of  its  being  performed  by  casual  laborers  instead  of 
those  who  have  been  steadily  trained  up  to  it  from  early  youth  ;  and  as 
long  as  no  means  are  used  to  initiate  young  people,  especially  young 
women,  who  are  admitted  to  be  more  nimble  in  the  fingers  than  men,  in 
the  several  varieties  of  field-labor,  so  long  will  they  be  impex-fectly  exe- 
cuted. 

(1572.)  Now.  on  taking  a  retrospect  of  the  actual  condition  of  all  the  laborers  of  the  farm,  as  I 
have  endeavored  to  represent  it,  and  comparing  the  condition  of  the  first  class  of  plowmen  with  the 
others,  the  question  that  naturally  occurs  to  the  mind  is — Which  is  the  best  ?  I  have  not  the 
slightest  hesitation  in  expressing  my  conviction  of  the  superior  position  of,  the  plowmen  in  the 
Borders.  Let  us  look  into  one  of  their  cottages  of  an  evening.  I  grant  that  their  cottages  might 
be  made  much  more  comfortable  and  much  more  convenient,  and  much  better  suited  to  the  wants 
of  their  inhabitants,  than  they  are  ;  and  this  I  shall  endeavor  to  show  in  due  time  ;  but  in  the  mean 
time  I  may  say  that  a  determination  exists  for  improvement  in  this  matter  evinced  by  parties  most 
able  to  do  it,  namely,  the  landlords,  and  its  good  effects  will  be  seen  in  the  course  of  a  few  years ; 
but  look  into  one  of  their  cottages,  sach  as  they  are,  during  a  winter  evening,  and  "  you  will  prob- 
ably see,"  to  use  the  words  of  Mr.  Grey,  Dilston.  on  this  subject,  in  the  letter  and  spirit  of  whose 
sentiments  I  cordially  concur,  'assembled  the  family  group  round  a  cheerful  coal-fire — which,  by  the 
way,  is  an  inestimable  blessing  to  all  classes,  but  chiefly  to  the  poor  of  this  country — females  knit- 
ting or  spinning — the  father,  perhaps,  mending  his  shoes — an  art  almost  all  acquire — and  one  of 
the  yoang  ones  reading  for  the  amusement  of  the  whole  circle."  Contrast  this  with  the  condition 
of  those  plowmen  in  England  who  receive  their  wages  entirely  in  cash,  and  who  have  to  go  to  a 
distance  to  purchase  the  necessaries  of  life.  "  Contrast  this,"  continues  Mr.  Grey,  "  with  the  condi- 
tion of  many  young  men  emoloyed  as  farm-servants  in  the  southern  counties,  who  being  paid 
board-wages,  club  together  to  have  their  comfortless  meal  in  a  neighboring  cottage,  with  no  house 
to  call  their  home,  left  to  sleep  in  an  outhouse  or  hay-loft,  subject  to  the  contamination  of  idle 
companions,  with  no  parent's  eye  to  watch  their  actions,  and  no  parent's  voice  to  warn  them  of 
their  errors  ;  and  say  which  situation  is  best  calculated  to  promote  domestic  comfort,  family  affec- 
tion, and  moral  rectitude  ?"  Contrast  this  also  with  the  bothy  system,  which  perhaps  Mr.  Grey 
has  never  witnessed,  or  no  doubt  it  would  have  met  with  his  reprobation  ;  contrast  this  with  a 
system  which,  although  it  supplies  the  necessaries  of  life  in  a  convenient  enough  fonn,  presents 
them  in  uncomfortable  circumstances  affording  no  assistance  to  cook  the  food  and  clean  out  the 
chamber  ;  affording  no  one  to  admonish  thoughtless  young  men,  many  of  whom  are  in  the  practice 
of  wandering  at  night  after  a  long  day's  toil,  and  returning  home  only  in  the  morning,  to  begin  a 
day's  work,  with  wearied  limbs  and  depressed  spirits.  In  the  winter  evenings,  too,  the  bothy  is  a 
scene  of  lewd  mirth,  excited  by  the  company  of  females  who  have  come  perhaps  from  a  dis- 
tance to  visit  their  acquaintance.s,  and  who  are  treated  most  probably  with  a  stolen  fowl,  en- 
tertained with  profane  jests  and  songs,  and  afterward  convoyed  homeward  amid  darkness 
and  wet. 

(1.573.)  "  One  very  obvious  benefit,"  observes  Mr.  Grey  justly,  in  regard  to  married  plow^men, 
"  arising  to  the  hind  from  this  mode  of  paying  in  kind,  besides  that  having  a  store  of  wholesome 
food  always  at  command,  which  has  not  been  taxed  with  the  profits  of  intermediate  agents,  is  the 
absence  of  all  temptation  which  the  receipt  of  weekly  wages  and  the  necessity  of  resorting  to  a 
village  or  a  town  to  buy  provisions,  hold  out  of  spending  some  part  of  the  money  in  the  ale-house, 
which  ougnt  to  provide  for  the  wants  of  the  family  ;  and  to  this  circumstance,  and  to  the  domestic 
employment  which  their  gardens  afford  in  their  leisure  hours,  we  are  probably  much  indebted  for 
the  remarkable  sobriety  and  exemplary  moral  conduct  of  the  peasantry  of  the  North."  And  far- 
thtr,  '•  this  inode  of  engaging  and  paying  farm-servants  is  not  only  more  conducive  to  their  wel- 
fare and  social  comfort  than  the  weekly  payment  of  money-wages — which  go  but  a  little  way  in 
purchasing  the  necessaries  of  a  family,  are  injudiciou.sly  laid  out,  and  sometimes  wastefully  squan- 
dered— but  it  has,  besides,  a  strong  and  apparent  influence  upon  their  habits  and  moral  character. 
It  possesses  the  advantage  of  giving  to  the  peasant  the  use  of  a  garden  and  cow,  with  the  certainty 
of  employment ;  it  gives  him  a  personal  interest  in  the  produce  of  his  master's  farm,  and  a  desire 
to  secure  it  in  good  condition;  it  produces  a  set  of  local  attachments,  which  often  lead  to  a  connec- 
tion betsveen  master  and  servant,  of  long  continuance."* 

(13/4.)  Beneficially  as  this  system  of  paying  farm-servants  in  kind  has  long  operated  both  for 
master  and  .servant,  it  has  been  stigmatized  by  persons  even  in  Parliament,  as  being  only  another 
form  of  the  truck-system,  which  has  been  made  to  act  so  prejudicially  against  the  interests  of  ope- 
ratives in  En.ijland.  But  what  is  the  truck-system  ?  After  hearing  the  proper  answer  to  this  ques- 
tion, we  shall  be  the  better  able  to  judge  whether  the  plowman's  wages  paid  in  kind  can  truly  re- 
ceive that  appellation.   Of  the  truck-system,  Mr.  McCulloch  says  that  it  is  "  a  name  given   to  a 

*  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  vol.  ii. 


52  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

practice  that  has  prevailed,  particularly  in  the  mining  and  manafactaring  districts,  of  paying  the 
wages  of  workmen  in  goo<l8  instead  of  money.  The  jdan  has  been  for  the  master  to  establish 
warehouses  or  shops  ;  and  the  workmen  in  their  employment  have  either  got  their  wages  account- 
ed for  to  them  by  supplies  of  goods  from  such  dif/du,  without  receiving  any  money  ;  or  they  have 
got  the  money,  with  a  tacit  or  express  understanding  that  they  were  to  resort  to  the  warehouses  or 
shops  of  their  masters  for  such  articles  as  they  were  furnished  with."*  If  this  be  anything  like  a 
correct  account  of  the  properly  reprobated  system,  it  is  clear  that  it  has  no  affinity  to  the  system  in 
kind,  in  which  the  hinds  are  paid  their  wages,  inasmuch  as  this  has  no  reference  to  the  money  value 
of  any  article  which  the  hinds  receive,  and  il)erefore  ihey  alir  ays  receive  the  fame  amoinU  of  kijid, 
and  of  course  the  same  rate  of  wages  ;  whereas  the  truck-system  has  undoubted  reference  to  the 
money  value  of  the  articles  dealt  out  to,  or  purchased  by,  the  operatives;  and  that  money  value  is 
fixed  by  the  master  whose  interest  it  is,  of  course,  lo  keep  it  at  as  high  a  rate  as  practicable,  or 
else  to  give  out  articles  of  inferior  quality  at  the  price  of  those  of  more  value  ;  and  hence  the  arti- 
san does  not  always  receive  the  same  amount  of  goods,  nor  the  same  rate  of  wages. 


D.    CORN    MARKETS. 

'■  Thus  all  is  here  in  motion,  all  is  life  ; 
The  creaking  wain  brings  copious  stores  of  com." 

DVEK. 

(1575,)  The  surplus  gi'ain  of  the  farm  is  disposed  of  to  corn-merchants, 
millers,  bakers,  distillers,  and  brewers.  These  attend  on  the  market-day 
in  the  market-town.  If  the  market-town  is  a  seaport,  most  of  the  corn- 
merchants  and  brewers  reside  in  it  permanently,  and  have  their  granaries 
there.  When  the  market-town  is  situate  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  the 
merchants  and  brewers  attend  the  market  there  from  the  nearest  seaport. 
The  purchase  of  grain  is  chiefly  carried  on  in  winter,  when  the  fanner  has 
his  crop  to  dispose  of.  Brewers  and  distillers  chiefly  buy  barley  for  malt- 
ing, millers  and  bakers  chiefly  wheat  and  oats,  and  merchants  every  spe- 
cies of  grain.  The  market  for  barley  commences  the  season,  wheat  and 
oats  being  then  disposed  of  according  to  the  demand  for  them  ;  but  after 
March  the  demand  for  both  increases,  to  supply  the  consumption  until  next 
harvest.  In  a  corn  distinct,  from  which  most  of  the  produce  is  cairied 
away  to  large  towns  or  manufacturing  districts,  it  is  most  convenient  for 
the  shipment  of  grain  that  corn-merchants  reside  in  seaport  towns. 

(1576.)  Corn  markets  are  of  two  kinds,  stock  or  sample  markets.  A  sam- 
ple-marlict  is  that  in  which  farmers  bring  hand  samples  of  the  grain  they  wish 
to  dispose  of,  exhibit  them  to  purchasers,  and  deliver  the  stock  or  bulk  at  an 
appointed  time. 

(1577.)  A  stock  market  is  where  farmers  bring  in  the  grain  they  have 
to  sell  m  bulk  upon  their  carts,  exhibit  a  bagfull  of  it,  sell  the  quantity 
brought,  deliver  it  to  the  purchasei-s  immediately  after  the  sale  is  ef- 
fected, and  then  receive  the  money  for  it.  A  merchant  who  sells  grain 
in  a  stock-market  does  so  by  sample,  and  never  thinks  of  bringing  his 
stock,  which  perhaps  consists  of  granaries-full,  to  the  market-place ;  and 
there  is  nothing  to  prevent  farmers  also  to  sell  their  grain  by  sample  in  a 
stock-market. 

(1578.)  When  sold  by  sample,  the  grain  is  delivered,  by  the  farmer  in  his 
own  carts  in  the  course  of  the  few  days  allowed  him  for  the  purpose,  either 
at  the  granaries  of  the  merchant,  brewer,  or  distiller,  or  at  the  mill  of  the  mil- 
ler. Water-proof  tarpaulins  are  required  to  cover  the  sacks  in  the  carts 
when  grain  is  delivered  in  a  a  rainy  day,  but  it  is  better  to  defer  the  deliv- 
ery until  fair  weather,  if  not  otherwise  inconvenient. 

-*  .McCulloch's  Commercial  Dictionary,  art  Trutk-Svttem. 

(100) 


CORN  MARKETS,  53 


(1579.)  When  sold  in  bulk,  corn  is  delivered  immediately  after  the  sale  at 
the  granaries  of  the  merchants  on  the  spot,  or  at  the  brewery,  or  distillery, 
or  mill  in  the  country,  according  to  agreement. 

(1580.)  The  payment  for  grain  sold  by  sample  is  only  made  on  the  market- 
day  after  the  delivery  has  been  effected ;  but  the  payment  of  that  sold  in 
bulk  is  due,  and  is  generally  received,  on  the  day  it  is  sold,  soon  after  its 
delivery  at  the  gi'anaries. 

(1581.)  Of  the  two  modes  of  selling  gi'ain,  each  has  its  advantages  and 
disadvantages  to  the  farmer.  It  is  very  convenient  to  take  a  quantity  of 
grain  to  market,  sell  it,  deliver  it  on  the  spot,  and  receive  the  cash  for 
it  immedidiately  afterward.  It  enables  the  farmer  to  transact  his  market 
business  at  once,  and  saves  him  the  trouble  of  attending  next  market-day 
on  purpose  to  receive  the  cash,  when  he  may  have  no  other  occasion  to  be 
there.  It  obliges,  in  a  great  degree,  merchants  to  provide  granaries  for 
the  reception  of  grain  in  the  interior  market-towns ;  as  farmers  may  I'efuse 
to  deal  with  a  purchaser  who  wishes  the  grain  delivered  at  a  distance  from 
the  market-town,  the  fatigue  to  their  horses  being  thereby  probably  much 
increased.  This  mode  of  selling  grain  has  also  the  advantage  of  securing 
the  farmer  against  bad  debts,  because  he  may  deliver  the  grain  and  receive 
the  value  for  it  simultaneously.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  attended  with  this 
great  disadvantage,  that  in  case  the  farmer  does  not  sell  his  grain  on  the 
day  he  has  brought  it  to  the  market-place,  he  is  either  obliged  to  take  it 
home  again,  or  put  it  into  a  granary  until  the  next  market-day,  when,  of 
course,  granary-i-ent  must  be  incurred,  and  the  additional  expense  also  in- 
cun-ed  of  either  hiring  carts  to  deliver  the  gi-ain  next  market-day,  from  the 
temporary  granary  to  that  of  his  purchaser,  or  of  sending  a  cart  of  his  own 
to  do  it;  and  as  he  must  keep  the  grain  so  accommodated  in  sacks,  he  may 
be  deprived  of  the  use  of  his  sacks  at  a  time  when  he  may  have  a  large 
quantity  of  corn  in  his  barn  to  measure  up,  and  which,  where  lying  in  a 
loose  state,  may  be  an  inconvenience.  Or  to  avoid  these  manifold  and  ob- 
vious inconveniences  he  must  take  the  price  offered  for  his  grain.  An- 
other disadvantage  is,  that  his  horses  must  stand  in  the  market-place,  ex- 
posed for  hours  to  cold  blasts,  after  perhaps  being  heated  on  their  way  to 
the  mai'ket-town.  The  exhibition  of  corn  in  bulk  gives  power,  however, 
to  the  purchaser  to  inspect  the  cleaning  of  every  sack  before  purchasing  it, 
and  it  also  gives  him  the  command  of  a  quantity  of  corn  immediately  after 
its  purchase. 

(1582.)  The  advantages  of  a  hand  sample-market  to  the  farmer  are,  that 
he  is  independent  of  the  rate  of  price  of  any  market-day;  for  if  it  does  not 
satisfy  him,  he  can  put  his  sample  into  his  pocket  again.  His  men  and 
horses  cannot  lose  a  day's  work,  and  are  not  exposed  to  the  weather  in 
waiting  in  the  market-place.  He  need  not,  moreover,  clean  his  grain  be- 
fore selling  it,  and  should  he  be  induced  to  sell  more  than  what  is  threshed, 
he  has  time  to  thresh  more  and  clean  the  whole  quantity  at  once,  thereby 
making  the  stock  of  uniform  quality,  and  cleaned  agreeably  to  the  partic- 
ular taste  of  the  purchaser.  The  disadvantages  to  the  farmer  are  inability 
to  receive  cash  for  the  grain  he  sells  until  the  next  market-day  after  its 
delivery,  and  the  risk  he  thereby  runs  of  incurring  bad  debts  with  the 
merchant,  to  whom  the  stock  is  delivered  some  days  before  he  pays  for  it. 
The  advantage  of  a  sample-market  to  the  merchant  is,  that  should  the 
sample  please  him,  he  can  purchase  as  large  a  quantity  of  grain  as  the 
farmer  pleases  to  dispose  of,  and  thus  make  up  a  cargo  of  uniform  quality: 
and  the  disadvantage  which  he  experiences,  which,  by  the  way,  is  felt  most 
strongly  by  the  brewer,  distiller  and  miller,  is  that  he  cannot  obtain  pos- 
session of  the  grain  immediately  after  purchase. 

(101) 


54  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

(1583.)  Of  the  two  species  of  corn-markets,  I  prefer  selling  by  the  sam- 
ple, chiefly  because  I  dislike  to  see  hoi-scs  stajuling  for  hours  with  a  load 
in  the  market-place,  and  most  probably  in  bad  weather,  for  none  else  can 
be  looked  for  in  winter.  Such  a  stand  cannot  be  for  their  advantage,  and, 
in  my  estimation,  the  peculiar  advantages  of  a  stock-market  are  insufficient 
to  counterbalance  the  risk  thus  incurred  in  the  safety  of  the  horses.  This 
inconvenience  is  perhaps  appreciated  by  some  farmers,  and  a  modification 
of  the  plan  is  followed,  such  as  delivery  in  the  course  of  a  few  days  of  a 
larger  quantity  of  grain  than  what  was  actually  presented  in  the  market- 
place ;  but  no  modification  can  take  place  of  the  sale  of  grain  by  sample, 
in  that  it  is  simply  the  presentation  of  the  hand  sample  in  the  market,  the 
sale  of  the  bulk  therewith,  and  its  consequent  deliveiy  at  the  specified 
time.  It  would  be  curious  to  obser\'e  the  particular  diseases  to  which 
horses  are  most  liable,  that  are  made  to  stand  in  a  market-place  for  houi"s 
together,  and  to  ascertain  if  these  are  of  the  class  most  commonly  contracted 
from  exposure  to  weather. 

(1584.)  Were  all  men  honest,  it  would  be  immaterial  which  mode  were 
adopted  for  the  sale  of  grain,  in  so  far  as  the  xtate  of  the  grain  is  con- 
cerned; but  to  the  shame  of  the  farmer  be  it  spoken,  it  sometimes  happens 
that  the  stock  is  delivered  of  an  inferior  quality,  or  not  so  well  cleaned  as 
the  sample  that  was  shown  in  the  market.  Some  farmers  acquire  a  char- 
acter for  this  species  of  fraud,  and  so  blinded  do  they  become  by  their 
cupidity,  that  they  cannot  discover  the  advantage  which  they  thereby  con- 
fer on  the  merchant  to  reduce  the  price  of  the  bargain  made  between 
them.  It  is  curious  that  men  cannot  at  once  believe  that  ill-cleaned  com 
cannot  be  so  heavy,  bulk  for  bulk,  as  well-cleaned.  While  such  people, 
therefore,  think  they  are  taking  advantage  of  the  merchant  by  giving 
him  light  corn  among  the  good,  they  are  in  fact  cheating  themselves,  for 
no  purchaser  will  pay  the  stipulated  price  of  good  com  when  ill-cleaned 
corn  is  delivered  to  him  instead.  Many  farmers,  I  apprehend,  deliver 
stock  inferior  to  sample,  from  no  intention  of  committing  fraud,  but  be- 
cause they  cannot  deliver  the  stock  so  clean  as  the  sample  shown,  it  having 
been  differently  treated  from  the  stock.  They  are  in  the  habit  of  pulling 
out  a  sample  from  the  stack,  rubbing  out  the  grain  from  the  ears,  blowing 
away  the  chaff  with  the  mouth,  and  picking  out  the  light  com.  Now  no 
winnowing  machine  can  clean  corn  in  this  style.  Or  a  sample  is  taken 
from  the  unwinnowed  bin  on  the  barn-floor,  and  treated  in  a  similar  man- 
ner. Sample  and  stock  can  only  agree  exactly  when  both  are  derived  from 
a  similar  state  of  the  same  parcel  of  grain. 

(1585.)  On  the  other  hand,  I  must  say,  in  justice  to  the  farmer,  that  some 
com-merchants  are  very  fastidious  on  receiving  stocks  of  gi-ain  that  have 
been  sold  them  liy  sample.  The  stock  is  objected  to  at  the  granary,  because 
it  is  inferior  to  the  sample  ;  and  when  this  plea  cannot  be  substantiated  on 
comparison,  the  bulk  is  declared  deficient  in  measure,  which  objection  can- 
not be  rebutted  without  measuring  over  the  whole  quantity,  and  on  this 
being  done,  and  this  objection  also  proving  gioundless,  it  is  rejected  be- 
cause the  grain  is  lighter  than  that  guarantied  by  the  farmer.  But  the 
object  is  to  set  up  the  grain  anyhow,  to  give  the  merchant  an  oppoitunity  to 
reduce  its  price.  To  show  how  such  a  circumstance  as  this  can  happen, 
I  may  observe  that  the  merchant  seldom  witnesses  the  deliveiy  of  grain  at 
his  granaries,  this  duty  being  deputed  to  the  man  who  has  charge  of  the 
granaries,  and  its  delivery  cannot  of  course  be  witnessed  by  the  farmer. 
So  if  the  merchant's  foreman  receive  the  clue  to  make  objections,  these 
are  easily  made  to  appear  effective  to  the  farm-sei-\ants  deliverino-  the 
grain,  who  of  course  know  nothing  of  the  conditions  of  the  bargain.     The 

(102) 


CORN    MARKETS.  55 


corn  is  then  set  up,  that  is,  set  down  in  the  sacks  on  the  floor,  and  remains 
there  unemptied  until  an  explanation  takes  place  ;  on  which,  if  the  farmot 
has  committed  an  error,  he  suffers  a  considerable  reduction  in  price,  but 
if  he  can  maintain  his  own  rectitude,  the  merchant  concedes  the  point,  and 
throws  the  blame  on  his  stupid  foreman,  who,  after  all,  is  justified  for  the 
interruption  he  had  given,  by  the  allegation  that  he  had  only  done  his  duty 
to  his  master.  I  have  heard  of  both  these  species  of  fraud  being  attempted 
to  be  committed,  and  have  also  heard  a  remark  connected  with  one  of  them, 
tliat  mei'chants  are  most  likely  to  be  fastidious  in  regard  to  the  quality  of 
the  grain  they  receive,  when  prices  happen  to  fall  between  the  period  of 
purchase  and  that  of  delivery.  Unfortunately,  no  such  motive  can  be  urged 
to  justify  the  farmer  in  his  attempts  to  pass  off  inferior  grain.  In  a  stock- 
market  no  such  occurrence  can  happen.  Let  me  say  here,  that  my  sole 
object  in  alluding  to  so  painful  a  subject  is  to  make  you  aware  of  the  tricks 
of  trade. 

(1586.)  Every  species  of  grain  is  directed  by  the  Weights  and  Measures 
Act,  (5th  Geo.  IV.,  c.  74,  sec.  15,)  to  be  sold  by  the  imperial  husliel, 
containing  2,218.192  cubic  inches,  and  not  2,150.42  cubic  inches,  as 
erroneously  given  in  that  paragraph,  this  latter  number  being  the  con- 
tents of  the  old  Winchester  bushel,  which  is  now  obsolete,  and  there  is 
no  such  recognized  quantity  as  a  quarter,  boll,  coom,  or  load.  The  prac- 
tice has  settled  into  measuring  grain  into  half-quarter  sacks  of  4  bushels, 
which  forms  a  convenient  size  of  load  in  the  bam,  as  well  for  carnage  on 
men's  backs  as  in  carts,  Plate  XVIII. 

(1587.)  Granaries  in  town  are  frequently  situate  in  inconvenient  places 
for  access  to  carts,  such  as  narrow  streets  and  lanes ;  and  some  are  so 
inconveniently  high  that  four  or  five  flights  of  steps  have  to  be  surmounted 
ere  the  floor  be  attained  which  is  to  contain  the  corn ;  and  these  stairs  are 
not  unfrequently  too  narrow  or  too  steep,  or  the  steps  so  worn  away  in 
front  as  to  endanger  the  safety  of  the  persons  who  carry  loads  up  them. 
But  the  risk  is  fully  greater  to  those  who  have  to  bring  loads  down  them, 
when  the  contents  of  the  granary  are  emptying  for  the  loading  of  a  ship. 
For  the  carx'iage  of  corn  in  such  a  case,  I  have  seen  a  convenient  form  of 
hag  used.  It  consisted  of  a  short  sack,  capable  of  holding  rather  more 
than  two  bushels,  drawn  together  at  the  bottom,  where  a  short  piece  of 
thick  pliable  rope  is  attached,  the  mouth  being  formed  like  any  other  sack. 
The  person  who  is  to  carry  the  bag,  folds  the  mouth  together  when  filled 
so  as  to  cover  the  corn,  and  at  the  same  time  leaves  a  portion  of  the  sack 
loose,  by  which  he  holds  firmly  with  his  right  hand.  On  assistance  being 
given  him  to  lift  the  sack,  when  filled,  he  turns  himself  quickly  round 
with  his  back  to  it,  and  bi-ings  the  pai't  by  which  he  holds  on,  over  his  head ; 
and  holding  on  there  with  one  or  both  hands,  as  he  chooses  and  feels  most 
convenient  in  the  circumstances,  literally  runs  with  the  load  to  the  ship's 
hold,  where,  on  a  man  seizing  the  short  rope  at  the  bottom  of  the  sack, 
the  carrier  hitches  the  sack  off  his  back,  and  the  grain  is  poured  into  the 
hold,  while  the  man  all  the  time  retains  hold  of  the  short  rope. 

(1588.)  For  long  in  Scotland,  grain  used  to  be  sold  by  measure  alone, 
and  for  long  it  used  to  be  sold  in  Ireland  by  weight  alone ;  but  both  ways 
are  liable  to  objection.  When  the  measure  alone  is  used,  there  is  a  temp- 
tation to  measure  the  corn  before  it  is  properly  cleaned,  especially  if  the 
corn  is  sold  ;  and  when  sold  alone  by  weight,  there  is  also  a  tempta- 
tion to  retain  light  corn  among  the  good,  with  the  view,  in  both  cases, 
of  disposing  of  the  inferior  grain  at  as  good  a  price  as  the  fine.  But  a 
check  has  of  late  years  been  estabhsbed  against  both  species  of  fraud,  by 
a  statement  of  the  weight  alons:  with  the  bulk.    Merchants  know  the  weight 

(103)  CO 


56  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

of  grain  by  its  appearance  and  feel,  and  therefore,  by  trj'ing  the  weigfht  of  a 
4-bushel  sack,  they  can  easily  ascertain  whether  the  grain  is  in  as  clean  a 
state  throughout  the  whole  bag  as  at  its  mouth.  But  the  introduction  of  the 
weight  has  given  rise  to  a  species  of  deceitful  dealing  as  regards  the  pub- 
lic. The  purchaser  offers  a  certain  price  for  every  so  many  pounds  weight 
of  grain,  without  direct  reference  to  the  contents  of  the  bushel ;  and  some 
farmers  are  induced  to  sell  on  this  plan,  in  the  vain  hope  of  being  able  to 
boast  that  they  have  sold  their  grain  at  such  a  price,  wishing  it  to  be  be- 
lieved that  the  price  applies  to  the  tnie  quarter,  when  in  fact  it  is  given 
for  so  many  pounds  weight,  and  to  deliver  the  number  of  pounds  for  the 
specified  sum  the  bushel  is  heaped.  This  is  pitiful  work.  The  fair  and 
common  practice  is  to  ask  such  a  price  for  the  grain  per  quarter,  stating 
its  weight  by  the  bushel ;  and,  of  course,  the  heavier  the  grain,  and  better 
the  quality,  the  purchaser  will  give  the  higher  price  for  it. 

(1589.)  The  usaal  denominations  of  com  measares,  based  apon  the  imperial  basbel,  the  standard 
of  capacity,  are  these  ; 

4  gills  =  1  pint,      contain  34}  cubic  inches. 

2  pints  =  1  quart,         ..  69  J     .. 

4  quarts  =  1  gallon,       ..  277  J     .. 

2  gallons  =  1  peck,         ..  554}     .. 

4  pecks  =  1  bushel,      ..  221&|     .. 

8  bushels   =:  1  quarter,     ..  10^..        feet 

5  quarers   =  I  load,  ..  5lJ     .. 

(1590.)  In  regard  to  the  sale  of  corn,  these  settled  points  in  law  may  prove  useful  for  yoa  to 
know.  "  In  sale  by  sample,  the  buyer  may  decline  the  bargain,  if  the  bulk  does  not  correspond 
with  the  sample  (Parker,  4  Bam.  and  Aid.,  387).  The  delivery  of  the  sample  does  not  transfer  the 
property  of  the  bulk  (Hill,  Jan.  26,  1785,  M.  4200).  The  price  must  consist  in  current  money, 
either  of  Great  Britain  or  some  foreign  countrv,  which  has  a  determinate  value  put  upon  it  by 
the  tacit  consent  of  the  State  ;  if  in  goods  it  will  be  barter  and  not  sale  ;  and  if  illusory,  it  will  be 
donation.  The  price  must  be  certain,  as  well  as  the  subject  sold.  It  is  generally  fixed  by  the 
parties  themselves  at  striking  the  bargain.  Where  a  purchaser  of  oats,  payable  on  delivery,  tem- 
porized with  the  seller,  and  delayed  to  take  delivery  for  a  fortnight,  during  which  period  the 
price  of  oats  rose,  it  was  held  that  he  was  not  entitled  to  delivery  to  demand  delivery  (Craig.  May 
29,  1823,  2  S.  D.  347).  ...  In  sales  of  grain,  the  price  is  sometimes  fixed  by  the  SherifTs  fiars.  In 
the  case  of  Leslie  (Jan.  27,  1714,  M.  1419  and  1678),  where  there  was  an  agreement  to  purchase 
grain  without  a  price  specified,  it  was  held,  inter  alia,  that  fiars'  prices  may  be  presumed  the  sale 
between  landlord  and  tenant;  and  that  merchants  are  presumed  to  contract  according  to  the  cur- 
rent prices  of  the  country  where  the  bargain  is  made.  As  to  the  risk  of  the  sale  after  the  subject 
is  sold,  the  loss  is  to  the  purchaser,  as  in  the  case  of  Campbell  (July  15,  1748,  M.  10,071).  and  in  the 
case  of  Tarling  (1827,  6  Barn,  and  Cres.  361).  But  it  was  held  in  the  case  of  Milne  .Feb.  I.  1809, 
F.  C.j.  that  where  the  seller  takes  upon  himself  the  delivery  of  goods  at  a  certain  place,  it  throws 
the  risk  of  the  goods,  while  in  transitu  to  that  place,  on  the  selfer.  .  .  .  Where  the  seller  has  de- 
layed delivering  the  subject  to  the  purchaser  when  bought,  he  is  liable  for  the  risk;  but  it  is  not 
considered  delay  when  the  purcha-ser  declines  paying  the  price.  Also,  when  a  landed  proprietor 
Bells  a  certain  quantity  of  grain  of  a  particular  crop  to  a  merchant,  without  specifying  any  particu- 
lar parcel,  and  the  whole  crop  is  destroyed,  the  loss  is  to  the  seller ;  but  after  such  quantity  of 
gram  is  measured,  or  otherwise  prepared  for  delivery,  the  risk  will  be  transferred  to  him  :  so 
found  in  the  case  of  Hinde  (6  East.  558.)  ;  Erskine,  iii.  3.  7."  In  regard  to  the  landlord's  hypothec 
over  com,  restitution  was  given  in  the  case  of  Scot  (June  11,  1673.  M.  6223.).  of  corns  boutriit  from 
a  tenant  while  under  hypothec.  Though,  when  bought  in  public  market,  where  they  have  been 
brought  in  bulk,  the  purchaser  is  not  liable  in  restitution  ;  if  brought  only  in  samples,  the  landlord 
is  entitled  to  restitution.  This  was  held  in  the  case  of  Smart.  Dec.  10,  1793,  and  Earl  of  Dalhousie, 
Feb.  27,  1828,  6  S.  D.  626."*  So  that  a  stock-market  is  safer  for  a  purchaser  to  buy  in.  and  a  sam- 
ple-market is  safer  for  the  hj'pothec  of  a  landlord. 


6.    FORMING   OF   DUNGHILLS,  AND  LIQUID-MANURE   TANKS. 

"  If  front,  rctuminp.  intemipt  the  plow, 
Then  is  the  time,  nlong  the  hardened  ridpe, 
To  drive  manure "  Graham. 

(1591.)  Toward  the  close  of  winter,  the  dung  will  have  accumulated  so 
high  in  the  large  couits  I  and  K,  figs.  3  and  4,  Plate  III.  and  IV.,  as  to  be- 
come nearly  level  with  the  feeding-troughs  z  ,  and  thereby  making  them 

*  The  Fnrmer's  Lawyer. 
(104) 


DUNGHILLS  AND  LIQUID-MANURE  TANKS.  57 

inconveniently  low  for  cattle  ;  but  before  this  inconvenience  occurs,  the 
dnn<^  should  be  removed  and  formed  into  dunghills  in  the  fields  intended 
to  be  manured  in  the  ensuing  season.  The  court  K,  besides  its  own  litter 
and  the  refuse  from  the  corn-barn  C,  contains  the  litter  of  the  work-horse 
stable  O,  and  the  pig-sty  b  ;  and  the  court  I  contains  the  litter  of  the  ser- 
vuuts'-cow  byre  Y,  besides  its  own.  The  dung  from  the  cows'-court  /should 
also  be  taken  away,  to  save  annoyance  to  cows  heavy  in  calf  wading  in 
deep  litter  ;  and  that  from  the  courts  of  both  the  hammels  M  and  N,  if  not 
from  under  the  sheds,  should  also  be  taken  away,  for  the  same  reason  as 
given  above  in  the  case  of  the  courts,  that  the  feeding-troughs  become  too 
low,  especially  in  the  hammels  M  of  fattening  cattle. 

(1591.)  I  am  thus  particular  in  detailing  the  contents  of  each  court,  be- 
cause, differing  in  their  constituent  parts,  they  should  be  appropriated  to 
the  raising  of  the  crop  best  adapted  for  each  sort  of  manure.  For  exam- 
ple, the  court  K  contains  a  large  proportion  of  stable-litter,  and  not  a  little 
from  that  of  the  pig-sties  ;  so  its  contents  are  somewhat  of  a  different  na- 
ture from  those  of  the  court  I,  which  contains  nothing  but  the  litter  of  cat- 
tle. If  it  is  desired  to  raise  a  large  extent  of  that  crop  which  thrives  best 
with  a  considerable  proportion  of  horse-dung,  the  contents  of  the  court  K 
should  of  course  be  preferred  to  that  of  the  other  court  I  ;  and  if  any  crop 
is  best  raised  with  cattle-dung,  the  contents  of  the  court  I  and  the  cows'- 
court  I  should  be  used  for  it.  Or  should  the  manure  required  consist  of 
an  average  proportion  for  raising  of  general  crops,  then  the  contents  of  all 
the  courts  should  be  mixed  together.  This  method  of  appropriating  the 
dung  of  a  farm  is  not  so  much  practiced  by  farmers  as  it  desei'ves  ;  and  it 
is  not  urged  by  me  as  a  mere  theoretical  suggestion,  but  as  practically  be- 
ing the  best  mode  of  appropriating  manm'e  to  raise  each  crop  to  the  best 
advantage.  To  make  my  meaning  more  intelligible,  I  shall  illustrate  it  in 
this  way.  Suppose  that  carrots  were  desired  to  be  raised  on  a  field  of  light 
land,  then  the  land  should  be  dunged  in  the  autumn  with  the  contents  of 
the  court  K,  because  it  contains  a  large  proportion  of  horse-litter.  When 
potatoes  are  attempted  to  be  raised  on  heavy  soil,  which  is  not  their  natu- 
ral one,  they  most  likely  to  succeed  with  horse-litter  also.  Turnips,  on 
the  other  hand,  grow  best  with  cow-dung,  and  therefore  a  mixture  of  the 
courts  T  and  I  would  be  best  for  them.  Should  carrots  not  be  raised,  and 
the  soil  is  naturally  favorable  to  the  potato,  and  therefore  horse-dung  will 
not  be  specially  wanted,  the  best  way  is  to  mix  all  the  sorts  of  dung  to- 
gether, and  form  dunghills  of  average  properties. 

(1592  )  There  is  another  matter  which  deserves  consideration  before  the 
courts  are  begun  to  be  cleared  of  their  contents  ;  which  is  the  position  the 
dunghill  or  dunghills  should  occupy  in  the  field,  and  this  point  is  deter- 
mined partly  by  the  form  which  the  surface  of  the  field  presents,  and 
partly  from  the  line  of  access  to  the  field.  In  considering  this  point,  which 
is  of  more  importance  than  it  may  seem  to  possess,  it  should  be  held  as  a 
general  rule,  that  the  dunghill  should  be  placed  where  the  horses  will  have 
the  advantage  of  going  down-hill  with  the  loads  from  it.  Wherever practica- 
hle,  this  rule  should  never  be  violated,  asfacililies  afforded  to  labor  in  a  busy 
scdsmi  are  of  the  utmost  importance.  If  a  field,  then,  has  a  uniformly  sloping 
surface,  the  dunghill  should  be  placed  at  the  upper  or  highest  side,  but  then 
the  access  to  the  field  may  only  be  at  the  lowest  side.  And  it  may  be  im- 
practicable to  reach  the  upper  side  by  any  road.  In  such  a  case,  the  loads 
should  be  taken  up  a  ridge  of  the  field ;  and  when  a  field  is  so  incon- 
veniently placed,  frosty  weather  should  be  chosen  to  form  the  dunghill  in 
it,  as  the  wheels  and  horse's  feet  will  then  have  a  firm  bearing.  But  should 
it  be  found  impracticable  t©  lead  dung  to  its  upper  side,  by  reason  of  the 


58  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

soft  state  of  the  land  or  Btcepness  of  tlie  ascent,  then  the  dunghill  should 
l>e  formed  at  the  side  nearest  of  access.  If  the  field  has  a  round-backed 
form,  the  dunghill  should  be  j)l;ued  on  the  top  of  the  hight  ;  and  in  order 
to  supply  the  ridges  down  both  8loj)es  from  it  with  manure,  a  ridge,  by 
way  of  head-ridge,  should  Ik?  formed  along  the  crest  of  the  hight,  at  the 
time  tlie  stubble  is  jdowed.  In  a  level,  or  nearly  a  level  field,  it  is  immate- 
rial which  side  the  dunghill  occupies. 

(1594.)  The  fields  to  which  the  dung  should  be  canied,  are  those  to  be 
fallowed  the  ensuing  season ;  that  is,  set  apart  for  the  growth  of  green 
crops,  such  as  potatoes  and  turnips,  and  for  the  part  which  receives  more 
cleaning  than  a  green  crop  admits  of,  narriely,  a  bare  fallow.  The  potato 
culture  coming  first  in  order,  the  land  destined  for  that  crop  should  have 
its  manure  canied  out  and  formed  into  the  first  dunghill.  The  turnips 
next  come  in  hand  ;  and  then  the  bare  fallow.  The  dunghills  intended 
for  potatoes  and  turnips  should  of  coui"se  be  made  respectively  of  such  a 
size  as  to  manure  the  extent  of  land  to  be  occupied  by  each  crop.  The 
manure  for  bare  fallow  not  being  lequired  till  much  farther  on  in  the  sea- 
son, may  be  deferred  being  canied  out  at  present.  The  proportions  and 
nature  of  the  soils  best  suited  for  potato  and  turnip  culture,  will  be  treated 
when  we  come  to  speak  of  those  crops  respectively,  so  that  any  remarks 
on  these  particulars  would  be  irrelevant  here. 

(1595.)  Then  the  precise  spot  which  a  dunghill  should  occupy  in  a  field 
is  not  a  matter  of  indifference.  I  have  seen  a  dunghill  placed  in  the  center 
of  a  field  which  it  was  intended  wholly  to  manure.  From  this  point,  it  is 
obvious,  the  carts  must  either  traverse  every  ridge  situate  between  the 
one  that  is  in  the  act  of  being  manured  and  the  dunghill,  or  go  direct 
to  a  head-ridge,  and  thence  along  it  to  the  ridge  to  be  manured.  This 
latter  alternative  must  be  adopted  if  the  dung  is  to  be  deposited  in  drills ; 
for  if  not,  the  drills  will  be  much  cut  up  by  the  passage  of  the  carts  across 
them — a  practice  which  should  never  be  allowed  when  neat  work  is  de- 
sired. The  dunghill  should  be  placed  on  a  head-ridge  or  a  side-ridge 
of  the  field  ;  and  of  these  two  positions  I  would  prefer  the  side-ridge,  be- 
cause, when  the  head-ridge  is  occupied  in  the  length  of  a  dunghill,  the 
ends  of  all  the  ridges  abutting  against  its  side  cannot  be  plowed  or  diilled 
in  their  entire  length  ;  and  if  there  be  more  than  one  dunghill  on  the  .same 
head-ridcje,  a  considerable  number  of  head-ridges  may  thus  be  curtailed 
of  their  fair  proportions.  The  dunghill  on  a  side-ridge  afl'ects  only  a  part 
of  the  sinffle  ridge  which  it  occupies.  Should  a  field  be  large  and  require 
two  dunghills,  the  one  first  to  be  used  should  be  placed  along  a  ridge,  at  a 
distance  just  beyond  the  space  of  giound  the  manure  it  contains  will  cover, 
so  that  the  ridge  occupied  by  it  may  be  jilowed  to  its  end  before  it  is  ma- 
nured ;  and  the  second  dunghill  should  be  placed  along  the  farthest  off 
side-ridge.  The  ridge  occupied  by  the  farthest  dunghill  can  be  easily 
reached  at  a  time  when  the  earth  is  hard;  but  should  the  weather  C(m- 
tinue  fresh,  and  the  ground  soft,  a  dunghill  should  be  made  on  the  side- 
ridge  nearest  the  gateway  ;  and  should  no  frost  happen,  this  dunghill 
should  be  made  large  enough  to  manure  the  whole  field.  A  large  dung- 
hill in  one  place  will  no  doubt  cause  more  labor  to  manure  the  field  at  the 
busy  .season  than  would  two  dunghills  at  different  places  ;  but  in  sofl 
weather  and  soil  it  is  better  to  incur  the  risk  of  future  inconvenience  than 
allow  the  horses  to  drag  only  a  half-load,  axle-deep,  alone:  a  soft;  hcfid- 
ridge.  When  proper  sites  can  be  chosen  for  dunghills  in  fields,  the  lor.ds, 
in  the  busy  season,  will  not  only  be  insured  a  passage  down  hill,  but  ihe 
dung  be  situated  at  the  shortest  distance  from  the  place  it  is  wanted,  nnd 
the  plowed  and  prepared  land  be  uninjured  by  cart-wheels  and  horses'  feet. 

(106) 


DUNGHILLS  AND  LIQUID-MANURE  TANKS.  59 

(1596.)  Some  consideration  is  even  required  in  littering  the  courts,  and 
especially  the  large  courts,  I  and  K.  No  one  would  believe  that  any  care 
is  requisite  in  laying  down  straw  in  a  court;  but  those  who  have  witnessed 
the  inconvenience  and  loss  of  time  incurred  in  removing  dung  from  courts 
will  easily  perceive  that  this  may  be  the  case.  The  courts  are  usually 
cleared  during  frost,  when  time  is  erroneously  regarded  of  little  value,  and 
when,  as  our  motto  implies,  the  plow  is  rendered  useless ;  but  notwith- 
standing this  common  opinion,  a  loss  of  a  small  portion  of  time,  even  at 
this  season,  may  have  a  material  effect  upon  some  future  operations.  For 
example  :  the  hard  state  of  the  ground  may  favor  the  carriage  of  manure 
to  a  distant  field,  to  gain  which,  most  of  the  time  is  spent  upon  the  road. 
Suppose  frost  continued  as  long  as  to  allow  tim-e  to  caiTy  as  much  manure 
as  would  serve  the  whole  field,  pi'ovided  ordinary  diligence  were  used,  and 
no  inteiTuption  met  with  in  the  courts.  Suppose  farther,  on  manuring  the 
field  in  summer  there  was  found  to  be  less  manure  in  the  dunghills  by  a 
small  quantity  than  was  wanted,  and  that  half-a-day,  or  at  most  a  whole 
day's  driving  from  the  steading  would  supply  the  requisite  quantity,  it  is 
clear  that  the  day's  driving  could  have  been  accomplished  in  frost  at  much 
less  trouble  than  at  the  season  when  the  manure  was  wanted.  But  this 
sacrifice  of  time  must  be  made  at  the  instant,  or  the  field  be  deprived  of 
its  just  proportion  of  riP&.nure.  This  is  no  hypothetical  case ;  it  has  oc- 
curred in  every  farmer's  experience.  Now,  what  is  the  primary  cause  of 
this  dilemma"?  Either  too  much  time  had  been  spent  upon  the  road  in 
driving  the  manure,  or  much  interruption  had  been  experienced  in  the 
courts.  To  which  of  these  two  causes  should  the  waste  of  lime  be  ascribed  ] 
With  regard  to  driving,  farm-horses  get  into  so  regular  a  pace  upon  the 
road  at  all  times,  that  little  loss  or  gain  of  time  can  be  calculated  on  in 
this  particular;  and  besides,  when  a  head  of  carts  is  employed  at  any 
work,  every  one  must  maintain  its  position  in  the  routine,  otherwise  it  will 
either  be  overtaken  by  the  one  behind,  or  be  left  far  behind  by  the  one 
before.  The  probability,  therefore,  is  that  the  loss  of  time  is  incun-ed  in 
the  courts,  and  for  this  reason.  The  usual  mode  of  taking  away  wetted 
litter  from  the  work-horse  stable  is  to  roll  it  together  with  a  graip,  and 
then  to  throw  it  into  a  barrow,  in  which  it  is  wheeled  into  the  court,  and 
there  emptied  on  any  spot  to  get  quit  of  it  in  the  shortest  time,  and  left  in 
heaps  to  be  trampled  down  by  the  cattle.  Back-loads  of  thatchings  of 
stacks,  some  of  which  are  not  very  dry,  are  carried  into  these  same  courts, 
put  down  anywhere,  and  partially  spread.  Long  straw-ropes,  which  bound 
down  the  thatching  of  stacks,  are  pulled  along  the  top  of  the  litter.  In 
doing  all  this,  and  it  is  not  all  done  at  one  time,  no  plan  is  followed  with 
the  view  o? facilitating  tJie  lifting  of  the  straw  afterward,  but  as  if  it  was 
to  remain  there  always ;  but  so  far  from  this  being  the  case,  it  is  again 
lifted  before  it  becomes  short  by  fermentation,  and  there  is  considerable 
difficulty  in  doing  so.  Long,  damp  straw  is  seized  in  one  part  by  a  graip, 
and  the  other  parts,  being  coiled  in  the  heap  it  was  first  laid  down,  cannot 
be  separated  without  much  exertion  on  the  part  of  the  plowman,  pulling 
it  this  way  and  that ;  and  it  is  too  soft  to  admit  of  its  being  cut  with  the 
dung-knife.  Another  graip  encounters  a  long  straw-rope,  which,  after 
much  tugging,  is  broken  or  pulled  out,  and  thrown  upon  the  cart  with  its 
ends  dangling  over.  In  short,  not  a  single  graipfuU  is  easily  raised,  and 
the  business  is  not  expedited  when  a  heap  of  chaff  evades  the  action  of  the 
graip.  Add  to  this  the  few  hands  generally  sent  to  assist  the  plowman  to 
fill  the  carts,  and  the  consequent  time  spent  by  the  team  in  the  court,  and 
some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  causes  which  incur  much  loss  of  time  in 
this  necessary  work.     It  is  easy  to  conceive  that  in  this  way  as  much  time 

(107) 


60  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

might  be  lost  in  cleaning  all  the  courts  as  would  give  all  the  carts  a  half  or 
whole  day's  driving,  which  was  just  what  was  required  tf)  remove  the 
inconvenience  felt  when  the  field  was  manuring.  The  only  method  of 
preventing  the  recuirence  of  so  great  delay  in  carrying  out  manure  is  to  put 
down  the  litter  so  as  it  may  be  easily  lifted,  and  to  afford  as  much  assist- 
ance in  the  court  as  to  detain  the  horses  but  a  short  time,  and  rather  keep 
them  moviiifj  on  the  road  ;  for  though  their  walking  was  constant  in  a  shoit 
winter  day,  it  will  not  overcome  them  with  fatigue. 

(1597.) '  The  litter  should  he  laid  down  in  this  manner  in  the  large  couits 
I  and  K.  On  fixing  on  the  gate  of  the  court  through  which  the  loaded 
carts  should  pass  to  the  nearest  road  to  the  fields  requiring  the  manure  in 
the  ensuinn- .season,  and  after  covering  the  ground  of  the  court  evenly  with 
straw,  the  litter  should  be  laid  above  it  in  small  quantities  at  a  time,  begin- 
ning at  the  end  of  the  court  farthest  from  that  gate.  The  litter  should  be 
spread  with  the  slope  of  its  lower  part  toward  the  gate,  and  carried  gradu- 
ally forward  every  day  until  it  reaches  the  gate ;  and  every  kind  of  litter, 
whether  from  the  work-horse  stable,  the  stack-yard,  or  straw-bam,  should 
be  intermixed  and  treated  in  the  same  manner.  The  straw-ropes,  as  I 
mentioned  before,  should  be  cut  into  small  pieces  and  spread  about. 
Thus  layer  above  layer  is  laid,  until  they  form  a  mass  of  manureof  suffi- 
cient hight  to  be  carried  out  and  formed  into  duri^hills  in  the  fields. 

(1598.)  When  the  time  has  anived  for  emptying  the  carts,  the  process  is 
begvn  at  the  gate  through  which  the  loaded  carts  are  to  pass,  and,  on  lifting 
the  litter  it  will  come  up  in  sloping  layers,  ha^^ng  an  inclination  from  the 
ground  to  the  top  of  the  dung-heap,  not  in  entire  layers  of  the  whole  depth 
of  the  dung-heap,  but  in  successive  small,  detached  layers,  one  above  the 
other,  and  succeeding  one  after  the  other,  fiom  the  gate  to  the  farther  end 
of  the  court.  The  empty  cart  enters  the  court  by  the  other  gate,  and, 
without  turning,  takes  up  the  position  of  the  loaded  cart  l)efore  it,  which 
has  just  passed  through  the  gate  appointed  for  it.  When  there  is  only 
one  gate  to  a  court,  and  the  court  not  very  large,  and  a  large  lot  of  beasts 
in  it,  it  is  better  for  the  empty  cart  to  wait  on  the  outside  until  the  loaded 
one  has  gone  away.  When  the  court  is  large,  with  only  one  gate,  the 
empty  cart  should  go  in  and  turn  round  to  succeed  the  one  that  is  being 
filled.  On  dropping  work  at  mid-day,  it  will  save  time  at  starting  again 
after  dinner,  to  fill  the  first  cart  returning  empty  from  the  field,  that  has 
not  time  to  reach  it  again  loaded  and  return  before  dinner-time,  and  to 
allow  it  to  stand  loaded,  but  without  horses,  until  the  time  for  yoking, 
when  the  horses  are  put  into  it,  and  the  first  load  thus  started  for  the  field 
immediately  at  the  hour  of  yoking. 

(1599.)  On  clearing  a  court,  or  any  part  of  it,  it  should  be  cleared  to  the 
ground;  because  the  manure  made  from  a  dung-heap  that  has  been  simul- 
taneously formed,  will  be  more  uniform  in  its  texture  than  that  made 
from  a  heap  composed  of  new  dry  straw  on  the  top,  and  old  wet  straw  at 
the  bottom.  Besides,  it  is  much  better  for  the  future  comfort  of  the  cattle, 
that  the  court  receive  its  fresh  dry  littering  from  the  bottom,  than  if  the 
wet  bottoming  were  retained. 

(1600.)  Sometimes  cattle  get  injured  by  a  cart  or  horse  when  the  court 
is  emptying,  and,  to  avoid  this  risk,  it  is  not  a  bad  plan  to  confine  them 
under  the  shed  as  long  as  the  people  are  at  work  in  the  court.  The  mode 
of  confining  them  in  the  shed  I  have  already  alluded  to  in  (18). 

(1001.)  On  forming  a  dunghill  in  the  field,  some  art  is  requisite.  One 
of  a  breadth  of  15  feet,  and  of  four  or  five  times  that  length,  and  of  pro- 
portionate hight,  will  contain  as  much  manure  as  should  be  taken  from  one 
spot  in  manuring  a  field  quickly.     Suppose  that  15  feet  is  fixed  upon  for 

(108) 


DUNGHILLS  AND   LIQUID-MANURE   TANKS.  6] 


the  width,  the  first  carts  should  lay  their  loads  down  at  the  nearest  end  of 
the  future  dunghill,  in  a  row  across  the  whole  width,  and  these  loads 
should  not  be  spread  thin.  Thus  load  after  load  is  laid  down  in  succession 
upon  the  ground  maintaining  the  fixed  breadth,  and  passing  over  the  loads 
previously  laid  down.  After  the  lottom  of  the  dunghill  has  thus  been 
formed  of  the  desired  breadth  and  length,  the  farther  end  is  then  made  up 
with  layer  after  layer,  until  a  gradual  slope  is  formed  fiom  its  nearest  to 
its  farthest  extremity.  This  is  done  vnx\\  a  view  to  effecting  two  purposes, 
one  to  afford  an  easy  slope  for  the  loaded  carts  to  ascend,  the  other  to 
give  ease  of  draught,' for  horses  and  carts  to  move  along  the  dunghill  m  all 
parts,  in  order  to  compress  it  firmly.  Every  cart-load  laid  down  above  the 
bottom  layer  is  spread  around,  in  order  to  mix  the  different  kinds  of  dung 
together,  and  to  give  a  uniform  texture  to  the  manure.  To  effect  this  pur- 
po^se  the  better,  a  field-worker  should  be  employed  to  spread  the  loads  on 
the  dunghill,  as  they  are  laid  down.  When  the  farther  end  has  reached 
the  hight  the  dunghill  is  thought  will  contain  of  the  desired  quantity  of 
manure,  that  higlit  is  brought  forward  toward  the  nearest  end ;  but  the 
center  of  the  dunghill  will  necessarily  have  the  greatest  elevation,  because 
a  slope  at  both  ends  is  required  to  allow  the  carts  to  surmount  the  dung- 
hill and  then  to  come  off  it.  It  is  an  essential  point  to  have  the  whole 
dunghill  equally  compressed,  with  the  view  of  making  the  manure  of  simi- 
lar quahty  throughout.  After  the  carting  is  over,  the  scattered  portions 
of  dung  around  the  dunghill  should  be  thrown  upon  the  top,  and  the  top 
itself  leveled  along  and  across  its  surface. 

(1602.)  The  object  aimed  at  hy  the  covipressim  of  the  dunghill  by  the 
loaded  carts,  is  to  prevent  immediate  fermentation.  So  long  as  the  tem- 
perature continues  at  its  average  degree  in  winter  of  45°,  there  is  little 
chance  of  much  action  in  the  interior  of  a  dunghill;  but  tow^ard  spring, 
when  the  temperature  increases,  it  may  be  expected  to  show  symptoms  of 
action,  but  even  then  a  temperature  of  65<^  is  required  to  begin  the  second 
stage  of  fermentation.  Some  advocate  the  covering  of  dunghills  in  the 
field  with  a  thick  layer  of  earth,  with  the  view  to  exclude  the  air  and  check 
fermentation ;  but  such  an  expedient  is  unnecessary  in  the  coldest  months 
of  winter,  though  it  would  be  of  service  in  spring  to  a  dunghill  which  is 
not  to  be  turned  until  the  season  is  still  farther  advanced.  Others  lay  up 
the  dunghill  in  a  loose  manner  at  once  in  graipfulls  from  each  cart-load, 
giving  the  dung  in  fact  a  turning,  and  then  cover  it  with  earth,  and  trim 
rouncfthe  sides  with  the  spade.  This  form  of  dunghill  looks  neat,  and,  if 
the  manure  is  to  be  used  early,  it  is  a  good  plan  for  obtaining  it  partially 
fermented  for  an  early  crop,  such  as  beans  ;  but  for  dung 
that  is  to  be  used  at  an  advanced  period  of  the  season,  when  ^'"-  "^''^• 

the  temperature  will  have  gradually  increased  to  a  consid- 
erable hight  during  the  day,  the  process  is  too  promotive  of 
rapid  fermentation. 

(1603.)  The  litter  in  the  courts  of  the  hammels,  and  es- 
pecially in  those  of  the  hammels  M,  will  be  found  much 
more  compressed  than  that  in  the  large  courts  I  and  K,  in 
consequence  of  heavy  cattle  being  obliged  to  move  over  it 
frequently  within  a  limited  space.  It  is  sometimes  so  com- 
pressed as  almost  to  resist  the  entrance  of  the  graip.  To 
enable  it  to  be  easily  lifted,  it  should  be  cut  in  parallel  por- 
tions with  an  implement  called  the  dung-spade,  fig.  308.  du.ng-spade. 
This  consists  of  a  heart-shaped  blade  of  steel  thinned  to  a 
sharp  edge  along  both  sides  ;  and  its  helve  %vith  a  cross-head  is  fastened 
with  nails  in  a  split  socket.     The  hight   of  the   spade  is  3  feet,  length  of 

(109) 


62  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER.^ 

cross-head  18  inches,  length  of  helve  18  inches,  length  of  blade  16  inches, 
and  breadth  10  inches.  It  is  kept  sharp  with  a  scythe-stone.  In  using 
this  si)ade,  it  is  lifted  up  with  both  hands  by  the  cross-head,  and  its  point 
thrust  with  force  into  the  dung-heap,  and  it  is  then  used  hke  a  common 
spade  while  rutting  tuif,  with  the  foot  upon  the  upper  part  of  the  blade. 
This  part,  it  will  be  observed,  is  rounded  and  not  left  square  with  ears 
like  a  common  spade,  because  when  this  spade  is  used  to  cut  a  dung-heap 
of  greater  depth  than  the  length  of  its  blade,  the  round  edge  is  not  so  apt 
to  catch  the  litter  as  square  ears,  on  the  insti-ument  being  pulled  up.  A 
man's  strength  is  required  to  use  this  spade  effectively,  a  woman's  arms 
being  too  weak  for  the  purpose.  Another  fonn  of  instrument  for  cutting 
dung  is  like  the  common  hay-knife,  and  is  used  in  like  same  manner,  and 
which  will  be  figured  afterward ;  but  it  is  not  so  efficient  as  this  instni- 
ment,  as  will  be  shown  when  we  come  to  speak  of  the  cutting  of  hay  in 
spring. 

(1604.)  It  is  a  practice  of  some  farmers  to  keep  the  dung  from  the  cow- 
byres  in  a  loose  state  in  the  court.  A  space  in  the  center  of  a  court  is 
inclosed  with  a  stout  wall  3  or  4  feet  in  hight,  into  which  the  dung  is 
wheeled  as  it  comes  from  the  byre,  and  the  dung-heap  is  accumulated  to 
the  hight  of  the  wall,  or  even  more,  by  means  of  a  plank  as  a  roadway  for 
the  barrow  to  ascend.  The  dung  managed  in  this  way  never  requires 
turning,  and  soon  becomes  in  a  state  fit  for  use  for  potatoes  or  turnips. 
This  plan  saves  the  trouble  of  turning  the  dung,  but  this  saving  is  not  un- 
attended with  a  disadvantage,  for  the  dung  must  be  led  direct  from  the 
court  to  the  field  at  a  season  when  labor  is  precious,  and  when  the  field  to 
be  manured  is  far  off,  the  extra  time  spent  in  leading  out  the  manure  to  it 
may  more  than  counterbalance  any  saving  in  the  cost  of  turning.  This 
dung,  might,  it  is  true,  always  be  resei"\ed  for  the  nearest  field,  but  even 
the  nearest  may  be  at  a  considerable  distance. 

(1605.)  Of  late  years  the  method  of  carting  out  a  dunghill  as  described 
in  (1601)  has  been  objected  to,  because  it  is  alleged  that  many  of  the  gases 
useful  to  vegetation  are  thereby  dissipated.  I  do  not  see  the  strength  of 
this  objection  in  the  winter  season,  when  certainly  no  decoviposing  process 
can  naturally  onginate  or  proceed.  The  water  contained  in  the  dunghill, 
it  is  true,  may  begin  to  evaporate  at  a  very  low  temperature,  even  below 
50"^,  but  what  harm  can  accrue  from  this  1  But  as  the  fact  is,  that  fer- 
mented dung  must  be  prepared  for  some  species  of  crops,  of  what  avail 
would  means  to  prevent  fermentation  be  at  a  period  not  earlier  than  would 
be  required  to  begin  to  ferment  the  manure  so  as  it  may  be  sufficiently  so 
when  applied  ?  To  obviate  waste  arising  from  fermentation,  it  has  been 
theoretically  suggested  to  make  dunghills  under  sheds  instead  of  in  the 
open  air :  but  how  the  mere  screening  afforded  by  a  shed  should  prevent 
feiTnentation,  though  it  may  ward  off  rain,  and  keep  the  straw  drier,  and 
thereby  retard  fermentation,  I  cannot  imagine.  If  the  mode  is  proposed 
solely  with  the  view  to  keep  the  litter  dry,  its  fermentation  will  no  doubt 
be  retarded,  but  dry  litter  will  never  make  good  manure,  as  the  usual  state 
of  litter  under  sheds  can  testify,  which  is  in  a  state  approaching  to  being 
fire-fanged,  as  it  is  termed,  that  is,  in  a  smouldering,  heated  state.  Until 
a  better  mode  of  making  dunghills  in  the  fields  shall  prove  the  present  one 
erroneous,  we  must  continue  to  follow  it,  encouraged  by  the  success  which 
has  hitherto  attended  it. 

(1606.)  An  ingenious  suggestion  has  been  made  by  Mr.  Kirk,  Preston 
Mains,  East-Lothian,  to  check  the  spread  of  the  seeds  of  weeds  among  manure. 
His  suggestion  is  founded  on  the  general  law  of  the  growth  of  plants,  that 
certain  classes  of  soils  affect  certain  classes  of  plants.     The  suggestion  is 

(110) 


DUNGHILLS   AND   LIQUID-MANURE  TANKS.  63 

to  put  the  manure  of  the  straw  obtained  from  one  kind  of  soil  on  another 
kind  of  soil.  Thus,  the  straw  obtained  from  clay  soil,  that  is,  wheat  land, 
should  be  made  into  manure  and  applied  to  soil  of  light  quality,  that  is.  tur- 
nip soil ;  and  as,  according  to  this  law,  natural  plants,  called  by  farmers 
weeds,  which  throve  upon  the  clay  soil,  would  not  do  so  upon  the  light,  it  ap- 
pears to  be  within  the  power  of  the  farmer  to  prevent,  or  at  least  to  check, 
the  propagation"of  weeds.  Putting  this  suggestion  into  practice  would  be  at- 
tended with  some  difficulty,  for  although  Mr.  Kirk  seems  to  think  it  easy  "  to 
make  all  the  straw  grown  on  one  kind  of  soil  into  manure  by  itself,"  and 
which,  he  conceives,  "  might  be  accomplished  with  very  little  additional 
trouble  to  the  farmer,  where  several  hammels  are  employed  in  the  feeding  of 
cattle,"*  yet  in  large  courts  it  would  be  almost  impracticable  to  prevent  the 
mixture  of  straw  of  one  stack  off  clay  land  with  that  of  the  succeeding  one 
perhaps  off  light  land  ;  and  even  in  the  small  courts  of  hammels  it  would  not 
be  easy  to  devise  a  plan  by  which  a  stack  of  straw  off  clay  land  should  be 
used  in  them,  while  straw  from  light  was  in  use  for  litter  in  other  courts  ; 
and  besides,  the  best  fodder  being  obtained  off  light  land,  the  cattle  while 
using  it  could  not  be  littered  with  straw  off  clay  land,  without  running  the 
risk  of  destroying  the  object  in  \'iew.  The  suggestion,  however,  being 
founded  on  correct  theory,  might  be  subjected  to  experiment,  which  alone 
can  ascertain  its  practicability. 

(1607.)  Immediately  after  a  rainy  day,  when  the  land  is  in  such  a  state 
of  wetness  as  to  prevent  any  work  upon  it,  and  the  horses  have  nothing 
particular  to  do  upon  the  road,  two  or  three  of  the  men  should  each  take 
a  mud-hoe  or  harle,  such  as  in  fig.  309,  and  rake  the  loose  straws  and  liquid 

Fig.  309. 


THK  MUD-HOE  OR  HARLE. 


mud  on  all  the  roads  around  the  steading  to  the  lowest  side  of  the  roads, 
and  as  much  as  possible  out  of  the  way  of  carts  and  people  passing  along  : 
while  the  rest  should  take  graips,  fig.  257,  and  shovels,  figs.  149  a°nd  176, 
and  form  the  raked  matter  into  heaps,  to  be  led  away  when  it  will  bear 
lifting  to  the  compost  heap  or  field,  as  may  best  suit  the  purpose  at  the 
time.  Where  there  is  plenty  of  straw,  as  on  carse-farms,  some  farmers 
put  it  upon  the  roads  around  the  steading,  to  be  trampled  do^vn  and  be- 
come wetted  with  rain,  and  then  lead  it  away  to  the  dunghill  in  the  field. 
The  object  aimed  at  in  so  far  as  wetting  the  straw  is  attained,  but  such  a 
littering  makes  walking  upon  the  roads  very  damp  and  plashy.  The  best 
state  for  roads  near  steadings  in  winter  is  to  have  their  surface  Jiard  and 
s7nooth,  and  with  such  an  inclination  as  to  cause  the  water  to  run  easily 
away  into  some  ditch  hard  by.  A  scraping  now  and  then  with  the  mud'- 
hoe  will  make  such  a  road  dry  and  comfortable. 

(1608.)  I  must  now  say  a  few  words  on  tanks,  liquid  manure,  and  com- 
post heaps.  In  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.,  may  be  seen  the  liquid-mamire  tank  k', 
gieat  in  length  and  in  breadth,  inside  narrow,  and  its  depth  under  the 
soles  of  the  liquid-manure  drains  should  not  exceed  4  feet,  for  the  reasons 
given  below,  its  length  being  only  extended  to  increase  its  capacity.     The 

•  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  viii. 
(Ill) 


G4  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

drains  are  marked  by  dotted  lines  from  the  tank  toward  x,  in  all  directions, 
preserving  tliem  straight  as  practicable.  Drains  in  straight  lines,  for  a 
sluggish  liquid,  present  fewer  obstructions  in  their  course  than  curved  or 
angular  ones.  The  form  and  dimensions  of  these  drains  may  be  seen  in 
fig.  26,  and  (75  2d).  At  x,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.,  is  an  opening  over  the  druins 
to  allow  the  liquid  manure  to  descend  into  them,  and  every  such  opening 
is  protected  by  a  grating  such  as  is  figured  and  described  in  fig.  25  juid 
(75  1st).  The  liquid  manure  percolates  through  the  grating,  passes  along 
the  drains,  and  finds  its  way  into  the  tank,  out  of  which  it  is  pumped  with 
a  cast-iron  pump  (76)  into  a  liquid-manure  cart,  described  below  in  fig. 
310,  in  which  it  is  carried  to  the  field  and  distributed  over  its  surface. 

(1609.)  Tanks  need  not  be  built  on  every  species  of  farm.  On  carsc  farms, 
where  there  is  much  straw  and  little  green  food,  there  can  be  no  liquid 
manure  ;  and  on  pastoral  farms  the  stock  confined  in  winter  in  the  stead- 
ing are  too  limited  in  number  to  aiford  much  of  that  material.  On  dairy- 
farms,  on  the  other  hand,  where  many  cows  are  maintained  and  much 
green  food  consumed  by  them  in  byres,  tanks  might  be  constructed  with 
advantage  to  the  grass  land.  The  practice  of  the  farmers  of  Flanders 
might  be  usefully  followed  on  such  faiTns  by  having  a  small  tank  constructed 
under  ground  in  connection  with  every  byre,  and  the  contents  of  which 
might  be  enriched  with  additions  of  rape-cake  and  other  valuable  ingre- 
dients. The  enriched  contents,  employed  as  a  top-dressing  on  pasture 
and  forage  land,  appropriated  to  the  support  of  the  cows,  might  increase 
their  produce  very  considerably.  In  collecting  liquid  manure  on  farms  of 
inixed  husbandry,  if  the  steading  is  properly  furnished  with  conveniences 
and  the  stock  well  supplied  with  litter,  I  do  not  see  much  can  be  done.  I 
had  a  tank  of  12  feet  in  diameter  and  4  feet  deep,  connected  with  well- 
planned  courts  by  neatly-built  drains  provided  with  good  gratings  ;  and,  at 
the  same  time,  I  had  the  courts  defended  from  being  deluged  with  rain- 
water by  capacious  rain-water  spouts,  and  care  taken  that  the  cattle  were 
always  provided  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  litter ;  having  all  these— 
which  every  well-constructed  and  well-conducted  steading  should  never 
want — I  can  say  that  the  tank  was  not  filled  in  the  course  of  the  season 
above  three  times,  a  quantity  not  worth  while  pi'oviding  a  liquid-manure  cart 
to  take  it  to  the  field  ;  and  even  this  small  quantity  was  solely  ascribable  to 
heavy  rains  and  melting  snows,  for  a  few  days,  falling  directly  into  the 
courts,  and  causing  a  surplus  of  water  which  was  readily  conveyed  into 
the  tank  by  the  drains.  The  usual  supply  of  the  liquid  manure  came 
merely  in  a  few  drops  from  the  sole  of  the  drain  into  which  all  the  other 
drains  immerged.  The  sole  was  only  4  feet  above  the  bottom,  and,  ex- 
cept after  rain  or  snow,  the  liquid  manure  never  reached  that  hight.  I 
conceive  that  a  small  tank  might  be  usefully  constructed  by  a  cotter  pos- 
sessing a  small  piece  of  ground,  or  large  garden,  and  a  cow,  provided  the 
cow  were  fed  within  doors  in  all  seasons  with  green  and  soft  food,  as  an 
excellent  means  of  collecting  manure  that  would  otherwise  be  lost.  Mr, 
Milburn,  Thorpefield,  Thirsk,  mentions  "  an  instance  of  a  small  receptacle 
of  this  kind,  where  the  owner  has  but  one  pig  ;  he  manages,  however,  by 
its  aid  in  his  garden  to  grow  astonishing  crops,  and  his  garden  produce  is 
both  earlier  and  superior  to  most  of  his  neighbors."  There  is  no  ques- 
tion that  much  may  be  done  in  this  way  at  farm-houses,  hinds'  houses, 
and  villages,  to  collect  matter,  both  solid  and  liquid,  that  would  make 
valuable  manure.  A  necessary  might  easily  be  constructed  in  connection 
with  the  liquid-manure  tank  at  a  steading  to  receive  the  supply. 

(1610.)  Tanks  need  not  he  expensively  constructed.  Mr.  Milbuni  gives 
this  statement  as  the  expense  of  constnicting  a  tank  dug  out  of  the  ground 

(112) 


DUNGHILLS    AND   LIQUID-MANURE   TANKS.  65 

131  feet  in  length,  6i  feet  in  width,  and  6  feet  deep,  inside  measure,  with 
brick  in  length  and  mortar,  and  plastered  with  Roman  cement  : 

"Length  within 13  feet  6  inches. 

Width 6    ..6     .. 

Depth 6    ..0     ..     =191  cubic  yards. 

Cutting  31  cubic  yards  at  3d.  per  yard £0     7     9 

Walling,  including  bricks  in  length,  and  mortar  around  them,  31  cubic  yards, 

at  4s.  per  yard 6     8    0 

Plastering  and  cement 0  16     0 

Covering  and  flags 2  15     0 

Total 1:10     6     9" 

•'  A  tank,"  continues  Mr.  Milburn,  "  might  be  made  under  a  shed,  and  com- 
posed of  clay,  and  covered  with  slabs  or  boarding,  or  any  refuse  boardino-. 
The  expense  of  such  a  receptacle  would  be  somewhere  as  under,  dimen- 
sions the  same  as  in  the  preceding  case,  viz  : 

"  Cutting  31  cubic  yards  at  3d.  per  yard ^0     7  9 

Clay  and  carting 0  14  0 

Board  and  covering 0     5  0 

Total jci     6  9" 

A  tank  of  this  nature,  Mr.  Milbum  suspects,  would  be  subject  to  suffer  in 
frosty  and  in  very  dry  weather,  as  well  as  be  liable  to  be  perforated  by 
worms.  The  frost  and  drouth  are  serious  objections  to  this  particular  con- 
struction of  tank  ;  but  the  worms  might  be  prevented  perforating  the  clay, 
were  a  little  quicklime  mixed  with  it  ;*  but  the  true  principles  on  which 
all  tanks  should  be  constructed  are  stated  below. 

(1611.)  Winter  is  considered  a  favorable  period  for  the  application  of 
liquid  manure,  both   because  it  is  then  most  abundant,  and  because  the 
ground  is  in  that  loose  and  moistened  state  which  readily  receives  and  al- 
lows the  liquid  to  incorporate  with  it.     Any  evaporation  at  that  season  is 
very  limited,  and  is  solely  confined   to  the  water  contained  in  this  liquid, 
and,  does  not  affect  its  more   solid  parts.     Liquid  manure  may  be  applied 
either  to  grass  or  to  bare  soil,  but  is  pi-eferred  for  the  former.     It  is  dis- 
tributed over  its  surface  in  the   manner  described  under  fig.  310,  and  the 
quantity  required  is  from   800  to  1,200  gallons  the  imperial  acre.     Its  ef- 
fects are  sensibly  felt  both  on  old  pasture,  new  grass,  and  on  meadow ;  but 
where  the  quantity  of  the  liquid  is  small,  I  would  prefer  applying  it  to  the 
small  paddocks,  which  are  to  be  found  on  most  farms,  and  which  are  usu- 
ally in  pasture  and  appropriated  as  a  hospital,  breeding-gi-ound,  or  a  place 
of  safety  for  young  stock.     The  results  of  the  appHcation  of  liquid  ma- 
nure are  best  appreciated  in  summer,  in  which  season  we  will  revert  to 
the  subject. 
_  (1612.)   The  space  of  ground  adjoining  the  liquid-manure  tank  is  a  good 
site  for  the  formation  oi  composts  of  various  kinds.     Winter  is  not  a  favor- 
able season  for  making  composts,  fermentation  being  then  in  a  dormant 
state.     I  may  state  here,  however,  in   general  terms,  that  the  carriage  of 
mould,  as  the  principal  ingredient  of  a  compost,  is  a  laborious  piece  of 
work.     Such  a  compost  is  best  made  on  the  spot  where  the  soil  is  found ; 
but  when  the  foundation  of  a  new  building  of  any  kind  affords  mould 
which  would  be  removed   at    any  rate,  it  should  be  used  in  compost,  and 
will  well  repay  the  trouble  of  removal.     Other  materials  than  mould  may, 
and  mdeed  must,  be  carried,  to  form  bases  for  composts,  such  as  saw-dust, 
spent  tanners'-bark,  boggy  turfing  that  had  been  cast  in  summer  and  left 
to  dry.     These  may  be  mixed  with  lime,  or  other  fermentable  substances, 
or  beneficially  watered  with  Hquid  manure.     The  haulm  of  potatoes,  couch- 

*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xiv. 
(113) 3 


66  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

grass  gathered  from  the  fallow-ground  in  summer,  dried  leaves,  and  other 
vegetable  refuse,  form  valuable  and  substantial  intjredionis  Ibr  composts, 
and  when  placed  beside  the  tank  may  be  enriched  with  li(|uid  manure. 

(1613.)  On  laying  down  liaulms  of  potatoes  or  quicken  for  coraj)ost,  it  is 
usual  to  throw  down  the  loads  without  the  least  regard  to  order,  because 
the  excuse  is,  that  when  the  potato  crop  is  taken  up,  every  hand  is  too 
busily  employed  to  do  other  things  ;  and  in  summer,  every  hand  is  also 
put  into  requisition  to  gather  weeds  from  fallow-giound.  In  as  far  as  the 
potato  crop  is  taken  up  and  the  weeds  gathered  in  a  proper  manner,  there 
can  be  no  objection  ;  but  these  are  no  reasons  why  the  refuse  created  by 
these  operations  should  be  neglected  and  cause  future  labor  and  expense. 
The  usual  practice  is  to  throw  down  the  haulms  and  quickens  in  haste, 
and  leave  them  in  unequal  masses  to  produce  unequal  decomposition.  In- 
stead of  this,  a  field-laborer  should  be  stationed  at  the  compost-stance  to 
throw  them  up  with  a  graip  into  a  heap  of  regular  shape,  when  the  mate- 
rials will  not  only  occupy  the  least  space  of  ground,  but  be  in  the  best 
state  to  receive  any  additions  of  liquid  or  solid  matter,  and  when  the  most 
perishable  portions  of  the  materials  are  covered  with  the  more  durable, 
they  are  placed  in  the  best  state  to  preserve  their  properties.  The  neglect 
I  complain  of,  of  apparently  unimportant  materials,  arises  from  this  cause. 
There  is  too  frequently  a  great  tendency  in  farmers  and  stewards,  when 
conducting  labor  in  fields,  to  do  what  they  consider  the  least  important 
part  of  the  work  in  a  hasty  and  unthinking  manner,  evidently  forgetting 
that  correction  of  hasty  work  always  creates  afterward  more  labor  than 
the  part  of  the  work  for  which  it  was  neglected  is  probably  worth.  Many 
instances  might  be  given  of  this  sort  of  tu-o-/ia?>(Icd  work,  as  it  is  termed, 
that  is,  work  which  has  to  be  done  over  again ;  but  I  shall  confine  myself 
to  the  case  before  us.  For  example,  were  a  field-worker  or  two  placed  at 
the  spot  where  the  haulms  of  potatoes  are  carried  to  form  a  future  com- 
post-heap, they  could  form  it  according  to  previous  instructions  from  the 
cart-loads  as  they  were  thrown  down  ;  and  in  this  Avay,  when  the  carriage 
of  the  refuse  was  finished,  so  would  also  be  the  nucleus  of  the  future  com- 
post-heap. But  if  the  same  materials  are  laid  down  at  random  in  a  scat- 
tered and  confused  manner  by  plowmen  anxious  to  get  quit  of  their  loads, 
considerably  more  labor  will  be  required  to  place  them  in  the  same  form 
of  heap ;  and  to  do  it  equally  well,  more  hands  and  longer  time  will  be  re- 
quired ;  because  the  materials  have  not  only  to  be  separated  from  a  con- 
fused and  compressed  state,  but  to  be  collected  together  from  a  distance 
into  the  confined  space  upon  which  the  heap  is  desii'ed  to  be  formed. 
Thus,  1  woman,  favorably  placed,  will  throw  up  with  a  light  gi'aip  as  much 
loose  material,  laid  down  before  her  in  a  small  quantity  at  a  time,  as  3  or 
4  women  would  place  the  same  quantity  and  in  the  same  position  of  ma- 
terials thrown  down  and  scattered  as  I  have  described  them. 

(1614.)  Winter  is  the  season  which  supplies  the  greatest  quantity  of  «ro- 
wecd  for  manvre.  On  farms  adjoining  the  sea-coast,  this  manure  is  care- 
fully collected  whenever  it  is  thrown  upon  the  shore  after  a  storm,  or  by  a 
heavy  ground-swell  of  the  sea.  Sea-weed  is  very  succulent,  and  feels  mu- 
cilaginous, and  when,  exposed  to  the  summer's  sun,  is  easily  dried  to  ^  its 
bulk,  so  little  solid  matter  is  contained  in  it.  There  are  4  species  very 
common  on  our  coast,  and  these  are  the  haminaria  saccJiarha,  consisting 
of  a  single  linear  elliptic  leaf,  without  any  mid-rib  :  the  Lamiimria  disj^itata, 
or  common  tangle,  a  cylindrical  stem,  sometimes  as  thick  as  a  walking- 
stick,  and  about  2  feet  long:  the  Fvcus  ?r.9f/c?//o.v?/5,  consisting  of  a  double 
stem  with  the  edges  of  the  leaf  entire,  and  in  the  disk  of  which,  near  the 
edges,  are  immersed  a  number  of  aii--bladders — or  crackers,  as  they  are 

(114) 


DUNGHILLS  AND  LIQUID-MANURE   TANKS.  67 

vulgarly  called — about  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut,  and  the  use  of  which  seems 
to  be  to  cause  the  leaf  to  float  in  water :  and  the  Halidrys  siliquosa,  con- 
sisting of  a  waved  coriaceous  stalk  about  4  feet  long,  greatly  branched, 
dark  olive  when  fresh,  but  quite  black  when  dry  ;  is  also  furnished  with 
air-bladders  or  crackers. 

(1615.)  The  constitution  of  these  plants  is  very  complicated,  affording 
no  fewer  that  21  ingredients.  The  first  species,  Laminaria  saccharina, 
afforded  the  following  substances  to  the  analysis  of  Gaultier  de  Claubry 
in  1815: 

A  saccharine  matter — manna.  Hyposulphite  of  soda. 

Mucilage,  in  considerable  quantity  Carbonate  of  potash. 

Vegetable  albumen.  Carbonate  of  soda. 

Green  coloring  matter.  Hydriodate  of  potash. 

Oxalate  of  potash.  Silica. 

Malate  of  potash.  Subphosphate  of  lime. 

Sulphate  of  potash.  Subphosphate  of  magnesia. 

Sulphate  of  magnesia.  Oxide  of  iron,  probably  united  with  phos- 

Muriate  of  potash.  phoric  acid. 

Muriate  of  soda.  Oxalate  of  lime. 

Muriate  of  magnesia. 

The  composition  of  the  other  species,  together  with  the  Fucus  serratus — • 
which  is  like  the  F.  vesciculosus,  but  without  air-bladders — and  the  cliorda 
Mum,  or  thread  tangle,  is  very  similar  to  the  one  here  given.* 

(1616.)  Sea-weed  is  applied  in  di  fresh  state  to  grass  land  that  is  intended 
to  be  plowed  up  for  a  crop,  and  it  is  laid  on  as  thick  as  to  cover  the  ground. 
Being  applied  in  winter  it  does  not  soon  become  dry,  and  the  rain  and 
snow  that  may  happen  to  fall  upon  it  carries  the  saline  ingredients  with 
which  it  is  accompanied  into  the  ground,  or  among  the  roots  of  the  grass. 
The  large  quantity  of  mucilage  which  sea-weed  contains,  and  the  numer- 
ous salts  which  it  affords,  may  be  the  causes  of  its  utility  as  a  top-dressing 
and  as  an  active  manure.  It  has  been  recommended  to  dry  sea-weed  for 
the  sake  of  being  easily  carried  into  the  interior  of  the  country ;  but  this 
trouble  seems  unnecessary,  because  winter,  when  it  is  most  abundant,  is 
an  unfavorable  season  to  dry  it,  and  because  there  is  no  more  cast  ashore 
than  can  easily  be  used  by  the  farms  adjoining  the  coast.  On  combustion 
in  a  certain  way,  sea-weed  yields  an  impure  alkaline  substance  called  lielp, 
which  is  used  as  a  mannre.  So  long  as  this  substance  was  used  in  the 
arts,  it  was  too  expensive  for  a  manure ;  but  its  manufacture  was  stopped 
some  years  ago  by  the  introduction  of  foreign  barilla ;  and  its  value  as  a 
manure  is  not  so  well  known  as  to  induce  the  resumption  of  that  manufac- 
ture. Many  thousands  of  persons  were  employed  at  one  time  on  the 
shores  of  the  main  land  and  islands  of  Scotland,  in  the  manufacture  of 
kelp,  who  are  now  deprived  of  that  employment.  The  same  substance  is 
manufactured  on  the  coast  of  Normandy,  and  sold  by  the  name  of  varcc. 
Sea-weed,  when  burned  in  the  open  air,  leaves  ashes,  which  afford  most 
of  the  inorganic  substances  mentioned  in  the  above  analysis. 

(1617.)  [Tlie  Liquid-manure  Cart,  for  the  economical  distribution  of  this  valuable  manure,  the 
natural  production  of  the  farmstead,  is  now  taking  its  due  place  among  the  machinery  of  the  farm. 
The  water-carl  has  been  very  long  in  use  for  the  conveyance  of  water,  when  the  supply  of  that  ne- 
cessary element  for  household  use  has  been  distant  from  the  steading  ;  and  the  liquid-manure  cart  is 
its  offspring,  modified  by  certain  additions  to  adapt  it  to  this  change  of  purpose.  The  water-cart  is 
usually  the  naked  bed-frame  of  a  cart,  mounted  on  wheels,  and  surmounted  with  a  cask  of  a  capacity 
suited  to  the  demands  of  the  establishment.  The  cask  is  furnished  with  a  funnel  inserted  in  or  at- 
tached immediately  over  the  bung-hole  ;  and  it  it  is  likewise  furnished  with  a  spigot  or  with  a  stop- 
cock, in.serted  into  that  end  of  the  cask  which  hangs  over  the  back  of  the  cart.  When  the  water 
cart  has  been  drawn  to  the  fountain  or  the  pond  from  which  water  is  to  be  conveyed,  it  is  fille<l 
either  bv  moans  of  a  common  pump,  raised  so  high  as  to  deliver  the  water  which  it  lifts  into  the 
funnel  of  the  cask,  or  the  water  is  lifted  with  the  hand  by  means  of  a  xcoop,  having  a  helve  of  suf- 
ficient length  to  enable  the  workman  to  reach  the  pond  on  the  one  hand  and  the  funnel  on  the 
other.   The  scoop  best  adapted  to  this  purpose  is  a  small  wooden  pitcher,  about  8  inches  in  depth 

♦  Thomson's  Organic  Chemistry,  Ve^etabhs. 
(115) 


68 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


and  10  inches  in  diameter,  the  helve  passing  through  its  sides  in  an  oblique  direction,  and  a  little 
above  its  renter  of  pravity. 

(leit".)  The  liqaiJ-manare  cart,  as  most  commonly  used,  differs  very  little  from  the  above,  ex 
cept  in  its  being  provided  with  the  distributing  apparatus  in  place  of  the  spigot ;  but  in  laree  estab- 
lisnmcnls  the  casK  is  superseded  bj-  a  covered  rrc/anmilar  cixfern  or  tank,  which  takes  the  place 
of  a  common  cart-body.  The  traterim  of  public  streets  and  hiehways  has  induced  the  necessity 
of  the  rectantrular  tank  for  the  di.stribution  of  water  over  the  surface  of  roads,  because  of  the  ease 
with  which,  by  this  con.struction.  a  greater  quantity  of  water  can  be  put  upon  one  pair  of  wheels. 
Here  the  quantity  of  water  to  a  given  surface  is  much  greater  than  in  the  case  of  a  liquid 
manure,  and  hence  the  propriety  of  a  capacious  tank  for  the  distribution  of  traier  on  streets,  while 
the  same  principle,  (economy  in  the  expense)  leads  to  the  propriety  of  employing  a  smaller  and 
less  expensive  vcs.<iel  for  the  distribution  of  liquid  manure,  which  will  not  in  general  be  super- 
abundant For  a  Uquidmannre  cart,  a  cask  of  120  or  140  gallons  contents  will  be  found  more 
economical  in  first  cost  than  a  rectangular  tank,  and  as  these  machines  can  be  only  occasionally 
in  operation,  they  will,  if  not  very  carefully  attended  to,  become  leaky  while  standing  unoccupiea. 
In  this  respect  the  ca.-jk  will  have  a  manifest  advantage  over  the  tank,  for  the  tightening  of  a  cask 
is  an  operation  the  most  simple,  by  the  act  of  driving  up  the  hoops,  while,  in  the  case  of  the  tank 
becoming  leaky,  no  means  of  that  kind  can  be  resorted  to,  and  the  alternative  is,  either  soaking  it 
in  water  till  the  wood  has  imbibed  a.s  much  of  the  fluid  as  will  expand  its  substance  and  close  the 
leaks,  or  the  vessel  mast  be  tightened  by  some  more  expensive  process.  As  the  more  econcjmical  of 
the  two,  therefore,  in  point  of  expense,  1  have  chosen  the  cask-mounted  cart  for  the  illustration.  Fig. 
310  is  a  representation  in  perspective  of  this  cart,  of  the  simplest  and  most  convenient  construc- 
tion. For  the  more  easy  means  of  filling  the  cask,  it  is  suspended  between  the  shafts  of  the  cart, 
and  this  position  requires  the  bending  of  the  axle  to  nearly  a  semicircle.  The  cart  is  a  mere 
skeleton,  consisting  of  the  shafts  a  a.  which  for  this  purpose  may  be  made  of  red  pine,  their  length 
being  about  14  feet.  They  are  connected  by  a  fore  and  hind  bar,  placed  at  such  distance  as  will 
just  admit  the  length  of  the  cask,  while  the  width  between  the  shafts  is  suited  to  the  diam- 
eter of  it.  The  axle,  a"!  already  noticed,  is  bent  downward  to  nearly  a  simicircle,  to  receive  the 
cask,  and  its  length  will  of  course  be  greater  than  the  common  cart-axle ;  even  the  distance  l)e- 
tween  the  caddy-bolts,  in  a  straight  line,  will  be  usually  greater,  but  this  will  depend  on  the 


Fip.  310. 


THE    LIQUID-MANURE  CART. 

diameter  of  the  cask.  A  pair  of  common,  broad  cart-wheels,  b  b,  are  fitted  to  the  axle.  The  cask 
c  is  suspended  on  two  straps  of  hoop-iron,  2  inches  broad,  the  ends  of  which  are  bolted  to  the 
shafi.i.  and  the  same  bolts  pass  also  through  the  ends  of  two  lighter  straps,  which  pass  orer,  and 
secure  the  cask  firmly  in  its  place.  The  funnel  or  hopper  d  is  usually  fi.\ed  upon  the  top  of  the 
cask  over  the  bung-hole,  or  it  may  be  inserted  therein  by  means  of  an  attached  pipe.  The 
distributor  e  may  be  made  of  sheet-copper,  of  cast  iron  or  malleable  iron,  or  even  of  wood  :  the 
copper  will  be  found  the  most  durable,  and  it  should  be  at  least  1-20  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  The 
next  best  is  the  patent  malleable  iron  tube  ;  cast-iron,  though  sometimes  used,  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended; neither  is  wood  desirable,  from  its  liability  to  choke.  The  bore  of  the  distributor  .«hould 
be  not  less  than  2  inches,  nor  is  it  required  to  exceed  2}  inches,  the  length  from  7  to  ~\  feet,  and 
slichtly  bent  with  a  uniform  curvature,  which  last  property  causes  it  to  cover  a  wider  surface  of 
«nx)und  tlian  it  would  do  if  straitrht.  But  in  giving  the  distributor  its  curvature,  care  must  be 
taken  to  avoid  increasing  the  curvature  toward  the  ends,  as  is  sometimes  done,  to  the  prevention 
of  uniform  distribution  of  the  manure.  The  erkis  of  the  tube  must  be  closed  with  movable  covers, 
screwed  or  otherwi.se  fixed,  that  they  maybe  removed  at  pleasure,  for  the  purpose  of  sponging  out 
the  tube  when  it  happens  to  get  clogced  up  with  any  solid  matter.  A  line  of  perforations  is  made 
along  the  hinder  side  of  the  tube  for  the  di.ochargc  of  the  fluid  ;  these  should  beat  the  distance  of  1 
inch  apart,  ahd  their  opening  about  \  inch  diameter.  As  the  area  of  these  discharging  orifi-es 
cannot  be  altered  at  pleasure,  nor  their  amount  of  discharge  altered  for  any  given  time,  it  becomes 
(116) 


DUNGHILLS  AND  LIQUID-MANURE  TANKS. 


69 


Fig.  311. 


THE    APPARATUS    FOR    REGULATING    THE 
DISCHARGE   OF  LIQUID  -MANURE. 


necessan-,  in  distributing  any  given  quautitj-  per  acre,  to  regulate  tliat  quantity  by  increasing  or 
diminishing  the  rate  of  traveling  the  cart  over  tlie  ground.  The  distributor  is  attached  to  the  cask 
by  means  of  a  stem/of  the  same  materials  and  bore  as  the  main  tube,  and  it  enters  the  end  of  the 
cask  close  to  the  lower  chime.  A  stop-cock  is  frequently  put  upon  the  stem/  to  regulate  the  dis- 
charge, and  for  this  purpose  it  is  very  beneficial, 
serving  in  a  great  measure  to  regulate  the  quantity 
per  acre,  but  for  the  entire  setting  off  or  on  of  the  sup- 
pl}-,  the  stem  /'opens  into  a  small  chamber  inside 
the  cask,  which  chamber  is  closed  bj-  a  flap-valve 
heavily  loaded.  This  valve  when  closed  stops  the 
discharge,  and  when  lifted  the  fluid  has  a  free  pass- 
age to  the  distributor.  The  opening  of  the  valve  is 
effected  by  a  small  chain  attached  to  the  flap,  rising 
to  the  top  of  the  cask  at  g,  where  it  passes  over  a 
email  roller,  and  onward  to  the  fore-part  of  the  cart 
on  the  nigh  side,  where  it  hangs  at  hand  for  the 
carter  to  set  off  or  on  at  pleasure.  Fig.  311  is  a  sec- 
tion of  part  of  the  cask,  and  showing  the  chamber 
and  valve ;  /is  again  the  stem  of  the  distributor,  h  a 
stop-cock,  (  the  chamber,  and  k  the  valve,  which  is 
the  common  leather  flap  or  clack-valve  well  loaded 
with  lead,  c  c  is  part  of  the  cask,  /  the  chain  attached 
to  the  valve,  and  passing  over  the  roller  in.^ 

(1619.)  When  the  liquid-manure  cart  is  furnished 
with  a  tank,  the  latter  can,  with  equal  facility,  be 
placed  low  for  the  convenience  of  filling ;  thus  the 
axle  may  be  cracked,  as  in  the  Li%-erpool  dray-cart, 
the  tank  resting  on  the  cranked  part  of  the  axle  ;  or 
the  axle  may  remain  straight,  and  the  tank  appended 
below  the  axle.  Such  a  tank  may  be  conveniently 
built  to  contain  a  ton  of  the  liquid,  or  about  220  gal- 
lons; and  the  distributing  apparatus  is  the  same  as 

for  the  cask.  The  prices  of  these  carts  vary  considerably,  partly  from  coostruction.  and  partly  from 
locality.  Mr.  Crosskil,  of  Beverley,  £25  as  the  price  of  the  tank  cart.  In  Scotland  the  average 
price  may  be  stated  at  £18,  and  when  mounted  with  a  cask  £15 :  these  prices,  of  course,  including 
wheels  and  axle. 

(1620.)  The  cistern  for  collecting  liquid  manure  in  the  farmstead,  though  apparently  simple  in 
its  construction,  being  merely  a  covered  pond  or  a  well,  yet  serious  errors" are  frequently  commit- 
tee in  its  formation.  The  first  and  most  important  consideration  for  the  formation  of  the  cistern,  is 
the  effect  of  hydrostatic  pressure  :  inattention  to  this  has  caused  the  failure  of  many  such  cisterns. 
The  liquid  we  have  here  to  deal  with,  like  all  other  fluids,  acts  on  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the 
vessel  or  body  that  contains  it,  with  a  pressure  directly  in  proportion  to  the  depth  at  which  the 
fluid  stands,  without  reterence  to  either  length  or  breadth  ;  that  is  to  say,  suppose  a  cistern  whose 
bottom  is  12  inches  square,  and  its  depth  10  feet,  filled  with  water,  every  square  inch  in  the  bot- 
tom will  suffer  a  pressure  equal  to  the  hight  of  a  column  of  water  whose  base  is  one  inch  square 
and  10  feet,  or  120  inches,  in  hight.  The  weight  of  such  a  column  will  be  4i  lbs.  nearly,  and 
this  would  be  exerted  on  every  square  inch  on  the  bottom,  or  the  whole  pressure  on  the  bottom 
would  be  625  lbs.  the  weight  of  10  cubic  feet  of  water.  There  is  a  natural  law  that  governs  the 
pressure  of  fluids,  which  shows  us  that  they  press  equally  in  all  directions,  downward,  irorizontally, 
and  even  upward,  the  last  arising  from  the  general  statical  law,  that  "  action  and  reaction  arc  equal 
and  in  opposite  directions.''  It  follows,  from  these  hydrostatical  laws,  that  the  lowermost  portion 
of  each  side  of  our  supposed  cistern  will  suffer  a  pressure  from  the  water  equal  to  that  which 
acts  upon  the  bottom  :  hence,  takin?  the  lowermost  inch  in  the  hisht  of  the  sides  of  this  cistern,  it 
will  be  pressed  with  a  force  of  52^  lbs.  or  thereby,  or  4^  lbs.  on  the  square  inch,  and  each  of  the 
four  sides  will  suffer  the  same  pressure.  Suppose,  now,  that  the  cistern  is  elongated  in  one  direc- 
tion to  any  number  of  feet,  and  again  filled  to  the  depth  of  10  feet,  the  pressure  on  each  square 
foot  of  the  bottom  remains  the  same  as  before,  and  so  in  like  manner  does  it  remain  the  same  upon 
the  sides,  for  the  pressure  is  not  altered  in  any  direction,  although  the  proportion  of  the  cistern 
has  been  changed.  Keeping  this  in  view,  it  will  be  seen  that"  length  and  breadth  produce  no 
effect  on  the  pressures  that  a  fluid  exerts  against  the  vessel  or  body  that  retains  it,  and  that  in  cal- 
culating the  resistance  to  sustain  such  pressures,  depth  is  the  onlj' element  requiring  to  be  taken 
into  account.  It  is  also  to  be  kept  in  view  that  pressure  on  the  bottom  or  sides  is  directlv  as  the 
depth  :  thus,  if  our  supposed  cistern  were  reduced  to  5  feet  in  depth,  the  pressure  on  the"  bottom 
would  only  be  one-half,  or  2^  lbs.  on  each  square  iach.t 

['  As  few  persons  will  be  at  the  expense  of  a  cart  like  tliis,  we  recommend  the  plan  of  that 
used  at  Mr.  Wilkinson's  Agricultural  Institute  in  Dutchess  County,  which  is  found  to  "  work 
well."  Directions  for  making-  ?f.— Make  an  extra  portable  bottom  to  the  common  horse  or  ox 
cart,  of  IJ-inch  plank,  fastened  together  by  battings  on  the  under  side,  and  groove  the  upper  side 
longitudinally  with  J-inch  grooves  ^  inch  deep,  every  inch  and  a  half  over  the  entire  surface.  On 
this  set  a  hogshead  on  stocks,  and  tap  the  front  head,  and  the  liquid  will  spread  over  the  whole 
grooved  bottom,  and  by  having  the  back  end  of  the  cart  the  lowest,  the  liquid  will  be  equally 
distributed  aver  the  land.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.} 

[t  .Must  it  not  orcur  here  to  every  reader  that  (hcse  are  principles  which  ought  to  be  taught  at  all  our 
counti-j-  schools,  and  with  which  everv  farmer's  son  should  be  familiar  »  Suppose  a  dam  to  be  made,  and 
(117) 


70 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 


fl621.)  The  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  these  remarks  is  that  a  cistern  in  the  form  of  a  pit  or 
well  should  be  always  avoided,  unless  it  can  be  formed  in  a  natural  bed  of  impervious  clay. 
When  such  a  substratum  can  be  attained,  a  pit  may  be  adopted,  but  not  otherwise.  If  such 
has  been  found,  and  the  pit  dug  out,  it  should  be  lined  with  brick,  or  with  stone  built  in  mor- 
tar, the  bottom  being  first  lined  with  the  same  material.  When  the  building  approaches  to  the 
surface,  the  wall  can  gradually  be  reduced  in  diameter  to  a  small  compass,  leaving  only  an  opening 
of  2  to  3  feet  square,  which  is  covered  in  at  small  expense,  and  the  saving  in  this  last  item  is  the 
only  apparent  advantage  that  seems  to  attend  the  practice  of  pit-cisterns.  Deep  cisterns  are  liable 
to  another  inconvenience,  of  their  becoming  recipients  of  spring  or  of  drainage-water;  and  it  is 
sometimes  more  difficult  to  keep  such  water  out  than  to  keep  the  proper  liquid  in,  for  if  springs 
and  their  origin  lay  at  considerable  bights,  their  hydrostatic  pressure  may  be  so  great  as  to  render 
the  prevention  of  access  to  their  products  a  process  of  great  difficulty. 

(1622.)  A  cistern  of  moderate  depth,  not  exceeding  4  feet  below  the  outfall  of  the  drains,  may 
be  constructed  in  any  situation,  whether  in  gravel  or  in  clay,  and  its  length  can  be  extended  so  as 
as  to  attbrd  any  required  capacity  ;  the  breadth  being  restricted  to  that  for  which  materials  for 
covering  it  can  be  most  easily  obtained,  which  may  be  from  3  to  4  feet.  Whatever  be  the  stratum 
in  which  such  a  cisteni  is  to  be  formed,  (unless  it  be  perfectly  impervious  clay,)  it  should  be  pud- 
dled to  the  thickness  of  at  least  1  foot  with  the  best  clay  that  can  be  procured.  For  this  purpose 
the  earthy  matters  are  to  be  dug  out  to  a  deplli  of  IJ  feet  lower  than  the  intended  sole,  and  to  a 
width  of  four  feet  more  than  that  proposed  for  the  cistern.  Two  or  three  thin  layers  of  the  pre- 
pared clay  are  then  to  be  compactly  laid  over  the  whole  breadth  of  the  excavation,  and  beaten 
firmly  together  at  ail  points,  making  up  the  depth  to  1  foot,  and  the  surface  of  it  brought  to  a  uni 
form  level.  Upon  this  the  side-walls  are  to  be  founded,  and  these  may  be  of  brick  9  inches  in 
thickness,  or  of  Hat  bedded  rubble-stone  14  inches.  The  wall  should  be  built  in  successive  courses 
of  about  1  foot  in  hight,  the  whole  being  bedded  in  mortar,  and,  as  each  course  is  completed,  the 
puddle  is  to  be  carefully  laid  and  beaten  in  behind,  in  layers  of  6  inches  or  thereby,  the  first  laj-er 
being  properly  incorporated  with  the  foundation  puddle,  and  each  succeeding  layer  with  the  one 
immediately  preceding  it  To  prevent  the  side-walls  from  being  pushed  inward  by  the  pressure 
of  tHe  puddle  or  of  the  bank,  tie-walls  of  brick  or  of  stone  should  be  formed  at  every  5  feet  of  the 
length  of  the  cistern.  These  may  be  9  inches  of  brick  or  14  inches  of  stone  ;  and  they  must  have 
conduits  formed  at  the  level  of  the  sole,  to  allow  the  liquid  to  run  toward  the  pump.  The  sole 
should  be  laid  all  over  with  brick  set  on  edge,  or  with  strong  pavement,  the  whole  having  a  slight 
declivity  toward  one  end,  where  a  small  well-hole  of  9  inches  in  depth  is  to  be  formed  to  receive 
the  bottom  of  the  pump.  The  brick,  or  pavement,  as  the  case  may  be.  is  to  be  bedded  on  the  puddle, 
and  grouted  flush  in  the  joints  with  mortar  ;  and  when  the  walls  and  sole  are  built  up,  they  should 
then  be  pointed  in  every  joint  with  Roman  cement.  The  covering  is  to  be  effected  with  strong 
pavement,  of  length  sufficient  to  rest  on  the  side-walls,  laid  and  jointed  with  mortar;  or  with 
rough  foiindBtone»,  where  such  can  be  procured,  and  if  neither  can  conveniently  be  found,  a 
beam  of  good  sound  Memel  fir  may  be  laid  along  the  middle  of  the  cistern,  resting  on  the  tie-walla, 
and  with  this  bearer,  stones  of  half  the  length  will  be  suficienl  to  form  a  cover.  A  thin  layer  of 
clay  may  be  laid  over  the  stone  covers,  and  upon  that  a  coat  of  gravel,  by  which  means  carts  may- 
be allowed  to  pass  over  it.  To  prevent  accident,  however,  it  is  always  desirable  to  construct  the 
cistern  in  a  situation  where  it  will  be  as  little  as  possible  exposed  to  the  transit  of  carts ;  and  this 
may  be  always  obtained  at  a  small  additional  expense  of  covered  drain  to  convey  the  manure 
from  the  dunghills  to  the  cistern. 

(1()23.)  The  pmnp  for  lifting  the  liquid  from  the  cistern  to  the  cart  may  be  either  of  wood  or 
cast-iron,  but  the  latter  is  preferable.  A  common  sucking-pump  of  3J  inches  chamber  is  quite 
sufficient;  the  chamber  should  be  bored  out,  and  the  punip  boxes,  for  durability,  should  be  also 
of  metal,  with  leathern  flap-valves.  The  hight  of  the  pump  should  be  such  as  to  deliver  the  liquid 
freely  into  the  funnel  of  the  barrel,  or  tank;  but  if  this  hight  is  found  to  raise  the  pump-lever 
above  the  reach  of  a  man's  hand,  it  is  only  necessary  to  joint  a  light  connecting-rod  to  the  lever, 
its  lower  end  being  furni.shed  with  a  cross  handle,  and  by  these  means  the  pump-man  will  be  able 
to  work  the  pump  in  the  same  manner  as  the  lower  end  of  the  common  pit  saw.  Forcing  and 
liftini^  pumps  have  been  proposed  and  even  employed  for  the  purpose  we  have  here  in  view, 
though  with  questionable  propriety  ;  and  here  it  may  be  proper  to  explain,  that  by  the  term 
force-pump  is  to  be  understood  a  pump  that  raises  water  to  any  hight  above  the  point  where  the 
power  is  applied,  by  the  descent  of  a  solid  piston  acting  in  the  chamber  of  the  pump,  sending  the 
liquid  into  an  ascending  pipe,  which  springs  from  l/e/ow  the  piston.  The  //ffi?if(-pump  difters  from 
this  in  having  a  valved  piston  through  which  the  liquid  passes,  as  in  the  sucking-pump,  on  the  de- 
scent of  tne  piston;  and,  on  its  ascent,  the  valve  being  now  clo.scd,  the  lirjuid  is  liffca  and  forced 
into  the  ascending  pipe,  which,  in  this  case,  s])ring3  from  above  the  piston,  the  chamber  being 
closed  at  top  with  a  water-tight  stuffing-box.  From  this  brief  descri])tion  the  simplicity,  both 
in  construction  and  in  management,  of  the  sucking  or  common  pump,  as  compared  with  the  other 
two,  will  be  obvious ;  the  cost  being  also  in  favor  of  the  iirst. — J.  S.] 

water  to  he  coUecled  for  a  mill,  or  fish,  or.  as  oujjht  to  be  the  case  on  every  farm,  for  nn  ice  pond  ;  how 
prevalent  is  the  common  notion  that  water  covering  a  large  surface  would  require  a  etronp,  wide  dam  ! 
yet  here  it  is  seen  that  if  it  rovi-reil  fifty  acres,  the  lateral  pressure  would  be  no  greatt'r  than  if  ifcovercd 
but  fifty  superficial  yards.  What  we  mean  to  intimate  is,  what  is  suggested  by  every  part  of  this  book,  and 
by  common  reflection  to  every  thinking  mind — \hc  ViouAer  ihaixhe  landid  iiitrrait  oi  the  United  States 
does  not  insist  on  the  estahli.^hmcnt  of  institutions  hy  the  GcncrHJ  O.veiDmcnt,  similar  to  that  at  West 
Point— not  for  the  instruction  of  all  directly,  for  that  would  he  inipracticahle— but  for  the  ivstriiction  of 
teachers,  who  might  be  qualitied  to  teach  these  plain  practical  principles  to  aa  many  boys  as  the  military 
offices  can  teach  the  Manual  Exercise  to  the  militia.  The  knowledge  taught  by  the  latter  may  be  highly 
useful  where  it  should  alone  be  ustjd  to  repel  invasion  and  to  suppress  insunection — whereas  that  taught 
by  honorable  and  well  instructed  civil  tutors  would  greatly  augment  the  best  sort  of  power  that  any  na 
tion  can  possess — the  civilizing  and  blessed  pntcer  iif  KnmHrii^e.  We  shall  wait  anxiously  to  hear  the  pow- 
erful voice  of  Governor  Wkight  on  this  subject,  in  his  Agricultural  Address  at  Saratoga,  in  September. 

Ed.  Farm.  Lib.\ 
(118) 


IRRIGATION.  7] 


7.    WINTER  IRRIGATION. 


"  Hence  Irrigation's  power  at  first  was  learnt, 
A  custom  ancient,  yet  but  rarely  used 
In  cold  and  watery  climes  ;  though  even  there 
No  mode  of  melioration  has  been  found 
Of  more  effect,  or  with  more  ease  obtained." 

Gbahah. 


(1624.)  It  is  not  my  purpose  here  to  describe  the  mode  of  making  in-i- 
gated  meadows ;  that  being  a  summer  occupation,  it  will  be  attended  to  in 
due  time.  At  present  I  shall  only  describe  the  watering  of  meadows  in 
winter.  Suppose,  then,  that  the  meadows  have  been  formed  in  a  proper 
manner,  and  every  channel  cleaned  with  proper  care,  let  us  at  once  pro- 
ceed to  let  on  the  water,  and  regulate  its  duration  so  as  not  only  to  pre- 
serve the  vitality  of  the  plants,  but  to  promote  their  vegetation  at  an  earlier 
period  than  the  natural  call  of  the  season  would  arouse  into  action.  As 
the  late  Mr.  George  Stephens  knew  the  irrigation  of  land  well,  I  shall  use 
his  words  in  describing  the  management  of  water  on  meadows  in  winter. 
I  shall  only  premise  that  there  are  two  kinds  of  water-meadows,  on%  called 
the  bed-ivork,  in  which  the  ground  is  made  to  decline  gently,  and  the  water 
to  flow  in  the  direction  of  the  inclination.  The  other  kind  is  called  catch- 
work,  which  is  only  suited  to  ground  having  a  considerable  declivity,  and 
by  which  the  water  is  brought  across  the  face  of  the  declivity.  The  object 
aimed  at  in  both  kinds  is  the  greater  production  of  grass.  Inigation, 
therefore,  is  one  mode  of  manuring  grass-land. 

(1625.)  "The  whole  works,"  as  Mr.  Stephens  directs,  "being  repaired, 
and  there  being  generally  water  enough  at  this  season  either  for  the  whole 
or  for  part,  the  sluice  should  be  drawn,  when,  in  the  course  of  half  an  hour, 
the  conductor  and  the  upper  part  of  the  feeders  will  be  nearly  filled.  The 
first  operation  of  the  irrigator  is  to  adjust  the  water  in  the  conductor;  or, 
if  the  meadow  is  in  more  parts  than  one,  the  water  in  each  conductor  must 
be  first  regulated.  Then  he  commences  anew  by  regulating  the  stops  in 
the  first  feeder  ;  but  should  there  not  be  sufl[icient  water  in  the  feeder,  a 
little  more  must  be  let  in,  by  making  the  aperture  wider  or  deeper,  till  the 
water  flows  regularly  over  the  sides  from  one  end  to  the  other.  From  the 
first  he  proceeds  to  the  second  feeder,  and  so  on,  until  the  water  in  all  the 
feeders  is  adjusted.  Let  the  beds  of  a  watei'-meadow  be  ever  so  well 
formed,  yet,  by  some  places  sinking  more  than  others,  or  by  the  ice  raising 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  although  the  water  along  the  banks  of  the  feed- 
ers has  been  ever  so  nicely  adjusted,  it  often  happens  that  there  may  be 
some  places  between  the  feeders  and  drains  with  too  little  water,  when  it 
will  be  advisable  for  the  manager  to  make  a  third  round,  redressing  ine- 
qualities of  the  surface  so  as  to  give  every  spot  1  inch  deep  of  roater. 
Every  part  of  the  works  being  regulated,  the  water  should  be  allowed 
to  run  through  the  whole  of  October,  November,  December  and  January, 
from  15  to  20  days  at  a  time  without  intermission.  At  the  expiration  of 
each  of  these  periods,  the  ground  should  be  made  completely  dry  for  5  or 
6  days,  to  give  it  air  ;  for  there  are  few  species  of  the  grasses  vi^hich  form 
the  most  nutritive  part  of  the  herbage  of  water-meadows,  that  will  long 
exist  under  an  entire  immersion  of  water.  Moreover,  if  the  fi'ost  should 
be  severe,  and  the  water  begin  to  freeze,  the  icaterins  must  he  discontinued, 

(119) 


72  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

otherwise  the  whole  surface  will  became  one  sheet  of  ice  ;  and,  whenever 
the  ice  takes  Jiold  of  the  ground,  it  will  undoubtedly  draw  it  into  heaps, 
which  is  very  injurious  to  plants."  "  The  object  of  this  early  watering  of 
the  meadows  is  to  take  advantage  of  the  autumnal  floods,  which  bring 
along  with  them  a  variety  of  putrescent  matter,  which  is  found  veiy  en- 
riching to  land.  It  is  the  chief  object  of  the  irrigator  in  those  months  to 
collect  as  much  of  this  manure  as  possible,  and  at  the  same  time  to  shelter 
the  land  fi-om  the  severity  of  frosty  nights.  It  is  therefore  requisite  to 
use  as  much  water  as  the  land  will  carry  without  guttering.  I  believe  it 
would  be  difficult  to  give  land,  with  a  dry  subsoil  and  considerable  descent, 
too  much  water  before  the  weather  begins  to  get  warm.  It  is  necessary 
in  those  months  that  the  meadows  be  inspected  at  least  once  in  3  or  4 
days,  to  see  that  the  equal  distribution  of  the  water  is  not  obstructed  by 
the  accumulation  of  weeds,"  &c. 

(1626.)  Simple  as  these  directions  are,  yet  the  actual  management  of  the 
water  of  meadows  is  not  unattended  -with  difficulty,  but  requires  the  exer- 
cise of  good  judgment  and  great  attention.  "  The  adjustment  of  watei 
flowing  over  the  surface  of  land,"  remarks  Mr.  Stephens,  "  for  the  purpose 
of  improving  the  herbage,  is  a  very  nice  operation  ;  it  requires  a  perfect 
knowledge  of  levels  and  the  vegetation  of  grasses,  and  ought  never  to  be  in- 
trusted to  an  unskillful  manager.  When  the  supply  of  water  is,  in  any 
state  of  the  stream  that  supplies  it,  sufficient  for  the  whole  or  one-half  of 
the  meadow  at  once,  the  management  becomes  pretty  easy ;  for  after  the 
works  are  cleaned,  and  the  water  regulated  in  the  autumn,  the  sluices 
should  be  fixed  at  such  a  hight  as  to  let  in  the  exact  quantity  required,  when  it 
is  allowed  to  run  according  to  the  state  of  the  weather  and  the  season  of  the 
year,  for  2,  6,  10,  or  15  days,  without  any  alteration  ;  and  it  will  be  found 
(unlessthe  water  has  carried  along  with  it  weeds,  sticks,  or  \vreckof  anykind) 
to  run  dui'ing  that  whole  period  nearly  as  equally  over  the  surface  as  when 
first  put  on.  But  when  the  stream  is  small,  and  rising  and  falling  with 
every  shower  of  rain,  the  management  becomes  so  much  the  more  diffi- 
cult that  it  will  require  every  possible  attention  of  the  in-igator  to  watch 
and  change  the  water  from  one  part  of  the  meadow  ro  another,  or  from 
one  bed  to  another,  according  to  its  abundance  or  deficiency.  Such  mead- 
ows are  indeed  ill-managed,  although  half  an  hour's  7vork  in  a  day  would 
put  everything  to  rights.  Indeed,  let  the  formation  of  the  meadow  be  ever 
so  perfect,  and  the  supply  of  water  constant  and  uniform,  yet  it  is  necessa- 
ry that  the  manager  should  sui-vey  the  whole  every  3  or  4  days,  to  remedy 
any  defect  occasioned  by  the  accumulation  of  weeds,  or  by  a  stop  being 
washed  away,  and  thereby  cause  some  places  to  have  too  much  water,  and 
others  too  little  ;  so  that,  in  the  former  case,  the  grasses  might  either  be 
killed  or  veiy  much  injured  by  the  generation  of  scum,  or,  in  the  latter 
case,  there  would  l)e  little  or  no  produce  of  grass.  Small  streams  are  cer- 
tainly much  more  at  command  than  large  ;  but  if  the  manager,  as  is  too 
often  the  case  with  a  young  practitioner,  vainly  endeavor  to  water  too  much 
ground  at  a  time,  he  may  give  one  part  too  much  water,  and  another  too 
little  ;  for  on  the  alteration  of  the  apertures,  and  adjustment  of  the 
water,  greatly  depend  not  only  the  quality  but  the  quantity  of  the  crop." 

(1627.)  There  are  many  ways  of  mismanaging  water-meadows,  such  as 
retaining  a  moist  subsoil,  or  allowing  the  gi-ass  to  stand  too  long  before 
cutting  ;  but  there  is  an  error  committed  at  this  period  of  the  year,  to  which 
I  wish  to  direct  your  attention,  and  which  is  thus  chai-acterized  by  Mr. 
Stephens.  "  Another  great  error  irenerally  committed  is,  allowing  the 
water  to  run  too  long  at  a  time,  without  properly  drying  the  ground.  I 
know  some  instances  where  the  gi'ound  is  not  attempted  to  be  dried  from 

(120) 


IRRIGATION.  73 


the  time  the  water  is  put  on  the  meadows  in  autumn  till  8  or  10  days  be 
fore  the  cutting  of  the  hay  ;  the  consequence  is  that  the  gi-ass  is  of  the 
coarsest  quality,  and  the  ground  becomes  so  very  boggy  that  the  whole 
crop  of  grass  is  obliged  to  be  canied  by  people  to  some  other  place  to  be 
mule  into  hay A  water-meadow,"  adds  Mr.  Stephens,  "  like  a  gar- 
den, will  be  good  for  little  without  due  attention.  All  dry  soils  require 
more  attention  than  moist  ones  ;  for  if  the  water  in  moist  soils  should  not  be 
so  nicely  regulated  as  on  sandy  or  dry  land,  the  crop  of  grass  will  not  be 
so  defective  as  on  porous  soils,  iclicre  the  management  has  been  neglected.  I 
presume  that  all  dry  land  that  has  been  converted  into  water-meadows,  in 
countries  where  the  art  of  inigation  is  not  well  known,  and  the  supply  of 
water  not  abundant  or  regular,  is  liable  to  more  injury,  from  imperfect 
treatment,  than  land  of  a  moist  nature,  for  plants  must  have  their  food  at 
stated  times  as  well  as  animals,  but  this  cannot  be  the  case  when  the  water 
is  irregularly  applied."* 

(1628.)  The  mode  in  which  water  acts  in  producing  the  effects  witness- 
ed in  water-meadows,  has  not  yet  been  completely  ascertained.  It  is  not 
the  sediment  in  the  water  that  alone  works  the  chaiTn,  for  clear  water  pro- 
duces similar  results ;  though,  no  doubt,  enriching  ingredients  caiTied  by 
the  water  encourage  the  growth  of  plants  more  rapidly  than  clear  water, 
as  witness  the  produce  of  foul-water  meadows  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ed- 
inburgh. Professor  Low  has  these  observations  on  the  theory  of  the  pro- 
cess :  "  The  theory  of  the  process  of  irrigation,"  says  the  Professor,  "  has 
not  been  satisfactorily  explained.  That  the  effect  is  not  produced  by  the 
mere  supply  of  deficient  water,  appears  not  only  from  the  period  at  which 
the  water  is  admitted,  and  when  in  our  climate  the  soil  is  always  saturated 
with  the  fluid,  but  from  the  circumstance  that  Me  effect  is  not  j^roduced 
when  the  water  is  allowed  to  stagnate,  and  sink  do\vn  in  the  soil,  but  when 
it  is  kept  in  a  current  over  it.  When  the  water  is  suffered  to  stagnate,  the 
soil  tends  to  produce  carices,  junci,  and  other  sub-aquatic  plants  ;  but 
when  it  is  kept  in  motion,  and  drained  off  at  intervals,  the  finest  grasses 
peculiar  to  the  soil  and  climate  are  produced.  Neither  does  the  fact  of 
the  deposition  of  mud,  or  other  fertilizing  sediment,  explain  the  phenome- 
non ;  for  however  such  depositions  may  increase  the  effect,  it  is  likewise 
found  that  water,  without  the  least  perceptible  sediment,  may  be  employed 
with  success.  It  has  been  supposed  that  the  water  acts  beneficially  by 
maintaiuing  the  soil  at  a  higher  temperature.  Water,  at  a  temperature  of 
40^,  is  of  greater  specific  gravity  than  at  a  lower  temperature ;  and  hence 
as  the  water  tends  to  the  freezing  point,  the  warmer  portion  of  it  is  next 
the  ground.  ]Much,  however,  cannot  be  ascribed  to  this  cause,  in  a  current 
so  shallow  and  constant  as  that  which  passes  over  the  watered  meadow.  It 
is  probable,  therefore,  that  the  main  effect  is  produced  by  a  mechanical  ac- 
tion of  the  water,  acting  upon  and  bringing  nourishment  to  the  fibrous  roots 
of  the  plants."t 

(1629.)  Although  it  may  be  very  true,  as  Mr.  Stephens  obsei-ves,  that 
"  however  authors  may  disagree  on  this  interesting  subject  (the  theory  of 
irrigation),  I  believe  all  experimentalists  acknowledge  that  early  winter 
watering  is  necessary  to  produce  early  and  abundant  vegetation  ;  in  what 
w;.y  this  operates  is,  as  to  practical  purposes,  less  material  ;"|  yet  it  is  al- 
ways satisfactory  to  man  to  be  able  to  give  a  reason  for  what  he  does.  To 
this  view  I  shall  add  another  theory  of  imgation,  that  has  been  suggested 
by  Professor  Rennie,  late  of  King's   College,  London.     It  is  believed  by 


*  Stephens's  Practical  Irrigator  and  Drainer, 
t  Lows  Elements  of  Practical  Agriculture,  Edition  of  1838. 
X  Stephens's  Practical  Irrigator  and  Drainer. 
(121) 


74  THE   BOOK    OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

some  vegetable  physiologists  that  plants  excrete  certain  matter  from  theii 
roots,  which  proves  inimical  to  the  health  of  other  plants  of  the  same  kind. 
Hence  it  is  concluded  that  grasses  do  not  continue  permanently  in  a  healthy 
state  in  the  same  site,  because  they  are  in  time  injuriously  affected  by  their 
own  excretions,  which,  encouraging  the  growth  of  plants  of  a  different  na- 
ture, such  as  mosses,  spring  up  and  extirpate  the  grasses.  It  is  supposed 
to  be  probable  that  every  species  of  grass  is  not  alike  affected  by  its  oirn,  or 
the  cxcrcmentitious  matter  fru)n  other  grasses,  and  therefore  some  species 
withstand  the  poison  longerthan  others.  Now  the  water  of  inisation,  in  its 
descent  through  the  soil  and  subsoil,  washes  away  or  carries  off"  in  solution 
the  injurious  excrementitious  matter  exuded  by  the  grasses,  and  thereby 
cleanses  the  soil  in  which  they  are  growing,  free  of  it.  Hence  the  perennial 
verdure  of  iirigated  meadows.* 

(1630.)  In  order  to  an-ive  at  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  this  subject, 
and  believing  that  both  this  theoiy,  as  well  as  the  one  given  by  Sir  Hum- 
phry Davy  refeired  to  by  Professor  Low,  contain  truth,  I  proposed  some 
time  ago  a  conjunction  of  the  two  theories  ;  and  the  compound  theory  cer- 
tainly explains  the  four  gi'eat  points  of  irrigation,  namely,  that  it  supplies 
moisture  to  the  soil  in  dry  seasons  and  in  tropical  climates  ;  it  aff"ords  pro- 
tection to  plants  against  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold ;  it  disseminates 
manure  in  the  most  minute  manner  to  plants  ;  and  it  washes  away  injuri- 
ous matter  from  the  roots  of  plants.  The  benefits  derived  from  inigation 
I  therefore  maintained  are  purely  mechanical,  and  doubted  the  coiTectness 
of  8ir  Humphry  Davy's  opinion  when  he  says  that  "in  the  artificial  wa- 
tering of  meadows  the  beneficial  effects  depend  upon  many  different  causes, 
some  chemical,  some  mechanical,"!  because  chemical  action  only  com- 
mences after  the  act  of  in'igation  has  ceased,  as  the  nature  of  the  following 
particulars  attending  irrigation  will  show.  No  doubt,  the  effects  of  the  sub- 
stances, whatever  they  may  be,  which  are  deposited  by  the  water  of  irri- 
gation, may  be  chemical,  as  well  as  those  of  manure  applied  to  grass  by 
the  hand  of  man.  But  the  act  of  the  water  in  depositing  fertilizing  mate- 
rials, can  be  no  more  chemical  than  that  of  the  instruments  used  in  spread- 
ing dung  upon  the  soil.  The  truth  is,  that  whenever  the  water  of  irriga- 
tion, or  the  substances  contained  in  it,  act  che7nicallyuY>on  the  grass  or  soil, 
while  subjected  to  the  process,  that  moment  irrigation  proves  injurious  to 
the  plants.  The  chemical  action  and  the  injury  are  both  evinced  by  the 
same  phenomenon,  namely,  the  existence  of  white  scum  floating  on  the 
water.  "  If  the  weather  should  be  mild,"  observes  Mr.  Stephens,  "  and 
you  suffer  the  water  to  run  over  the  meadow  too  long  without  intermission, 
a  white  scum  is  generated,  which  is  very  destructii'C  to  the  tender  grass."\ 
The  particulars  of  irrigation  I  referred  to  are  these  :  "  The  operation  of  wa- 
ter bringing  matter  into  minute  subdivision  ;  the  sediment  which  it  contains 
when  used  in  irrigation  being  minutely  distributed  around  the  stems  of 
the  plants  ;  water  protecting  plants  in  irrigation  against  the  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold,  by  completely  covering  and  embracing  every  stem  and  leaf; 
and  the  supplying  of  moisture  to  the  soil  and  washing  excrementitious  mat- 
ter out  of  it,  are  all  purely  mechanical  operations."  For,  "  could  thp  hand 
ofvian  distribute  manure  around  the  roots  and  stems  of  grass  as  minutely 
and  as  incessantly  as  turbid  water;  could  it  place  a  covering  of  woolen 
texture  upon  each  blade  and  around  each  stem  of  grass,  as  completely  as 
water  can  embrace  each  plant  and  keep  it  warm  ;  could  it  water  the  grass 
as  quietly  and  constantly  as  the  slow  current  of  irriijation  ;  and  could  it 
wa.sh  away  hurtful  matter  from  the  soil  as  delicately  from  the  fibres  of  the 

*  Uiinrierly  Journal  of  Apriciilturo,  vol.  v.  t  Davy'i  Agricultural  Chemigtry. 

X  Stepheiis'a  Pracdcal  Irrigator  and  Drainer. 


IRRIGATION.  75 


roots  of  grass  as  irrigating  water,  there  would  be  no  need  of  irrigation  ;  the 
husbandman  could  then  command  at  mil  verdant  pasturao-e  for  his  flocks 
and  herds,  throughout  the  year,  and  in  the  driest  season.  His  vicclianical 
agency  would  be  as  effective  as  imgation  ;  but  constituted  as  the  relative 
state  of  things  at  present  are  between  man  and  the  action  of  physical  laws, 
he  employs  irrigation  as  an  instrument  of  hid  will,  and  induces  Nature  to 
assist  him  in  maintaining  his  live-stock  by  an  application  of  her  pecu- 
har  mode  of  acting,  under  his  own  guidance,  but  in  which  she  undoubt- 
edly displays  her  superiority  over  him,  both  in  perseverance  and  dex- 
terity."* 

*  Kacyclopsdia  Britaimica,  eerenth  edition,  art.  IrrrigaXion, 


76  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


SPRING. 


"Fled  now  the  sullen  murmurs  of  the  North, 
The  splendid  raiment  of  the  Spring  peeps  forth; 
Her  universal  green,  and  the  clear  sky. 
Delight  still  more  and  more  the  gazing  eye." 

Bloomfield. 

We  have  now  deliberated  upon  every  topic  which  the  indoor  operations 
of  the  farm,  as  they  may  be  called,  have  suggested ;  and  their  considera- 
tion, to  a  minute  degree,  has  extended  our  lucubrations  rather  beyond 
their  prescribed  limits ;  and  yet,  when  every  subject,  as  it  presented  itself 
in  succession,  was  new,  and  claimed  attention,  not  only  on  its  own  account, 
but  as  possessing  a  controlling  influence  upon  those  which  are  to  follow,  it 
was  requisite  to  examine  particularly  into  the  principles  upon  which  they 
were  based,  that  the  consequent  subjects  dependent  on  similar  principles 
may  be  the  more  easily  understood,  and  treated  according  to  their  nature. 
I  earnestly  hope  that  this  may  be  the  result  of  the  deliberations  which  we 
have  had  hitherto  together  ;  and  I  would  feel  somewhat  confident  of  that 
issue,  if  you  have  bestowed  that  attention  upon  the  subjects  treated  of,| 
which  they  really  i-equire. 

Upon  the  whole,  we  have  seen  that  winter  is  the  season  of  repose,  of 
passive  existence,  of  dormancy,  though  not  of  death.  Spring  calls  forth 
the  opposite  emotions  ;  it  is  the  season  of  revivification,  of  passing  into 
active  exertion,  of  hope,  nay  of  confidence  in  what  we  do  will  succeed — 
of  hope  ripening  into  fruition  as  the  earnest  of  prospective  plenty  is  pre- 
sented in  the  reproduction  of  the  herds  and  flocks,  and  in  the  world  of  life 
which  springs  into  view  immediately  after  the  industrious  hand  has  scat- 
tered the  seed  upon  the  ground.  The  joy  in  contemplating  such  a  pros- 
pect to  the  issue  of  labor  is  indescribable.  I  am  unequal  to  the  task  of 
describing  it,  but  would  not,  if  I  could,  in  case  of  giving  you  an  unsuitable 
idea  of  the  enjoyment.  I  would  rather  that  you  should  go  and  enjoy  the 
pleasure  for  yourself;  because  "  the  chosen  draught,  of  which  every  lover 
of  Nature  may  drink,  can  be  had,  in  its  freshness  and  purity  only  at  the 
living  fountain  of  Nature  ;  and  if  we  attempt  to  fetch  it  away  in  the  clay 
pitchers  of  human  description,  it  loses  all  its  spirit,  becomes  insipid,  and 
acquires  an  earthy  taste  from  the  clay." 

The  weather  in  spring,  in  the  zone  we  inhabit,  is  exceedingly  variable, 
alternating,  at  short  intervals,  from  frost  to  thaw,  from  rain  to  snow,  from 
sunshine  to  cloud,  very  different  from  the  steady  character  of  the  arctic  , 
spring,  in  which  the  snow  melts  without  rain,  and  the  meads  are  covered 
with  vernal  flowers  ere  the  last  traces  of  winter  have  disappeared.  The 
sky  is  very  clear  when  the  air  is  free  of  clouds.  The  winds  are  very  shai-p 
when  coming  from  the  N.  or  N.  E.  direction  ;  and  they  are  frequent,  blow- 
in"-  strono-ly  sometimes  from  an  eastern  and  sometimes  from  a  western  di- 
rection. In  the  former  they  are  piercing,  even  though  not  inclining  to 
frost ;  in  the  latter  they  are  strong,  boisterous,  squally,  and  rising  at  times 

(124) 


SPRING.  77 

into  tremendous  hunricanes,  in  which  trees  only  escape  being  uprooted  in 
consequence  of  their  leafless  state  ;  but  by  which  many  a  hapless  mariner 
is  overtaken  and  consigned  to  a  watery  grave,  or  dashed  without  mercy 
on  a  rocky  shore.  The  air,  when  dry,  evaporates  moisture  quickly ;  and 
the  surface  of  the  ground  is  as  easily  dried  as  wetted.  Very  frequently 
snow  covers  the  ground  for  a  time  in  spring.  The  severest  storms  and 
falls  have  occurred  in  February.  The  memorable  falls  of  the  9th  Feb- 
ruary, 1799,  and  of  the  7th  February,  1823,  are  yet  fi-esh  in  the  recollec- 
tion of  many  persons  alive,  when,  for  weeks  together,  the  internal  commu- 
nication of  the  country  was  entirely  stopped.  Roads  opened  up  in  one 
direction  were  again  blocked  up  immediately  after  by  a  drift  from  the  op- 
posite direction.  There  is  something  truly  awful  among  the  hills  in  a 
storm  of  snow  in  spring.  Here  is  a  description  of  one,  ti-ue  to  the  life, 
with  all  its  accompanying  prognostics.  "  One  evening,  after  a  day  of  un- 
wonted tranquillity,  dense  clouds  appear  like  great  snowy  mountains  in 
the  western  part  of  the  horizon,  while  the  few  clouds  which  lie  in  streaks 
across  the  setting  sun,  are  intensely  deep  in  their  shadows,  and  equally 
bright  in  their  lights  As  the  evening  closes  in,  the  clouds  disappear,  the 
stars  are  unusually  brilliant,  and  there  is  not  a  breath  of  air  stining.  The 
old  experienced  farmer  goes  out  to  take  his  wonted  nocturnal  survey  of 
tlie  heavens,  from  which  long  observation  on  the  same  spot  has  enabled 
him  to  form  a  tolerably  correct  judgment  of  what  will  be  the  state  of  the 
weather  in  the  morning.  Two  or  three  meteors — ^brilliant,  but  of  short 
duration — shoot  along  a  quadrant  of  the  sky,  as  if  they  were  so  many 
bright  lights  of  the  firmament,  dropping  from  their  orbits.  He  returns 
and  directs  his  men  to  prepare  for  what  may  happen,  as  there  will  cer- 
tainly be  a  change  of  the  weather.  The  air  is  perfectly  tranquil  when  the 
family  retire  to  their  early  pillows,  to  find  that  repose  which  healthful 
labor  sweetens  and  never  misses — 

'  Till  rest  delicious  chase  each  transient  pain, 
And  new-bom  vigor  swell  in  every  vein.' 

But  just  at  the  turn  of  the  night  the  South  gives  way,  the  North  tiiumphs, 
and  the  whirlwind,  herald  of  victory,  lays  hold  of  the  four  comers  of  the 
house,  and  shakes  it  with  the  shaking  of  an  earthquake.  But  the  house, 
like  its  inhabitants,  is  made  for  the  storm,  and  to  stand  secure  and  harm- 
less ;  while  the  wind  thunders  in  the  fields  around,  every  gust  roaring 
louder  than  another  among  the  leafless  branches  of  the  stately  trees.  In  a 
little  its  sound  is  muffled,  without  being  lessened,  and  the  snow  is  heard 
battering  at  the  windows  for  an  entrance — but  battering  in  vain.  Morn- 
ing daAvns  ;  but  every  lea  and  eddy  is  wreathed  up  ;  the  snow  still  dark- 
ens the  air,  and  reeks  along  the  culling  ^vreaths  as  if  each  were  a  furnace. 
For  two  days  and  two  nights  the  storm  rages  with  unabated  violence  ;  but 
on  the  third  day  the  wind  has  veered  more  easterly,  blows  rather  feebly, 
and  though  the  snow  falls  as  thickly,  it  falls  uniformly  over  the  whole  sur- 
face. This  continues  for  two  or  three  days  more  ;  and  on  the  coming  of 
the  last  of  these  days,  the  sun,  which  has  not  been  visible  for  nearly  a 
w-eek,  looks  out  just  before  setting,  as  if  promising  a  morning  visit.  The 
night  remains  clear,  with  keen  frost,  and  the  wind  steady  at  north,  and 
blowing  very  gently.  The  sun  rises  bright  in  the  morning,  the  storm  is 
over,  and  the  weather  remains  unbroken  for  four  or  five  weeks. 

"  When  the  appointed  days  of  the  snow-storm  are  numbered,  a  disturb- 
ance again  takes  place  in  the  atmosphere,  but  it  is  of  a  different  kind  from 
the  former.  There  are  little  sheets  of  lightning  playing  momentarily  in 
the  lower  atmosphere,  and  the  lustre  of  the  stars  is  diminished  ;  but  still 
there  is  no  cloud.     The  wind,  however,  dies  away  to  a  dead  calm  toward 

(125) 


78  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

eveninjT.  and  all  is  ready  for  the  breaking  stonn.  That  operation  is  the 
first  pei-formed  by  the  spring,  and  we  shall  bonow  the  words  of  the  '  Brit- 
ish Natui-alist'  wherein  to  describe  it  :  '  As  the  spring  gets  the  naastery, 
which  is  aided  by  the  condensation  which  takes  place  during  the  night,  it 
rises  to  a  wind,  the  sound  of  which  cannot  be  mistaken.  The  rigidity  of 
trees,  window-frames  and  other  wooden  fabrics  through  which  it  })asses 
is  lelaxed  ;  the  withered  grass  and  reeds,  when  these  are  exposed,  moisten  : 
and  the  rattling  and  thumping  are  succeeded  by  murmuring  harmony,  in 
which,  compared  with  the  other,  there  is  a  good  deal  of  music  ;  and  as  the 
morning  advances  and  the  animals  come  abroad,  and  man  begins  to  be 
active,  the  hard  metallic  sounds  are  gone,  and  there  is  a  softness  aljout 
Nature.  There  is  always  a  delightful  transparency  about  the  atmosphere, 
because  the  little  splcnicp  of  ice  are  gone,  and  the  heat  of  the  air  is  too 
much  occupied  in  converting  the  snow  and  ice  into  water,  for  changing 
much  of  that  into  vapor.  When  the  change  is  accompanied  by  rain,  it  is 
far  more  pleasant  at  the  time,  and  there  is  a  danger,  almost  a  certain  one, 
that  the  spring  will  be  treacherous;  and  that,  in  consequence  of  the  great 
heat  required  for  melting  the  snow,  and  the  evaporation  of  the  rain  to- 
gether, frosts  will  return  long  before  the  process  of  thawing,  so  compara- 
tively slow,  s  completed.  The  slow  melting  of  snow  by  rain,  compared 
by  that  of  a  warm  atmosphere  which  is  constantly  shifting  by  the  wind, 
can  be  easily  understood,  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  water  which  falls, 
even  if  it  had  the  temperature  of  the  greatest  summer  heat,  would  be 
cooled  down  to  the  freezing  point  in  melting  half  its  weight  in  snow.  But 
as  the  temperature  can  only  be  a  little  above  freezing,  the  water  will  Ijave 
the  temperature  of  32°  before  it  has  cooled  perhaps  ^  of  its  weight ;  and 
as  the  water  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  and  great  part  of  the  action  of  the 
oblique  rays  of  the  sun  reflected  away  from  its  surface,  a  rainy  breaking 
of  a  storm  is  almost  sure  to  be  followed  by  fiost,  if  it  do  not  happen  when 
the  season  is  far  advanced.'  In  such  a  situation,  and  under  such  circum- 
stances, the  storm  not  unfrequently  passes  away  in  what  is  emphatically 
termed  a  gentle  thaw;  and  when  this  is  the  case,  the  spring  comes  under 
the  most  favorable  circumstances.  The  snow  is  dissolved  by  atmospheric 
influence  alone,  without  any  rain  from  the  clouds  ;  although  there  are 
generally  light  clouds  hovering  about,  ready  to  produce  rain  if  a  retuniing 
frost  should  render  a  contest  of  the  elements  necessary.  Besides  its  rare 
pleasantness,  the  gentle  thaw  is  attended  with  several  beneficial  conse- 
quences. In  the  first  place,  there  is  no  flooding  of  the  low  grounds,  ami 
no  washing  of  the  soil  from  the  more  elevated  ones;  but  the  snow  forms  a 
trough  for  the  disclinrge  of  the  water  into  which  it  is  melted,  and  thus  the 
coldest  of  the  snow-water  does  not  reach  the  surface  of  the  land.  In  the 
second  place,  the  water  produced  by  the  melting  of  the  snow  sinks  gradu- 
ally into  the  earth,  and  the  earth  has  been  opened  to  receive  a  greater 
store  than  if  it  had  been  pelted  by  rain  during  winter.  This  is  occasioned 
by  the  radiation  of  the  heat  from  the  lower  strata  of  the  earth,  which  is 
confined  by  the  snow  and  turned  back  again  to  act  upon  the  earth.  In  the 
third  place,  this  last  circumstajico  jiroduces  a  beginning  of  the  spring  un- 
der the  shelter  of  the  snow,  which  could  not  have  taken  place  with  free 
exposure  to  the  atmos]>here.  The  blade  of  the  ])lant  is  protected,  and  the 
roots  have  heat  and  moisture,  and  the  air  is  excluded  from  them.  They 
are  thus  placed  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  and  they  are 
stimulated  accordiiitjly.  The  diflerence  in  this  respect  is  very  considera- 
ble ;  for  if,  owing  to  the  action  of  the  wind  during  the  fall,  or  to  any  other 
cause,  one  portion  of  a  field  has  been  exposed  to  the  air  while  the  frost 
continued,  and  another  covered  by  the  snow,  it  will  be  found  that  vegeta- 

(126) 


SPRING.  75 

tion  upon  the  part  which  the  snow  covered  will  be  fresh,  green  and  vigor- 
ous, long  before  that  upon  the  exposed  part  shows  any  decided  signs  of 
action.  This,  by  the  way,  is  the  real  cause  why  spring  is  so  rapid,  and 
meets  with  so  few  reverses,  where  the  winter  is  firm  and  decided,  but  of 
moderate  length,  than  it  does  when  the  winter  is  variable.  In  such  a  place 
as  we  ai-e  alluding  to,  the  spring  wind  usually  freshens  as  the  snow  disap- 
pears ;  and  this  latter  quickens  the  melting  of  the  snow,  and  dries  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground.  When  the  clods  begin  to  dry,  the  lai-k  soars  aloft  at 
the  streak  of  dawn,  calling  the  plowmen  to  their  labors.  Nor  are  they 
backward  to  obey ;  for  they  and  their  teams  have  been  rested  during  the 
storm,  and  then  return  to  their  labor  with  fresh  vigor."*  I  have  been  the 
more  induced  to  give  this  long  extract,  as,  besides  containing  a  true  de- 
scription of  a  spring  snow-storm,  it  indicates  its  prognostics,  and  the  pe- 
culiar states  in  which  the  atmosphere  presents  itself  at  this  season. 

Spring  is  a  busy  season  on  the  farm.  The  cattle-man,  besides  contin- 
uing his  attendance  on  the  fattening  cattle,  has  now  the  more  delicate  task 
of  waiting  on  the  cows  at  calving,  and  providing  comfortable  lairs  for  new 
dropped  calves.  The  dairy-maid  commences  her  labors,  not,  it  is  true,  in 
the  peculiar  avocations  of  the  dairy,  but  in  rearing  calves — the  supply  of  a 
future  herd — which,  for  a  time,  are  indulged  with  every  drop  of  milk  the 
cows  can  yield.  The  fari'ows  of  pigs  now  claim  a  share  in  her  solicitude. 
The  shepherd,  too,  has  his  painful  watchings,  day  and  night,  on  the  lamb- 
ing ewes  ;  and  his  solicitude  and  tenderness  for  the  simple  lambs,  until 
they  are  able  to  frisk  and  gambol  upon  the  new  grass,  is  a  scene  of  pe- 
culiar interest,  and  insensibly  lead  to  higher  thoughts.  "  When  we  see  the 
attention  of  a  judicious  shepherd  upon  these  occasions,  we  cannot  refrain 
from  thinking  of  the  unspeakable  condescension  and  kindness  of  Him  who 
'  feeds  his  flock  like  a  shepherd,  gathers  the  lambs  into  his  arms  and  car- 
ries them  in  his  bosom,  and  gently  leads  those  that  are  with  young.'  "  The 
condition  of  the  fields  demands  attention  as  well  as  the  reproduction  of 
the  stock.  The  day  now  affords  as  many  hours  for  labor  as  are  usually 
bestowed  at  any  season  in  the  field.  The  plowmen,  therefore,  know  no 
rest  for  at  least  twelve  hours  every  day,  from  the  time  the  harrows  are 
yoked  for  the  oat-seed  until  the  potato  and  turnip  crops  are  sown.  The 
beans  first  demand  the  plowman's  aid,  and  then  the  lea  ground,  turned 
over  at  intervals  of  fresh  weather  in  winter,  is  ready,  with  a  due  degree 
of  drouth,  to  receive  its  allowance  of  oat-seed.  The  turnip  land,  bared 
as  the  turnips  are  consumed  by  sheep,  is  now  plowed  across,  or  ridged  up 
at  once  for  spring  wheat,  should  the  weather  be  mild  and  the  soil  dry 
enough,  or  else  the  ridging  is  delayed  for  the  barley-seed.  The  fields 
containing  the  fallow  land  now  receive  a  cross-furrow,  in  the  order  of  the 
fallow-crops,  the  potatoes  first,  then  turnips,  and  lastly  the  bare  fallow. 
Grass  seeds  are  now  sown  among  the  young  autumnal  wheat,  as  well  as 
among  the  spring  wheat  and  the  barley.  The  field-workers  devote  their 
busy  hours  to  carrying  seed  to  the  sower,  turning  dunghills  in  preparing 
manure  for  the  potato  and  turnip  crops,  and  continuing  the  barn-work  to 
supply  litter  for  the  stock  yet  confined  in  the  steading,  and  to  prepare  the 
seed-corn  for  the  fields.  The  hedger  now  resumes  his  work  of  water- 
tabling  and  scouring  ditches,  cutting  down  and  breasting  old  hedges,  and 
taking  care  to  release  the  sprouting  buds  of  the  young  quicks  from  the 
face  of  the  hedge-bank,  fig.  42,  which  he  planted  at  the  commencement 
and  during  fresh  weather  in  winter.  The  steward  is  now  on  the  alert, 
sees  to  the  promotion   of  every  operation,  and  intrusts  the  sowing  of  the 

*  Mudic's  Spring.     Since  I  last  had  occasion  to  quote  Mr.  Mudie's  sentiments  on  the  influence  of  Win 
tcr,  c'eath  has  seized  the  hand  of  him  who  was  so  capable  of  wielding  the  pen. 
(127) 


80  THE    BOOK   OF   THE    FARM SPRING. 

crops  to  none  but  liimself,  except  a  tried  hand,  such  as  the  skillful  hedger. 
Thus  every  species  of  laborer  has  his  work  appropriated  for  him  at  tliis 
busy  season  ;  and  as  the  work  of  every  one  is  individually  defined,  it  is 
scarcely  possible  for  so  great  a  mistake  to  be  committed  as  that  any  piece 
of  work  should  be  neglected  by  all. 

The  farmer  himself  now  feels  that  he  must  be  "  up  and  doing  ;"  his 
mind  becomes  stored  with  plans  for  future  execution;  and  in  order  to  see 
them  executed  at  the  proper  time  and  in  the  best  manner,  he  must  now 
forego  all  visits,  and  remain  at  home  for  the  season  ;  or  at  most  under- 
take an  occasional  and  hasty  journey  to  the  market-town  to  get  quit  of 
surplus  grain,  should  the  draughts  have  a  leisure  day  to  deliver  it.  The 
business  of  the  fields  now  requiring  constant  attendance,  his  mind  as  well 
as  body  becomes  fatigued,  and,  on  taking  the  fireside  after  the  labors  of 
the  day  are  over,  seeks  for  rest  and  relaxation  rather  than  mental  toil. 
He  should  at  this  season  pay  particular  attention  to  the  state  of  the 
weather,  by  obsen'ing  the  barometric  and  theiTnometric  changes,  and  make 
it  a  point  to  observe  every  external  phenimienon  that  has  a  bearing  upon  the 
changes  of  the  atmosphere,  and  be  guided  accordingly  in  giving  his  instruc- 
tions to  his  people. 

During  a  snow-storm  in  spring,  wild-birds,  becoming  almo.st  famished, 
resort  to  the  haunts  of  man.  The  robin  is  a  constant  visitor,  and  helps 
himself  with  confidence  to  the  crumbs  cast  out  for  his  use.  The  male  par- 
tridge calls  in  the  evening  within  sight  of  the  house  in  hopes  of  obtaining 
a  morsel  before  collecting  his  covey  together  to  rest  for  the  night  upon  the 
snow.  In  the  severe  snow-storm  of  1823,  several  covies  used  to  approach 
my  own  door  at  sunset,  and  ofi;entimes,  ere  putting  down  the  sheaf  of  bar- 
ley for  their  nightly  meal,  at  the  root  of  an  old  beech-tree,  the  old  cocks 
reminded  me  of  my  hospitality,  though  that  was  unnecessary  in  the  cir- 
cumstances, by  their  loud  crisp-like  call,  before  retiring  to  rest.  1  believe 
that,  had  it  not  been  for  this  timely  supply  of  nourishing  food,  they  would 
all  have  perished  in  the  severity  and  length  of  that  memorable  stoiTn.  Hares 
came  to  the  very  door  at  sunset,  and  in  the  moonlight,  to  receive  what  food 
was  set  down  on  purpose  for  them  ;  and  so  powerful  a  tamer  is  hunger  of 
creatures  of  the  most  distant  habits,  that  even  the  wood-pigeons,  in  large 
flocks,  used  daily  to  frequent  an  orchard  immediately  behind  the  house  to 
pick  the  curly  greens  which  had  grown  so  tall  as  to  overtop  the  snow,  their 
favorite  food — the  Swedish  turnip — being  then  buried  out  of  reach  in  the 
snow.  The  rooks  now  make  desperate  attacks  upon  stacks,  and,  if  allow- 
ed, soon  make  their  way  through  the  thatch.  Always  making  their  atjack 
at  the  top,  they  seem  to  be  aware  of  the  exact  place  where  the  corn  can 
be  most  easily  reached.  The  spaiTOws  even  burrow  in  the  thatch,  and  the 
lively  tom-tits,  with  a  strength  and  perseverance,  one  should  think,  beyond 
their  physical  abilities,  pull  out  whole  straws  from  the  sides  of  the  stacks, 
to  bring  the  heads  of  corn  within  their  reach.  Farther  on  in  the  season 
the  insect  world  come  into  active  life  in  myriads,  to  sei"\-e  as  food  for  the 
feathered  tribes.  Rooks,  with  sturdy  walk  and  independent  gait,  diligently 
search  the  ground  for  them,  in  the  wake  of  the  plow,  to  feed  their  young 
therewith.  Tom-tits  clamber  round  every  spray  of  trees  which  indicate  an 
opening  of  their  floret  buds.  The  swallows  at  length  appear,  giving  anima- 
tion to  the  air,  and  the  stream  of  migration  to  the  northward  betokens  the 
approach  of  genial  weather. 

"  By  the  time  the  season  is  fairly  confirmed,  the  leisure  houi-s  of  the 
cottagers,"  and  of  plowmen,  who  are  in  fact  cottagers  of  the  be.st  condition, 
are  spent,  in  the  evening,  "  in  the  pleasing  labctr,  not  unaccompanied  with 
amusement,  of  trimming  their  little  gardens,  and  getting   in  their  early 

(128) 


SPRING.  81 

crops.  There  is  no  sort  of  village  occupation  which  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren set  about  with  greater  glee  and  animation  than  this  ;  for,  independ- 
ently of  the  hope  of  the  produce,  there  is  a  pleasure  to  the  simple  and  un- 
sophisticated heart  in  '  seeing  things  grow,'  which  perhaps  they  who  feel 
the  most  are  least  able  to  explain.  Certain  it  is,  however,  that  it  would  be 
highly  desirable,  that  not  only  every  country  laborer,  but  every  artisan  in 
towns,  where  these  are  not  so  large  as  to  pi'event  the  possibility  of  it,  should 
have  a  little  bit  of  garden,  and  should  fulfill  the  duty  which  devolved  on 
man  in  a  state  of  innocence,  to  '  keep  it  and  to  dress  it.'  It  is  impos- 
sible for  any  one  who  has  not  carefully  attended  to  the  subject,  to  be  at  all 
aware  how  strong  the  tie  is  which  binds  man  even  to  a  little  spot  of  his  na- 
tive earth,  if  so  be  that  he  can  consider  it  as  his  own,  and  that  he  himself, 
and  those  on  whom  he  loves  to  bestow  it,  are  to  enjoy  the  fruit.  This  is 
the  very  strongest  natural  hold  which  binds  a  poor  man  to  his  country,  and 
to  all  those  institutions  established  for  the  well-being  of  society.  Show  me 
the  cottage,  the  roses  and  the  honeysuckles  on  which  are  neatly  trimmed 
and  trained,  and  the  garden  behind  is  well  stocked  with  culinary  herbs  and 
a  few  choice  flowers,  and  I  will  speedily  find  you  a  cottager  who  nevei 
wastes  his  time  or  his  money,  or  debases  his  mind,  and  learns  the  broad 
road  which  leadeth  to  destruction,'  in  the  contamination  of  an  ale-house.  If 
the  garden  is  neat,  one  may  rest  assured  that  the  cottage,  however  humble 
it  is,  is  the  abode  of  contentment  and  happiness  ;  and  that  however  simple 
the  fare  may  be,  it  is  wealth  and  luxury  in  full  store  to  the  inmates,  be- 
cause they  are  satisfied  with  it,  and  grateful  for  the  possession  of  it."*  I 
believe  that  the  contentment  of  the  lot  of  the  Scottish  man-ied  plowmen, 
and  of  the  attachment  to  the  farm  upon  which  they  serve,  may  be  traced 
to  the  principles  evolved  in  these  remarks.  No  doubt,  much  yet  remains 
to  be  done  to  inculcate  on  them  and  their  families  the  advantages  of  prac- 
ticing habits  of  personal  and  domestic  cleanliness.  Hinds'  houses,  in  this 
respect,  might  be  much  improved,  and  which,  if  they  were,  an  air  of  tidi- 
ness and  comfort  would  attend  their  dwellings,  which  at  present  is  gener- 
ally wanting.  A  great  deal  depends  on  the  example  of  the  farmer  him- 
self; for  while  he  keeps  his  garden  and  shrubbery  and  little  avenue  in  a 
slovenly  manner,  it  is  not  to  be  expected  in  servants  to  evince  a  desire  to 
excel  their  master.  A  farmer's  garden  gets  a  trimming  twice  or  thiice  a- 
year,  and  in  the  mean  season,  weeds  may  riot  in  it  without  molestation,  and 
its  produce  may  be  plucked  as  best  suits  the  convenience  or  caprice  of  the 
kitchen-maid.  Doubtless,  considerable  crops  of  vegetables  are  raised  in 
these  gai'dens,  but  more  through  strength  of  manure  than  skill  of  culture. 
It  is,  I  am  aware,  inconvenient  to  obtain  the  assistance  of  the  professional 
gardener  in  the  country  when  his  services  may  be  most  wanted;  but  on  a 
farm  on  which  a  hedger  is  employed,  he  should  be  taught  as  much  of  gar- 
dening as  to  be  able  to  keep  the  garden  in  decent  order  in  the  absence  of 
the  gardener,  whose  principal  duty  should  be  to  crop  the  ground.  A  field- 
worker  now  and  then  would  keep  the  weeds  in  subjection,  and  allow  both 
the  sun  and  air  a  freer  access  to  the  growing  plants. 

Toward  the  end  of  spring,  the  farmej-  thinks  of  disposing  of  his  fat  cat- 
tle ;  but,  should  he  not  be  offered  the  price  he  considers  them  to  be  worth, 
he  keeps  them  on,  and  even  threatens  to  put  them  to  grass.  The  dealer 
and  butcher  affect  to  be  shy  purchasers  at  this  season,  knowing  there  is 
plenty  of  fat  stock  in  the  country  ;  but,  nevertheless,  are  unwilling  to  allow 
•  a  prime  lot  to  slip  through  their  hands,  and  therefore  keep  a  sharp  look-out 
on  all  the  best  lots  for  disposal.     The  ready  means  of  steam  conveyance  to 

*  Mudie's  Spring. 
(129) 6 


82  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

London  for  fat  stock,  gives  the  farmer  a  vantage  ground  in  his  dealings 
with  the  butclier,  which  the  latter  now  knows  well  to  avail  himself  of  by 
closing  a  ready  bargain  on  the  best  conditions  he  can  make. 

This  is  the  season,  too,  for  the  letting  of  grass-iiarks.  These  usually  lie- 
long  to  landed  proprietoi-s,  and  form  a  poili(»n  of  their  park  and  lawn.  The 
ready  market  which  these  jiarks  meet  with,  induces  the  retention  of  snch 
ground  in  permanent  grass,  while  it  places  their  ownere  beyond  the  risk 
of  speculation  in  the  purchase  of  grazing  cattle  on  their  own  account.  It 
is  not  custoniaiy  for  farmere  to  let  their  gi-ass-parks,  except  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  large  towns,  where  cow-feeders  and  butchers  tempt  them  with 
high  offers,  which  they  except  rather  than  purchase  cattle  whose  feeding 
may  not  be  i-epaid.  Pasture  for  grass  is,  in  truth,  so  convenient  for  the 
stock  of  those  classes  of  people,  that  they  will  almost  give  any  rent  rather 
than  be  deprived  of  the  convenience.  In  regard  to  the  effect  which  letting 
of  grass-parks  by  tenants  has  on  the  rights  of  the  landlord,  I  may  mention 
that  his  "  hypothec  extends  over  the  crops  and  live  stock  of  the  tenant,  in- 
cluding horses,  cows,  sheep,  cattle,  and  every  description  of  stock  raised 
on  thefarjii,  but  it  does  not  extend  to  the  cattle  of  others  tal-rn  in  to  praze. 
On  this  ground,  it  has  been  held  an  initancy  of  the  lease,  should  the  ten- 
ant, instead  of  stocking  the  farm,  take  in  cattle  to  gi'aze,  and  thereby  give 
the  landlord  no  security  for  his  rent.  (Mackye,  December  4,  17 SO,  M. 
6214)"*  Facility  of  obtaining  grass-parks  in  the  country  is  at  times  useful 
to  the  farmer  who  raises  grazing  stock,  in  one  of  which,  at  least,  he  may 
give  them  a  better  bite  or  warmer  shelter  than  he  can  perhaps  offer  on  the 
division  of  his  farm  which  happens  to  be  in  grass. 

The  landed  proprietor  has  to  seek  another  market  in  spring,  one  for  his 
timber,  which  he  annually  fells  in  thinning  out  his  plantations.  These  sales 
afford  convenient  supplies  to  farmers  who  may  be  in  want  of  paling  for 
fencing  new  hedges,  wood  for  sheep-flakes  or  stabs,  or  timber  for  the  erec- 
tion of  shedding  for  animals,  or  for  implements.  They  are  also  sei-viceable 
to  country  joiners  and  implement-makers,  in  supplying  them  with  neces- 
sary materials  nigh  at  hand.  The  timber  is  felled  by  the  owner,  and 
assorted  into  the  sizes  and  kinds  of  lots  which  he  knows  will  best  suit  the 
local  demand.  Prunings  and  small  thinnings  are  sold  as  fire-wood,  and 
purchased  by  villagers  who  cannot  afford  to  purchase  coal,  and  by  farmei-s 
who  have  to  supply  fuel  to  bothies.  After  this  resume  of  spring-work,  let 
us  now  particularly  consider  each  operation  in  its  proper  order 


8.    cows  CALVING  AND  CALVES. 


"  Whon  elip  has  cRlrpd,  then  tex  ihe  dam  aside, 
And  for  the  tender  progeny  provide." 

DsTDKN'a  ViBon.. 


(1631.)  The  first  great  event  in  spring,  on  a  farm  of  mixed  husbandry*,  is 
the  calving  of  the  cores  ;  not  that  this  event  should  net  occur  till  spring — 
though  most  breeders  of  farm-stock  are  anxious  to  have  calves  eaily,  par- 
ticularly bull  calves,  (1238,)  and  on  that  account  calves  are  bom  as  early 
as  December  and  January — but  by  far  the  qreater  proportion  of  the  stock 
of  cows  are  not  desired  to  begin  to  calve  till  February,  and  the  season  of 
calving  continues  in  good  time  till  the  middle  of  April ;  after  which,  as 

(130) 


cows  CALVING,  AND   CALVES.  83 

in  May,  the  calves  are  accounted  late,  and  then  seldom  retained  as  a 
part  of  the  breeding-stock,  namely,  that  portion  which  is  specially  set  aside 
to  propagate  its  kind.  Reluctance  to  late  calves  arises  from  no  objection 
to  their  purity  of  breeding,  for  earliness  or  lateness  of  birth  can  have  no 
effect  in  that  respect ;  but  chiefly  because  an  early  calf  possesses  the  ad- 
vantage of  having  passed  through  its  period  of  milking  in  time  to  be 
supported  on  grass,  as  soon  as  it  affords  a  plentiflil  supply  of  food.  From 
8  to  10  weeks  at  this  season  is  a  period  of  great  anxiety  for  the  state  of 
the  cows ;  and,  indeed,  till  her  calving  is  safely  over,  the  life  of  the  most 
valuable  cow  is  in  jeopardy.  Every  solicitude,  therefore,  that  can  conduce 
to  her  passing  in  safety  over  this  critical  period,  ought  to  be  cheerfully 
bestowed. 

(1632.)  You  may  remember  the  treatment  which  I  recommended  some 
time  ago  for  cows  in  winter,  in  reference  to  food  and  exercise,  in  (1215) 
and  (1218.)  When  the  cow  first  shows  heavy  in  calf,  which  is  usually 
after  her  sixth  month,  the  litter  in  the  court  should  not  be  allowed  to  be- 
come too  deep,  as  over-exertion  in  walking  over  soft,  loose  litter  and  dung 
may  cause  such  an  excited  action  of  the  animal's  system,  and  most  prob- 
ably of  the  womb,  as  to  make  her  slip  calf — or  to  slink  the  calf,  as  it 
is  usually  termed.  The  litter  in  a  court  which  is  constantly  trampled 
by  cattle  at  freedom,  becomes  so  firm  as  to  afford  a  good  footing  ;  but 
the  case  is  different  in  a  cows'-court,  which  is  usually  filled  with  loose 
litter  wheeled  from  the  byre  ;  and  as  it  is  walked  upon  only  for  a  short 
time  every  day  by  cows,  which,  when  in  calf,  are  not  disposed  to  roam 
much  about,  it  never  becomes  firm.  To  render  the  litter  as  firm  as  may 
be  under  the  circumstances,  the  cattle-man  should  spread  each  barrowfull 
as  he  \vheels  it  out,  taking  care  to  mix  a  due  proportion  of  the  straw  with 
the  dung. 

(1633.)  Cows,  as  they  calve,  and  after  it  is  considered  safe  for  them  to 
go  out  in  the  air  again,  should  not  be  allowed  to  go  into  the  court  at  the 
same  time  with  those  yet  to  calve ;  because  calved  cows  soon  come  into 
season,  as  the  phrase  has  it,  that  is,  soon  become  desirous  of  the  bull;  and 
when  they  approach  this  condition  there  is  a  very  prevalent  desire  on  the 
part  of  the  other  cows  to  ride  upon  them,  and,  what  is  remarkable,  espe- 
cially of  those  yet  uncalved.  As  may  be  supposed,  such  violent  exertions, 
made  on  soft  litter,  are  likely  to  produce  injurious  results  on  the  uncalved 
cows,  by  even  causing  inversion  of  the  calf  in  the  womb,  by  bringing  on 
febrile  action,  or  by  causing  the  slipping  of  the  calf.  The  time  of  the  day 
at  which  cows  in  these  different  conditions  should  go  out,  may  be  left  to 
the  discretion  of  the  cattle-man,  who  should,  however,  keep  this  considera- 
tion in  view,  that  as  cows,  after  having  calved,  become  more  tender  in 
their  habit  than  before,  they  should  enjoy  the  best  part  of  the  day ;  for 
instance,  from  12  to  2  o'clock. 

(1634.)  Coivs  may  be  ascertained  to  be  in  calf  hetweeu  the  fifth  and  sixth 
months  of  their  gestation.  The  calf  quickens  at  between  4  and  5  months  ; 
and  up  to  that  period  no  disagi'eeable  change  has  been  caused  in  the  con- 
stitution of  the  cow  ;  but  from  this  period  she  becomes  subject  to  several 
diseases.  The  calf  may  be  felt,  by  thrusting  the  points  of  the  fingers 
against  the  flank  of  the  cow,  when  a  hard  lump  will  bound  against  the 
abdomen,  and  the  feeling  will  be  communicated  to  the  fingers.  Or  when 
a  pailfull  or  two  oi  cold  water  is  drank  by  the  cow,  the  calf  kicks,  when  a 
convulsive  sort  of  motion  may  be  observed  in  the  flank,  by  looking  at  it 
from  behind,  and,  if  the  open  hand  is  then  laid  upon  the  space  between 
the  flank  and  udder,  this  motion  may  be  most  distinctly  felt.  But  it  is  not 
in  every  circumstance  that  the   calf  can  be  felt  at  so  early  a  period  of  its 

(131) 


84  THE   BOOK   OF  THE   FARM SPRING. 


existence  ;  for  when  it  is  lying  in  a  natural  position  in  the  interior  of  the 
womb  it  cannot  be  felt  at  all ;  and  when  it  lies  near  the  off  or  ri^ht  side 
of  the  cow,  it  is  not  so  easily  felt  as  on  the  opposite  side.  So  that,  al- 
though the  calf  cannot  be  frit  at  that  early  stage,  it  is  no  proof  that  the 
cow  is  not  in  calf.  Some  cow-dealers  show  great  acuteness  in  ascertain- 
ing whether  a  cow  is  in  calf  One,  whom  I  knew,  that  was  bred  a  tailor, 
told  me  tljat  when  a  resinous-looking  substance  could  be  drawn  from  the 
teats  by  stripping  them  firmly,  the  cow  is  sure  to  be  pregnant.  After  this 
period  the  flank  in  the  near  side  fills  up,  and  the  general  enlargement  of 
the  under  part  of  the  abdomen  affords  an  unequivocal  symptom  of  preg- 
nancy. 

(1635.)  The  wnmh  of  the  cow  is  a  bag  of  inegular  form,  having  a  cham- 
ber or  division  attached  to  each  side  called  the  hornx  of  the  icornb,  and  so 
called,  perhaps,  because  of  the  fonn  they  present  in  an  unimpregnated 
state,  of  the  large  curved  horns  of  a  black-faced  tup.  The  womb  consists 
almost  entirely  of  muscular  fibres,  with  a  large  proportion  of  blood-vessels, 
and  of  cellular  matter,  which  admits  of  contraction  and  extension.  Its  ordi- 
nary size  in  a  large  cow  is  about  2^  feet  in  length,  but  when  containing  a 
full-grown  foetus  it  is  7  feet  in  length.  This  is  an  extraordinary  adaptation 
to  circumstances  which  the  womb  possesses,  to  bear  an  expansion  of  7 
feet  from  about  ^  of  that  length,  and  yet  be  capable  of  performing  all  its 
functions.  The  use  of  the  horns  seems  to  be  to  form  a  lair  for  the  calf, 
and  each  is  occupied  by  the  calf  according  to  its  sex.  The  quey-calf  occu- 
pies the  near,  and  the  bull-calf  the  off-side  horn.  So  that  a  quey-calf  is 
more  easily  felt  in  the  younger  stage  than  the  bull-calf;  and  indeed  the 
latter  is  frequently  not  felt  at  all  until  the  seventh  month,  when  other 
symptoms  afford  proofs  of  pregnancy. 

(1636.)  The  exact  time  of  the  cow's  calving  should  be  known  to  the 
cattle-man  as  well  as  by  the  farmer  himself,  for  the  time  when  she  was 
served  by  the  bull  should  have  been  marked  down.  Although  this  last 
circumstance  is  not  a  certain  proof  that  the  cow  is  in  calf,  yet  if  she  passes 
the  period  when  she  should  take  the  bull  again  without  showing  symptoms 
of  season,  it  may  be  safely  inferred  that  she  became  in  calf  at  the  last  serv- 
ing, from  which  date  should  then  be  calculated  the  period  of  gestation,  or 
of  reclconivii,  as  it  is  called.  A  cow  generally  goes  9  months,  or  273  days, 
with  calf,  although  the  calving  is  not  certain  to  a  day.  Nay,  she  sometimes 
goes  as  much  as  3  weeks,  over  her  time,  but  far  more  frequently  only  9 
or  10  days.  When  a  cow  passes  her  reckoning  for  a  number  of  days,  she 
will  be  found  most  commonly  to  bear  a  bull-calf 

(1637.)  Cows  are  most  liable  to  the  coviivg  down  of  the  calf-hed,  to 
which  I  formerly  refened,  (1300,)  when  near  the  period  of  calving,  be- 
tween the  eighth  and  ninth  months,  and,  from  whatever  cause  it  may 
originate,  the  jiosition  of  the  cow  in  which  she  lies  in  her  stall  should  be 
attended  to,  by  keeping  her  hind  part  as  high  as  the  fore,  by  raising  the 
litter.  The  immediate  cause  of  the  protrusion  of  a  part  of  the  womb,  is 
the  pressure  of  the  calfs  fore-feet  and  head  against  that  part  of  it  which 
is  opposite  to  the  vaginal  jiassage,  and  the  protrusion  mostly  occurs  when 
the  calf  is  in  its  natural  jiosition  ;  so  that  no  great  danger  is  to  be  appre- 
hended from  the  protrusion,  although  it  is  better  to  use  means  to  prevent 
its  recurrence,  which  is  an  unnatural  occurrence,  than  to  trust  to  conse- 
quences by  over-confidence. 

(1638.)  Much  more  care  should  be  bestowed  in  administering  food  to 
cows  near  the  time  of  their  reckoning,  than  is  generally  done  ;  and  the  care 
should  be  prf)portioned  to  the  state  of  the  animal's  condition.  When  in 
high   condition,  there   is   much  risk   of  inflammatory  action   at  '.he  time 

(132) 


cows  CALVING,  AND  CALVES.  85 


of  parturition.  It  should,  therefore  be  the  farmer's  care  to  check  cA^ery 
tendency  to  obesity  in  time.  This  may  be  effected  by  giving  fewer  tm-nini 
and  more  fodder  than  the  usual  quantity ;  but  some  cows  when  in  calf,  and 
have  been  long  dry,  will  fatten  on  a  small  allowance  of  turnips ;  and  there 
is  this  disadvantage  of  administering  food  in  too  dry  a  state,  that  it  tends 
to  aggravate  one  of  the  tendencies  of  the  system  you  are  attempting  to 
check,  namely,  the  inflammatory.  Other  means  must  therefore  be  used, 
along  with  a  limited  allowance  of  food,  and,  in  as  far  as  medical  treatment 
can  be  applied  to  the  case,  there  is  nothing  so  safe  as  bleeding  and  laxa- 
tives. "  Every  domestic  animal  like  the  cow,"  observes  a  very  sensible 
writer  on  this  subject,  "  is  to  be  considered  as  by  no  means  living  in  a 
state  of  nature.  Like  man  himself  she  partakes  of  civilized  life,  and  of 
course  is  subjected  to  similar  infirmities  with  the  human  race.  The  time 
of  gestation  is  with  her  a  state  of  indisposition,  and  every  manager  of 
cattle  should  should  be  aware  of  this,  and  treat  her  with  every  attention 
and  care  during  this  time.  The  actual  diseases  of  gestation  are  not 
indeed  numerous,  but  they  are  frequently  very  severe,  and  they  occa- 
sion always  a  tendency  to  slinking,  or  the  cow  slipping  her  calf.  As  the 
weight  of  the  calf  begins  to  increase,  it  will  then  be  necessary  to  take 
some  precautions,  and  these  precautions  will  consist  in  an  attention  to  her 
diet,  air  and  exercise."* 

(1639.)  It  is  the  8th  and  9th  months  that  constitute  the  critical  period  of 
a  cow  in  calf.  The  bulk  and  weight  of  the  fcEtus  cause  disagreeable  sensa- 
tions in  the  cow,  and  frequently  produce  feverish  symptoms,  the  conse- 
quence of  which  is  costiveness.  The  treatment  for  this  is  bleeding  once 
or  twice,  in  proportion  to  the  strength  and  condition  of  the  cow,  and  the 
administering  of  laxative  medicine  and  emollient  drinks,  such  as  a  dose  of 
1  lb. of  Epsom  salts  with  some  cordial  mixture  of  ginger  and  carraway  and 
ti'eacle,  in  a  quart  each  of  warm  gi'uel  and  sound  ale.  Tui'nips,  of  course,  are 
given,  and  they  have  a  laxative  tendency.  Potatoes,  too,  are  recommend- 
ed ;  but  I  confess  I  entirely  object  to  giving  potatoes  to  cows  at  any  time,  be- 
cause of  their  great  tendency  to  produce  hoven,  of  which,  if  an  attack  were 
to  overtake  a  cow  far  advanced  in  calf,  would  either  kill  the  calf  in  the 
w^omb,  or  cause  the  cow  to  slip  it.  Turnips,  though  perhaps  not  of  so  lax- 
ative a  nature  as  potatoes,  are  yet  much  safer  ;  though  it  is  quite  true  that 
Swedish  turnips,  at  the  season  of  the  year  when  cows  calve,  are  solid  in 
their  texture,  and  have  less  sap  in  them,  and  are  therefore  more  binding 
in  their  nature,  but  on  account  of  these  properties  they  are  the  better 
adapted  for  feeding.  In  cases  of  indigestion,  conseqq,ent  on  inflam- 
matory action,  I  have  seen  the  substance  of  this  turnip  in  the  maniplies, 
or  third  stomach,  squeezed  flat  like  the  husks  of  apples  from  a  cider- 
press. 

(1640.)  Having  suffered  the  loss  of  two  or  three  cows  by  costiveness,  im- 
mediately after  calving,  I  was  induced  to  try  oil-cake  as  a  laxative  along 
with  the  Swedish  turnip.  The  cake  was  given  to  the  cows  for  2  months, 
one  before  and  one  after  calving,  and  its  valuable  property  of  keeping  the 
cows  in  a  fine  laxative  state,  and  at  the  same  time  in  high  health,  was  truly 
satisfactory  ;  and  on  continuing  the  practice  every  year  afterward,  a  simi- 
lar mishap  never  overtook  my  cows.  The  quantity  given  to  each  cow  daily 
was  4  lbs.,  at  an  intermediate  time  between  the  feeds  of  turnips.  The  time 
of  giving  it  was  as  regularly  adhered  to  as  that  of  the  turnips,  and  when  the 
hour  arrived,  at  10  o'clock  in  the  forenoon,  for  its  distribution,  every  cow 
expressed  the  gi-eatest  anxiety  for  the   treat.     It   was   broken  to  them  in 

•*  Skellett  on  the  Parturition  of  the  Cow. 
(133) 


86  THE   BOOK   OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


small  pieces  with  a  hammer,  which  is  a  tedious  manner  of  break- 
ing it  when  a  number  of  cattlu  are  supplied  with  it  at  a  time  ;  but  the  pro- 
cess can  be  easily  and  expeditiously  peribrmed  by  the  use  of  the  oil-cake 
breaker,  fip.  264. 

(1641.)  J^iit  the  opposite  state  to  obesity  is  also  to  be  avoided  in  cows 
in  calf,  namely,  that  of  weakness  and  impoverishment  of  condition.  In  such 
a  case,  bleeding  of  course  is  improper,  and  the  cow  should  rather  have  good 
and  nourishing  food,  such  as  mashes  of  boiled  barley,  and  turnips  and  oil- 
cake, not  given  in  large  quantities  at  a  time,  but  frequently  and  moderate- 
ly, with  a  view  of  laying  on  flesh  in  a  gradual  manner,  and  of  avoiding  the 
fatal  tendency  to  plethora.  I  believe  he  who  gives  oil-cake  to  his  cows  be- 
fore and  after  their  calving,  as  I  have  recommended,  need  entertain  no  ap- 
prehension of  their  safety  in  as  far  as  regards  their  calving,  in  whatever 
condition  they  may  happen  to  be,  because  it  proves  a  laxative  to  the  fat, 
and  a  nourishing  article  of  food  to  the  lean  cow,  and  in  both  secures  a  pro- 
per state  of  all  the  parts  connected  with  calving. 

(1642.)  Slinking,  or  slipping  calf,  is  both  a  vexatious  occurrence  and  a 
gi'eat  loss  to  the  breeder  of  stock.  It  is  not  only  a  loss  of  the  calf  itself, 
but  the  want  of  it  makes  a  blank  in  the  number  of  the  lot  to  be  brought 
up  in  the  season,  and  which  must  be  made  up  by  purchase.  And  it  is  a 
very  vexatious  occunence  in  a  cow  that  is  desired  to  be  kept  as  a  brood 
cow,  inasmuch  as  she  never  can  again  be  depended  upon  to  bear  a  living 
calf,  the  probability  being  that  she  will  slip  every  calf  afterward  at  one 
time  or  another  of  her  gestation.  Why  this  should  be,  has  never  been 
satisfactorily  explained,  though  the  fact  is  undoubted.  The  only  plan  for 
the  farmer  to  avoid  a  future  disappointment  by  such  an  untoward  event,  is 
to  draw  the  milk  fiom  the  cow  as  long  as  she  gives  it,  and  then  fatten  her 
for  the  butcher.  I  had  a  very  nne  Short-Honi  cow,  bred  by  myself,  that 
slipped  her  second  calf;  and  not  being  disposed  to  trust  her  again,  fed  her 
off,  when  she  became  extraordinary  fat,  and  yielded  very  superior  meat ;  and 
this  was  the  only  cow  I  ever  had  which  was  a  victim  to  the  complaint  we 
are  speaking  of.  This  is  the  same  cow  that  I  referred  to  before,  as  having 
yielded  so  great  a  quantity  of  tallow,  (1324). 

(1643.)  The  causes  of  this  troublesome  complaint  are  various,  arising 
chiefly,  however,  from  violent  exercise,  the  eflect  of  frights,  bruises,  and 
knocks;  "but,"  says  Skellett,  "a  more  common  cau.se  of  slinking  than  any 
of  them,  and  which  is  peculiar  on  the  influence  of  this  animal,  is  a  dx^-A- 
greea.h\c  nai/.seoys  svicll ;  the  cow  is  remarked  to  prepossess  a  very  nice 
and  delicate  sense  of  smelling,  to  that  degree  that  the  slinking  of  one  cow 
is  apt,  from  this  circumstance,  to  be  communicated  to  a  great  number  of 
the  same  herd  :  it  has  been  often  known  to  spread  like  an  infectious  dis- 
ease, a?id  great  losses  have  been  sufl'ered  by  the  cow-feeders  from  the 
same."*  If  there  is  any  truth  in  the  last  cause  mentioned  in  producing 
the  complaint,  and  which  1  believe  to  be  true,  as  T  knoAv  that  cows  are  en- 
dowed with  a  very  delicate  sense  of  smell,  you  will  recjuire  no  arguments 
to  convince  you  of  the  necessity  of  keeping  everything  in  a  liyre  occupied  by 
breeding-coirs  in  a  clean  and  wholesome  state  ;  to  have  every  particle  of 
filth  removed  daily  from  the  feeding-troughs  before  and  the  urine-gutters 
behind  them;  and  to  have  the  byre  thoroughly  ventilated  when  the  cows 
go  out  to  the  court.  The  same  circumstance  will  show  you  the  propriety 
of  preventing  any  pig  beine^  slaughtered  on  the  litter  on  which  cows  are 
accustomed  to  walk,  and  of  not  allowing  any  animal  to  be  bled,  and  ot 
any  blood  to  be  spilled  near  the  byre.  When  any  of  the  cows  require  bleed 


*  Skellett  on  the  Parturition  of  the  Cow. 
(134) 


cows  CALVING,  AND  CALVES.  87 


ing,  the  operation  should  be  performed  in  a  different  apartment  from  the 
byre. 

(1644.)  Whenever  a  cow  shows  symptoms  of  slinking,  which  may  be  ob- 
served in  the  byre,  but  not  easily  in  the  gcass-field,  she  should  be  removed 
immediately  from  her  companions.  Thejirst  symptoms  are  a  sudden  fill- 
ing of  the  udder  before  the  time  of  reckoning  would  warrant,  a  looseness 
and  flabbiness  and  redness  of,  and  a  yellow  glairy  discharge  from,  the  vagi- 
na, and  a  giving  way  of  the  ligaments  or  couples  on  each  side  of  the  rump. 
When  any  of  these  symptoms  are  observed,  the  cow  should  be  narrowly 
watched,  and  means  of  preventing  slinking  instantly  adopted,  one  of  the 
chief  of  which  is  blood-letting.  This  should  be  followed  by  a  laxative  dose. 
But  these  means  may  prove  ineffective  if  the  symptoms  made  their  appear- 
ance suddenly,  and  went  through  their  course  rapidly,  and  the  calf  be  slip- 
ped after  all. 

(1645.)  The  risk  which  the  cow  runs,  after  slinking,  is  in  not  getting  quit 
of  the  cleaning,  or  afterbirth,  ov  2>lacenta,  because  in  such  a  case  it  is  in  an 
unprej^ared  state  to  separate  from  the  womb.  Should  it  be  retained,  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  corruption  is  apt  soon  to  take  place  in  it,  which  will  produce 
a  very  nauseous  smell,  that  may  remain  for  some  time,  as  the  cleaning  may 
only  pass  away  by  degrees  by  putridity.  Whenever  the  cleaning  does  not 
come  away  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours,  or  at  most  a  day,  the  assistance  of 
the  veterinary  surgeon  should  be  obtained.  The  following  cordial  drink 
will  promote  the  cleansing ;  juniper  berries  3  oz.,  bay  berries  2  oz.,  nitre  1 
oz.,  anise  seed  1  oz.,  gentian  ^  oz.,  gum  myrrh  ^  oz.,  asafetida  ^  oz.,  well 
pounded  togethei%  for  1  dose,  and  given  in  1  quart  of  mild  ale  made  warm 
in  1  quart  of  pennyroyal  tea.  This  drink  should  be  given  fasting,  and  re- 
peated every  day  till  the  cleansing  is  evacuated.* 

(1646.)  After  such  a  mishap  the  cow  should  be  kindly  treated  in  her 
diet,  by  the  administration  of  mashes,  gruels,  and  cordials,  and  her 
bowels  kept  in  an  open  state  at  the  same  time,  until  her  system  recover 
its  tone. 

(1647.)  As  to  the  ^re?7e«^/o«  of  the  recurrence  of  this  vexatious  complaint, 
though  I  believe  that  the  best  thing  for  the  farmer  is  not  to  attempt  any, 
but  just  to  milk  and  fatten  the  cow,  yet  as  a  natural  desire  may  be  felt  to 
retain  a  valuable  and  favorite  cow,  I  shall  mention  some  means  which  may 
be  used,  and  which  may  have  the  effect  of  enabling  the  cow  again  to  bear 
a  living  calf;  and  there  is  certainly  this  inducement  to  try  means,  that  after 
the  womb  has  again  assumed  its  healthfull  tone,  so  as  to  retain  the  foetus  till 
the  proper  time,  there  is  a  probability  of  the  complaint  not  returning,  pro- 
vided the  following  means  are  used  every  season  during  the  period  of  ges- 
tation. Skellett  mentions  these  preventive  measures  :  "  When  a  cow  has 
slipped  her  calf,  in  the  next  gestation  she  should  be  early  bled,  her  body 
should  be  kept  open  by  cooling  physic ;  she  should  not  be  forced  to  take 
any  moi-e  exercise  than  what  is  absolutely  necessary  for  her  health,  and  her 
interfering  with  other  cattle  guarded  against  by  keeping  her  very  much  by 
herself.  At  the  same  time,"  he  adds,  "  it  must  be  observed  that,  though  it 
is  necessary  to  preserve  a  free  state  of  the  bowels,  a  laxity  of  them  will 
often  produce  this  accident  ;  cows  fed  very  much  upon  potatoes,  and  such 
other  watery  food,  are  very  apt  to  slink,  from  their  laxative  effects.  In  the 
food  of  the  cow,  at  this  time,  a  proper  medium  should  be  observed,  and  it 
should  consist  of  a  due  proportion  of  other  vegetable  matter  mixed  with  the 
fodder,  so  as  the  bowels  may  be  kept  regularly  open,  and  no  more."  Our 
author,  however,  does  not  see  that  these  remedial  measures  can  be  very 
useful.     If  the  cow  is  in  high  condition  indeed,  she  should  be  reduced  in 

*  Skellett  on  the  Parturition  of  the  Cow. 
(135) 


88  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

condition  ;  if  she  is  very  low,  she  ought  to  get  nourishing  food  and  strength- 
ening medicines,  and  if  she  is  much  annoyed  by  nauseous  smells,  these 
should  either  be  counteracted,  or  the  cow  withdrawn  from  them.  To  coun- 
teract bad  smells,  Skellett  recommends  the  following  mixture  tt>  be  formed.  . 
and  rubbed  a  little  every  day  on  the  parts  the  cows  commonly  smell  each 
other:  Barbadoes  tar,  3  oz.,  balsam  of  sulphur,  3  oz.,  rectified  oil  of  as;- 
ber,  1  oz.,  fine  oil  of  thyme,  1  oz.  ;  and  animal  oil,  1  oz.  "  Of  what  nature 
that  odor  is,"  continues  Skellett,  "  which  gives  offence,  we  cannot  alto- 
gether be  certain  ;  but  the  author  has  remarked  that  its  effects  occur  at  one 
season  more  than  at  another,  and  particularly  when  the  weather  has  been 
wet,  and  the  cows  have  long  been  kept  at  grass.  From  this  fact,"  he  con- 
cludes, "  it  will  appear  that  the  smell  is  of  a  vegetable  nature,  and  con* 
nected  with  their  feeding  at  that  time."*  It  is  understootl  that  cows 
that  are  fed  in  the  neighborhood  of  and  in  woods,  and  that  live  on  coarse, 
rank  pasture  in  autumn,  are  most  liable  to  this  complaint.  In  Switzer- 
land, the  complaint  increases  after  the  cows  are  put  on  rank  pastures  in 
autumn. 

(1648.)  Though  slinking  is  spoken  of  as  an  infectious  complaint,  it  has 
no  property  in  common  with  any  contagious  disease;  but  sympathetic  in- 
fluence being  a  main  cause  of  it,  its  result  is  as  fatal  as  if  direct  contagion 
had  occasioned  it. 

(1649.)  About  a  fortnight  before  the  time  of  reclionivg,  symptoms  of 
calving  indicate  themselves  in  the  cow.  The  loose  skinny  place  l>etween 
the  vagina  and  udder  becomes  florid  ;  the  vagina  becomes  loose  and  flabby  ; 
the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen  rather  contracts  ;  the  udder  becomes  larger, 
harder,  more  florid,  hotter  to  the  feel,  and  more  tender-looking ;  the  milk- 
veins  along  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen  become  larger,  and  the  cou])ling 
on  each  side  of  the  rump-bones  looser;  and  when  the  couplings  feel  as  if 
a  separation  had  taken  place  of  the  parts  there,  the  cow  should  be  watched 
day  and  night,  for  at  any  hour  afterward  the  pains  of  calvhig  may  come 
upon  her.  From  this  period  the  animal  becomes  easily  excitoil,  and,  on 
that  account,  should  not  be  allowed  to  go  out,  or  be  disturbed  in  the  byre. 
In  some  cases,  these  entire  preparatory  symptoms  succeed  each  other 
rapidly,  in  others  they  follow  slowly  ;  and  the  latter  is  ])articularly  the 
case  with  heifers  with  the  fii"st  calf.  These  symptoms  are  called  sjj?i/iging 
in  England,  and  the  heifers  which  exhibit  them  are  springers. 

(16.';0.)  In  different  parts  of  the  country,  diflcrent  practices  exist  in  re- 
gard to  attending  on  cows  at  calving.  In  the  southern  counties  of  Scot- 
land, thf  shepherd  conceives  it  to  be  his  duty  to  attend  on  the  occasion, 
assisted  by  the  cattle-man,  and  other  men  if  required.  In  the  northern 
counties,  on  the  contrary,  the  calving  is  left  to  women  to  manage.  I  think 
this  difference  in  practice  must  hn\e  ansen  from  the  ihgree  of  assistance 
required  at  the  oporalion.  In  the  southern  counties,  the  large  class  of 
cows  filmost  always  re(]uire  assistatice  in  parturition,  the  neglect  of  which 
might  cause  the  cow  to  sink  from  exhau.stion,  and  the  calf  to  be  strangled 
or  drowned  at  its  birth.  Powerful  assistance  is  sometimes  recpiired  and 
can  only  be  aff'orded  by  men,  the  physical  ability  of  women  being  unequal 
to  the  task.  Indeed,  I  have  witnessed  the  assistance  of  8  men,  in  one 
way  and  another,  tjiven  in  the  extraction  <if  a  calf  coming  e\en  in  a  natural 
position.  The  calf  was  the  first  of  twins,  was  very  large,  and  this  was  ti)e 
first  labor  of  the  heifer.  I  shall  never  forijet  the  distressing  cries  of  the 
poor  creature  when  racked  with  pain,  nor  the  patience  and  sympathy 
evinced  by  all  the  men  who  were  sunnnoned  to  assist.  It  was  an  interest- 
ing case,  conducted   by  an   experienced  .shepherd,  and   lasted    altogether 

*  Skellett  on  the  rnrturilion  of  the  Cow. 
(136) 


cows  CALVING,  AND  CALVES.  89 

about  five  hours.  The  cow  and  calves  were  much  exhausted ;  but  all 
recovered  in  the  course  of  a  few  days.  In  the  northern  counties  cows  are 
not  only  smaller,  but  their  calves  are  smaller  in  proportion,  so  that  most 
cows  calve  without  assistance  ;  and,  therefore,  women  may  manage  both 
cow  and  calf  without  difficulty.  Of  the  two  modes  of  conducting  this 
delicate  and  ofttimes  tedious  operation,  I  should  say  that  it  falls  most  le- 
gitimately under  the  guidance  of  the  shepherd,  who  seems  to  be  the  natural 
guardian  of  all  the  young  stock  brought  forth  on  a  farm  ;  and  where  there 
is  no  shepherd,  the  cattle-man  should  take  the  charge,  the  farmer  himself, 
in  all  cases,  giving  his  sanction  to  the  means  about  to  be  used,  as  it  is  but 
fair  that  he  himself  should  bear  the  heaviest  portion  of  the  responsibility 
connected  with  this  dangerous  procedure. 

(1651.)  There  are  a  few  preparatory  requisites  that  should  be  at  hand 
when  a  cow  is  about  to  calve.  Two  or  three  rein-ropes  are  useful,  to 
fasten  to  the  calf  if  necessary — a  fiat,  soft  rope  being  the  best  form,  but 
common  rein-ropes  will  answer.  A  mat  or  sheeting,  to  receive  the  calf 
upon  in  dropping  from  the  cow,  should  she  be  inclined  to  stand  on  her 
feet  when  she  calves.  The  cattle-man  should  have  a  calf's  crib  in  R,  fig.  3, 
Plate  III,  well  littered.  The  shepherd  should  pare  the  nails  of  his  hands 
close,  in  case  he  should  have  to  introduce  his  arms  into  the  cow  to  adjust 
parts  ;  and  he  should  supply  himself  with  goose-grease  or  hog's  lard  to 
smear  his  hands  and  arms.  Goose-grease  is  best  for  making  the  skin 
smooth,  and  withstanding  evaporation.  It  may  be  that  a  few  sacks 
may  have  to  be  put  under  the  cow  to  elevate  her  hind-quarter,  and  even 
block  and  tackle  may  be  used  to  hoist  her  up  by  the  hind  legs,  in  order  to 
adjust  the  calf  in  the  womb.  These  last  articles  should  be  ready  at  hand 
if  wanted.  A  little  straw  should  be  spread  on  the  floor  of  the  byre,  to 
place  the  new-dropped  calf  upon. 

(1652.)  All  being  thus  prepared,  and  the  byre-door  closed  to  keep  all 
quiet,  the  cow  should  be  attended  to  every  moment.  The  symptoms  of 
calving  are  thus  exactly  described  by  Skellett,  as  they  occur  in  an  easy 
and  ordinary  case.  "  When  the  operation  of  calving  actually  begins,"  he 
says,  "  then  signs  of  uneasiness  and  pain  appear  ;  a  little  elevation  of  the 
tail  is  the  first  mark  ;  the  animal  shifts  about  from  place  to  place,  fre- 
quently getting  up  and  lying  down,  not  knowing  what  to  do  with  herself. 
She  continues  some  time  in  this  state,  till  the  natural  throes  or  pains  come 
on  ;  and  as  these  succeed  each  other  in  regular  progress,  the  neck  of  the 
womb,  or  os  uteri,  gives  way  to  the  action  of  its  bottom  and  of  its  other 
parts.  By  this  action  the  contents  of  the  womb  are  pushed  forward  at 
every  throe  ;  the  water-bladder  begins  to  show  itself  beyond  the  shape, 
and  to  extend  itself  till  it  becomes  the  size  of  a  large  bladder,  containing 
several  gallons  ;  it  then  bursts,  and  its  contents  are  discharged,  consisting 
of  the  liquor  amnios,  in  which,  during  gestation,  the  calf  floats,  and  which 
now  serves  to  lubricate  the  parts,  and  render  the  passage  of  the  calf  easier. 
After  the  discharge  of  the  water,  the  body  of  the  womb  contracts  rapidly 
upon  the  calf;  in  a  few  succeeding  throes  or  pains,  the  head  and  feet  of 
it,  the  presenting  parts,  are  protruded  externally  beyond  the  shape.  The 
body  next  descends ;  and  in  a  few  pains  the  delivery  of  the  calf  is  com- 
pli'te."*  The  natural  and  easy  calving  now  described  is  usually  over  in 
2  hours,  though  sometimes  it  is  protracted  5  or  6,  and  even  so  long  as  12 
hours,  particularly  when  the  water  has  been  easily  evacuated,  or  the  water- 
bhuhlcr  has  broken  before  being  protruded  beyond  the  shape  or  vaefina. 

(165.3.)  But  although  the  calf  may  present  itself  as  here  described  in  its 
natural  position,  wdth  both  its  fore-feet  projecting,  its  chin  lying  on  both 

•  Skellett  on  the  Parturition  of  the  Cow. 
(137) 


90  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

fore-legs,  and  the  point  of  the  tongue  sticking  out  of  the  side  of  the  mouth, 
it  may  not  be  extracted  without  assistance  ;  and  as  the  feet  of  the  calf  are 
too  slippery  to  be  retaint-d  liold  of  by  the  hands,  a  rein-rope  is  doubled, 
and  a  foidine:  loop  at  the  dttuble  is  passed  up  above  each  fetlock  joint, 
whence  the  double  rope  from  each  leg  is  ready  to  be  taken  hold  of  by  the 
assistants.  The  pull  should  only  be  given  at  each  time  the  cow  j)resses  to 
get  quit  of  the  calf,  and  it  should  be  steady  but  firm,  in  a  direction  down* 
from  the  back  of  the  cow  ,  and  a  little  more  than  sufficiently  strong  to  keep 
good  whatever  advance  the  calf  may  have  made.  Meantime  the  shepherd 
endeavors  to  relax  the  skin  of  the  cow  around  the  calf's  head,  by  manipu- 
lation, as  well  as  by  anointing  with  goose-grease,  his  object  being  to  pass 
the  skin  over  the  cantle  of  the  calf,  and  when  this  is  accomplished,  the 
whole  body  may  be  drawn  gently  out.  In  obstinate  cases  of  this  kind,  a 
looped  rope  may  be  passed  across  the  mouth  of  the  calf  round  the  under- 
jaw,  which  will  facilitate  the  passage  of  the  head  ;  but  this  should  not  be 
resorted  to  but  on  necessity,  the  cord  being  apt  to  injure  the  tender  mouth. 

(16.54.)  On  the  extrusion  of  the  calf,  the  first  symptom  it  shows  of  life  is 
a  few  gasps  which  set  the  lungs  in  play,  and  then  it  opens  its  eyes,  and 
tries  to  shake  its  head,  and  sneer  with  its  nose.  The  breathing  is  assisted 
if  the  viscid  fluid  is  i-emoved  by  the  hand  from  the  mouth  and  nostrils  ;  and 
the  thin  membrane  which  envelops  the  body  in  the  womb  should  now  be 
removed,  much  torn  as  it  has  been  in  the  process  of  parturition.  The  calf 
is  then  carried  by  two  men,  suspended  by  the  legs,  with  the  head  held  up 
between  the  fore-legs,  and  the  back  downward,  to  its  comfortably  littered 
crib,  where  we  shall  leave  it  for  the  present  to  attend  still  farther  on  its 
mother. 

(1655.)  The  presentation  is  sometimes  made  with  the  h inci -feet  foremost . 
At  first  the  hind-feet  are  not  easily  distinguished  from  the  fore,  but  if  a 
hind  presentation  is  made  in  the  natural  position  of  the  body,  that  is,  with 
the  back  uppermost,  the  hind-feet  will  be  in  an  inverted  position  to  the 
fore,  that  is,  the  soles  will  be  found  uppermost  instead  of  the  hoofs.  There 
is  no  difficulty  with  a  hind  presentation,  only  it  should  be  ascertained  that 
the  tail  is  in  its  natural  position,  and  not  folded  up,  before  the  legs  are 
pulled  out.  The  first  obstructing  point  is  the  rump,  and  then  the  tliickest 
part  of  the  shoulder.  On  drawing  out  the  head,  and  coming  last,  it  should 
lie  pulled  away  quickly,  in  case  the  calf  should  give  a  gasp  for  air  at  the 
moment  of  leaving  the  cow,  when  it  may  inhale  some  of  the  water  instead 
of  air,  and  run  the  risk  of  choking.  The  mouth  and  nose  should  be  wiped 
immediately. 

(1656.)  Some  have  a  custom,  which  is  particularly  practiced  by  women, 
to  ruV)  the  skin  of  the  new-dropped  calf  with  a  wisp  of  straw,  but  such  a 
species  of  dressing  should  not  be  allowed,  as  it  serves  only  to  agglutinate 
the  hair  with  the  licpior  amnios  which  is  brought  along  with  it.  If  left  to 
itself,  the  li(]uor  evaporates  in  a  short  time  and  loaves  the  hair  diy ;  but 
while  the  evaporation  is  proceeding  the  calf  trembles,  no  doubt  from  feel- 
ing it  cold,  and  on  this  account,  if  for  no  other,  the  litter  in  which  it  is  first 
laid  should  be  soft,  clean,  and  amply  siifficient  to  bury  its  body  out  of  sight. 
I  may  mention,  however,  that  the  trembling  is  considered  a  hajipy  symp- 
tom of  the  strength  of  the  calf 

(1657.)  All  yet  has  been  easily  managed,  when  the  cow  lies  still  in  her 
stall,  with  plenty  of  straw  around  and  behind  her  hind-quarter;  but  some 
cows  are  f»f  so  restless  a  disposition  that  they  will  not  lie  still  to  calve,  and 
whenever  the  pains  seize  them,  up  they  start  to  their  feet,  and  when  they 
cease  lie  down  again.  Such  a  cow  is  troublesome  to  deal  with,  as  it  is 
scarcely  possible,  by  reason  of  her  risings  up  and  lyings  down,  to  ascertain 

(138) 


cows   CALVING,  AND  CALVES.  91 

the  true  position  of  the  calf,  especially  when  it  does  not  present  itself  in 
the  natural  position.  In  such  a  case,  it  is  the  more  necessary  to  extract 
che  calf  energetically,  and  remove  the  uneasiness  of  the  cow,  for,  till  she 
gets  quit  of  it,  she  will  not  settle  in  one  position  or  another.  When  the 
calf  is  so  near  the  external  air  as  to  enable  the  operator  to  get  the  ropes 
round  its  legs,  whether  fore  or  hind,  and  a  gentle  pulling  commenced,  to 
fix  her  attention  to  the  object  in  view,  she  will  press  with  great  force,  the 
standing  position  giving  her  additional  advantage,  so  that  the  extraction 
of  the  calf,  in  such  a  case,  is  generally  the  most  expeditious.  As  in  this 
position  of  the  cow  the  calf  will  have  to  fall  from  a  considerable  hight  to 
the  ground,  and  may  thereby  be  hurt,  it  is  necessary  to  be  provided  with 
a  mat  or  chaff-sheet,  which  two  men  hold  below  the  body  of  the  calf, 
ready  to  receive  the  body  upon  it  when  it  leaves  the  cow.  I  had  a  Short- 
Horn  cow  that  was  very  troublesome  at  calving,  lemaining  but  a  short 
time  up  or  down,  and  being  the  whole  time  in  the  greatest  state  of  excite- 
ment. She  always  stood  to  calve,  but  when  the  process  was  actually  be- 
gun she  pressed  with  so  much  vigor  that  she  got  quit  of  it  in  a  few  minutes. 
Upon  one  occasion,  after  the  water  had  come  from  her,  the  shepherd  was 
preparing  the  ropes  to  be  in  readiness  in  case  they  should  be  required  ; 
but  while  employed  at  them,  and  within  a  couple  of  yards  from  the  cow  • 
in  her  stall,  she  gave  such  a  powerful  press  as  to  project  the  calf  from  her, 
and  it  fell  upon  the  floor,  but  luckily  upon  the  very  straw  that  had  been 
laid  down  to  receive  it.  This  instance  shows  the  necessity  of  careful 
watchfulness  on  cows. after  symptoms  of  actual  calving  have  begun,  as  in 
such  a  case  as  I  have  just  narrated,  entire  neglect  might  afterward  have 
found  the  calf  killed  or  injured  by  the  heavy  fall  it  had  received. 

(1658.)  Some  calves,  though  extracted  with  apparent  ease,  appear  as  if 
dead  when  laid  upon  the  straw  after  birth.  When  such  a  case  occurs,  the 
hand  should  be  placed  against  the  side  of  the  breast,  to  ascertain  if  the 
heart  beats  ;  which,  if  it  does,  there  is  of  course  life,  and  all  that  is  want- 
ed is  to  inflate  the  lungs.  To  accomplish  this,  the  mouth  and  nose  should 
be  cleaned,  the  mouth  opened,  and  if  there  still  be  no  breathing,  some  one 
should  blow  steadily  into  the  open  mouth,  a  device  which  I  have  seen  an- 
swer the  purpose  ;  as  also  a  hearty  slap  of  the  open  hand  upon  the  but- 
tock of  the  calf,  which  starts  it,  as  it  were,  into  being.  Perhaps  a  bellows 
might  be  usefully  employed  in  such  a  case,  to  inflate  the  lungs.  Should 
no  beating  of  the  heart  be  felt,  and  yet  consciousness  of  life  seem  to  be 
there,  the  calf  should  be  carried  without  delay  to  its  crib,  and  laid  down 
and  covered  up  with  the  litter,  leaving  the  mouth  free  to  breathe,  and  it 
may  survive  ;  but  even  after  giving  a  few  gasps,  it  may  die.  Most  proba- 
bly the  cause  of  its  death  may  be  from  injury  it  had  received  in  calving, 
such  as  long  detention  in  the  vaginal  passage,  or  an  undue  squeeze  in  pass- 
ing through  the  mouth  of  the  womb,  or  by  some  rashness  of  the  operator. 
The  body  of  the  calf  when  thus  lost  should  be  skinned  while  warm ;  it 
should  be  cut  in  pieces,  and  buried  in  compost  for  manure,  and  the  skin 
sold. 

(1659.)  The  difficult  cases  of  presentation  which  usually  occur  are  with 
one  foot  and  the  head,  and  the  other  foot  drawn  back,  either  with  the  leg 
folded  back  altogether,  or  the  knee  doubled  and  projecting  forward.  In 
all  of  these  states  the  missing  leg  should  be  brought  forward.  To  effect 
this,  it  is  necessary  to  put  round  the  presented  foot  a  cord  to  keep  it  with- 
in the  power  of  the  operator  when  the  head  is  pushed  back  to  get  at  the 
other  foot,  and  the  greased  arm  of  the  operator  introduced,  and  the  foot 
brought  forward  into  the  passage  beside  the  other.  A  calf  may  be  ex- 
tracted with  one  leg  folded  entirely  back  alongside  the  body,  and  on  feeling 

(139)  ^  o 


92  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

this  to  be  the  case,  it  is  perhaps  better  to  extract  the  calf  at  cnce,  than  to 
delay  the  parturitittn  in  attemptiiiir  to  biiuj;  forward  tlie  leg.  The  pre- 
sentation may  be  of  the  head  alone  without  the  feet,  which  may  be 
knuckled  forward  at  the  knees,  or  folded  back  along  both  sides.  In  the 
knuckled  case  both  legs  may  be  brought  forward  by  first  pushing  the  head 
back,  but,  in  case  of  losing  hold  of  the  calf  altogether,  a  loop  should  be 
put  in  the  calf's  mouth.  In  the  folded  case,  one  leg  at  least,  but  both  if 
possible,  should  be  brought  forward.  A  worse  case  is,  when  one  or  both 
legs  are  presented  and  the  head  folded  back  into  the  side.  In  this  case 
the  calf  will  most  likely  be  dead.  The  head  should  be  brought  forward, 
and  both  legs,  if  possible.  It  may  be  beyond  the  strength  of  the  opera- 
tor to  bring  forward  the  head  ;  then  he  should  put  a  loop  into  the  calf's 
mouth,  by  which  his  assistants  will  pull  forward  the  head.  Still  worse 
cases  may  occur,  such  as  a  presentation  of  the  shoulder,  with  the  head 
lyine  into  the  side  ;  a  presentation  of  the  buttock,  with  both  the  hind  legs 
stretched  inward.  Or  the  calf  may  be  on  its  back,  and  making  presenta- 
tions in  all  the  worst  features  now  enumerated.  In  whichever  of  these 
states  the  calf  may  present  itself,  no  extraction  can  safely  take  place  until 
it  is  placed  in  a  position  by  which  the  head  and  one  of  the  legs,  with  the 
other  folded  entirely  back,  oi-  both  the  hind  legs,  with  the  back  tunied  up- 
permost, are  secured.  In  no  case,  however,  should  a  fore  or  hind  leg  be 
left  so  as  not  only  to  obstruct  the  body  in  leaving  the  mouth  of  the  womb, 
but  a  foot  left  so  much  at  liberty  as  to  tear  the  womb.  The  safest  prac- 
tice, therefore,  is  to  secure  both  legs  as  well  as  the  head.  This  may  cause 
the  operator  considerable  trouble,  but  by  retaining  hold  of  what  parts  he 
can  with  cords,  and  dexterity  in  handling  the  part  missing,  so  as  to  bring 
it  forward  to  the  passage,  while  the  assistants  pull  as  he  desires,  his  object 
will  in  most  cases  be  attained  ;  but  it  should  be  home  in  mind  that  none 
of  all  these  objects  can  be  attained  but  by  the  assistance  of  the  cow  herself; 
that  is  to  say,  they  should  only  be  attempted  when  seconded  by  the  throes 
of  the  animal.  If  this  circumstance  is  not  attended  to  and  patiently 
watched  by  the  operator,  the  muscular  gi-asp  of  the  womb  will  render  his 
arm  powerless.  Another  facility  that  should  be  taken  advantage  of  by 
the  operator  is,  that  when  the  hind-quarters  of  the  cow  have  an  inclination 
downward  she  has  the  power  to  press  the  stronger,  and  of  course  to  coun- 
teract his  efforts  the  more  easily.  "What  should  l>e  done,  therefore,  is  to 
raise  that  quarter  of  the  cow  with  bundles  of  straw  fully  higher  than  the 
fore-quarter,  until  he  has  got  the  calf  in  the  position  he  desires,  and  then, 
by  lettini:^  the  cow  down  again,  and  watching  her  pressings  and  assisting 
her  at  the  same  time,  but  not  otlierwise,  the  extraction  may  be  accom- 
plished in  a  reasonable  time.  As  to  block  and  tackle,  the  expedient 
should  never  be  resorted  to  but  to  save  the  life  of  the  cow,  and  as  to  turn- 
ing the  calf  in  the  womb,  there  is  far  more  danger  in  the  attempt  of  injur- 
ing the  womb  than  the  value  of  the  calf  is  worth.  Much  rather  destroy  it 
and  cut  it  away  in  piece.s,  than  run  the  risk  of  losing  the  cow.  When  the 
head  only  of  the  calf  has  found  its  way  into  the  mouth  of  the  womb,  and 
cannot  be  protruded  through  the  vagina,  by  reason  of  the  unfavorable  and 
obstructive  position  of  the  fore-legs,  an  inspection  should  immediately  be 
made  of  the  position  of  the  calf,  by  first  throwing  the  head  back  with  a 
loop  in  the  mouth,  and  bringing  the  legs  forward.  When  this  inspection 
has  been  too  l«)ntr  delayed,  and  the  head  kept  confined  in  the  passage,  the 
violent  throes  of  the  cow  will  certainly  strangle  the  calf,  and  its  head  will 
swell  to  an  inordinate  dejn'ee.  In  such  a  case,  as  the  swelling  will  pre- 
vent the  calf's  head  being  pushed  back  to  get  at  the  legs,  it  must  be  taken 
off,  the  legs  brought  forward,  and  the  body  then  extracted.     One  of  the 

(UO)  ° 


cows  CALVING,  AND  CALVES.  93 

most  difficult  cases  is,  when  the  fore-feet  are  presented  naturally,  and  the 
head  is  thrust  down  upon  the  brisket  between  the  legs.  The  feet  must 
first  be  pushed  back,  and  then  the  head  brought  up  and  forward,  and  the 
extraction  will  then  become  natural. 

(1660.)  A  skillful  shepherd  may  be  able  to  manage  all  these  difficult 
cases  within  a  reasonable  time  ;  but  unless  he  is  particularly  dexterous  at 
cases  of  parturition,  it  is  much  safer  to  obtain  the  advice  of  a  veterinary 
sui-geon,  even  although  he  should  not  be  required  to  put  a  hand  to  the 
operation  himself.  In  the  ease  of  exti'acting  monstrosities,  his  assistance 
is  indispensable. 

(1661.)  In  regard  to  extracting  twin  calves,  before  rendeiing  the  cow 
any  assistance,  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  that  the  calves  have  made  a 
proper  presentation  ;  that  they  are  free  of  each  other;  that  one  member 
of  the  one  is  not  interlaced  with,  or  presented  at  the  same  time  with,  that 
of  the  other.  When  they  are  quite  separated,  then  each  can  be  treated 
according  to  its  own  case. 

(1662.)  Calving  in  a  byre  does  not  seem  to  produce  any  disagreeable 
sensations  in  the  other  cows,  as  they  express  no  suipiise  or  uneasiness  in 
regard  to  what  is  going  on  beside  them.  When  the  cow  gives  vent  to  pain- 
ful cries,  which  is  rarely,  the  others  no  doubt  express  a  sympathy  ;  and 
when  the  calf  is  cari'ied  away,  they  may  exhibit  some  restlessness  ;  but 
any  commotion  arising  from  these  circumstances  soon  subsides.  But  if  a 
difficult  labor  is  apprehended,  it  is  better  for  the  cows,  and  also  for  the 
cow  herself,  that  she  be  delivered  in  another  apartment,  well  littered, 
where  the  operator  and  his  assistants  can  have  free  access  to  her. 

(1663.)  A  notion  exists  in  some  parts  of  England,  that  a  cow,  when 
seized  with  the  pains  of  labor,  should  be  made  to  move  about,  and  not 
allowed  to  lie  still,  though  inclined  to  be  quiet.  "  This  proceeds  from  an 
erroneous  idea,"  Skellett  well  remarks,  "  that  she  will  calve  much  easier, 
and  with  less  danger  ;  but  so  far  from  this  being  the  case,  the  author  has 
known  a  great  many  instances  where  the  driving  has  proved  the  death  of 
the  animal  by  overheating  her,  and  thus  producing  inflammation,  and  aK 
its  bad  consequences.  Every  rational  man  will  agree  in  opinion  with  the 
author,  that  the  above  practice  is  both  cruel  and  inconsistent  in  the  ex- 
treme ;  and  this  is  confirmed  by  what  he  has  noticed,  that  the  animal  her- 
self, as  soon  as  the  pains  of  calving  come  on,  immediately  leaves  the  rest 
of  the  rest  of  the  herd  and  retires  to  some  corner  of  the  field,  or  under  a 
hedge,  in  order  to  prevent  the  other  cows,  or  anything  else,  coming  near, 
that  may  disturb  her  in  bringing  forward  her  young."*  In  short,  too  much 
gentleness  cannot  be  shown  to  cows  when  calving,  and  they  cannot  be  too 
strictly  guarded  against  eveiy  species  of  disturbance.  The  shepherd  will 
not  allow  even  his  dog  to  enter  the  byre  when  calving  is  going  on. 

(1664.)  The  afterbirth,  or  placenta,  does  not  come  away  with  the  calf,  a 
portion  of  it  being  suspended  from  the  cow.  It  is  got  quit  of  by  the  cow 
by  pressing,  and,  when  the  parturition  has  been  natural  and  easy,  it  seldom 
remains  with  her  longer  than  from  1  to  7  hours.  In  bad  cases  of  labor  it 
may  remain  longer,  and  may  only  come  away  in  pieces  ;  but  when  it  re- 
mains too  long  and  is  sound,  its  separation  will  be  assisted  by  attaching  a 
small  weight  to  it,  say  of  2  lbs.,  which,  with  its  continued  force,  and  occa- 
sional pressing  from  the  cow,  will  cause  it  to  drop.  The  usual  custom  is 
to  throw  the  afterbirth  upon  the  dunghill,  or  it  is  covered  up  with  the  litter  ; 
but  it  should  not  be  allowed  to  lie  so  accessible  to  every  dog  and  pig  that 
may  choose  to  dig  it  up.  Nay,  pigs  have  been  known  almost  to  choke 
themselves  with  it.     Such   a  custom   is   disgusting,  and  should  be  put  an 

*  Skellett  on  the  Parturition  of  the  Cow. 
(141) 


94  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

end  to.     Let  the  substance  be  buried  in  a  compost-heap,  and  if  there  ia 

none  such  on  the  farm,  let  it  rather  he  l)uricd  in  the  earth  than  exposed 
to  he  used  in  tliat  manner.  The  uml>iHcal  cord  or  navel  string  breaks  in 
the  act  of  parturition. 

(1665.)  Should  the  cow  seem  exhausted  by  the  protracted  state  of  calving, 
she  may  be  supported  with  a  warm  drink  of  gruel,  containing  a  bottle  of 
sound  ale ;  and  should  she  be  too  sick  or  indifferent  to  drink  it  herself,  it 
should  be  administered  to  her  with  the  drinking-honi,  (1407.)  After  the  byre 
has  been  cleansed  of  the  impurities  of  calving,  and  a  supply  of  fresh  litter  intro- 
duced, the  cow,  naturally  feeling  a  strong  thirst  upon  her  from  the  exertion, 
should  receive  a  warm  drink.  I  don't  know  a  better  one  than  warm  water, 
with  a  few  handsfull  of  oatmeal  stirred  in  it,  and  seasoned  with  a  handfull 
of  salt,  and  this  she  will  drink  up  greedily  ;  but  a  pailfull  is  enough  at  a 
time,  and  it  may  be  renewed  in  a  shoit  time  after,  should  she  express  a  de- 
sire for  it.  This  drink  should  be  given  her  for  two  or  three  days  after  calv- 
ing, in  lieu  of  cold  water,  and  mashes  of  boiled  barley  and  gruel  should  be 
made  for  her,  in  lieu  of  cold  turnips ;  but  the  oil-cake  should  not  be  forgot- 
ten, as  it  acts  at  this  critical  peiiod  as  an  excellent  emollient.  A  very  com 
mon  practice  is  to  give  a  cow  barley  in  the  sheaf  to  eat,  and  even  raw 
barley,  when  there  is  no  barley  in  the  straw,  and  sometimes  a  few  sheaves 
are  kept  for  the  express  pui-jiose ;  and  barley-chaff  is  given  where  people 
grudge  to  part  with  good  barley.  Though  so  very  common,  the  practice 
is  a  very  objectionable  one,  for  nothing  could  be  proposed  that  would 
cause  indigestion  so  readily  as  raw  barley  or  barley-straw  at  the  time  of 
calving,  when  the  tone  of  the  stomach  is  impaired  by  excitement,  and  it 
may  be  by  fever.  Boiled  barley,  or  any  other  mucilaginous  drink,  is  quite 
safe,  but  a  substance  that  can  hardly  fail  to  irritate  and  inflame  the  stom- 
ach is  most  injudiciously  applied  in  the  circumstances.  In  fact,  nothing 
should  be  given  to  a  cow  at  this  time  of  an  astnngent  nature,  but  rather 
everything  of  a  laxative  quality. 

(1G66.)  It  is  desirable  to  milk  the  new-calved  cow,  as  soon  as  convenient 
for  her,  as,  whether  the  labor  has  been  difficult  or  easy,  the  withdrawal 
of  milk  affords  relief  It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  an  uneasiness  is 
felt  in  the  udder  before  calving,  and  should  it  increase  while  the  symptoms 
of  calving  are  long  delayed,  the  cow  may  experience  considerable  incon- 
venience, especially  if  the  flush  of  milk  has  been  sudden.  The  causes  of 
uneasiness  are  an  unequal  hardness  in  the  udder  and  there  is  a  heat,  florid- 
ness  and  tenderness  all  over  it.  Fomentation  with  warm  water  twice  or 
thrice  a  day,  continued  for  half  an  hour  at  a  time,  followed  by  gentle  rub- 
bing with  a  soft  hand,  and  anointing  with  goose-grease,  will  tend  to  allay 
irritation.  In  the  case  of  heifers  with  the  first  calf,  the  uneasiness  is  some- 
times so  great  during  the  protracted  symptoms  of  calving,  as  to  warrant 
the  withdrawal  of  milk  before  calving.  Should  the  above  remedial  meas- 
ures fail  to  give  relief,  the  great  heat  in  the  udder  may  cause  direct  inflam- 
mation, and  consequent  suppuration.  To  avert  such  an  issue,  the  uneasi- 
ness should  not  be  neglected  from  the  first  moment  it  is  observed,  as 
neglect  may  allow  the  complaint  to  proceed  so  far  as  to  injure  the  structure 
of  a  portion  if  not  the  whole  of  the  udder. 

(1667.)  Milliivf^  is  performed  in  two  ways,  stripping  and  nievling. 
Sfrippi/ie  consists  of  seizing  the  teat  firmly  near  the  root  between  the  face 
of  the  thumb  and  the  side  of  the  fore-finger,  the  length  of  the  teat  passing 
through  the  other  fingers,  and  in  milking  the  hand  passes  down  the  entire 
length  of  the  teat,  causing  the  milk  to  flow  out  of  its  point  in  a  forcible 
stream.  The  action  is  renewed  by  acjain  quickly  elevating  the  hand  to  the 
root  of  the  teat.     Both  hands  are  employed  at  the  operation,  each  having 

(142) 


cows  CALVING,  AND   CALVES.  95 

hold  of  a  different  teat,  and  moved  alternately.  The  two  nearest  teats  are 
first  milked  and  then  the  two  farthest.  Nievling,  or  handling,  is  done  by 
grasping  the  teat  round  at  its  root  with  the  fore-finger  like  a  hoop, 
assisted  by  the  thumb,  which  lies  horizontally  over  the  fore-finger,  the 
rest  of  the  teat  being  also  seized  by  the  other  fingers.  Milk  is  drawn  by 
pressing  upon  the  entii-e  length  of  the  teat  in  alternate  jerks  with  the  en- 
tire palm  of  the  hand.  Both  hands  being  thus  employed,  are  made  to 
press  alternately,  but  so  quickly  following  each  other  that  the  alternate 
streams  of  milk  sound  to  the  ear  like  one  forcible,  continued  stream.  This 
continued  stream  is  also  produced  by  stripping.  Stripping,  then,  is  per- 
formed by  pressing  and  passing  certain  fingers  along  the  teat ;  nievling  by 
the  whole  hand  doubled,  or  Jist,  pressing  the  teat  steadily  at  one  place. 
Hence  the  origin  of  both  names. 

(1668.)  Of  the  two  modes,  I  prefer  the  nievling,  because  it  appears  to 
me  to  be  the  more  natural  method,  inasmuch  as  it  imitates  the  sucking  of 
a  calf.  When  a  calf  takes  a  teat  into  its  mouth,  it  makes  the  tongue  and 
palate,  by  which  it  seizes  it,  play  upon  the  teat  by  alternate  pressures  or 
pulsations,  while  retaining  the  teat  in  the  same  position.  It  is  thus  obvious 
that  nievling  is  somewhat  like  sucking,  whereas  stripping  is  not  at  all 
like  it.  It  is  said  that  stripping  is  good  for  agitating  the  udder,  the  agi- 
tation of  which  is  conducive  to  the  withdrawal  of  a  large  quantity  of  milk ; 
but  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  dairy-maid  agitating  the  udder  as  much 
as  she  pleases,  while  holding  the  teats  in  nievling.  Indeed  a  more  constant 
agitation  could  be  kept  up  in  that  way  by  the  vibrations  of  the  arms  than 
by  stripping.  Stripping,  by  using  an  unconstrained  pressure  upon  two 
sides  of  the  teat,  is  much  more  apt  to  press  it  unequally,  than  by  grasping 
the  whole  teat  in  the  palm  of  the  hand ;  while  the  friction  occasioned  by 
passing  the  finger  and  thumb  fiiTnly  over  the  outside  of  the  teat,  is  more 
likely  to  excite  heat  and  irritation  in  it  than  a  steady  and  full  grasp  of 
the  entire  hand.  To  show  that  this  friction  causes  an  unpleasant  feel- 
ing even  to  the  dairy-maid,  she  is  obliged  to  lubricate  the  teat  frequently 
with  milk,  and  to  wet  it  at  first  with  water ;  whereas  nievling  requires  no 
such  expedients.  And  as  a  farther  proof  that  stripping  is  a  mode  of  milk- 
ing which  may  give  pain  to  the  cow,  it  cannot  be  employed  when  the  teats 
are  chapped,  or  when  these  and  the  udder  are  affected  with  the  cow-pox, 
with  so  much  ease  to  the  cow  as  nievling.  This  difference  I  saw  strikingly 
exemplified  one  summer,  when  all  my  cows  were  affected  with  the  cow- 
pox,  and  when  the  assistant,  who  could  only  milk  by  stripping,  was  obliged 
to  relinquish  her  duty  till  the  cows  were  so  far  recovered  as  to  be  again 
able  to  endui'e  her  mode  of  milking. 

(1669.)  Milking  should  be  done  fast,  to  draw  away  the  milk  as  quickly 
as  possible,  and  it  should  be  continued  as  long  as  there  is  a  drop  of  milk  to 
bring  away.  This  is  an  issue  which  the  dairy-maid  cannot  too  particularly 
attend  to  herself,  or  see  it  attended  to  by  those  who  assist  her.  Old  milk 
left  in  the  receptacle  of  the  teat  soon  changes  into  a  curdy  state,  and  the 
caseous  matter  not  being  at  once  removed  by  the  next  milking,  is  apt  to 
irritate  the  lining  membrane  of  the  teat  during  the  operation,  especially 
when  the  teat  is  forcibly  rubbed  down  between  the  finger  and  thumb  in 
stripping.  The  consequence  of  this  repeated  imtation  is  the  thickening 
of  the  lining  membrane,  which  at  length  becomes  so  hardened  as  to  close 
up  the  small  orifice  at  the  point  of  the  teat.  The  hardened  membrane  may 
easily  be  felt  from  the  outside  of  the  teat,  when  the  teat  is  said  to  be  corded. 
After  this  the  teat  becomes  deaf,  and  no  more  milk  can  afterward  be  drawn 
from  the  quarter  of  the  udder  to  which  the  corded  teat  is  attached. 

(1670.)   The  milking-pail  is  of  various  forms  and  of  various  materials. 

1143) 


96  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

The  Dutch  have  brass  ones,  which  are  brilliantly  scoured  every  time  they 
are  in  use.  Tin  pitchers  are  used  in  some  parts,  while  pails  of  wood  in 
cooper-work  are  employed  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  A  pail  of  oak 
having  thin  staves  hound  together  with  bright  iron  hoops,  with  a  handle 
formed  by  a  stave  projecting  upward,  is  convenient  for  milking  in,  and 
may  be  kept  clean  and  sweet.  One  nine  inches  in  diameter  at  the  bottom, 
11  inches  at  the  top,  and  ten  inches  deep,  with  an  upright  handle  (tv  lug 
of  5  inches,  has  a  capacious  enough  mouth  to  receive  the  milk  as  it  de- 
scends ;  and  a  sufficient  hight.  when  standing  on  the  edge  of  its  bottom 
on  the  ground,  to  allow  the  dairy-maid  to  grasp  it  firmly  with  her  knees 
while  sitting  on  a  small  three-legged  stool.  Of  course  the  pail  cannot  be 
milked  full;  but  it  should  be  as  large  as  to  contain  all  the  milk  that  a  single 
cow  can  give  at  a  milking ;  because  it  is  undesirable  to  rise  from  a  cow 
before  the  milking  is  finished,  or  to  exchange  one  dish  for  another  while 
the  milking  is  unfinished. 

(1671.)  The  cow  being  a  sensitive  and  capricious  creature,  is  so  easily 
offended  that  if  the  dairy-maid  rise  from  her  before  the  milk  is  all  with- 
drawn, the  chances  are  she  will  not  again  stand  quietly  at  that  milking  ; 
or  if  the  vessel  used  in  milking  is  taken  away  and  another  substituted  in 
its  place,  before  the  milking  is  finished,  the  probability  is  that  she  will 
hold  her  milk — that  is,  not  allow  it  to  flow.  This  is  a  curious  propeity 
which  cows  possess,  of  holding  up  or  keejiing  back  their  milk.  How  it  is 
effected  has,  I  believe,  never  been  ascertained ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  of  the 
fact  that  when  a  cow  becomes  irritated,  or  frightened  by  any  cause,  she 
can  withhold  her  milk.  Of  course,  all  cows  are  not  affected  in  the  same 
degree,  but  as  a  proof  how  sensitive  cows  generally  are,  I  believe  that  very 
few  will  be  milked  so  freely  by  a  stranger  the  first  time  as  by  one  to 
whom  they  have  been  accustomed. 

(1672.)  There  is  one  side  of  a  cow  which  is  usually  called  the  milking 
side — that  is,  the  cow's  left  side — because,  somehow,  custom  has  estab- 
lished the  practice  of  milking  her  from  that  side.  It  may  have  been 
adopted  for  two  reasons  :  one,  because  we  are  accustomed  to  approach  all 
the  larger  domesticated  animals  by  what  we  call  the  near  side — that  is, 
the  animal's  left  side — as  being  the  most  convenient  one  for  ourselves  ;  and 
the  other  reason  may  have  been,  that,  as  most  people  are  right-handed, 
and  the  common  use  of  the  right  hand  has  made  it  the  stronger,  it  is  most 
conveniently  employed  in  milking  the  hinder  teats  of  the  cow,  which 
are  often  most  difficult  to  reach  because  of  the  position  of  the  hind  legs, 
of  the  length  of  the  hinder  teats,  or  of  the  breadth  of  the  hinder  part  of  the 
udder.  The  near  side  is  most  commonly  used  in  Scotland,  but  in  many 
parts  of  England  the  other  side  is  preferred.  Whichever  side  is  selected, 
that  should  always  be  used,  as  cows  are  very  sensitive  to  changes. 

(1673.)  It  is  a  rare  thing  to  see  a  cow  milked  in  Scotland  by  any  other 
person  than  a  woman,  though  men  ai'e  very  commonly  employed  at  it  in 
England.  For  my  part,  I  ncN-er  see  a  man  milking  a  cow  without  being 
impressed  with  the  idea  that  he  is  usurping  an  office  which  does  not  befit 
him  ;  and  this  sense  scenes  to  be  expressed  in  the  terms  usually  applied  to 
the  persons  connected  with  cows — a  dairy-w«/(/  implying  one  who  milks 
cows,  as  well  as  performing  the  other  functions  of  the  dairy — a  dairv-^won 
meaning  one  who  owns  a  dairy. 

(1674.)  Cows  are  easily  rendered  troublesome  on  being  milked;  and  the 
kicks  and  knocks  which  they  usually  receive  for  their  restlessness,  only 
render  them  the  more  fretful.  If  they  cannot  be  overcome  by  kindness, 
thumps  will  never  make  them  better.  But  the  fact  is,  restless  habits  are 
continued  in  them  by  the  treatment  which  they  receive  when  first  taken  in- 

(HJ) 


cows  CALVING,  AND  CALVES.  97 


to  the  byre,  when,  most  probably,  they  have  been  dragooned  into  submis- 
sion. Their  teats  are  tender  at  first ;  but  an  unfeeling  horny  hand  tu"-s  at 
them  in  stripping,  as  if  they  had  been  accustomed  to  the  operation  for 
years.  Can  the  creature  be  otherwise  than  uneasy  ]  and  how  can  she  es- 
cape the  wincing  but  by  flinging  out  her  heels  1  Then  hopples  are  placed 
on  the  hind  fetlocks,  to  keep  her  heels  down.  The  tail  must  then  be  held 
by  some  one  while  the  milking  is  going  on  ;  or  the  hair  of  its  tuft  be  con 
verted  into  a  double  cord,  to  tie  the  tail  to  the  creature's  leo-.  Add  to  this 
the  many  threats  and  scolds  uttered  by  the  dairy-maid,  and  you  will  o-et  not 
a  very  exaggerated  idea  how  a  young  heifer  is  broke  into  a  byre.  Some 
cows,  no  doubt,  are  very  unaccommodating  and  provoking  ;  but  neverthe- 
less, nothing  but  a  rational  course  of  conduct  toward  them,  administered 
with  gentleness,  will  ever  render  them  less  so.  There  are  cows  which  are 
troublesome  to  milk  for  a  few  times  after  calving,  that  become  quite  quiet 
for  the  renjainder  of  the  season  ;  others  will  kick  pertinaciously  at  the  first 
milking.  In  this  last  case,  the  safest  plan,  instead  of  hoppling,  which  onlv 
irritates,  is  for  the  dairy-maid  to  thrust  her  head  against  the  flank  of  the 
cow,  and  while  standing  on  her  feet,  stretch  her  hands  forward,  and  get  a 
hold  of  the  teats  the  best  way  she  can,  and  send  the  milk  on  the  <Tround  ; 
and  in  this  position,  it  is  out  of  the  power  of  the  cow  to  hurt  her.  These 
ebullitions  of  feeling  at  the  first  milking  after  calving,  arise  either  from  feel- 
ing pain  in  a  tender  state  of  the  teat,  most  probably  from  inflammation  in 
the  lining  membrane  of  the  receptacle  ;  or  they  may  arise  from  titillation 
of  the  skin  of  the  udder  and  teat,  which  become  the  more  sensible  to  the 
affection,  from  a  heat  which  is  wearing  off.  Be  the  cause  of  irritation  what 
it  may,  one  thing  is  certain,  that  gentle  discipline  will  overcome  the  most 
turbulent  temper.* 

(1675.)  Cows,  independently  of  their  power  to  retain  their  milk  in  the 
udder,  afford  different  degrees  of  pleasure  in  milking  them,  even  in  the 
quietest  mood.  Some  yield  their  milk  with  a  copious  flow,  with  the  gentlest 
handling  that  can  be  given  ;  others  require  great  exertion  to  draw  the  milk 
from  them  in  streams  no  larger  than  threads.  The  udder  of  the  former  will 
be  found  to  have  a  soft  skin,  and  the  teats  short;  that  of  the  latter  will  have 
a  thick  skin,  with  long,  tough  teats.  The  one  feels  like  velvet,  the  other  no 
better  than  untanned  leather. 

(1676.)  The  heifers  that  are  to  be  transferred  to  the  cow-stock  should 
be  taken  fi-om  the  hammels  N,  fig.  3,  Plate  III.,  in  which  they  have  been 
confined  all  winter,  into  the  byre,  about  three  weeks  or  a  fortnight  before 
their  reckoning,  at  once  into  the  stalls  they  are  to  occupy.  If  they  had 
been  accustomed  to  be  tied  by  the  neck  when  calves,  they  will  not  feel 
much  reluctance  in  going  into  a  stall ;  but  if  not,  they  require  some  coax- 
ing to  do  it.  When  taking  them  to  a  byre,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
a  fright  received  at  this  time  may  not  be  forgotten  for  a  long  time  to  come. 
To  avoid  every  chance  of  that,  let  them  go  in  quietly  of  their  own  accord  ; 
let  them  smell  and  look  at  everything  they  wish  ;  and  let  them  become  ac- 
quainted with  them  before  driving  them  on ;  and  having  plenty  of  assist- 
ants to  prevent  any  attempt  to  break  away,  let  the  cattle-man,  with  the 
shepherd,  allow  them  to  move  on  bit  by  bit,  until  they  arrive  at  the  stall. 
Here  will  be  some  difficulty  ;  but  a  little  favorite  food  in  the  manger  will 
entice  them  to  go  up,  especially  if  the  time  is  chosen,  which  it  should  be, 

[  This  caution  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  on  the  mind,  as  applicable  to  the  breaking  in 
of  domestic  animals  for  all  purposes.  To  conciliate  and  reconcile  them  to  any  operation  or  ser- 
vice, assuredly  it  is  more  rational  and  eflBcient  to  have  them  connect  with  it  agreeable  recol- 
lections of  kind  treatment  and  gentle  usage,  than  anticipations  of  harshness  and  violence. 

Ed.  Farm.  Lib.\ 
(193) y  ' 


98  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

when  tliey  are  hungry.  Another  difficulty  will  be  experienced  in  putting 
the  seal,  fi<;.  11,  round  tlie  neck.  It  should  hanp,  when  not  in  use,  on  a 
nail  upon  the  stake  ;  and  on  (juietly  taking  it  down,  without  clanking  the 
chain,  and  while  the  creature  is  eating,  let  the  cattle-man  slip  one  hand 
l)elow  the  neck,  while  the  other  supports  the  seal  over  it,  and  then  bring 
the  loose  end  of  the  seal  round  the  neck,  and  hook  it  into  whatever  link  he 
can  first  get. 

(1677.)  The  milk  that  first  comes  from  the  cow  after  calving  is  of  a  thick 
consistence  and  yellow  color,  and  is  called  hiestivgs.  It  has  the  same 
coagulable  properties  as  the  yolk  and  white  of  an  e^^  beat  up.  After 
three  or  four  days  the  biestings  is  followed  by  the  milk.  That  which 
comes  last,  the  after'nigs  or  strippings,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  is  much 
the  richer  part  of  new  milk,  being  not  unlike  cream.  Being  natural- 
ly thick,  it  is  the  more  necessaiy  to  have  it  drawn  clean  away  from  the 
udder. 

(1678.)  The  structure  of  a  cow  s  udder  is  remarkable.  It  consists  of  4 
glands,  disconnected  with  each  other,  but  all  contained  within  one  bag  or 
cellular  membrane  ;  and  the  glands  are  uniform  in  structure.  Each  gland 
consists  of  3  parts,  the  glandular  or  secreting  part,  the  tubular  or  conduct- 
ing part,  and  the  teat  or  receptacle  or  receiving  part.  The  glandular  forms 
by  far  the  largest  portion  of  the  udder.  It  appeai-s  to  the  naked  eye  com- 
posed of  a  mass  of  yellowish  grains,  but  under  the  microscope  these  grains 
are  found  to  consist  entirely  of  minute  bloodvessels  forming  a  compact 
plexus.  These  vessels  secrete  the  milk  from  the  blood.  "  Thus,  then," 
says  a  writer,  "  we  perceive  that  the  milk  is  abstracted  from  the  blood  in 
the  glandular  part  of  the  udder;  the  tubes  receive  and  deposit  it  in  the 
reservoir  or  jeceptacle ;  and  the  sphincter*  at  the  end  of  the  teat  retains  it 
there  till  it  is  wanted  for  use.  But  we  must  not  be  understood  to  mean  that 
all  the  milk  drawn  from  the  udder  at  one  milking,  or  meal,  as  it  is  termed, 
is  contained  in  the  receptacle.  The  milk,  as  it  is  secreted,  is  conveyed 
to  the  receptacle,  and  when  this  is  full,  the  larger  tubes  begin  to  be  filled, 
and  next  the  smaller  ones,  until  the  whole  become  gorged.  When  this  takes 
place,  the  secretion  of  the  milk  ceases,  and  absorption  of  the  thinner  or 
more  watery  part  commences.  Now,  as  this  absorption  takes  place  more 
readily  in  the  smaller  or  more  distant  tubes,  we  invariably  find  that  the 
milk  from  these,  which  comes  the  last  into  the  receptacle,  is  much  thicker 
and  richer  than  what  was  first  drawn  off'.  This  milk  has  been  significantly 
styled  ufterings  ;  and  should  this  gorged  .state  of  the  tubes  be  permitted  to 
continue  beyond  a  certain  time,  serious  mischief  will  sometimes  occur ;  the 
milk  becomes  too  thick  to  flow  through  the  tubes,  and  soon  ])roduccs,  first 
irritation,  then  inflammation,  and  lastly  suppuration,  and  the  function  of  the 
gland  is  materially  impaired  or  altogether  destroyed.  Hence  the  great  im- 
portance of  emptying  these  smaller  tubes  regularly  and  thoroughly,  not 
merely  to  prevent  the  occuirence  of  disease,  but  actually  to  increase  the 
quantity  of  milk  ;  for  so  long  as  the  smaller  tubes  are  kej>t  free,  milk  is  con- 
stantly forming  ;  but  whenever,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,  they  become 
gorged,  the  secretion  of  milk  ceases  until  they  are  emjitied.  The  cow  her- 
self has  no  power  over  the  sphincter  at  the  end  of  the  teat,  so  as  to  open  it 
and  relieved  the  overcharged  udiler  ;  neither  has  she  any  power  of  retain- 
ing the  milk  collected  in  the  reservoirs  when  the  spasm  of  the  sphincter  is 
overcome."!  I 

*  The  teat  does  not  terminate  in  a  true  sphincter,  there  beini;  no  musrle  in  connection  with  it  A  sphincter 
•ctt  by  the  |>owerof  fonr  muscle*,  which  are  contracted  orex(ianded  at  will,  and  close  or  open  the  oritice 
•round  which  they  are  placed.  t  Blurtun's  Practical  Essay  on  Milking. 

[t  Observations  such  as  these,  on  the  anatomy  and  functions  of  the  udder,  may  appear  soperfttj- 
DOS  to  some,  bat  not  so  to  him  who  woold  desire,  for  himself  or  his  son,  a  sort  of  knowledge  which 
(194; 


cows  CALVING,  AND   CALVES.  99 

(1679.)  You  thus  see  the  necessity  of  drawing  away  the  last  drop  of 
milk  at  every  milking,  and  the  better  milker  the  cow  is,  this  is  the  more 
necessary.  You  also  see  the  impropriety  oi  hefting  or  holding  the  milk  in 
cows  until  the  udder  is  distended  much  beyond  its  ordinary  size,  for  the 
sake  of  showing  its  utmost  capacity  for  holding  milk,  a  device  which  all 
cow-dealers,  and  indeed  every  one  who  has  a  cow  for  sale  in  a  market, 
scrupulously  use.  It  is  remarkable  that  so  hackneyed  a  practice  should 
deceive  any  one  into  its  being  a  measure  of  the  milking  power  of  the  cow, 
for  every  farmer  is  surely  aware,  or  ought  to  be  aware,  that  the  person  who 
purchases  a  hefted  cow  on  account  of  the  magnitude  of  its  udder  exhibited 
in  the  market,  gains  nothing  by  the  device ;  because,  when  the  cow  comes 
into  his  possession,  she  will  never  be  hefted,  and,  of  coui'se,  never  show  the 
greatest  magnitude  of  udder,  and  never,  of  course,  confer  the  benefit  for 
which  she  was  bought  in  preference  to  others  with  udders  in  a  more  nat- 
ural state.  If,  then,  purchasers  derive  no  benefit  from  hefting,  because 
they  do  not  allow  hefting,  why  do  they  encourage  so  cruel  and  afterward 
injurious  practice  in  dealers  %  Would  it  not  be  better  to  select  cows  by 
udders  in  the  state  in  which  it  is  desired  by  purchasers  they  should  be 
in  their  own  possession  %  Were  purchasers  to  set  their  face  against 
the  barbarous  practice,  the  dealers  would  soon  be  obliged  to  relinquish  it. 

(1680.)  Having  spoken  of  the  internal  structure  of  the  udder,  its  exter- 
nal form  requires  attention,  because  it  indicates  different  properties.  Its 
form  should  be  spheroidal,  large,  giving  an  idea  of  capaciousness  ;  the  bag 
should  have  a  soft,  fine  skin,  and  the  hind  part  upward  toward  the  tail  be 
loose  and  elastic.  There  should  be  fine  long  hairs  scattered  plentifully 
over  the  surface,  to  keep  it  warm.  The  teats  should  not  seem  to  be  con- 
tracted or  funnel-shaped  at  the  onset  with  the  bag.  In  the  former  state, 
teats  are  very  apt  to  become  corded  or  spindled,  as  another  phrase  ex- 
presses it,  and  in  the  latter  too  much  milk  will  constantly  be  pressing  on 
the  lower  tubes  or  receptacle.  They  should  drop  naturally  from  the  lower 
parts  of  the  bag,  being  neither  too  short,  small,  or  dumpy,  or  long,  flabby 
and  thick,  but  perhaps  about  3  inches  in  length,  and  as  thick  as  just  to  fill 
the  hand.  They  should  hang  as  if  all  the  quarters  of  the  udder  were  equal 
in  size,  the  front  quarters  projecting  a  little  forward,  and  the  hind  ones  a 
little  more  dependent.  Each  quarter  should  contain  about  equal  quanti- 
ties of  milk,  though  I  have  always  believed  that  the  hind  contain  rather  the 
most.* 


it  becomes  every  man  to  possess  who  has  leisure  to  acquire  it,  and  ■which  every  farmer  should 
regard  as  being  within  the  purview  of  his  pursuit  and  position  in  society — just  as  much  so  as  it 
is  befitting  in  a  scholar  to  be  familiar  with  history,  or  a  diplomatist  with  living  languages  and  the 
laws  of  nations.  There  is,  in  fact,  not  a  word  in  this  section,  nor  in  the  work  to  which  it  belongs, 
that  should  not  be  made  a  part  of  the  course  of  instruction  for  all  youths  who  are  to  gain  their 
living  and  maintain  their  standing  in  society  by  the  practice  of  Husbandry  and  a  knowledge  of 
its  principles.  This  Note  would  apply  almost  as  well  anywhere  as  here  ;  we  only  seize  the  oc 
casion  to  urge  an  impression  which  we  believe  cannot  be  too  often  suggeated  or  too  widely  acted 
on,  as  to  the  variety  of  knowledge  and  of  studies  that  ought  to  embellish  the  profession  of  the 
practical  agriculturist,  as  well  as  augment  its  profits.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

[*  As  this  number  or  volume  of  The  Farmers'  Library  may  fall  into  the  hands  of  persons 

who  do  not  possess  the  Monthly  Journal  of  Agriculture  in  which  it  was  published,  it 

seems  proper  to  refer  here  to  that  extraordinary  •'  Treatise  on  Milch  Cows,"  by  M.  Guenon. 

Of  the  validity  of  that  work  the  strongest  proof  has  been  adduced,  not  only  by  the  unanimous 

declaration  of  Committees  of  French  Societies,  but  in  the  testimony  of  American  agricnlturists 

of  undisputed  judgment,  and  of  the  highest  respectability.     Of  these  we  will  take  room  only  for 

the  following  statement  at  a  Farmers'  Club  meeting  in  Boston :  "  Mr.  Denny  fully  accorded  with 

Mr.  Brooks  in  his  estimate  of  the  treatment  of  cattle  by  Guenon.     He  had  tested  its  value  by 
(195, 


00  THE   BOOK   OF  TIIK    FARM SPRING. 

(1681.)  Largely  developed  milk-reins,  as  the  subcutaneous  veins  along 
the  undtT  pnrt  of  the  alulonien  are  commonly  called,  arc  regarded  as  a 
source  of  milk.  This  is  a  poj)ular  error,  for  the  milk-vein  has  no  connec» 
tion  with  the  udder;  but  "  although  the  subcutaneous  or  milk-vein  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  udder,"  says  Mr.  Youatt,  "  but  conveys  the  blood 
from  the  fore  part  of  the  chest  and  sides  to  the  inguinal  vein,  yet  a  large 
milk-vein  certainly  indicates  a  strongly  developed  vascular  system — one 
favorable  to  secretion  generally,  and  to  that  of  the  milk  among  the  rest."* 

(1682.)  Let  us  now  attend  to  the  young  calf  The  navel-string  should 
be  examined  that  no  blood  be  dropping  from  it,  and  that  it  is  not  in 
too  raw  a  state.  Inattention  to  this  inspection  may  overlook  the  cause 
of  the  navel-ill,  the  treatment  of  which  is  given  below  ;  and  insignificant 
as  this  complaint  is  usually  regarded,  it  cairies  off  more  calves  than  most 
breeders  are  aware  of. 

(1683.)  The  first  food  which  the  calf  receives  consists  of  what  its  mother 
first  yields  after  calving,  namely,  biestings.  Being  of  the  consistence  of 
egg,  it  seems  to  be  an  appropriate  food  for  the  fnetus  just  ushered  into  the 
world.  On  giving  the  calf  its  first  feed  by  the  hand,  in  a  crib  in  R,  fig.  3, 
Plate  in.,  it  may  be  found  to  have  gained  its  feet,  or  it  may  be  content  to 
lie  still.  In  whichever  position  it  is  found,  let  it  remain  so,  and  let  the 
dairy-maid  take  a  little  biesting  in  a  small  dish — a  handy,  formed  like  a 
miniature  milk-pail,  and  of  similar  materials,  will  be  found  a  convenient 
one — and  let  her  put  her  left  arm  round  the  neck  of  the  calf,  and  support 
its  lower  jaw  with  the  palm  of  the  hand,  keeping  its  mouth  a  little  elevated, 
and  open,  by  introducing  the  thumb  of  the  same  hand  into  the  side  of  its 
mouth.  Then  let  her  fill  the  hollow  of  her  light  hand  with  biestings,  and 
pour  it  into  the  calf's  mouth,  introducing  a  finger  or  two  into  it  for  the 
calf  to  suck,  when  it  will  dinnk  the  liquid.  Thus  let  her  supjdy  the  calf, 
in  handfull  after  handfull,  as  much  as  it  is  inclined  to  take.  When  it  re- 
fuses to  take  more,  the  creature  should  be  cleaned  of  the  biesting  that  may 
have  flown  over.  Sometimes,  on  a  calf  being  begun  to  be  fed,  when  lying, 
it  attempts  to  get  upon  its  feet,  and,  if  able,  let  it  do  so,  and  rather  assist  it 
up  than  prevent  it.  Some  people  are  afraid  to  give  a  calf  as  much  bie.st- 
ings  at  fii-st  as  it  can  take,  because  it  is  said  to  produce  the  navel-ill.  This 
is  nonsense-,  let  the  creature  take  as  much  as  it  pleases,  for  biestings 
never  harmed  a  calf,  and  certainly  never  produced  navel-ill,  though  it  has 
been  accused  of  it ;  but  if  the  truth  were  investigated,  the  illness  would  be 
found  to  have  proceeded  from  neglect  of  proper  inspection  in  due  time, 
arising  from  ignorance  of  the  danger.  I  have  minutely  detailed  the  pri- 
mary and  simple  process  of  feeding  a  new  dropped  calf  by  hand,  because 
very  absurd  ways  are  adopted  in  doing  it.  Nothing  is  more  common  than 
to  plunge  the  calf's  head  into  a  large  quantity  of  biestings,  and  because 
the  liquid  bubbles  around  its  mouth  with  the  breath  of  the  nose,  and  it 
will  not  attempt  to  drink  it,  its  head  is  the  more  forcibly  thrust  and  kept 
down  into  the  tub.  How  can  it  dnnk  with  its  nose  immersed  among  the 
fluid  ?   And  why  should  a  calf  be  expected  at  first  to  drink  with  its  head 

distributing  a  number  of  copies  among  intelligent  practical  farmttrit,  and  their  united  report  was 
in  favor  of  the  high  value  of  the  work.  One  of  them  went  so  far  as  to  say  that  a  farmer  keeping 
twenty  cowB  coulil  well  afford  to  give  tlOO  for  this  treatise  of  Gu6non,  if  it  could  not  be  obtained 
at  a  less  cost."  According  to  this  treatise,  the  quality  and  quantity  of  milk  which  anv  cow  wijl 
g^ve  may  be  accurately  determined  by  observing  natural  marks  or  external  indications  alone 
These  marks  have  been  fully  illustrated  by  engravings  designed  to  explain  the  system  as  already 
published  in  Th£  Monthlt  Journal  of  Aoricdltubk,  coDnected  with  The  Far.mers'  Li- 
BRAHT.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

*  Youatt  on  Cattle. 
(196) 


cows   CALVING,  AND  CALVES.  101 

down,  when  its  natural  instinct  should  lead  it  to  suck  tcith  its  head  up  ?  It 
should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  feeding  calves  by  the  hand  is  an  un- 
natural process  ;  nevertheless,  it  is  a  convenient,  practicable  and  easy  one, 
provided  it  is  conducted  in  a  proper  manner.  The  cieature  must  be  taught 
to  drink,  and  a  good  mode  of  teaching  it  I  have  described  above.  In  this 
way  it  is  fed  as  often  as  the  cow  is  milked,  which  is  three  times  a  day. 
After  the  first  two  or  three  days,  however,  another  plan  should  be  adopted, 
for  it  should  not  be  accustomed  to  suck  the  fingers,  as  then  it  will  not  drink 
without  their  assistance.  The  succeeding  plan  is  to  put  a  finger  or  two 
of  the  right  hand  into  its  mouth,  and  holding  the  small  pail  of  milk  with 
the  left  under  its  head,  bring  the  head  gradually  down  into  the  pail,  where 
the  fingers  induce  it  to  take  a  few  gluts  of  the  milk ;  but  in  doing  this, 
the  fingers  should  be  gently  withdrawn  while  the  head  is  kept  down  in  its 
position  with  the  hand,  taking  care  to  keep  the  nostrils  above  the  milk. 
In  a  few  days  more  the  fingers  will  not  be  required,  and  in  a  few  days 
more  still  you  will  see  the  cd\?  drink  of  its  own  accord. 

(1684.)  For  the  first  month  the  calf  usually  has  as  much  sweet  milk 
warm  from  the  cow  as  it  can  drink.  It  will  be  able  to  drink  about  3  quarts 
at  each  meal,  and  in  three  meals  a  day,  in  the  morning,  noon  and  evening, 
it  will  consume  8  quarts.  After  the  first  month  it  gets  its  quantity  of  milk 
at  only  2  meals,  morning  and  evening.  It  is  supported  3  months  in  all  on 
milk,  during  which  time  it  should  have  as  much  sweet-milk  as  it  can  drink. 
Such  feeding  will  be  considered  expensive,  and  no  doubt  it  is,  but  there  is 
no  other  way  of  bringing  upa^oo^Z  calf  Some  people  grudge  sweet-milk 
after  a  few  days,  and  take  the  crea;m  off  it,  and  give  the  skimmed  to  the 
calves.  This  is  considered  thrifty  management ;  but  its  I'esult  does  not 
insure  immediate  gain,  because  it  is  not  possible  to  extract  double  advantage 
from  a  given  quantity  of  sweet-milk.  If  butter  is  preferred  to  calves,  or 
good  beasts  at  an  after  period,  the  wish  is  attained,  and  the  farmer  has  had 
his  preference ;  but  he  must  know — at  least  ought  to  know — that  he  can- 
not obtain  butter  and  good  beasts  from  the  same  milk.  Others,  more  gen- 
erous, give  half  sweet  and  half  skimmed  milk  to  their  calves ;  while  some 
provide  a  substitute  for  a  part  of  the  milk,  by  making  gelatine  of  boiled 
linseed  or  sago,  and  give  it  with  no  milk.  When  milk  is  actually  scarce, 
such  expedients  are  permissible  ;  but  when  it  is  plentiful,  and  is  used  for 
other  purposes  than  merely  to  serve  the  farm-house,  the  adoption  of  ex- 
pedients is  a  practical  avowal  that  the  farmer  does  not  wish  to  bring  up 
his  stock  as  he  might  do. 

(1685.)  The  jelly  from  linseed,  or  lythax,  as  it  is  called,  is  easily  made 
by  boiling  good  linseed  in  water,  and  while  it  is  in  a  hot  state  to  pour  it 
in  a  vessel  to  cool,  when  it  becomes  a  firm  jelly,  a  proportion  of  which  is 
taken  every  meal,  and  bruised  down  in  a  tubfiill  of  warm  milk,  and  dis- 
tributed to  the  calves.  They  are  very  fond  of  it,  and  in  the  third  month 
of  the  calf's  age,  when  it  can  drink  a  large  quantity  of  liquid  at  a  time, 
and  during  a  day,  it  is  an  excellent  food  for  them.  Sago  may  be  prepared 
in  the  same  way.  But  a  better  substance  for  calves  than  either  is,  in  my 
opinion,  pea-meal.  It  should  not  be  boiled,  but  made  into  hrosc,  by  pour- 
ing hot  water  upon  it,  and  stirring  the  mixture  till  it  is  Jine.  It  becomes 
gelatinous  on  cooling ;  and  when  cold,  a  portion  of  it  is  put  into  new  warm 
milk,  and  mixed  so  intimately  vrith  the  hand  that  not  a  lump  of  the  meal 
can  be  felt ;  and  the  mixture  is  made  of  a  consistence  which  a  calf  can 
easily  drink. 

(1686.)  Another  mode  of  bringing  up  calves  by  breeders  of  stock  is  to 
allow  them  to  suck  their  mothers,  and  the  plan  is  arranged  in  this  way  : 
Either  a  large  crib  is   erected  at  a  convenient  part  or  parts  of  the  cow's 

(197) 


J  02  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM WINTER. 

byre,  to  contain  a  numlier  of  calves  each,  in  a  loose  state,  an«l  when  the 
hours  arrive  at  which  they  are  fed,  they  are  let  out  of  tlie  cribs,  whence 
they  each  proceed  forthwith  to  the  cow  that  supports  it  ;  or  the  calves  are 
tied  by  the  neck  in  stalls  erected  for  the  puq)08e  agrainst  the  wall  of  the 
byre,  immediately  behind  the  cows,  and  when  the  hours  of  the  respective 
meals  arrive,  they  are  loosened  fiom  the  tyings,  and  pass  across  the  byre 
to  the  cows.  Generally,  in  both  cases,  one  cow  suckles  two  calves  ;  and 
a  cow  that  has  calved  early  may  suckle  two  sets,  or  four  calves,  or  at  leaat 
three,  in  the  season. 

(16S7.)  With  regard  to  the  merits  of  this  plan,  I  must  remark  that  I  am 
averse  to  tying  calves  by  the  neck.  It  cramps  their  motions  and  deprives 
them  of  that  freedom  of  action  which  is  so  conducive  to  health.  By  pre- 
venting motion  they  will  no  doubt  sooner  acquire  condition  ;  but  for  stock- 
calves,  kept  for  the  formation  of  a  herd,  this  is  of  less  importance  than 
strength  acquired  by  moderate  exercise  within  a  limited  size  of  crib.  As 
to  having  a  number  of  calves  within  the  same  crib,  though  they  all  have 
liberty  of  motion,  they  are  so  commixed  as  to  have  liberty  to  suck  at  one 
another.  The  ears,  navel,  scrotum  and  teats,  suffer  by  this  dirty  habit ; 
and  there  is  no  preventing  it  after  it  has  been  acquired,  so  long  as  two  re- 
main together.  Upon  the  whole,  therefore.  I  much  prefer  the  separate 
crib  to  each  calf,  so  formed  of  spars  as  to  allow  every  calf  to  see  its  neich- 
bors,  and  so  sensibly  in  company,  as  to  remove  the  idea  of  loneliness.  The 
separation  prevents  the  abominable  habit  of  sucking  being  acquired  ;  and 
the  crib  is  as  large  and  no  larger  than  to  allow  them  to  move  about  for 
exercise,  without  fatigue. 

(1688.)  In  regard  to  suckling  calves,  there  is  no  question  it  is  the  best 
way  of  bringing  them  up,  provided  the  calf  has  free  access  to  its  mothei 
or  the  cow  which  is  supporting  it ;  but  I  am  doubtful  of  the  superiority  of 
suckling  over  feeding  by  hand,  in  the  case  where  the  calf  is  only  allowed 
to  go  to  the  cow  at  stated  times.  It  saves  the  trouble  of  milking  the  cowi 
and  giving  milk  to  the  calves  ;  but  the  saving  of  trouble  is  not  so  import- 
ant a  consideration  in  the  rearing  of  young  stock  as  the  promotion  of  theii 
welfare.  There  is  one  objection  to  suckling  where  one  cow  brings  up  two 
calves — that  the  quantity  of  milk  afforded  to  each  is  unknown  ;  and  the 
stronger  or  more  cunning  calf  may  steal  the  larger  share.  True,  they  are 
both  brought  up;  but  are  they  brought  up  as  well  as  they  might  be,  with 
the  assistance  of  nourishing  food,  when  the  milk  becomes  scarcer,  which 
it  will  be  to  each  calf  the  older  it  grows.  Another  objection  to  suckling  is, 
that  a  cow  which  suckles  calves  at  one  period  of  the  season  does  not  take 
kindly  afterward  to  milking  with  the  hand  ;  and  a  cow  will  always  prefer 
to  be  sucked  to  being  milked  by  the  hand.  Unless,  therefore,  cows  are 
kept  for  the  purpose  of  suckling,  they  become  troublesome  to  milk  after 
the  calves  are  weaned. 

(1689.)  At  a  month  old  the  male  calves  that  are  not  intended  to  be  kepi 
for  bulls  are  castratccl.  Though  the  operation  is  very  simple  and  safe,  yei 
it  should  not  be  performed  at  a  time  when  there  is  any  affection  of  the 
navel-string,  or  indication  of  costiveness  or  dysentery  ;  these  exciting  causes 
of  the  system  shoiild  first  be  removed  ere  another  is  voluntarily  superadded. 
Supposing  the  calf  is  in  good  health,  the  castration  is  performed  in  this 
manner  :  An  assistant  places  the  calf  upon  its  rump  on  the  litter,  and,  sit- 
ting down  himself,  takes  it  between  his  outstretched  limbs  on  the  ground, 
with  its  back  against  his  breast.  Then  seizing  a  hind-hock  of  the  calf  in 
each  hand,  he  draws  a  hind  leg  up  to  each  side  of  its  body,  and  holds  both 
in  that  position  as  firmly  as  he  can.  The  operator  makes  the  testicles  keep 
the  scrotum  smooth  and  stretched  with  his  left  hand,  and  then  cuts  with  a 

(198J 


cows   CALVING,  AND  CALVES.  103 

sharp  knife  through  all  the  integuments  till  he  reaches  one  testicle,  which 
he  seizes,  pulls  out  as  much  of  the  spermatic  cord  as  he  can,  and  there  di- 
vides it.  The  same  operation  is  performed  on  the  other  testicle,  and  the 
castration  is  finished  in  a  minute  or  two.  The  calf  feels  stiff  in  the  hind 
quaiter  for  a  few  days,  and  the  scrotum  may  swell ;  and  if  the  swelling 
appear  to  become  serious,  fomentations  of  warm  water  should  be  fre- 
quently applied ;  and  should  suppuration  ensue,  the  incisions  made  in  the 
scrotum  should  be  opened  to  give  it  vent ;  but  the  probability  is  that  the 
cut  will  heal  by  the  first  intention,  and  give  no  farther  uneasiness  to  the 
calf  than  a  feeling  of  stiffness  in  the  hind  quarter  for  a  few  days. 

(1690.)  When  the  air  becomes  mild,  as  the  season  advances,  and  when 
the  older  calves  attain  the  age  of  two  months,  they  should  be  taken  out 
of  the  cribs,  and  put  into  the  court  k,  fig.  3,  Plate  III.,  during  the  day; 
and  after  a  few  days'  endurance  to  the  aii-,  should  be  sheltered  under  the 
shed  in  the  court  at  night,  instead  of  being  again  put  into  the  cribs.  Some 
sweet  hay  should  be  offered  them  every  day,  as  also  a  few  sheep-slices  of 
Swedish  turnips  to  munch  at.  Such  a  change  of  food  may  Have  some 
effect  on  the  constitution  of  the  calves,  causing  costiveness  in  some  and 
looseness  in  others ;  but  no  harm  will  arise  from  these  symptoms,  if  reme- 
dial measures  are  employed  in  time.  Large  lumps  of  chalk  to  lick  at  will 
be  found  serviceable  in  looseness.  The  shed  of  the  court  should  be  fitted 
up  with  small  racks  and  mangers  to  contain  the  hay  and  turnips,  and 
chalk.  Should  a  very  wet,  snowy,  stormy,  or  cold  day  appear  after  the 
calves  have  been  put  into  the  court,  they  should  be  brought  back  to  their 
cribs  till  the  storm  pass  away. 

(1691.)  At  three  or  four  months  old,  according  to  the  supply  of  milk 
and  the  ready  state  of  the  grass  to  receive  them,  the  calves  should  be 
weaned  in  the  ordinary  seniority,  due  regard  being  at  the  same  time  had 
to  their  constitutional  strength.  If  a  calf  has  been  always  strong  and 
healthy,  it  may  be  the  sooner  weaned  from  milk,  if  there  is  grass  to  sup- 
port it ;  but  should  it  have  ailed,  or  be  naturally  puny,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  good,  sweet  milk  is  the  best  remedy  that  can  be  administered  to 
promote  condition  or  recruit  debility,  and  should  be  given  with  an  unspar- 
ing but  judicious  hand.  Calves,  on  being  weaned,  should  not  be  deprived 
of  milk  at  once  ;  it  should  be  lessened  in  quantity  daily,  and  given  at 
longer  intei-vals  by  degrees,  so  as  that  they  may  not  be  sensible  of  their 
loss  when  it  is  entirely  withheld.  I  have  frequently  observed  that  when 
calves  are  stinted  of  milk  preparatory  to  weaning,  means  of  supplying 
them  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  food  of  an  enticing  nature  are  not  so 
well  attended  to  as  they  ought.  Fresh  bundles  of  the  most  clovery  por- 
tions of  the  hay,  turnips  fresh  sliced,  pure  fresh  water  at  will,  a  little 
pounded  oil-cake,  if  presented  at  times  when  they  used  to  get  their  milk, 
will  induce  them  to  eat  those  substitutes  with  contentment ;  whereas,  when 
these  are  entirely  neglected,  or  the  trouble  gi'udged  in  supplying  them,  and 
the  creatures  left  to  pick  up  what  they  can  find  for  themselves  in  a  court 
or  bare  lea,  they  cannot  but  suffer  from  hunger,  and  vociferate  for  the  loss 
of  what  they  had  enjoyed  till  then.  Thus  treated,  they  evidently  fall  off 
in  condition ;  and  which  if  they  do  at  the  critical  period  of  weaning,  the 
greater  portion  of  the  ensuing  summer  will  elapse  ere  they  regain  their 
former  condition,  strength,  and  sleekness  of  coat.  A  small  paddock  near 
the  steading  is  an  excellent  place  for  weaning  calves,  before  turning  them 
out  to  a  pasture  field  ;  but  then  it  should  afford  a  full  bite  of  grass  to  sup- 
port them  as  the  milk  is  taken  fi-om  them,  otherwise  they  ^vill  be  more 
injured  than  benefited  in  it. 

(1692.)   When  bull  calves  are  brought  up,  they  should  be  early  calved, 

(199) 


104 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


and  receive  as  much  new  milk  as  they  can  consume ;  and  they  should  not 
be  weaiu'd  till  the  prass  is  fully  ready  to  sujiport  them.  The  object  of  this 
high  keej)iii!^  is  not  to  fjittcii  them,  hut  to  trive  strength  to  their  hones  and 
vigor  to  their  constitution,  these  l)eing  much  strengthened  by  the  (juality 
and  quantity  of  food  given  to  calves  at  the  earliest  period  of  their  exist- 
ence. The  valuable  impulse  thus  given  in  calfhood  to  these  very  essential 
properties  in  bulls,  is  evinced  in  the  vigor  of  succeeding  life,  and  it  is  sure 
to  lay  a  foundation  upon  which  a  durable  superstructure  may  be  raised, 
and,  what  is  more,  no  durable  structure  can  be  raised  on  any  other.  Even 
in  ordinary  cases  push  a  calf  forward  in  the  first  month  of  its  existence,  and 
the  probability  will  be  that  it  will  evade  every  disease  incident  to  its  age. 

(16;i3.)  The  following  Table,  containing  the  dates  at  which  cows  should  calve  from  those  at 
■which  they  are  bulled,  will  be  found  useful  to  you  for  reference.  It  is  unnecessary  to  fill  up  the 
Table  witli  marking  down  every  day  of  the  year,  as  within  the  short  period  between  each  fort- 
night you  can  easily  calculate  the  particular  reckoning  of  each  cow.  The  period  of  gestation  is 
taken  at  I'T.")  day.s.  or  9  calendar  months,  which  is  the  minimum  time,  and  from  which  the  symp- 
toms of  calving  should  be  narrowly  watched  till  the  event  of  calving  actually  takes  place. 

A    RECKO.NING-TABLE    FOR    THE    CALVIKG    OF    COWS. 


When  Bulled. 


January 1 

15 

29 

Febrnary...l2 
26 

March 12 

26 

April 9 

23 


Will  Calve. 


October  ...   1 

15! 

29 

November  .12 

26 

December  .  10 

24 

January  ...  7 

21 


When  Bulled.  I     Will  Calve. 


May 7  February..   4 

21       18 

June 4;March 4 

le     18 


When  Biilled. 


September.  10 
24 

October  ...   *■ 


July. 


April 1  I  November..  ? 


.15 
...29 


August 13  May 13 

27|      27i 


19 
December..  3 

17 

31 


Will  Calve.    | 


June 10 

24 

July 7 

21 

August 4 

18 

September.   1 

15 

29 


(1694.)  The  usual  modes  of  determining  whether  the  cow  is  in  calf  are  deceptive  :  she  maj-  not 
hold  when  bulled  ;  she  may  take  the  bull  again  in  a  few  days;  and  she  may  not  show  evident 
symptoms  of  calving  but  for  a  few  days  only  before  she  actually  calves.  The  mo.st  certain  sign  of 
pregnancy  is  the  enlargement  of  tlie  abdomen  and  filling  of  the  flanks  in  the  third  or  fourth 
month.  A  more  philos-ophical  method  of  determining  whether  a  cow  is  in  calf  at  all,  has  been 
discovered  by  medical  men  by  the  application  of  the  ear  to  the  flank  of  the  cow,  suggested  by  tlie 
curious  and  valuable  discoveries  brought  to  light  by  the  ulellic.tcope.  "  That  greatest  of  improve- 
ments in  veterinary  practice."  observes  Mr.  Youatt,  '•  the  application  of  the  ear  to  the  chest  and 
belly  of  various  animals,  (in  order  to  detect  by  the  different  sounds — which,  altera  short  lime,  will 
be  easily  recognized — the  state  of  the  circulation  through  most  of  the  internal  oreans,  and  conse- 
quently the  precise  seat  and  degree  of  inflammation  and  danger,)  has  now  enabled  the  breeder 
to  ascertain  the  exixlence  nfpres^nancy  at  as  early  a  stage  of  it  as  sij-  or  eight  trcrJcs.  Tlie  beating 
of  the  heart  of  the  calf  will  be  distinctly  heard,  twice  or  more  than  twice  as  frequent  as  that  of  the 
mother;  and  each  pulsation  will  betray  the  singular  double-beating  of  the  ftpial  heart.  This  will 
also  be  accompanied  by  the  audible  rushing  of  the  blood  through  the  vessels  of  the  jdacenta.  The 
ear  should  be  applied  to  the  right  flank,  beginning  on  the  superior  part  of  it.  and  gradually  shifted 
downward  and  backward.     These  sounds  will  soon  be  heard,  and  cannot  be  mistaken."* 

(169.').)  Sirathaven  in  Scotland  has  long  been  famed  for  rearing  go«id  real  for  the  Glasgow  and 
Edinburgh  markets.  There  the  dairy  farmers  retain  their  queycalves  for  maintaining  the 
number  and  viiror  of  their  cow  stock,  while  they  feed  the  male  calves  for  veal.  Their  plan  is 
simple  and  efticacious,  and  therefore  may  be  followed  anywhere.  They  give  the  calves  milk 
only,  and  seldom  any  admixture,  and  ihev  do  not  allow  them  to  suck  their  dams.  Some  give  milk 
but  sparinpl}-  at  fir.tt,  to  whet  their  appetite,  and  all  take  care  not  to  produce  surfeit  by  giving  too 
much  at  a  time.  The  young  calves  get  the  first  drawn  milk,  or  forcbroods,  as  it  is  termed,  and 
the  older,  less  of  the  fore-broads  and  more  of  the  afteringti,  and  frequently  that  of  two  or  three 
cows,  as  being  the  richest  portion  of  the  milk.  After  they  are  three  or  four  weeks  old  they  get 
abundance  of  milk,  but  only  twice  a  day.  They  get  plenty  of  drj-  litter,  fresh  air,  moderate  warmth, 
and  are  kept  nearly  in  the  dark  to  check  sportiveness.  They  are  not  bled  during  the  time  they 
are  fed,  and  a  lump  of  chalk  is  placed  within  their  reach.  They  are  fed  from  4  to  6  weeks,  when 
they  fetch  frwii  X3  to  i.4  apiece;  and  it  is  found  more  profitable  to  fatten  a  number  of  calves  for 
that  time,  to  miccei.'d  each  other,  than  to  force  them  beyond  the  state  of  marketable  veal,  of  from 
25  lbs.  to  30  lbs.  per  quartcr.t 

(1696.)  Di»c>tsef  of  You  7ig  Calves. — While  speaking  of  the  calf,  I  may  here  notice  the  diseases 
to  which  it  is  subject  at  this  period  of  its  existence,  and  in  this  season  of  the  year.  The  young 
calf  should  get  quit  of  the  black  and  glutinous  fa>ce8  that  had  been  accumulating  in  its  intestines 
during  the  latter  period  of  its  Crptal  existence  ;  and  there  is  no  aperient  better  suited  for  the  pur- 
pose than  biestings.  The  farmer,  therefore,  who  throws  it  away,  does  not  know  the  jeopardy  in 
which  he  places  the  lives  of  this  branch  of  bisyounu'  stock.  Should  there  not  be  enough  of  biest- 
jngs  to  remove  the  feeccs,  2  or  3  oz.  of  castor-oil,  beat  up  with  a  yolk  of  an  egg.  or  in  thick  gruel. 


*  Youatt  on  Cattle. 
l200) 


t  Quarterly  Journal  of  AgrictUture,  voU  t. 


cows  CALVING,  AND   CALVES.  105 

should  be  administered,  and  a  scruple  of  powdered  ginger,  to  act  as  a  carminative.  In  cases  of 
co.-tiveness,  which  j'oung  calves  are  very  liable  to  contract,  and  inattention  to  which,  at  first,  is 
tiic  cause  of  the  loss  of  many  of  the  best  young  stock,  arising  partly  from  repletion  of  inilk  at  times 
when  calves  are  permitted  to  suck  their  dams,  or  when  they  eat  too  much  hay  at  one  time  after 
the  milk  has  been  too  suddenly  removed  from  them  at  weaning,  active  measures  .should  be  adopt- 
ed to  prevent  its  confirmation,  for  then  the  case  becomes  hopeless,  as  fever  will  inevitably  ensue 
and  iho  food  harden  into  a  mass  in  the  maniplies.  Do.ses  of  warm  water,  containing  a  solution  of 
2  or  3  oz.  of  Epsom  salts,  should  be  frequenti,  administered,  both  to  dissolve  the  matter  in  the 
stouiach,  move  the  bowels,  and  wash  out  the  stomach.  Calves  are  liable  to  a  disease  of  an  opposite 
na'-ure  from  this,  namely,  luoxeuess,sciiuri>iic  or  duirrhca.  They  are  most  subject  to  it  when  put  to 
grass,  though  still  on  milk,  at  too  early  an  age.  I  sho\ild  s.iy  that  if  so  treated  before  attaining  2 
mouths,  they  are  certain  of  being  affected  with  it.  One  means  of  prevention  is,  to  retain  (he  calves 
in  the  house  or  shed  till  they  are  at  least  2  months  old,  and  if  a  little  older  so  much  the  better.  Of 
cour.se,  it  is  only  the  latest  calves  that  are  likely  to  be  thus  treated,  the  earlier  having  attained  ma- 
ture age  for  weaning  before  the  gra.ss  is  ready.  In  the  house,  scouring  may  be  brought  on  by 
starvation  and  excess,  and  on  grass  by  a  sudden  change  of  food.  So  long  as  the  calf  is  lively  and 
takes  its  milk,  there  need  be  no  apprehension  from  a  thin  discharge  of  faeces,  but  dullness  and 
loathing  of  food,  accompanied  by  discharge,  should  create  alarm.  The  first  application  of  a  remedy 
should  be  a  mild  purgative,  to  remove,  if  possible,  the  irritation  of  the  bowel.s,  and  then  should  fol- 
low anodynes,  astringents,  and  alkalies,  with  carminatives,  the  withdrawal  of  every  sort  of  green 
food,  and  the  administration  of  flour  or  pea-meal  gruel.  The  following  mixture  the  farmer  is  call- 
ed to  "  rely  on.  and  it  is  recommended  that  he  should  have  it  always  by  him,  as  it  will  do  for  all 
suciiling  animals,  namely,  4  oz.  of  prepared  chalk.  1  oz.  of  Winters'  bark,  powdered,  1  oz.  of 
laudanum,  and  1  pint  of  water.  Give  2  or  3  table-spoonsfull,  according  to  the  size  of  the  animal, 
2  or  3  times  a  day."*  Another  recipe  is :  '•  Take  from  \  oz.  to  |  oz.  of  tincture  of  rhubarb,  with 
an  equal  quantity  of  water,  according  to  the  age  and  strength  of  the  calf.  To  be  given  every  al- 
ternate day  in  ca.se  one  dose  is  not  sufficient.  I  have  used  the  remedy  for  several  year.s,"  says  a 
writer,  "  and  have  not  lost  a  calf't  Mr.  E.  E.  Dawson,  Ingethorpe,  Grantham,  recommends  this  : 
"  For  young  calves  boil  ^  oz.  of  ground  black  pepper  in  half  a  pint  of  ale  ;  add  a  tea  spoonfull  of 
ginger;  rni.K  together  ;  to  be  given  lukewarm  every  morning  until  the  calf  recovers  of  its  weak- 
ness; to  have  its  milk  as  usual.  Older  calves  will  require  J  more  for  a  complete  cure.  Great 
care  should  be  used  in  making  u.se  of  the  above  recipe,  that  the  animal  does  not  receive  the  mix- 
ture too  fast ;  for  want  of  attention  mischief  may  be  done."|  I  have  given  all  these  remedies  for 
tlie  scour  in  calves,  for  it  v^'ould  appear  that  it  may  be  removed  by  various  means,  and  one  maybe 
more  efficacious  in  one  locality  than  in  any  other.  I  never  experienced  among  my  calves  but  one 
instance  of  serious  scouring.  It  was  a  Short  Horn  quey  calf,  and  the  recipe  which  effected  a  cure, 
after  trying  many,  was  very  like  the  first,  though  I  now  forget  the  exact  ingredients,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  pint  of  water,  for  which  fiour-gruel  was  substituted. 

(1*)97.)  CidfloHse. — It  is  not  a  little  singular,  in  a  physiological  point  of  view,  that  there  should 
be  a  peculiar  pedicular  parasite  appropriated  to  the  calf,  yet  such  appears  to  be  the  ca.se,  although 
the  creature  is  by  no  means  common.  It  is  very  like  the  ox-louse.  Haematopinns  enrysteruus,  fig. 
268,  but  comparatively  narrower,  and  having  two  rows  of  dusky  spots  on  the  abdomen.  It  is  termed 
Hcematop WIS  vituli,  or  louse  of  the  calf  |] 

(lti98.j  "  Although  parturition  is  a  natural  process,"  as  well  observed  bj-  Mr.  Youatt,  "it  is  ac- 
companied by  a  great  deal  of  febrile  excitement.  The  sudden  transferring  of  powerful  and  accu- 
mulated action  from  one  organ  to  another — from  the  womb  to  the  udder — must  cause  a  great  deal 
of  constitutional  disturbance,  as  well  as  liability  to  local  inHammation."§  One  consequence  of  this 
constitutional  disturbance  of  the  system  is  milk/ever.  "  The  cause  of  this  disea.se,"  says  Skellett, 
"  is  whatever  obstructs  perspiration,  and  accumulates  the  blood  internally  ;  hence  it  may  be  pro- 
duced by  the  application  of  cold  air,  by  lying  on  the  cold  ground,  or  by  giving  cold  water  after  calv- 
ing ;  and  these  causes  will  naturally  produce  this  effect  from  the  open  state  of  the  pores  at  this 
time,  and  from  the  external  parts  being  so  wide  and  relaxed  after  the  operation.  Cows  in  high 
condition  are  more  subject  than  others  to  this  complaint,  and  especially  if  they  have  been  kept 
up  for  some  weeks  before  calving."1[  The  complaint  may  seize  the  cow  only  a  few  hours  after 
calving,  or  it  may  be  days.  Its  first  attack  is  probably  not  observed  by  those  who  have  the  charge 
of  the  covvs,  oreven  by  the  farmer  himself,  who  is  rather  chary  in  looking  after  the  condition  of 
his  cows,  in  case  of  offending  his  female  friends,  to  whose  special  care  that  portion  of  his  stock 
is  consigned.  The  symptoms  are  first  known  by  the  cow  shifting  about  in  the  stall,  or  from 
place  to  place  if  loose,  lifting  one  leg  and  then  another,  being  easily  startled,  and  looking  wildly 
about  her  as  if  she  had  lost  her  calf  and  blaring  for  it.  Then  the  flanks  begin  to  heave,  the  mouth 
to  open  and  issue  clear  water,  she  staggers  in  her  walk,  and  at  length  loses  the  use  of  her  limbs 
and  lays  her  head  upon  her  side.  The  body  then  swells,  the  extremities  feel  cold  and  clammy. 
Sliiveriug  and  cold  sweats  follow,  the  pulse  becomes  irregular  and  death  ensues.  The  promptest 
remedy  to  be  used,  after  the  first  symptom  has  been  observed,  is  to  bleed  to  the  extent  of  3  or  4 
(luarts;  and  the  next  is  to  open  the  bowels,  which  will  be  found  to  have  a  tendency  to  constipa- 
tion. From  1  lb.  to  IJ  lbs.  of  Epsom  salts,  accordiu^s:  to  the  strength  of  the  cow,  with  a  little  gin- 
ger^and  carraway,  should  be  given  as  a  purge  ;  and  if  the  do.se  does  not  operate  in  due  time,  i  lb. 
of  Epsoin  salts  should  be  given  every  6  hours  until  the  bowels  are  opened.  This  result  will  be 
much  expedited  by  a  clyster  of  warm  thin  gruel  and  soap  or  oil.  After  the  opening  medicine  has 
operated,  a  cordial  drink  will  be  necessary,  by  which  time  the  cow  may  show  symptoms  of  recover- 
ing in^\pressing  an  inclination  to  eat,  with  which  she  should  be  gratified.. but  with  precaution.** 

*  Johnson's  Farmer's  Encyclopedia,  art.  Diarrhea.  t  Bell's  Weekly  Messenger  for  March,  1842. 

t  Mark-Lane  Express  for  November,  1842.  ||  Denny's  Monographia  Anoplurorum  BritanniB. 

§,  Youalt  on  CatUe.  U  Skellett  on  the  Parturition  of  the  Cow. 

[**  The  more  artificial  treatment  of  cattle  in  England  probably  produces  diseases  and  casuaUiea 
to  which  they  are  far  less  subject  in  our  country,  where  they  are  left  in  a  more  natural  and  onre- 
(201)  ^ 


106  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

(1C99.)  Reiliratcr. — The  uintli  day  after  a  row  liait  calved,  an  utcriac  discharge  should  take 
{>lui-c  and  ci-iitiiiue  fur  a  day  or  two,  alter  which  the  cow  will  exhibit  all  the  mn  niplonis  of  good 
health.  1  liiivi.'  observed  that  when  thix  diiu-liurge  docH  not  take  place  the  cow  will  sooo  af- 
ter  show  8yni|itiini8  of  red- water.  She  will  evacuate  urine  wiih  ditliculiy,  which  will  come  away 
in  Rmall  streunit>,  and  be  highly  tinned  with  blood,  and  at  lenirlh  appear  like  dark  grounds  of 
cotiee.  •■  The  I'uture  and  cause  of  the  di.•^•a^<■  ore  her»'  evident  enouLli."  aw  Mr.  Vouatt  well  ob- 
serves. "  During  the  period  of  pregnancy  there  hail  been  ron8iderable  determination  of  blood 
to  the  womb.  A  degree  of  su.sceiilibilily.  a  tendency  to  inHiimniatury  action,  liad  been  set  up, 
and  this  had  been  increaMed  as  the  peri««l  of  parturition  approai  lied,  and  was  a^vravated  by  the 
state  and  general  fullness  of  blood  to  which  she  had  incautiously  been  rai.<ed.  The  neighboring 
organs  neces.-iarily  participated  in  this,  an<l  the  kidneys,  to  which  so  much  blood  is  Bent  for  the 
proper  dischiirtreof  their  function,  either  quickly  shared  in  the  inflammation  ot  tlic  womb,  or 
tirrt  iot)k  an  inflammation,  and  sulK-red  most  by  means  of  it."*  The  prevention  of  this  disease 
is  roconiinended  in  purgative  medicine  alter  calving  :  but  as  such  an  administration,  in  the  cir- 
cum.xlance,  never  fails  to  atl'ect  the  quantity  of  milk  given  by  the  cow  for  some  time  after,  a  bet- 
ter plan  is  to  administer  fooil  which  will  operate  as  a  laxative  at  the  same  lime,  for  some  time 
before  as  well  as  after  calving,  and  the  substance  which  possesfcs  these  two  properties  \a  otl-cake. 
I  have  proved  this  from  experience.  I  lost  two  cows  in  Forlarshire  by  red-water,  one  a  Sbort- 
Horn  and  the  other  an  An^'us,  and  one  of  tl»e  hinds  lost  one  alst) — all  in  ditferent  but  succestiive 
years.  Uv  examination  of  the  stomach  and  bowels  after  death,  I  became  satisfied  that  the  deter- 
mination of  the  blood  to  the  womb  during  pregnancy  had  caus<^'<l  a  tendency  to  inflammation  in 
tlie  bowels  and  stomach,  and  that  indigestion  and  constipation  were  the  conseiiueuces,  and  these 
were  au'gravate<i  by  the  state  of  the  fooil,  which  consii-led  entirely  of  Swedihh  turnips,  which,  at 
lliut  8ea.<on,  in  April,  are  fibrous  and  sweet,  by  the  Juice  becoming  concentrated  in  the  bulb,  and 
which  the  more  readily  induce  cattle  to  eat  them.  The  remedy  was  an  obvious  one  :  give  laxa- 
tive diet,  and  as  that  cannot  readily  be  effected  by  turnips,  narticularly  in  c«iws  whicli  do  not  re- 
ceive BO  many  as  they  can  eat,  nor  by  raw  potatoes  which  incur  the  risk  of  hoven  (1294),  and  to 
the  giving  of  potatoes  to  cows  1  have  always  had  an  utter  aversion — call  it  prejudice,  if  yon 
will ;  and  as  potatoes  boiled  have  no  laxative  effects,  the  only  alternative  was  oil-cake,  and,  for- 
tunately, from  the  period  I  employed  it  medicinally  to  the  cows,  for  a  month  before  and  a  month 
after  calving,  to  the  extent  only  of  4  lbs.  a  day  to  each  cow,  and  which  quantity  was  also  given 
to  the  hind's  cows  about  the  time  of  their  calving,  the  complaint  was  never  more  seen  or  dreaded. 

(1700.)  I  may  here  mention  an  unaccountable  fatality  which  overtook  a  Short-Horn  cow  of 
mine,  in  Forfarshire,  immediately  after  calving.  She  was  an  extraordinary  milker,  giving  not 
less  than  30  (juarts  a  day  in  summer  on  grass ;  but  what  was  more  extraordinary,  for  two  calvings 
the  milk  never  dried  up,  but  continued  to  flow  to  the  very  day  of  calvintr,  and  after  that  event  re- 
turned in  a  flush.  In  the  third  year  she  went  naturally  dry  for  about  a  month  previous  to  the  day 
of  reckoning  ;  every  precaution,  however,  was  taken  that  the  milk  should  dry  up  without  giving 
her  any  unea.siness.  She  calved  in  high  health,  the  milk  returned  as  usual  in  a  great  flush  after 
calving,  but  it  proved  an  impossibility  to  draw  it  from  the  udder ;  not  a  teat  would  pass  the  milk, 
all  the  four  being  entirely  corded.  Uuills  were  introduced  into  tliem  at  first,  and  then  tubes  of 
larger  size  were  pushed  up  to  the  root  of  each  teat.  A  little  milk  ran  out  of  one  of  them — hope 
revived  ;  but  it  slopped  running,  and  all  the  art  that  could  be  devised  by  a  skillful  shepherd 
proved  of  no  avail  to  draw  milk  from  the  udder  ;  rubbing  and  softening  the  udder  with  goose- 
grease,  making  it  warmer  wi  h  warm  water — all  to  no  purj)osc.  To  render  the  ca.se  more  dis- 
tressing, there  was  not  a  veterinary  surgeon  in  the  district.  At  length,  the  udder  inflamed,  mor- 
tified, and  the  cow  died  in  the  most  excruciating  agony  on  the  third  day,  from  being  in  the  high- 
est state  of  health,  though  not  in  high  condition;  for  her  milking  propensity  usually  kept  her  lean, 
but  still  she  was  always  spirited.  No  loss  of  the  kind  ever  afl'ected  my  mind  so  much — to  think 
that  nothing  eould  be  done  to  relieve  the  distress  of  a  creature  that  could  not  help  itself.  I  waa 
told  afierward  by  a  shepherd  to  whom  1  related  the  case,  that  I  should  have  cut  off"  all  the  teats 
by  the  roots ;  which  horrid  operation  would,  of  course,  have  destroyed  her  for  a  milch  cow,  but, 
he  conceived,  would  have  saved  her  for  feeding.  He  had  never  sec/t  that  operation  performed 
on  a  row  ;  but  it  .suggested  itself  to  him  in  consequence  of  having  been  obliged  at  times  to  cut  off 
a  ewe's  teat  or  teals  to  save  her  life.  The  suggestion  I  think  good  ;  and  I  mention  :t  that  it  may 
occur  to  you  in  similar  circumstances.  1  purchased  this  cow  when  a  quey  in  calf,  along  with 
another,  from  Mr.  Cume,  then  in  Brandon,  Northumberland. 

(1701.)  Cows  differ  very  much  in  the  lime  they  continue  to  give  milk,  some  not  continuing  to 
yield  it  more  than  9  month",  while  others  att'ord  it  for  years.  The  usual  lime  for  cows  that  bear 
calves  to  give  milk  is  10  months.  The  cow  that  died  in  conseiiueuce  of  the  corded  teats  men- 
tioned above,  ;noO,)  gave  milk  for  3  years,  and  bore  a  calf  every  year.  A  cow  of  mine  tliat 
slipped  her  calf,  and  was  not  again  served  by  the  bull,  gave  milk  for   19  montlis.     But  many  re- 


strained condition.  Hence  with  us  the  parturition  of  cows  is  very  rarely  attended  with  any  diflB- 
cnlty  or  danger — so  rarely  as  scarcely  to  make  it  an  object  of  attention  or  solicitude ;  thus  all  the 
precautions,  descriptions  of  symptoms  and  remedies,  Ac.  laid  down  here,  may  seem  to  be  almost 
unnecessarj-.  It  is  with  domestic  animals  as  witli  the  human  family — too  much  care  and  manage, 
ment  seem  to  beget  ditKculties.  The  fine  lady  is  watched  with  intense  solicitude ;  the  family 
phvsician  is  on  the  qui  rive  for  weeks  before  the  event ;  and  she  sometimes  falls  a  victim  to  the 
contagious  sym()athy  and  apprehensions  of  her  friends,  and  to  that  delicacy  of  frame  and  constitu- 
tion which  is  the  fruit  of  too  much  refinement  in  her  rearing  and  physical  education.  The  poor 
laboring  man's  wife  has  no  such  fear,  and  no  such  difficulties.  The  misfortune  in  his  case  is  that 
children  come  loo  easy  and  too  fasL  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

•  YouHtt  on  Cattle. 
(202J 


cows   CALVING,  AND   CALVES.  107 

markable  instances  of  cows  giving  milk  for  a  long  rime  are  on  record.  •'  The  rnimense  length  of 
time  for  which  some  cows  will  continue  to  give  milk.'  says  a  veterinan,-  writer,  "if  favorably 
treated,  is  truly  astonishing  ;  so  much  so  as  to  appear  absolutely  incredible.  My  own  obsers-a- 
tion  on  this  subject  extends  to  four  most  remarkable  cases:  1.  A  cow  purchased  by  a  Mr.  Ball, 
who  resided  near  Hanipstead,  tiiat  continued  to  give  milk  for  7  years,  subsequently  to  having  her 
first  and  only  calf  2.  A  large  dan  Suffolk  cow,  shown  to  me  as  a  curiosity  by  a  Yorkshire  farm- 
er. This  animal,  when  I  saw  her,  had  been  giving  milk  for  the  preceding  5  years,  daring 
which  period  she  had  not  any  calf  The  five-years'  milking  was  the  result  of  her  second  calving. 
During  that  period,  attejiipts  had  been  made  to  breed  from  her,  but  inetfectnally.  3.  A  small 
aged  cow,  belonging  to  a.  farmier  near  Paris,  that  gave  milk  for  3  years  subsequent  to  her  last 
calf  4.  A  cow  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Nichols,  Postma.ster,  Lower  Merion-street,  Dublin.  This 
animal  was  in  Mr.  Nichols's  possession  for  4  years,  during  the  entire  of  which  time  she  continued 
to  give  an  uninterrupted  supply  of  milk,  which  did   not  diminish  in  quantity  more  than  3  pints 

per  diem,  and  that  only  in  the  winter  months He  disposed  of  her  for  butchers'  meat,  she 

being  in  excellent  condition.  The  morning  of  the  day  on  which  she  was  killed,  she  gave  her 
usual  (juantity  of  milk."  * 

(170'.i.)  The  same  writer  enters  fully  into  a  subject  with  which  I  was  not  previously  acquainted, 
namely,  the  possibility  of  securing  permanency  of  milk  in  the  cow.  This  is  effected,  it  seems,  by 
simply  spai/ins  the  cow  at  a  proper  time  after  calving.  The  operation  consists  in  cutting  into 
the  flank  of  the  co^v,  and  in  destroying  the  ovaries  of  the  womb  by  the  introduction  of  the  hand. 
The  cow  must  have  acquired  her  full  stature,  so  that  it  may  be  performed  at  any  age  after  4  years.t 
She  should  be  at  the  flush  of  her  milk,  as  the  future  quantity  yielded  depends  on  that  which  is  afr 
forded  by  her  at  the  time  of  the  operation.  The  operation  may  be  performed  in  ten  days  after 
calving,  but  the  most  proper  time  appears  to  be  3  or  4  weeks  after.  The  cow  should  be  in  high 
health,  otherwise  the  operation  may  kill  her  or  dry  up  the  milk.  The  only  preparation  required 
for  the  safety  of  the  operation  is,  that  the  cow  should  fast  12  or  14  hours,  and  the  milk  taken  away 
immediately  before  the  operation.  The  wound  heals  in  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks.  For  two  or 
three  days  after  the  operation,  the  milk  may  dimini.sh  in  quantity-;  but  it  regains  its  measure  in 
about  a  week,  and  continues  at  that  mark  for  the  remainder  of  the  animal's  lite,  or  as  long  as  the 
age  of  the  animal  permits  the  secretion  of  the  fluid  ;  unless,  from  .some  accidental  circumstance — 
such  as  the  attack  of  a  severe  disease — it  is  stopped  ;  but  even  then  the  animal  may  be  easily  fat- 
tened. 

(1703.)  The  advantages  of  spaying  milch-cows  are  thus  summed  up :  "1.  Rendering  permanent, 
the  secretion  of  milk,  and  having  a  much  greater  quantity  within  the  given  time  of  everj-  year 
2.  The  quality  of  the  milk  being  improved.  3.  The  uncertainty  of  and  the  dangers  incidental  to 
breeding  being  to  a  great  extent  avoided.  4.  The  increased  disposition  to  fatten,  even  when  giv- 
ing milk,  or  when,  from  excess  of  age,  or  from  accidental  circumstances,  the  secretion  of  milk  is 
checked  ;  also,  the  very  short  time  required  for  the  attainment  of  marketable  condition.  5.  The 
meat  of  spaj-ed  cattle  being  of  a  quality  superior  to  that  of  ordinary  cattle.'' +  With  these  advan- 
tages, of  course,  breeders  of  stock  can  have  nothing  to  do  ;  but  since  the  operation  is  said  to  be 
quite  safe  in  its  results,  it  may  be  presented  to  the  notice  of  cow-feeders  in  towns. 

(1704.)  A  cow  will  desire  the  bull  in  4  or  5  w^eeks  after  calving.  The  symptoms  of  a  cow  being 
in  season  are  thus  well  described  by  Skellett :  "  She  will  suddenly  abate  of  her  milk,  and  be 
very  restle.«s ;  vv-hen  in  the  field  with  other  cows  she  will  be  fi-equently  riding  on  them,  and  if 
in  the  cow-house,  she  will  be  constantly  shifting  about  the  stall ;  her  tail  will  be  in  constant  mo- 
tion ;  she  will  be  frequently  dunging,  stalling  and  blaring ;  will  lose  her  appetite  :  her  external 
parts  will  appear  red  and  inflamed,  and  a  transparent  liquor  will  be  discharged  from  the  vagina. 
In  old  cows  these  symptoms  are  continued  4  or  5  days,  but  in  general  not  more  than  24  hours, 
and  at  other  times  not  more  than  5  or  6  hours.  Therefore,  if  a  cow  is  intended  for  procreation, 
the  earliest  opportunity  should  be  taken  to  let  her  have  the  bull ;  for  if  it  be  neglected  then,  it 
will  often  be  two  or  three  weeks  before  the  above  sj-mptoms  will  return.  These  instructions," 
adds  Skellett,  "  are  necessary  to  be  given  only  to  the  proprietor  of  a  small  number  of  cows,  where 

a  bull  is  not  always  kept  w^ith  them If  a  cow,  after  calving,  shows  symptoms  of  season 

sooner  than  4  or  5  weeks,  which  is  sometimes  the  case,  she  should  not  be  permitted  to  have  the  bull 
sooner  th<zn  A  or  5  weeks  from  that  period,  for  the  womb,  before  that  time,  is  generally  in  so  re- 
laxed a  state  as  not  to  be  capable  of  retaining  the  seed  ;  consequently  she  seldom  proves  with  calf, 
if  she  is  sufiered  to  take  him  sooner."  t|  This  last  remark  I  consider  cf  great  value,  for  1  am  per- 
suaded that  most  cases  of  cows  not  holding  in  calf  the  first  serving  after  calving,  arises  from  the 
want  of  consideration  on  the  part  of  breeders,  whether  the  cow  is  in  that  recovered  state  from  the 
eflfects  of  calving  as  to  afford  a  reasonable  hope  that  she  will  conceive ;  and  this  is  a  point  more  to 
be  considered  than  the  mere  lapse  of  time  after  calving,  for  a  cow  after  a  severe  labor,  may  be  in 
a  much  worse  state  for  conception,  even  at  double  that  length  of  time,  than  another  which  has 


[t  It  is  not,  of  course,  meant  to  say  that  cattle  may  not  be  spayed  earlier.  On  the  contrary,  it 
is  quite  common,  especially  in  our  western  country,  to  spay  heifers,  and  where  the  operator  has 
floine  experience  there  is  little  danger.  Should  the  system  of  M.  Gueno.v,  by  which  it  may  at  a 
very  early  age  be  pronounced  whether  a  calf  will  make  a  good  or  a  very  indifferent  milker,  be 
fully  established,  it  will  undoubtedly  become  expedient  for  farmers  to  sell  to  the  butcher  for  veal, 
or  to  have  spayed  all  that  are  found  to  be  devoid  of  the  marks  or  escutcheons.  Being  spayed, 
they  have  a  greater  tendency  to  fat,  and  cases  might  happen,  we  should  think,  where  the  farmer 
has  few  cattle  that  it  might  be  economical  to  bring  such  condemned  and  spayed  heifers  under  the 
yoke.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

'  Fersuson  on  Distemper  among  Cattle. 

I  Ferguson  en  Distemper  among  Cattle.  11  Skellett  on  the  Parturition  of  the  Cow 

(203) 


108  TlIK    DOOK   OF  THE    FARM SPRING. 

passed  the  ralvinp  with  cbho,  thouu'li  the  former  may  come  as  rogularly  into  Beason  as  the  latter. 
The  state  of  ilie  body,  iherefure,  as  well  on  tlie  length  of  time,  should  be  taken  into  consideration 
in  dcti-niiiiiinu  this  ixiiiit. 

(ITO.'i.)  ThtTo  Hre  still  other  considerations  connected  with  the  serving  of  cows  which  deserve 
your  atliMitioii.  The  usual  practice,  in  places  wht-rc  there  is  no  hull,  is  to  lukc  llie  cow  to  llic  bull 
ut  a  convLMiifiit  time  for  the  cattle  n)an  to  ^o  with  her;  and  should  she  have  fiussi-ii  the  bloom  of 
the  season  before  her  arrival  at  the  bull  llie  issue  is  of  course  doubtful.  The  cow  may  have  trav- 
eled a  louf.'  distance  and  become  weary,  and  yet  no  rest  is  allowed  her,  and  she  must  underpo 
the  still  further  fatigue  of  being  served.  Some  people  cannot  be  satistied  with  the  service  which 
their  cows  R-coive,  until  both  cow  and  bull  are  wearied  out.  Others  will  force  either  the  cow  or 
bull,  or  both  logctlier,  against  their  inclination,  she  being  held  by  the  nose,  and  he  goaded  on  with 
throats  and  thumps.  In  all  such  cases  the  chances  are  much  against  conception.  There  is,  to  be 
sure,  the  difficulty  of  not  having  the  bull  on  the  spot,  but,  when  he  is  reached,  he  may  have  been 
worn  out  for  theday  by  previous  service.  No  sui'h  difficulty  is  fell  when  there  is  a  bull  at  home  ; 
but  even  then,  wheii  the  cow  has  to  be  taken  to  him  out  of  the  byre,  for  example,  some  judgment 
ts  requisite  of  the  proper  time  at  which  she  should  be  taken  out ;  and  this  can  only  be  ascertained 
bv  studying  the  idiosyncracy  of  every  cow,  and  remembering  each  case.  It  apiiears  to  me  to  be 
as  essential  a  matter  to  keep  a  record  of  the  churncteristics  of  each  cow,  in  regard  to  her  stale  of 
sea.son,  as  of  her  reckoning  to  calve  ;  and  this  remark  is  strengtheneil  by  the  great  differences,  in 
this  respect,  evinced  by  different  cows  under  the  same  treatment.  For  example,  one  arrives  soon 
at  mature  seii.st)n  after  the  symptoms  are  exhibited  ;  another  reciuires  a  few  hoars  to  arrive  at  the 
same  point,  and  the  season  continues  for  some  time  longer  in  a  languid  state.  A  third  runs  through 
the  course  of  sea.son  in  a  few  hours,  while  a  fourth  is  only  prepared  to  receive  the  bull  at  the  last 
part  of  her  season.  A  fifth  may  exhibit  great  f:re  in  her  desire,  which  induces  her  kecjier  to  have 
her  served  at  once,  when  loo  soon  ;  while  another  shows  comparative  indifference,  and  in  waiting 
for  an  exhibition  of  increased  desire  on  her  part,  the  season  is  allowed  to  pass  off;  and  when  this  is 
the  case,  some  cattlemen,  conscious  of  ncLrlect,  and  afraid  of  detection,  will  persist  in  llie  bull  serv- 
ing her,  though  she  may  be  very  much  disinclined  for  ihe  embrace,  and  does  everything  in  her 
power  to  avoid  it.  There  is  no  way  so  natural  for  a  bull  serving  a  cow,  as  when  both  are  in  the  field 
together,  and  umlerstand  one  another.  The  most  proper  lime  is  wisely  chosen  by  both,  and  failure 
of  conception  will  be  rare  in  the  circumstance.  But  it  is  possible  that  the  bull  may  be  unable  to 
obtain  possession  of  the  cow  in  the  field,  by  rea.«on  of  disparity  in  bight  and  of  corporeal  conforma- 
tion ;  in  which  case  he  will  require  to  be  taken  to  a  part  of  the  ground  which  will  favor  his  pur- 
pose. Two  or  three  thorouprk.  skips  are  quite  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of  conception.  The  cow 
Bhould  be  put  into  and  kept  quiet  in  the  byre,  after  being  served  until  the  desire  leave  her,  and 
she  should  get  no  food  or  water  for  some  hours  after,  as  any  encouragement  of  discharges  from 
the  body  at  this'time,  by  food  and  drink,  is  inimical  to  the  retention  of  the  semen. 

(1706.)  "When  nature  is  satisfied,"  says  Mr.  Skellett,  who  is  a  great  authority  in  the  vaccine 
department  of  veterinary  practice,  "or  the  symptoms  of  season  disappear  in  the  animal,  concep- 
tion has  taken  place.  The  neck  of  the  womb  becomes  then  completely  closed  by  a  glutinous  sub- 
stance which  Nature  has  provided  for  that  purpose,  being  perfectly  transparent,  and  with  diEB- 
culty  separated  from  the  parts.  This  matter  is  for  the  purpose  of  excluding  all  external  air 
from  the  mouth  of  the  womb  during  gestation,  which,  if  admitted  to  the  fa>tus,  would  corrupt  the 
membranes  and  the  pellucid  liquor  in  which  the  foetus  floats,  and  would  undoubtedly  cause  the 
cow  to  slink.  This  glutinous  substance  also  prevents  the  lips  of  the  mouth  of  the  womb  from 
growing  toirether;  and  when  the  cow  comes  into  season  it  becomes  fluid — in  the  act  of  copulation 
serving  lo  lubricate  the  parts  and  prevent  inflammation."  * 


9.    THE  ADVANTAGES  OF  HAVING  FIELD-WORK  ALWAYS  IN  A 
FORWARD   STATE. 

"  Who  breakesh  timely  his  fallow  or  ley. 
Sets  forward  his  hushnndrie  many  B  wsye. 
This,  timely  well  ended,  doth  forwnrdly  bring 
Mot  only  thy  tillage,  but  all  other  thing." 

TCSSKR. 

(1707.)  The  season — early  spring — having  arrived  when  the  laboring 
and  sowing  land  for  the  various  crops  cultivated  on  a  farm  of  mixed  hus- 
bandry are  about  to  occupy  all  hands  for  several  months  to  come,  the 
injunction  of  old  Tusser  to  undertake  them  in  time  that  each  may  be  fin- 
ished in  its  proper  season,  should  be  regarded  as  a  sound  advice;  for 
jvhenever  your  field  labor  is  advanced  ever  so  little  at  every  opportunity  of 

*  Skellett  on  the  Parturition  of  the  Cow. 
(204) 


THE   ADVANTAGES   OF   FORWARDING    FIELD-WORK.  ]  09 


weather  and  leisure,  no  premature  approach  of  the  ensuing  season  can 
come  upon  you  unawares ;  and  should  the  season,  on  the  other  hand,  be 
delayed  beyond  its  usual  period  by  natural  causes,  you  will  be  ready  to 
proceed  with  your  work  whenever  the  weather  proves  favorable.  When 
work  advances  little  by  little,  there  is  time  to  do  it  effectually  ;  or,  if  it  be 
not  then  executed  in  an  effectual  manner,  you  have  yourself  to  blame  for 
not  looking  after  it.  When  I  say,  however,  that  work  may  be  advanced 
little  by  little,  I  do  not  mean  that  it  should  be  done  in  a  slow,  careless 
manner,  as  if  the  work-people  were  unimpressed  with  the  importance  of 
what  they  were  doing.  The  advantage  of  doing  even  a  little  is  that  what- 
ever is  done  is  not  to  do  afterward;  and  that  a  little  may  be  done  as  well, 
and  in  as  short  a  time,  as  if  it  had  been  done  as  a  part  of  a  great  opera- 
tion. In  this  way,  even  if  only  one  man  is  kept  constantly  at  the  plow, 
he  would  turn  over,  in  the  course  of  a  time  considered  short  when  looked 
back  upon,  an  extent  of  ground  almost  incredible.  He  will  turn  over  an 
imperial  acre  a  day,  that  is,  6  acres  a  week,  24  acres  in  a  month,  and  72 
acres  in  the  course  of  the  dark  and  short  days  of  the  winter  quarter.  All 
this  he  will  accomplish  on  the  supposition  that  he  has  been  enabled  to  go 
at  his  plow  every  working  day ;  but  as  that  cannot  probably  happen  in 
the  winter  quarter,  suppose  he  turns  over  50  acres  instead  of  72,  these  will 
still  comprehend  the  plowing  of  the.  whole  extent  of  ground  allotted  to 
be  worked  every  year  by  each  pair  o^orses  when  the  farm  was  taken.  In 
fact,  here  is  a  large  proportion  of  a  whole  year's  plowing  done  in  a  single, 
and  in  the  shortest  quarter  of  the  year. 

(1708.)  Now,  a  week  or  two  may  quickly  pass  in  winter  in  doing  things 
of  little  moment,  and  which,  in  fact,  amount  to  time  being  thrown  away ; 
such  as  sending  away  a  rake  of  all  the  draughts  to  a  stock  corn-market,  on 
a  day  when  there  is  little  prospect  of  disposing  of  the  grain,  and  when  they 
would  have  been  better  employed  at  home  at  the  plow ;  or  driving  some  ma- 
terial on  the  farm  which  would  better  and  easier  be  done  when  the  plows  are 
laid  idle  at  any  rate  by  frost ;  or  in  setting  men  to  the  corn-barn  to  thresh 
or  clean  coni,  and  laying  the  horses  idle  for  the  time ;  or  in  contriving 
some  unimportant  work  to  fill  up  the  time  for  half  a  day,  until  the  frost 
thaws  a  little  on  the  lea,  because  it  would  give  too  much  trouble  to  take 
the  plows  from  the  lea  to  the  stubble  field,  if  there  be  any  such  at  the  time. 
Sharpening  and  setting  irons  differently  may  form  a  reasonable  excuse  for 
shifting  the  plows  fi'om  a  stubble  to  a  lea  field,  but  no  such  excuse  is  avail- 
able in  neglecting  to  make  the  opposite  transference.  Such  omissions 
and  instances  of  misdirected  labor  are  too  much  regarded  as  trifles  in  win- 
ter ;  but  is  undeniable  that  they  occupy  as  much  time  as  more  important 
work  ;  and  in  a  season,  too,  when  every  operation  of  the  field  is  prepara- 
tory to  one  at  a  more  busy  season.  Occasionally  the  state  of  the  work 
will  force  the  consideration  on  the  farmer,  that  it  is  not  so  far  advanced  as 
it  should  be,  or  even  as  he  could  wish ;  still,  instead  of  pursuing  a  different 
course  from  that  which  has  given  rise  to  the  reflection  occasioned  by  the 
delay,  his  unsatisfied  mind  consoles  itself  with  the  assurance  that  when 
the  season  for  active  work  actually  arrives,  the  people  will  be  able  to  make 
up  for  the  lost  time.  This  is,  however,  mere  delusion  ;  for  if  work  can  be 
made  up,  so  can  time,  the  two  being  inseparable ;  and  yet  how  can  lost 
time  be  made  up,  when  every  moment  of  the  year  has  its  work  to  per- 
form, and  when  that  period,  long  as  it  is,  is  usually  found  too  short  in 
which  to  do  everything  as  it  ought  to  be  done  1  "  There's  the  rub."  For 
time  eludes  pursuit,  and  brooks  no  interruption  ;  but  neglected  worh, 
though  attempted  to  be  overtaken — and  it  may  be  overtaken  before  its 
issue — still  the  race  will  never  terminate  in  a  satisfactory  manner.     The 

(205J  ''  ^ 


110  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

neiylected  work  may,  no  doubt,  be  done  in  a  slitirt  time — in  an  unprece- 
dcntedly  sliort  tlmo  ;  but  in  that  case,  it  is  tlie  tinx-  in  wliich  the  work  Is 
done  that  is  l)uasted  of,  not  the  work  itself — thf  nieasiirt',  and  not  tlie  tiling 
mrasnrcd,  which  is  held  up  to  view;  and  yet,  time  being  the  standard  by 
which  all  well-executed  labor  is  measured,  it  cannot  be  deprived  of  that 
projierty,  whatever  devices  may  be  used  to  makt-  it  go  beyond  its  steady 
I)uce.  You  should  remember  that  iln  p;ue  is  the  same  in  winter  as  in  sum- 
mer, and  the  extent  of  labor,  measured  by  the  length  of  its  tread,  ought  to 
be  as  great  in  winter  as  in  summer,  otherwise  an  iireclaimable  error  is 
assuredly  committed  in  that  season. 

(1709.)  Convinced  that  //rW-labor  should  he  jjerseveringly  advanced  in 
winter,  whenever  practicable,  I  am  of  opinion  that  plan  is  good  which  ap- 
points plowmen  to  difterent  departments  of  labor ;  some  to  work  con- 
stantly on  the  farm,  others  occasionally  to  go  from  home  ;  some  to  be  con- 
stantly, or  nearly  so,  at  the  ])low,  others  frequently  at  the  cart.  Thus  the 
benefits  of  the  subdivision  of  labor  may  be  extended  to  the  farm.  When 
a  certain  proportion  of  the  draughts  are  thus  set  aside  for  ])lowing,  that 
most  important  of  all  operations  will  not  only  be  well  done  by  those  whose 
special  duty  it  is  to  do  it,  but  perseveringly  and  judiciously  done.  This 
proportion  is  only  legitimately  employed  at  aiiy  other  work  when  there  is 
no  plowing  for  them  to  execute.  Plowing  being  a  steady  occupation,  not 
subject  to  the  irregular  action  of  the  cart,  can  be  performed  by  the  older 
men  and  horses,  who  cannot  so  well  bear  the  shocks  of  carting  as  younger 
men  and  horses. 

(1710.)  It  may  be  proper  to  give  some  familiar  examples  of  what  I 
mean  when  I  say  that  J^eW-labor  should  be  advanced  at  every  opportunity. 
The  order  of  work  in  spring  is  well  understood  ;  it  should  therefore  be 
the  study  of  the  fanner  to  conduct  the  operations  of  winter  so  as  to  suit 
those  of  spring  in  their  natural  order.  If  the  weather  seems  tempting  to 
sow  spi'ing  wheat,  then  a  portion  of  the  land  cleared  of  tuniips  by  the 
sheep,  best  suited  to  that  species  of  crop,  should  be  so  plowed  as  to  an- 
swer wheat  instead  of  barley.  If  beans  are  desiderated  as  a  crop,  and 
there  is  land  suitable  for  their  culture,  then,  in  autumn  or  in  early  winter, 
the  stubble  land,  in  its  particular  state  should  be  so  plowed  as  to  suit  their 
growth ;  and  in  whatever  mode  beans  are  to  be  afterward  cultivated,  care 
should  be  taken  to  have  the  land  particularly  dry,  by  letting  off"  water  in 
winter  by  additional  gaw-cuts,  where  necessary,  or  by  deepening  those 
already  existing,  where  the^  seem  to  require  that  amendment.  Beans 
being  an  early  crop,  such  precautions  to  render  land  dry  on  the  surface 
are  requisite.  If  common  oats  are  to  be  sown  in  spring,  they  being  sown 
earlier  than  other  sorts,  the  lea  intended  for  them  should  be  plowed  first, 
and  means  taken  to  keep  it  dry  in  winter,  so  that  the  most  unpro])ifiou8 
weather  in  8j)ring  may  not  find  the  land  in  an  unprepared  state.  What 
land  is  intended  for  potatoes,  what  for  turnips,  or  tares,  or  bare  fallow, 
should  be  prepared  in  their  respective  order  ;  and  when  every  one  of  all 
these  objects  have  been  promoted,  and  there  is  found  little  or  nothing 
to  do  till  the  burst  of  spring-work  comes,  both  horses  and  men  may  enjoy 
a  day's  rest  now  and  then,  without  incumng  the  risk  of  throwing  work 
back  ;  but  before  such  recreations  are  indulged  in,  it  should  be  ascertained 
that  all  the  implements,  great  and  small,  have  been  repaired  for  work — 
the  plow-irons  all  new  laid — the  harrow-linos  new  laid  and  sharpened,  and 
fastened  firmly  into  the  bulls  of  the  haiTows — the  harne.ss  all  tight  and 
strong — the  sacks  new  ])atched  and  mended,  that  no  seed-corn  be  spilled 
upon  the  road — the  seed-corn  threshed,  measured  up,  and  sacked,  and 
what  is  last  wanted  put  into  the   granary — the  horses  new  shod,  that  no 

(20tiJ 


CROSS-PLOWING,  DRILLING,  AND  RIBBING  LAND.  Ill 

casting  or  breaking  of  a  single  shoe  may  throw  a  pair  of  horses  out  of 
work  tor  even  one  single  hour — in  short,  to  have  everything  prepared  to 
start  for  work  when  the  first  notice  of  spring  sliall  be  heralded  in  the  sky, 
(1711.)  But  suppose  the  contrary  of  all  this  to  happen;  suppose  that 
the  plow-irons  and  harrow-tines  have  to  be  laid  and  sharpened,  when  per- 
haps to-morrow  they  may  be  wanted  in  the  field — a  stack  to  be  threshed 
for  seed-corn  or  for  horses'-com  in  the  midst  of  a  sowing  of  a  field — sup- 
pose, too,  that  only  a  week's  work  has  been  lost,  in  winter,  of  a  single 
pair  of  horses,  and  the  consequence  is  that  6  acres  of  land  have  to  be 
plowed  when  they  should  be  sown,  that  is,  a  loss  of  a  whole  day  of  6  pair 
of  horses,  or  of  2  days  of  3  pair — suppose  all  these  inconveniences  to  hap- 
pen in  the  busy  season  and  the  provoking  reflection  occurs  that  the  loss 
incurred  now  was  occasioned  by  trifling  offputs  in  v^anter.  Compare  the 
value  of  these  trifles  with  the  risk  of  finding  you  unprepared  for  so^ving 
beans  or  spring  wheat.  Suppose,  once  more,  that  instead  of  having  tur- 
nips in  store  for  the  cattle,  when  the  oat-seed  is  begun  in  the  fields,  and 
that,  instead  of  being  able  to  prosecute  that  indispensable  piece  of  work 
without  interruption,  you  are  obliged  to  send  away  a  portion  of  the 
draughts  to  bring  in  turnips,  which  must  be  hronght  in,  and  brought  in, 
too,  from  hand  to  mouth,  it  being  impossible,  in  the  circumstances,  to 
store  them.  In  short,  suppose  that  the  season  of  incessant  labor  airives 
and  finds  you  unprepared  to  go  along  with  it — and  what  are  the  conse- 
quences ?  Every  creature  about  you,  man,  woman,  and  beast,  is  then 
toiled  beyond  endurance  every  day,  not  to  keep  ttp  work,  which  is  a  light- 
some task,  but  to  make  up  work,  which  is  a  toilsome  task,  but  which  you 
said  you  could  easily  do,  when  you  were  idling  your  time  in  a  season  you 
consider  of  little  value  ;  and,  after  all,  this  toil  is  bestowed  in  vain  to  ob- 
tain the  end  you  wish,  namely,  to  prepare  your  crop  in  dne  season.  You 
who  are  inexperienced  in  the  e\als  of  procrastination  may  fancy  this  to  be 
an  overdrawn  picture — even  an  impossible  case ;  but  unfortunately  for 
that  supposition,  it  is  drawn  from  the  life.  I  have  seen  eveiy  incident  oc- 
cur which  I  have  mentioned,  both  as  to  work  being  in  a  forward  and  in  a 
backward  state,  not,  it  is  true,  in  any  one  year  ;  but  some  instances  in 
one,  and  some  in  another  year,  but  what  may  occur  in  different  years  may 
all  occur  in  one,  and  such  a  result  may  easily  be  realized  by  indulgence 
in  increased  negligence. 


10.    CROSS-PLOWING,   DRILLING,   AND   RIBBING   LAND. 

The  new-gained  field  laid  down  in  seemly  drills." 


Graham. 


(1712.)  I  have  already  described  the  various  modes  of  plowing  land  at 
the  commencement  and  during  winter.  It  remains  for  me  to  describe 
other  modes  of  plowing,  which  were  deferred  from  that  time  until  the  sea- 
son in  which  they  are  usually  begun  to  be  executed,  namely,  spring. 
These  modes  are  cross-plowing,  drilling,  and  ribbing. 

(1713.)  And,  first,  as  to  cross-plowing.  I  have  alluded  to  this  mode  of 
plowing,  not  so  much  to  describe  it  minutely,  as  to  deprecate  its  practice 
before  winter.  "  Its  object  is  to  cut  across  the  existing  furrow-slices 
into  small  pieces,  that  the  land  may  be  the  more  easily  pulverized  and 
prej)ared  for  the  future  crop."     Fig.  312  represents  a  field  to  be  cross- 

1207) 


112  THE   BOOK   OF  THE   FARM SPRING. 


plowed,  and  it  is  purposely  formed  of  an  irregular  shape,  as  most  fields 
are,  to  show  the  side  from  which  the  cross-furrows  should  he  feered,  and 
the  mode  of  plowing  the  last,  or  irregular  feering,  aicording  to  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case. 

(1714.)  The  first  thing  to  he  done  in  preparing  any  field  for  cross-plow- 
ing is  to  render  its  surface  as  free  of  large  clods  as  possihle ;  and  this  is 
effected  hy  harruwins;,  an  operation  which  is  executed  hy  an  implemeni 
that  will  he  particularly  described  when  it  comes  to  he  spoken  of  in  seed- 
time. The  winter's  frost  may  have  softened  the  clods  of  the  most  oh- 
durate  clay-soil,  and  the  mould-hoard  of  the  plow  may  be  able  to  pulver- 
ize them  fine  enough,  and  the  lighter  soils  may  have  no  clods  on  them  at 
all ;  from  all  which  circumstances  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  loss  of  time  to 
harrow  the  ground  before  cross-plowing  it  in  spring  ;  and,  for  these  rea- 
sons, I  believe,  some  farmers  do  not  practice  harrowing  ;  but  it  appears 
to  me  to  be  always  the  surest  plan  of  pulverizing  the  soil  to  harrow  it  be- 
fore cross-plowing  the  winter  furrow ;  because  you  cannot  be  sure  that, 
in  the  strongest  land,  all  the  clods  have  been  softened  to  the  heart  by  frost ; 
and  should  they  happen  still  to  be  hard  there,  and  become  burietl  by  the 
cross-furrow,  they  will  not  be  so  easily  pulverized  as  when  lying  exposed 
upon  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  the  action  of  the  harrow  ;  and  even  in 
the  lightest  soils,  the  harrows  not  only  make  a  smoother  surface,  but  assist 
in  intermixing  the  dry  frost-pulverized  soil  of  the  surface  with  the  moister 
and  firmer  soil  below,  at  least  as  far  as  the  tines  of  the  haiTOws  reach. 

(1715.)  There  is  not  much  time  lost  in  hanowing  before  cross-plowing  ; 
for  although  the  harrowing  should  be  given  a  double-tine,  that  is,  backward 
and  forward  upon  the  same  ground,  to  pulverize  the  clods,  or  equalize  the 
texture  of  the  ground  ;  and  although  it  should  be  given  across  instead  of 
along  the  ridges,  that  the  open  fuiTows  may  be  filled  up  with  soil  as  much 
as  possible,  whether  the  land  had  been  plowed  with  gore-furrows,  fig.  136, 
or  not — that  which  has  been  cloven  down  with  gore-furrows,  fig.  141,  or 
twice  gathered  up,  fig.  139,  being  the  most  difficult  to  cross-harrow,  not 
only  on  account  of  the  numerous  open  funows  of  the  former  method,  and 
the  inequality  of  the  gi"ound,  occasioned  by  the  latter,  but  because  both 
these  methods  are  adopted  for  winter  furrows  on  strong  land,  which  is  the 
most  difficult  to  be  labored  even  in  the  most  favorable  forms — yet  the 
worst  form  of  plowed  land  can  be  harrowed  in  a  short  time. 

(1716.)  Two  pairs  of  harrows  should  be  set  to  cross-haiTow  together,  as 
being  the  best  mode  of  accomplishing  effective  hanowing  in  all  cases,  as 
will  be  shown  afterward  ;  and  that  number  of  hanows,  when  unconfined 
by  ridges,  will  cover  at  least  16  feet  in  breadth,  and  proceeding  at  the  rate 
of  2  miles  per  hour  for  9  working  hours,  will  give  19  acres  of  ground  a 
double  tine,  on  the  supposition  there  have  been  no  interruptions  ;  but  as 
time  must  be  lost  in  turnings,  as  you  have  already  seen  in  plowing  (930), 
and  a  breathing  occasionally  given  to  the  horses,  that  quantity  of  land  can- 
not be  harrowed  a  double  tine  at  that  rate  of  traveling,  in  the  ordinaiy 
mode  of  conducting  labor;  but  say  that  16  acres  are  thus  cross-harrowed 
in  the  course  of  a  day,  a  half  day's  harrowing  will  make  room  for  a  num- 
ber of  plows. 

(1717.)  If  time  presses,  the  feerings  for  cross-plowing  can  be  commenced 
almost  immediately  after  the  harrows  have  started  ;  and  if  these  cannot  get 
way  before  the  plow,  it  can  either  take  a  bout  or  two  in  each  feering,  till 
the  harrows  have  passed  the  space  for  the  next  feering,  or  the  harrows  can 
pass  along  the  lines  of  each  feering  before  the  plow,  and  return  and  finish 
the  harrowing  of  the  ground  between  the  feerings.  Thus  in  fig.  312,  after 
ihe  line  of  feering  ^yhas  been  harrowed,  the  plow  can  either  take  a  bout 

(208) 


CROSS-PLOWING,  DRILLING,  AND  RIBBING   LAND. 


113 


or  two  around  it,  till  the  harrows  have  passed  the  next  line  of  feering  gh; 
or  the  harrows  can  go  along  each  line  of  feering,  first  c  f,  then  g  h,  then 
i  k,  and  so  along  /  m  and  n  o,  in  succession,  to  pi-epare  the  ground  for  feer- 
ing, and  then  return  and  harrow  out  the  ground  between  e  and  g,  g  and  i, 
i  and  Z,  and  /  and  n.  In  this  way  the  harrowing,  and  feering,  and  the 
plowing  of  the  different  feerings  can  be  proceeded  with  at  the  same 
time.    But  if  time  is  not  urgent,  the  systematic  mode  is  to  harrow  the  field 


A    FIELD    PEERED    FOR   BEING    CROSS-PLOWED 


in  a  continuous  manner,  beginning  along  the  fence  a  b  from  the  gate  at  h, 
and  proceeding  by  breadths  of  the  harrows  across  the  field  till  the  other 
side  of  it,  c  d,  is  reached ;  or  another  equally  effective  mode  is  to  step  off 
feerings  from  a  b,  in  breadths  of  30  yards  in  succession,  along  the  field,  in 
the  manner  1  am  about  to  describe,  for  cross-plowing ;  and  this  mode  has 
the  advantage  of  giving  an  easier  turning  to  the  horses  at  the  landings. 

(1718.)  Suppose,  then,  that  all  or  as  much  of  the  field  to  be  cross-plowed 
has  been  harrowed  as  will  give  scope  to  a  single  plow  to  make  the  feer- 
ings without  interruption.  In  choosing  the  side  of  the  field  at  which  the 
feerings  should  commence,  it  is  a  convenient  rule  to  begin  at  the  side 
farthest  from  the  gate,  and  approach  gradually  toward  it,  and  its  conve- 
nience consists  in  not  having  to  pass  the  finished  feerings,  and  so  to  avoid 
the  risk  of  trampling  on  the  plowed  to  get  at  the  unplowed  land.  The 
convenience  of  this  rule  is  felt  not  only  in  cross-plowing,  but  in  pi'osecu- 
ting  every  species  of  field-work  ;  and  besides  avoiding  the  risk  of  damage 
to  finished  work,  it  is  gratifying  to  the  minds  of  laborers  to  think  that,  as 
their  work  proceeds,  they  approach  the  nearer  home ;  while  it  conveys  to 
others  the  idea  of  a  well-laid  plan,  to  witness  the  operations  of  a  field 
which  have  commenced  at  its  farthest  end,  and  are  finished  at  the  gate, 
where  all  the  implements  employed  meet,  ready  to  be  conveyed  to  another 
field.  The  gate  in  this  instance  is  like  home,  and  in  most  instances  it  is 
placed  on  that  side  or  corner  of  the  field  nearest  the  steading.  In  the  par- 
ticular case  of  the  field  represented  by  fig.  312,  these  conveniences  are  not 
all  available,  owing  to  its  form,  which  is  a  very  common  one  ;  and  peculiari- 
ties of  form  involve  considerations  in  retjard  to  conducting  field  operations 
01  more  importance  than  mere  convenience,  and  one  of  these  is  the  most 

(209) 8 


114  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

important  one  of  loss  of  time.  It  is  always  desirable  to  commence  a 
feerinq  at  a  straight  side  of  a  field,  whence  there  is  little  risk  of  error  in 
ing  off  the  feerings  to  include  parallel  spaces  of  ground;  and  wher  estrik- 
this  particular  is  not  attended  to,  much  tjme  is  needlessly  spent  in  plowing 
a  number  (tf  irregular  pieces  (jf  ground.  It  is  better  to  leave  any  irregu- 
larities in  j)lowing  to  the  last ;  and,  as  an  irregularity  must  occur,  at  all 
events,  along  the  side  of  a  crooked  fence,  it  is  saving  of  time  to  throw  any 
irregular  plowing  to  that  side.  In  fig.  314  it  so  liappens  that  the  straight- 
est  side  of  the  field  is  nearest  the  gate  at  h,  and  the  crooked  fence,  c  to  d, 
farthest  from  it.  In  pursuance  of  the  rule  just  announced,  the  feering 
slujuld  begin  along  the  side  of  the  straight  fence  a  h,  and  tei'minate  in  an 
irregular  feering,  along  the  crooked  fence  c  d.  A  straight  feeinng  could, 
no  doubt,  be  made  at  first  along  c  d,  leaving  any  inegularity  between  it 
and  the  fence  ;  but  the  setting  off  of  that  feering  parallel  with  the  straieht 
fence  a  h,  in  order  to  avoid  making  an  irregularity  there  also,  would  im 
pose  considerable  labor,  and  take  up  more  time  than  the  advantage 
would  compensate  of  avoiding  the  inconvenience  of  having  to  pass  ])lowed 
ground. 

(1719.)  Let  the  first  feering,  then,  be  made  about  7  or  8  yards  from  the 
fence  a  b,  or  from  the  ditch-lip  of  that  fence,  if  there  be  a  ditch  there. 
Some  farmers  neglect  the  head-ridge  in  the  cross-plowing,  and  measure 
the  feering  from  the  open  furrow  between  it  and  the  ends  of  the  ridges. 
I  maintain  that  the  head-ridges  should  be  plowed  at  this  time,  as  well  as 
the  rest  of  the  field,  for  if  they  are  neglected  now,  the  busy  seasons  of 
spring  and  of  early  summer  will  prevent  attention  being  paid  to  them  till, 
what  with  the  trampling  of  horses  in  working  the  land  for  green  crop,  and 
the  piobable  drouth  of  the  weather  in  those  seasons,  will  render  them  so 
very  hard  that  it  will  be  found  impracticable  to  plow  them,  and  they  will 
thus  be  deprived  of  the  ameliorating  effects  of  the  sun  and  air  during  the 
pest  part  of  the  year.  Let  them,  therefore,  be  included  in  the  cross-plow- 
ing, although  they  cannot  be  <:?05*-plowed  themselves.  But  if  it  is  desired 
to  plow  them  with  the  side-ridges,  which  form  the  head-ridges  to  the 
cross-plowing,  and  which  side-ridges  must  be  plowed  before  the  crop,  wliat- 
ever  it  may  be,  can  be  sown  upon  them,  then  the  head-ridges  may  be  left 
out  of  the  feering,  and  the  first  feering  be  struck  at  7  or  8  yards  from  the 
head-ridge  open  fuiTow.  Suppose  that  this  line  of  feering  is  e  f;  and  as 
it  is  executed  in  the  same  way  as  that  already  described  in  feering  ridges 
in  (646),  1  refer  you  to  that  paragraph,  as  well  as  to  fig.  132,  where  the 
furrow-slices  m  n  are  shown  to  be  thrown  out  right  and  left  from  the  line 
of  feering  k  I.  The  next  line  of  feering  is  g  h,  at  30  yards'  distance  from 
ef,  and  so  there  is  a  feering  at  every  30  yards'  distance,  to  the  last  feer- 
ing, n  a. 

(1720.)  After  as  many  feerings  are  struck  as  there  are  plows  to  be  em- 
ployed in  cross-plowing,  each  plow  enters  a  feering,  and  first  lays  the 
fuiTOW-slices  of  the  feering  together,  to  form  the  crown  of  the  future 
cross-plowed  break  of  land.  The  horses  are  hupped  around  each  feer- 
ing, ef,  g  h,  &c.,  till  about  ^  of  each  break  of  land  is  ])]owed,  that  is,  i 
from  c  toward  g,  and  1  from  g  toward  e,  thus  plowing  i  the  break  lie- 
tween  e  and  g  by  hupping  the  horses.  The  remaining  ^  of  the  break,  be- 
tween e  and  g,  is  then  plowed  by  hieing  the  horses  (901)  from  e  to  g,  and 
from  /i  to  f,  till  the  middle,  between  e  and  g,  is  gained  by  an  open  furrow. 
No  open  fiirrows,  however,  are  left  in  cross-plowincj,  these  l>eing  plowed 
together  again  by  2  or  3  bouts,  lessening  the  size  of  each  furrow  in  every 
bout,  till  the  last  one  is  closed  up  by  the  moidd-board  of  the  plow,  whicl 
is  laid  over  on  its  side,  and  dragged  forward  while  the  plowman  hob' 

(210J 


CROSS-PLOWING,  DRILLING,  AND  RIBBING  LAND.  115 

only  by  the  large  stilt.  The  obliteration  of  the  open-furrow  ia  necessary 
to  avoid  any  hollow  that  would  be  left  there  across  the  ridges,  when  they 
are  acrain  plowed  into  form.  I  have  alluded  to  this  subject  before  in 
(667.)° 

(1721.)  The  plowing  of  the  complete  feerings  is  all  plain  work,  and,  in- 
deed, the  only  difficulty  encountered  in  cross-plowing  is  when  the  last  or 
irregular  feering,  such  as  n  o,  is  reached.  This  feering  is  begun' to  be 
plowed  like  any  of  the  rest,  till  the  nearest  point  to  the  open  funow  of  the 
head-ridge  is  attained,  and  if  the  head-ridges  have  been  included  in  the 
feerings,  then  the  plowing  proceeds  till  the  ditch-lip  or  hedge-root  stops 
the  plow ;  but  if  left  to  be  plowed  with  the  side-i"idges,  a  small  feering 
should  be  made  at  the  low^est  points  of  the  ridges  at  the  head-ridge  fuiTow, 
and  the  break  included  between  these  points  and  the  feering  should  be 
plowed  out  by  Jiieing  the  horses  with  a  long  furrow  on  the  one  side  and 
a  short  one  on  the  other,  till  the  middle  is  gained,  where  the  open  furrow 
is  closed  up  like  the  others.  This  feering  will  take  longer  time  to  plow 
than  any  of  the  rest,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  the  ground  turned 
over  in  it,  on  account  of  the  plow  having  to  go  empty  from  the  bend  of  the 
fence  to  the  points  on  both  sides. 

(1722.)  Had  the  field  been  a  true  rectangle,  like  the  space  included 
within  the  dotted  lines  a  n  b  t,  the  feering  might  have  been  struck  from 
either  fence,  and  there  would  have  been  no  loss  of  time  in  plowing  alter- 
nate long  and  short  furrows.  Scarcely  a  more  striking  comparison  can 
be  made  of  the  loss  of  time  in  plowing  land  of  the  same  extent  than  be 
tween  a  field  of  regular  and  iiTCgular  form  at  a  busy  season.  The  letters 
p  and  r  indicate  single  and  double  ridges. 

(1723.)  The  furrow  given  at  cross-plowing  is  always  a  deep  one,  deeper 
than  the  one  given  at  the  commencement  of  winter ;  and  this  is  easily  ac- 
complished, as  the  land,  not  having  had  time  to  consolidate,  nor  any  labor 
executed  upon  it  to  consolidate  it,  the  plow  passes  easily  under  the  old 
furrow,  and  not  only  turns  it  over  again,  but  raises  a  portion  of  the  land 
below  it.  Indeed,  it  is  requisite  to  make  the  plow  take  hold  of  this  firm 
substratum  in  order  to  keep  it  steady,  otherwise  the  formerly  tumed-over 
furrows,  which  ai-e  still  cloddy,  or  the  unrotted  stubble  which  has  been 
buried  by  the  plow,  may  form  obstacles  under  and  on  both  sides  of  the 
plow,  so  as  to  throw  it  out  of  operation  altogether,  or  at  least  so  affect  its 
motion  as  to  prevent  its  maintaining  an  equal  depth  of  furrow.  Perhaps 
9  inches  may  be  considered  a  good  avei'age  depth  in  cross-plowing  with  a 
pair  of  horses. 

(1724.)  But  means  ax'e  frequently  used  at  this  season  to  cross-plow  with 
a  deeper  furrow  than  can  be  reached  by  a  plow  drawn  by  a  pair  of  horses, 
3  or  4  horses  being  employed  for  the  pui-pose.  The  third  horse  is  very 
commonly  yoked  in  front  of  the  furrow-horse  of  the  plow,  and  harnessed 
in  cart-traces,  as  represented  in  the  trace-horse  of  the  cart  in  Plate  XVIII., 
the  hooks  of  the  trace-chain  being  passed  into  a  link  of  the  plow-chains, 
behind  the  haims,  of  the  rear  horse.  A  simpler  plan  still  is  adopted  by 
only  using  the  plow-harness,  and  lengthening  the  plow-chains  by  short- 
ends,  that  is,  short  pieces  of  chain,  which  are  hooked  in  a  similar  manner 
to  that  just  described.  Neither  of  these  methods,  however,  will  bear  a 
comparison,  in  point  of  draught,  with  the  yoking  of  3  horses,  as  repre- 
sented in  fig.  201,  and  described  in  (909).  I  have  an  objection,  however, 
to  this  mode  of  yoking,  which  is  founded,  not  on  its  principles,  which  are 
faultless,  but  on  account  of  an  inconvenience  to  one  of  the  horses.  When 
so  yoked,  the  three  horses  work  nearly  abreast,  the  middle  one  being  only 
a  little  in  advance  of  those  on  either  side :  and  the  objection  is,  that  the 


116  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


middle  horse  %vill  become  more  heated  in  the  work,  in  that  position,  than 
either  of"  the  other  two.  Tliis  inconvenience  may  not  be  much  felt  in 
early  spring-work,  but  at  the  time  when  the  largest  proportion  of  cross- 
plowing  is  usually  executed,  or  in  summer,  the  middle  horse  must  suffer 
considerably  more  than  the  others,  and  this  result  I  have  frequently  wit- 
nessed in  places  where  three  liorses  are  still  yoked  abreast  to  the  harrows. 
Therft  are  various  modifications  of  yoking  three  horses  practiced  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  country,  to  which  reference  has  already  been  made  in 
(910),  (911)  and  (912),  and  where  will  also  be  found  methods  of  com- 
pensating the  labor  of  any  individual  horse  by  an  alteration  of  the  swing- 
tree,  when  unequally  yoked,  which  one  of  the  horses  is,  when  three  are 
made  to  work  together,  as  they  are  usually  yoked  in  tandem  fashion. 
Three  horees  will  take  a  depth  of  fuiTow  of  11  or  12  inches,  according  to 
the  texture  and  dej)th  of  the  soil. 

(1725.)  A  still  greater  depth  maybe  attained,  and  is  fi-equently  desirable 
in  cross-plowing,  and  there  is  no  other  sort  of  plowing  which  affords  such 
facilities  for  obtaining  a  deep  furrow.  This  greater  depth  is  attained  by 
yoking  four  horses  to  a  plow,  2  leading  and  2  following,  the  2  off"  ones 
walking  in  the  furrow,  and  the  2  near  ones  on  the  firm  land.  Two  very 
convenient  and  efficient  modes  of  yoking  4  horses  may  be  seen  in  figs.  202 
and  203,  and  a  description  of  them  is  given  in  (913)  and  (914).  Yoked 
as  in  fig.  202,  the  leading  horses  are  best  harnessed,  as  in  the  traces  of  the 
cart,  Plate  XVIII ;  but,  as  in  fig.  203,  they  may  be  in  their  usual  plow- 
haniess,  with  the  exception  of  the  chains,  which  are  made  for  this  particu- 
lar mode  of  yoking.  The  depth  reached  by  a  4-horse  plow  is,  on  an  aver- 
age of  soils,  14  inches.  I  have  used  the  4-horse  plow  much,  and  with  stout, 
well-matched  horses  have  never  reached  less  than  14  inches  in  obdurate 
subsoils  ;  while  in  freer  soil  and  substratum,  not  properly  a  subsoil,  but  rar 
ther  an  undisturbed  soil,  the  plow  went  to  16  inches  of  pei-pendicular  depth, 
and  the  work  was  most  satisfactory, 

(1726.)  An  ordinary  stout  plow  will  answer  for  3  horses,  and  so  it  may 
for  4,  where  there  are  no  bowlder-stones  in  the  land;  but  where  a  consid- 
erable quantity  of  4-horse  plowing  is  desired  to  be  executed,  it  is  better  to 
have  a  plow  made  for  the  purpose  a  little  stronger  than  the  ordinary  2- 
horse  plow. 

(1727.)  In  a  3-horse  yoke,  one  man  may  drive  all  the  horses  by  means 
of  reins  or  by  the  voice,  though  a  boy  to  assist  at  the  turnings  will  save  as 
much  time  in  that  matter  as  will  compensate  for  his  wages.  Where  3 
horses  are  yoked  abreast,  one  man  may  as  easily  manage  them  as  2  horses. 
In  the  case  of  4  horses,  however,  there  should  be  a  man  to  drive  the  horses, 
and  this  is  usually  done  with  the  whip  instead  of  reins,  though  the  near 
leader  .should  have  a  rein.  The  second  man,  in  this  case,  is  no  loss,  as  the 
4  horses  just  constitute  2  paii-s  of  the  ordinary  draughts.  Even  if  the  sec- 
ond man  were  taken  away  from  his  horses — which  should  never  be  the 
case — and  set  to  other  work,  he  would  be  of  little  senice,  as  his  mind 
would  be  constantly  occupied  with  the  desire  to  know  how  his  horses  are 
getting  on  under  the  guidance  of  another  man.  But  the  fact  is,  that  no 
man  can  manage  4  horses  at  the  plow  with  advantage  to  the  work.  Fig. 
206  shows  how  a  4-horse  plow  may  be  yoked  and  driven. 

(1728.)  This  deep  cross-plowing  with  a  3  or  4-horse  plow  should  not  be 
confounded  with  trench-plowinc:,  which  is  best  and  usually  performed  as 
represented  in  fig.  206.  Trench-plowing  only  deserves  the  name  when  a 
common  plow  goes  before  and  turns  over  a  furrow-slice,  and  in  the  bottom 
of  which  the  4-horse  plow  follows  and  goes  as  deep  as  it  can.  In  deep- 
plowing,  the  4-hor8e  plow  goes  as  deep  as  it  can  of  itself,  and  it  is  rare  that 

(212) 


CROSS-PLOWING,  DRILLING,  AND  RIBBING   LAND. 


117 


it  meddles  with  the  subsoil,  which  it  is  the  special  object  of  trench-plowing 
to  disturb.  Deep-plowing  will  be  very  well  executed  by  one  common  plow 
following  another  in  the  same  furrow ;  and  when  the  substratum  is  free, 
this  is  a  very  good  way  of  stirring  up  the  soil  to  the  moderate  depth  of  10 
or  even  12  inches. 

(1729.)  The  3  and  4-horse  plows  should  not  be  inconsiderately  employ- 
ed in  cross-plowing  in  spring,  because,  either  mode  of  plowing  occupying 
a  considerably  longer  time  with  the  same  number  of  draughts,  and  employ- 
ing more  horses  than  ordinary  plowing,  it  cannot  be  prudently  employed 
on  land  that  is  immediately  to  be  occupied  by  an  early  spring  crop,  such 
as  beans,  though  the  time  in  which  potatoes,  turnips,  and  fallow  are  re- 
spectively finished,  will  afford  plenty  of  leisure  to  have  the  land  appropi'ia- 
ted  to  them  deeply  cross-plowed  in  the  best  manner. 

(1730.)  Next  as  to  drilling.  This  is  a  form  of  plowing  very  different 
from  the  ordinaiy^  but  it  is  not  unlike  that  mode  of  plowing  stubble  in  some 


Fis.  313. 


THE  MODE  OF  PLOWING  SINGLE  DRILLS. 


parts  of  the  country  which  is  represented  by  fig.  142,  and  which  I  alluded 
to  only  to  condemn.  The  principal  reason  for  my  condemnation  of  it  was 
that,  while  it  professed  to  turn  up  the  soil  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere, 
it  buried  more  than  half  of  it  untouched  by  the  plow,  thus  in  a  great  meas- 
ure running  counter  to  its  own  avowed  object.  On  compariuf  fig.  313, 
with  fig.  142,  the  form  of  the  two  modes  of  plowing  are  somewhat  similar 
but  their  structure,  that  is,  the  state  of  the  soil  within  and  without,  they 
are  very  different.  In  fig.  142,  the  gi'ound  h  is  quite  solid  and  unmoved 
from  the  state  in  which  it  had  borne  crops,  and  the  moved  parts  a  are 
full  of  stubble  and  weeds.  The  lines  of  the  drills  c  are  quite  irreo-ular, 
having  no  reference  to  the  quarters  of  the  compass,  the  direction  of  the 
ridges,  or  in  parallelism  with  themselves.  The  regular  drill,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  formed  of  deep  loosened  soil,  plowed  and  harrowed  on  purpose, 
and  made  as  clear  of  weeds  as  the  time  allotted  to  prepare  the  soil  will 
allow.  Drilling  is  a  finished  piece  of  work,  the  other  only  confessedly  a 
preparatory  one.  Drilling  is  essential  to  the  proper  cleaning  of  the  land  at 
a  future  period  of  the  season,  the  other  a  very  questionable  mode  of  attain- 
ing any  good  object. 

(1731.)  I  have  said  that  before  land  is  drilled  it  should  be  well  pulver- 
ized, well  cleaned,  at  least  as  well  as  the  time  when  it  should  be  drill- 
ed will  allow;  and  the  ground  should  be  in  a  soft  state  by  labor  when 
drilling  is  to  be  executed,  otherwise  the  diills  will  not  have  their  proper 
form  and  structure.  Drills  should  not  be  formed  on  hard  land,  nor  ought 
they  to  be  attempted  to  be  formed  on  hard  land,  as  the  object  of  making 
them  at  all  is,  in  the  first  plac(«,  to  afTuid  a  sufficient  quantity  of  loose  soil  to 

(013)  -X  J 


118  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

cover  the  manure  deposited  in  them  ;  in  the  next  place,  to  afford  the  roots 
of  plants  fiufricient  freedom  to  roam  in  search  of  food ;  and,  in  the  last 
place,  to  aHbnl  opportunity,  notwithstandin;^  the  presence  of  a  crop,  to  free 
the  land  of  weeds,  by  stiirino  it  occasionally  with  proper  implements. 
There  is  no  way  of  effecting  all  these  objects  so  effectually  as  by  drilling. 
Accordingly,  all  crops  intended  to  melioiate  and  clean  the  ground  are  cul- 
tivated in  drills,  and  these  are  what  are  called  green  crops,  namely,  pota- 
toes, turnips,  mangel-wurzel,  beans,  &c. 

{1T32.)  After  land  has  been  much  plowed  and  harrowed,  and  even  rolled 
to  render  it  friable,  it  is  usually  in  a  Hat  state,  whatever  may  have  been 
the  form  in  which  it  had  been  before  plowed  ;  and  when  flat,  it  is  in  the 
best  state  for  being  plowed  into  drills.  Yet  strong  land  that  is  constantly 
retained  in  ridges  of  a  rounded  form,  that  is,  twice  gathered  up,  fig.  139 
and  (656),  will  exhibit  the  form  of  ridges,  even  after  it  has  been  well  pul- 
verized by  plowings,  harrowings,  and  rollings  ;  it  will  still  appear  as  if 
gathered  up  from  the  flat,  fig.  133,  and  it  had  been  harrowed  and  rolled 
fine  on  the  surface.  Lighter  soil  with  the  same  work  will  appear  quite 
flat,  that  is,  of  a  uniform  surface  throughout,  not  as  if  it  were  level.  This 
distinction  in  the  appearance  of  the  ground  of  being  ridged  or  not  ridged, 
should  be  kept  in  view,  as  it  will  in  great  measure  determine  the  width 
of  space  that  should  be  left  between  the  drills  :  and  it  is  entirely  occasion- 
ed by  the  difference  of  the  form  in  which  the  difl'erent  sorts  of  soils  had 
beeu  previously  plowed.  Strong  soil  is  always  kept  round  by  repeated 
gatherings  up,  or  gatherings-up  based  on  casting  with  gore-furrows,  figs. 
135  and  136;  whereas  the  lighter  soils  are  usually  only  once  gathered  up, 
fig.  133,  cast  together  without  gore-furrows,  fig.  135,  or  plowed  two-out- 
and-two-in,  fig.  138. 

(1733.)  In  whichever  of  these  states  the  land  maybe,  whether  complete- 
ly flat  or  exhibiting  a  slight  indication  of  rounded  ridges,  the  drills  are 
made  of  the  same  form  ;  and  they  are  formed  in  the  following  various 
ways.  They  are  made  by  one  landing  of  the  plow,  when  they  are  said  to 
be  single,  or  they  are  made  with  a  bout  of  the  plow  when  they  are  called 
double  ;  and  both  single  and  double  drills  are  made  either  toward  or  from 
thefcering.  The  ultimate  forms  of  the  two  different  modes  are  apparently 
the  same,  but  that  which  makes  them  Jro7n  the  feering  is  nevertheless  the 
best,  as  I  shall  show  in  the  sequel. 

(1734.)  In  begiiming  to  make  drills,  let  us  take  one  of  the  simplest 
cases  that  present  themselves,  namely,  a  field  having  a  straight  side  at  its 
farthest  end,  and  having  the  forms  (jf  ridges  still  visible  ;  and  as  it  is  requi- 
site in  strong  land  to  preserve  a  form  that  will  keep  it  as  dry  as  possible, 
the  drills  should  be  so  formed  upon  the  ridges  as  to  be  accommodated  be- 
tween their  open  furrows.  If  the  ridges  are  15  feet  in  width,  6  drills  of 
30  inches  apart  will  fill  up  that  space  between  the  open  furrows  ;  and  if 
18  feet  wide,  8  drills  of  27  inches  will  answer  the  same  end.  When  the 
ground  is  flat,  any  width  of  drills  previously  determined  on  may  be  executed, 
have  seen  it  stated  in  cases  of  drilling  land  fi)r  turnips  in  England,  that 
only  18  inches  was  a  good  distance  to  be  preserved  between  drills ;  but 
what  object  is  gained  by  adopting  a  distance  which  is  too  narrow  for  the 
free  operation  of  the  implements  required  to  keep  the  ground  clean,  I  can- 
not imagine. 

(1735.)  Suppose,  then,  that  the  ridges  present  a  form  of  15  feet  in  width 
on  strong  land,  they  should  be  made  30  inches  wide,  and  they  are  made 
in  this  way  :  Begin  at  the  end  of  the  field  farthest  from  the  gate,  and 
where  the  fence  runs  in  a  straight  line  ;  and  set  up  3  feering-poles  (446) 
in  a  straight  line  upon  the  nearest  furrow-brow  of  the  third  ridge  from  the 

(214) 


CROSS-PLOWING,  DRILLING,   AND  RIBBING  LAND.  119 


ftMice,  and  15  inches  from  the  middle  of  its  open  fun'ow.     Split  out  the 
feerin'"-  along  the  line  of  the  poles,  tuniing  over  the  furrow-slices  fii-stto  one 
side  and  then  to  the  other,  like  the  fuiTOW-slices  7?i  and  n,  along  the  feering 
k  I  fio-.  132.     The  reason  that  the  first  feeiing  is  made  on  the  lurrow-brow 
is,  that  when  the  di-ills  are  split  to  cover  the  dung,  or  whatever  else  is  put 
in  them,  the  place  which   the  hollow  now  occupies  will   then  be  filled  up 
by  the  drill,  and  the  open  furrow  will  then  be  the  hollow  between  the  drills 
upon  the  furrow-brow  of  both  ridges.     In  fig.  313,  suppose  a  b  to  be  the 
feerin^  in  the  furrow-brow  of  the  lidge.     On  passing  up  from  a  to  b,  the 
plow  fays  over  the  fun-ow-slice  c  d,  and  the  soil  having  been  pulvenzed,  it 
crumbles  down  in  a  continuous  heap   upon  the  firmer  land  under  it.     On 
o-ainino-  the  head-ridge  at  the  other  end  of  the  feering,  the  horses  are  Jiied, 
and  the  plow  comes  down  from  b  to  a,  laying  over  a  similar  furrow  ?i  o 
upon  the  firm  land.     A  similar  feering  is  made  in  the  fuiTow-brow  of  the 
6th  rido-e  from  the  last,  and  so  on  upon  every  6th  ridge  across  the  field  ; 
but  ere'' the  field  is  all  feered  for  drilling,  some  of  the  drills  are  formed  be- 
tween the  feerinss,  that  the  land  may  be  proceeded  with  for  the  pui-pose 
it  has  been  drilled,  while  the  feering  and  the  drilling  of  the  remainder  are 
proceeded  with.     To  proceed,  then,  with  the   drilling  at  the  first  feeiing, 
at  a  distance  of  30  inches,  this  previously  determined  \vidth  of  the  drills  is 
measured  off  from  a  to  e,  and  this  the  plowman  does  with  his  plow-staff,  or 
shaft  of  his  plow-spade,  as  that  implement  is  call  in  some  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, upon  which  the  various  breadths   of  drills   executed    on  the  farm  are 
notched  off.     The  plow  then  proceeds  from  e  to/  preserving  a  parallelism 
\vith  the  feered  furrow  a  b,  laying  over  the  furrow-slice  g  h  upon  the  firm 
o-round,  upon  which  it  crumbles  down  in  a  continuous  heap.     On  Jtleing 
The  horses'  at   the  other  end  of  the  drills,  a  similar  distance  of  30  inches  is 
marked  off  from  b  to  i,  the  plow  passes  down  from  i  to  f,  laying  over  the 
furrow-slice  I  m  upon  the  firm  ground.     Hieing  the  horses  again,  the  plow 
passes  on  to  p,  and  goes  by  p,  forming  another  drill  like  the  others.     The 
plowman  does  not  measure  off"  the  width  of  every  drill  he  makes  in  this 
manner,   his  eye  being  able  to  keep  him  right  for  a  number   of  drills, 
across  which  he  then  lays  his  plow-staff,  to  ascertain  how  he  has  been  pro- 
ceeding, whether  the  drills  he  has  made  be  too   narrow,  or  too  wide,  or 
quite  the  proper  breadth,  and  then  again  proceeds  with  his  work.     It   will 
be  observed,  from  the   description  of  this  process,  that  one  drill  has  been 
formed  every  time  the  plow  has   gone  up  in  the  direction  of  e  /  and  an- 
other every  time  in  coming  down  in  the  direction  of  i  t,  with  the  exception 
at  strikino-'the  feering,  when   the   plow  both  went  up  and  came  down  a  b. 
In  this  way  the  horses  are  made  to  hie  round  a  b,  and  the  plow  to  make  2 
drills  every  bout  till  2  ridges  on  each  side  of  the  feering  a  b  are  drilled 
up,  and  the  last  drill  will  be  made  close  behind  the  fence.     ^V^aen  this 
takes  place,  the  plowman  goes  to  the  next  feering,  when  two  furrows  ^yere 
split  out  as   at  a  b,  and  forms  drills  around  it  in  the  same  manner  till  2 
ridges  also  on  each  side  are  drilled.     Two  ridges  having  thus  been  drilled 
to  the  right  of  the   first  feering  and  two  to  the   left  of  the  second,  and  six 
ridges  intervening  between  the  feerings,  two  ridges  of  the  six  have  yet  to 
be  drilled,  upon  which  the   drills   are  formed  hy  Jiuppiftg  the  horses  from 
the  one  set  of  drills  to  the  other ;  but  in  doing  this,  caution  is  requisite  to 
make  all  the  drills  of  the  exact  width  of  30  inches,  and  particulariy  the  last 
two  formed  at  the  junction  of  the  two  feerings.     The  caution  is  exercised 
by  the  plowman  applying  his  plow-staff  frequently  to  ascertain  the  breadth 
of  the  ground  to  be  drilled,  and  the  width  of  the   drills    themselves  ;   and 
should  he  find  that  he  has  more  or  less  ground  than  he  should  have  for  the 
number  of  drills  he  has  yet  to  make,'^be  must  modify  the  width  of  each 

(215) 


120  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

drill,  so  as  the  whole  number  may  be  very  near  the  width,  and  not  reserve 
any  surplus  or  deficient  ground  to  be  added  to,  or  substracted  from,  the 
last  drill  alone.  Another  caution  of  not  less  importance  is  to  ascertain  if 
the  ground  to  be  last  drilled  is  of  the  same  breadth  at  both  ends  at  the 
head-ndges,  for  if  this  point  is  not  attended  to,  the  last  drill  may  run  out  to 
a  point  at  one  end,  and  be  too  broad  at  the  other.  In  closing  every  feering, 
therefore,  the  greatest  caution  is  required  to  preserve  the  breadth  of  the 
drills. 

(1736.)  This  is  one  way  of  forming  single  drills,  and  the  following  is  an- 
other. Instead  of  splitting  out  the  feering  a  b,  fig.  313,  as  just  described, 
the  plow  lays  two  furrows  together,  and  forms  a  finished  drill  with  an  ele- 
vated ridge,  in  the  place  of  the  hollow  furrow  a  h  ;  and  this  is  done  by 
hupping  the  horses  instead  oi  hieing  them,  as  in  the  other  case.  Still  hup- 
ping the  horses  and  measuring  off  the  width  of  the  drills  as  formerly,  the 
next  drill  is  made  in  the  direction  o{  fe,  laying  the  furrow-slice  upon  the 
firm  ground,  toward  the  open  track  of  the  plow  left  in  making  the  previous 
drill  in  the  same  direction.  The  next  drill  is  made  in  the  direction  of  t  i, 
again  laying  the  furrow-slice  toward  the  plow-track  left  open  in  form- 
ing the  previous  drill.  The  drills  are  thus  formed  around  the  first  ferring 
over  the  2  lidges  on  each  side,  then  over  the  2  ridges  on  each  side  of  the 
second  feering,  and  the  drills  are  closed  up  between  them,  with  the  pre- 
cautions noticed  above  (1735),  by  hieing  the  horses. 

(1737.)  The  essential  difference  betwixt  these  two  methods  is  this.  In 
the  first,  the  fuiTOw-slices  are  all  laid  over  Jrom  the  feerings  toward  the 
unplowcd  land,  and  the  horses  are  first  hied  and  then  hupped  in  finish- 
ing the  feerings.  In  the  second  method,  the  fuiTow-slices  are  all  laid  over 
toward  the  feerings  and  the  plotccd  land,  and  the  horses  are  first  hupped 
and  then  hied.  As  to  the  treatment  of  the  horses,  there  is  no  difference  in 
regard  to  them,  being  huppied  and  hied  in  both  cases,  but  there  is  a  consid- 
erable difference  in  regard  to  the  treatment  of  the  land.  In  the  second 
method,  the  furrow-slice  being  laid  over  toward  the  open  track  wliich  the 
plow  has  made  in  making  the  previous  drill,  should  the  land  be  at  all 
cloddy,  and  it  is  impossible  to  reduce  eveiy  clod  on  strong  land  at  all 
times,  clods  or  stones  may  roll  down  the  crumbling  furrow-slice,  acquiring 
an  impetus  by  the  action  of  the  ear  of  the  mould-board,  into  the  hollows 
between  the  drills ;  and  this  is  no  imaginary  inconvenience,  for  clods  and 
stones  actually  roll  down  into  the  said  hollows,  when  they  happen  to  be 
numerous,  or  when  the  soil  is  so  firm  as  to  acquire  a  considerable  force  of 
the  plow  to  elevate  it  into  drills,  and  when  it  is  apt  to  rise  in  large  masses 
before  crumbling  do\\ii  in  its  fall  from  the  mould-board.  When  the  width 
of  the  drills  is  as  much  as  30  inches,  this  inconvenience  is  less  likely  to 
happen,  but  when  the  more  usual  width  of  27  inches  is  adopted,  I  have 
seen  it  occur  to  a  considerable  degree.  The  immediate  inconvenience  oc- 
casioned by  these  clods  is,  that  they  interrupt  the  progress  of  the  bean- 
barrow  when  the  land  is  drilled  up  in  this  way  for  the  bean-crop  ;  and 
when  the  land  is  dunged,  they  occupy  the  best  part  of  the  drill,  and 
being  there  covered  up  with  the  dung,  they  remain  among  it,  and  form 
obstructions  to  those  roots  of  plants  that  may  be  pushing  through  the 
manure  in  search  of  farther  sustenance.  At  all  events,  they  can  do  no 
good. 

(1738.)  In  the  first  method,  on  the  other  hand,  this  inconvenience  is  en- 
tirely avoided,  and  no  other  is  substituted  in  its  stead  ;  for  should  clods 
and  stones  roll  away  from  the  furrow-slice  when  the  drill  is  making,  and 
which  they  will  inevitably  do  when  present,  upon  the  open  and  firm  land, 
they  remain  there  only  to  the  next  passage  of  the  plow,  which  sweeps  them 

(216) 


CROSS-PLOWING,  DRILLING,  AND  RIBBING  LAND.  121 

away,  and  at  the  same  time  leaves  a  small  space  of  ground  between  the 
former  furrow-slice  and  its  track,  as  from  t  to  o,  &c.,  and  which  track  is 
clear  and  open,  ready  for  the  bean-barrow,  or  the  dung  that  may  be  de- 
posited in  it.  The  advantage  possessed  by  the  first  over  the  second  method 
of  drilling  in  these  respects  is  so  obvious,  that  any  argument  in  support  of 
i^  appears  unnecessary,  and  being  so  obvious,  you  should  not  fail  to  adopt 
this  method  as  your  invariable  practice. 

(1739.)  When  the  ground  is  flat,  that  is,  when  the  ridges  are  not  remark- 
ably prominent,  the  drills  are  made  the  common  width  of  27  inches,  some 
make  them  28  inches,  and  the  feering  is  conducted  in  the  same  way ;  but 
in  setting  off  any  feering  from  the  last  one,  when  there  is  no  such  guide  as 
the  breadth  of  ridges  to  measure  the  proper  distances,  care  should  be  taken 
to  set  off  such  distances  as  will  contain  a  determinate  number  of  drills 
of  the  fixed  width,  otherwise  an  error  will  inevitably  occur  at  the  closings 
of  the  feerings.  Thus,  if  the  drills  are  27  inches  in  width,  in  a  feering  of 
30  yards  broad,  6  ridges  of  15  feet,  each  making  a  very  convenient  breadth 
of  feering,  the  number  of  drills  will  be   exactly  40. 

(1740.)  So  much  for  single  drilling  ;  now  for  double.  For  this  mode  the 
feering  is  made  in  a  different  manner  from  that  for  the  single  mode  of  drill- 
ing. Supposing,  again,  that  the  x'idges  are  visibly  marked  in  the  ground, 
the  feering  is  taken  from  the  furrow-brow  of  the  ridge  nearest  the  fence, 
at  15  inches  from  its  extreme  outer  edge,  and  there  setting  up  a  straight 
line  of  poles,  split  out  the  feei-ing  as  before  by  the  plowing  passing  up  and 
down  in  the  same  furrow.  Suppose  this  furrow  to  be  represented  by  the 
line  in  ey  in  fig.  132,  then  set  up  a  square  table  at  d,  and  mark  off  there- 
from a  line  with  poles  at  right  angles  in  the  direction  of  the  aiTow  through 
s  to  t.  Removing  the  square  table  to  g,  set  off  a  similar  and  a  parallel  line 
in  the  direction  of  the  other  arrow  through  «  to  v.  Split  out  both  these 
lines  with  the  plow  as  straight  as  the  plowman  can,  and  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow  in  them  will  form  a  guide  to  set  off  the  requisite  widths  of  di-ills  at 
right  angles  to  the  feering,  at  least  they  will  serve  to  check  the  plowman 
in  his  making  the  drills  correct.  Plowmen  expert  at  drilling  are  apt  to 
contemn  such  guides  in  forming  double  drills,  because  they  conceive  they 
can  preserve  the  widths  sufficiently  well  by  the  eye,  and  no  doubt  plow- 
men are  to  be  found  who  drill  with  precision,  and  I  have  met  with  such; 
though  very  few  in  number,  but  the  generality  of  them  cannot  be  intrusted 
in  this  delicate  task  without  a  guide  of  some  sort,  and  there  is  none  more 
simple  and  more  effective  than  the  one  I  have  desciibed  and  recommend- 
ed. And  where  single  drilling  is  to  be  executed  on  land  on  which  no  ves- 
tige of  a  ridge  is  seen,  it  is  quite  impossible  for  the  most  expert  driller  to 
set  off  the  feerings  with  sufficient  accuracy.  Plowmen,  I  know,  try  to  do 
it,  and  I  have  seen  good  ones  nearly  succeed  in  it,  but  never  witnessed 
one  who  was  not  obliged  to  modify  the  widths  of  the  drills  at  the  closings. 
Strict  accuracy  in  regard  to  drills  is  not  required  in  some  crops,  such  as  in 
the  bean  and  potato  ;  but  with  regard  to  the  turnip,  which  is  sown  with  a 
machine  set  to  a  given  width,  unless  the  drills  are  very  nearly  alike  in  breadth 
at  both  ends,  the  sowing  will  be  very  imperfectly  performed.  The  means, 
too,  of  attaining  accuracy  are  so  simple — merely  drawing  two  or  three  fur- 
rows across  the  field — that  it  is  culpable  to  neglect  it.  There  will  be,  I 
am  certain,  more  time  spent  by  the  plowman  in  measuring  the  widths  of 
drills  with  his  plow-staff  at  every  closing,  than  he  would  spend  in  drawing 
a  few  cross-furrows  at  first ;  and  after  all  his  adjustments,  his  mind  is  not 
satisfied  that  he  has  done  the  work  in  the  most  accurate  manner.  It  is 
true  that  with  all  the  assistance  cross-furrows  can  afford  him,  he  will  still 
have  to  measure  the  widths  of  drills  with  his  plow-staff  at  every  closing, 

(217) 


]22  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

but  he  is  much  less  likely  to  err  in  his  measurements  while  having  the 
cross-furrows  to  guide  him  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  drills, 
than  in  measuring  at  random  in  a  supposed  right  direction.  This  is  so 
self-e\-ident  that  your  mind  must  assent  to  the  facilites  afforded  by  cross- 
furrows. 

(1741.)  The  double  drills  are  formed  in  this  way,  on  the  supposition  that 
rido-es  are  visible  at  15  feet  asunder  ;  and  this  method  is  analogous  to  the 
first  method  of  feering  single  drills.  After  the  furrow-slice  c  d,  fig.  313,  is 
laid  over  at  the  feering  of  a  b  along  the  funow-brow  of  the  ridge  nearest 
the  fence,  the  horses  are  huppid,  and  the  plow  is  made  to  come  down  at 
the  pre!«cril)ed  width  of  the  drills,  namely,  30  inches,  along  the  line  f  e, 
and  to  nut  a  furrow-slice  against  the  other  funow-slice  cd,  which  had  just 
been  turned  over  upon  the  firm  ground,  and  in  doing  this  the  drill  receives 
a  somewhat  sharp-ponited  crest.  At  30  inches  this  crest  is  never  very 
shai-p,  but  at  27  inches  it  may  be  made  as  shaqi  as  you  please,  by  making 
the  plow  go  a  little  deeper.  Then  hieing  the  horses,  the  plow  again  goes 
along  ef,  but  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  lays  over  the  furrow-slice  g  h 
on  the  open  ground.  Hupping  again,  the  horses  come  down  7;,  and  fonn 
the  other  side  of  the  drill  h  g  ;  and  so  on,  one  drill  after  another.  No 
breaks  of  feerings  are  required  in  this  mode  of  drilling,  as  every  drill  is 
finished  as  it  is  formed,  and  the  precautions  required  are,  that  the  proper 
widths  of  the  drills  are  preserved  throughout  their  lengths,  in  which  they 
may  be  easily  checked  by  the  assistance  of  the  cross-furrows. 

(1742.)  The  other  mode  of  double  drilling  is  analogous  to  the  second 
mode  of  single  drilling.  After  the  feering-poles  are  set  up,  as  in  the 
former  case,  the  plowing  is  commenced  from  the  other  head-ridge,  and  the 
first  furrow-slice  n  0  is  laid  over  while  coming  down  b  a.  The  horses  are 
then  /iicd,  and  the  plow  is  passed  up  the  same  furrow  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection a  b,  and  having  little  earth  to  lay  over,  but  a  small  furrow-slice  is 
laid  toward  c  d.  Huppi/ig  the  horses,  the  plow  is  then  brought  down  /e, 
which  beino^  a  fresh  furrow,  the  furrow-slice  d  c  is  large,  and  completes 
the  drill  d  c.  Hieing  the  horses,  the  plow  again  passes  along  the  last  fur- 
row in  the  opposite  direction  e  f,  and  having  little  earth  to  take  lays  over 
the  small  furrow-slice  g  h  ;  and  then  hupping  again,  a  large  furrow-slice 
is  laid  over  from  q  and  completes  the  drill  h  g,  and  so  on,  one  drill  after 
another,  at  the  requisite  width. 

(1743.)  The  same  difference  exists  in  the  two  modes  of  making  these 
double  drills,  or  in  making  the  single.  Thus,  in  the  first  method  the  large 
furrow-slice  is  laid  over  upon  the  open  and  firm  ground,  and  the  drill  is 
finished  by  the  second  and  smaller  fuiTOw-slice ;  whereas  in  the  second 
method  the  larger  furrow-slice  is  laid  toward  the  already  drilled  land,  and 
upon  the  smaller  furrow-slice  which  was  first  turned  over. 

(1744.)  On  considering  carefully  both  modes  of  drilling,  it  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  two  sides  of  a  double  drill  are  not  equal,  that  side  which 
receives  the  furrow-slice  raised  from  the  firm  land  receives  a  larger  quan- 
tity of  earth  than  the  side  which  receives  the  small  furrow-slice  derived 
from  the  same  track  out  of  which  the  former  large  slice  had  been  taken. 
The  immediate  consequence  of  this  iiiequality  of  earth  upon  the  two  sides 
of  a  drill  is  to  give  it  the  form  of  an  unequal  triangle,  and  its  effect  on  the 
growth  of  any  seed  deposited  within  the  drill,  is  to  cause  the  germ  of  the 
plant  to  grow  out  of  the  side  at  the  upper  part  instead  of  the  top  of  the 
drill.  This  effect  is  paiticularly  shown  by  the  sloping  direction  which  a 
stroncr  growing  stem  of  beans  or  potatoes  takes,  and  to  obviate  which  the 
tops  of  the  drills  are  always,  in  practice,  harrowed  down  as  much  as  to 
allow  the  stems  to  grow  upright. 

(218) 


CROSS-PLOWING,  DRILLING,  AND  RIBBING  LAND.  123 

(1745.)  This  inconvenience  of  the  unequal  form  of  the  double  drill  at- 
tends both  modes  of  making  them  ;  but,  of  the  two  modes,  that  which  lays 
the  large  fun'ow-slice  upon  the  open  side  of  the  firm  land  possesses  two 
advantages  over  the  other  ;  the  first  of  which  is  that  no  clods,  large  or 
small,  can  roll  from  the  top  of  the  drill  into  the  hollow  ;  and  the  other  ad- 
vantage is  still  greater,  that  of  the  finished  drills  being  less  trampled  by 
the  horses  in  making  the  succeeding  ones.  This  last  circumstance  may 
be  explained  by  refemng  to  fig.  313.  When  the  plow,  for  instance,  goes 
up  e  f  to  commence  a  new  drill,  it  cuts  the  firm  ground  along  that  line, 
laying  the  furrow-slice  g  h  upon  the  open  unoccupied  ground  to  the  right, 
and  leaving  on  the  left  a  small  space  of  firm  ground  c  e  and  d  f,  between 
the  line  of  the  plow/"  e  and  the  crumblings  of  the  previous  large  furrow 
or  unfinished  drill  c  d.  In  doing  this,  the  fui'row-horse  walks  up  the  hol- 
low of  the  former  made  drill  a  b  to  guide  him  in  the  exact  line  he  should 
go,  and  the  other  goes  on  the  firm  gi'ound  by  the  side  of  e  f.  On  return- 
ing, the  furrow-horse  comes  down  f  e,  while  the  other  comes  down  p, 
while  the  plow  is  making  up  the  small  side  of  the  drill  d  c ;  but  in  doing 
this  the  footsteps  of  the  horse  that  went  up  the  finished  drill  a  b  are  left 
untouched.  This  may  be  considered  a  matter  of  little  importance,  and 
from  the  generality  of  the  practice,  one  would  be  led  to  conclude  it  of  lit- 
tle importance  ;  and  in  case  of  some  horses  which  walk  neatly  and  nar- 
rowly in  a  drill,  the  impressions  of  their  footsteps  may  be  almost  unob- 
served in  its  bottom  ;  but  in  the  case  of  a  horse  which  walks  wide  behind, 
and  in  that  of  all  weak  horses  which  stagger  under  their  draught,  both 
sides  of  the  drills  are  frequently  much  trampled ;  and  in  the  case  of  drill- 
ing strong  land,  footprints  injure  the  soil  by  holding  water.  These  may 
be  obliterated  in  this  way  :  instead  of  perfecting  the  drills  one  by  one  in 
succession,  let  an  intermediate  drill  remain  unfinished  between  one  that  is 
finishing  and  another  that  is  forming.  For  example  :  instead  of  finishing 
the  second  side  of  the  drill  h  g  by  returning  down  the  hollow  b  a,  let  the 
drill  remain  unfinished  until  the  new  drill  p  is  formed  so  far  as  to  lay  over 
its  furrow-slice  on  the  firm  gi'ound.  Then  let  the  plow  come  down  b  a, 
having  the  fuiTOW-horse  before  it,  and  it  will  obliterate  its  footmarks,  and 
let  the  other  horse  come  down  the  intermediate  open  fuiTowye,  because 
in  going  up  and  down,  it  is  necessary  in  drilling  that  one  of  the  horses 
shall  go  in  a  hollow  of  a  drill  formerly  made  to  guide  it  in  the  proper  line. 
With  regard  to  the  mode  which  lays  the  large  fun'ow-slice  toward  the 
drilled  land,  it  seems  impossible  but  to  leave  the  finished  drills  trampled. 
For  example  :  on  finishing  the  drill  h  g,  on  the  plow  coming  down  b  a, 
the  furrow-horse  walks  down  the  finished  drill  i  t,  and  the  other  walks  on 
the  firm  ground  down  d  c  ;  and  the  same  ground  is  gone  over  by  the 
horses  on  the  plow  laying  over  the  small  furrow  toward  c  ^  on  passing  up 
the  hollow  a  b.  When  the  plow  comes  down^ e  to  lay  over  the  large  fur- 
row toward  and  to  finish  the  drill  d  c,  the  fun'ow-horse  comes  down  b  a, 
and  the  other  upon  the  firm  land  alongsidey  e ;  and  thus  the  finished  hol- 
low a  h  \s  twice  trampled,  first  in  guiding  the  fiirrow-horse  while  the  plow 
is  forming  the  drill  d  c  when  coming  down  f  e,  and  again  on  the  plow 
passing  up  ef  to  lay  the  small  furrow  toward  h  g  for  the  next  drill,  which 
is  completed  in  its  turn  when  the  plow  comes  down  p,  and  the  furrow-horse 
tramples  the  finished  hollow^e. 

.  (1746.)  When  the  ground  is  quite  flat,  double  drills  may  be  made  27 
inches  wide,  and  the  same  width  may  be  adopted  when  ridges  of  18  feet 
are  visible,  for  8  drills  of  27  inches  just  cover  an  18-feet  ridge.  A  feering 
of  6  ridges  of  18  feet  just  includes  64  drills  of  27  inches,  so  that  where 
drills  are  desired  of  27  inches  in  width,  and  no  more,  the  land  should  be 

(219) 


124  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

in  IS-feet  ridges,  if  ridged,  or  it  should  be  flat — otherwise  some  of  the 
27-inrh  diills  on  15-feet  ridges  will  be  left  in  the  open  fun-ow,  a  position 
which  in  strong  land  cannot  fail  to  prove  injurious  to  that  part  of  the  tur- 
nip crop  in  winter.  AVhen  the  soil  is  thorough-drained,  it  is  of  no  im- 
portance where  the  drills  are  situated  ;  but  till  that  operation  is  performed, 
it  is  necessary  to  attend  to  the  safety  of  the  crop  in  the  most  unfavorable 
circumstance  of  soil  by  judicious  management. 

(1747.)  It  may  have  occuired  to  you  to  inquire  that,  if  a  perfect  drill  is 
formed  by  a  bout  of  the  common  plow,  why  it  is  that  perfect  drills  are  not 
formed  by  one  landing  with  a  double  mould-board  plow  ]  The  intjuiry  is 
a  natural  one,  and  it  can  receive  a  satisfactory  answer.  Were  a  drill  per- 
fectly formed,  a  vertical  section  would  s'ne  a  triangle  whose  bight  is  equal 
to  half  the  length  of  the  base.  The  hight  to  which  a  common  plow  can 
elevate  the  crest  of  a  drill  is  that  of  the  ear  of  its  mould-board,  which,  in 
the  common  (Small's)  plow,  Plate  X.,  is  12  inches  ;  and  this  hight  is  con- 
formable to  a  drill  of  only  24  inches  in  width.  Such  a  plow,  therefore,  to 
make  a  drill  of  the  usual  width  of  27  inches,  will  either  leave  a  flat  space 
on  its  tops  of  3  inches  in  breadth,  or  it  will  leave  a  sharp  crested  ridglet 
of  3  inches  in  breadth  at  the  bottom  of  the  hollow  of  the  drill.  A  com- 
mon plow  varies  in  width  from  the  ear  of  the  mould-board  to  the  land-side 
from  18  inches  (Wilkie's)  to  20  inches  (Small's).  A  bout  of  AVilkie's 
plow  could  thus  make  a  diill  36  inches,  and  that  of  Small's  40  inches  in 
width  in  a  bout,  were  it  plowed  to  the  full  breadth  either  was  capable  of; 
but  as  drills  are  only  made  27  inches  in  width,  the  second  furrow  is  taken 
by  the  plow  going  nearer  the  side  of  a  drill  than  in  the  middle  of  the  hol- 
low between  two  drills,  and  it  is  this  expedient  which  gives  to  drills  one 
sloping  and  another  more  perpendicular  side.  A  double  mould-board 
plow,  constinicted  of  similar  dimensions  of  an  ordinary  one,  would  make 
drills  much  wider  than  are  required  ;  but  even  if  its  mould-boards  were 
set  as  naiTow  as  to  make  a  27-inch  diill,  it  is  found  that  on  account  of  the 
width  of  double  mould-board  plows  below,  they  cannot  go  so  deep  as  to 
give  drills  their  proper  elevation  of  13^  inches,  required  to  bury  the  re- 
quisite quantity  of  manure  deposited  in  them. 

(1748.)  There  is  a  species  of  drilling  executed  by  the  small  plow,  fig. 
314,  which  has  received  the  appellation  o{  ribbing.    In  executing  this  mode 

Fig.  314, 


THE    SMALL,    OR    RIBBI.VO    OR    PARING    PLOW. 

of  plo\ving,  it  exactly  follows  the  mode  of  making  single  diills  ;  and  of  the 
two  modes  of  making  these,  it  is  necessarily  restncted  to  that  which  lays 
the  furrow-slices  toward  the  unplowed  ground,  because  the  ribs  being 
necessarily  naiTow,  were  clods  and  stones  to  fall  into  the  hollows,  which 
the  other  method  would  infallibly  cause,  the  puqioses  of  the  ribs  forming 
a  kindly  seed-bed  would  in  a  great  measure  be  frustrated.    The  ribs,  with 

(220) 


SOWING  SPRING  WHEAT  AND  GRASS-SEEDS.  125 


great  pains,  can  be  formed  as  narrow  as  9  inches,  and  by  careless  plowmen 
they  are  made  as  wide  as  14  inches,  so  that  12  inches  may  be  considered 
a  good  medium  \\-idth.  They  are  always  formed  on  ridges,  never  on  a  flat, 
and  only  used  in  seed-furronnng.  The  best  width  of  feering  for  making 
them  is  2  ridsres,  besfinnino:  on  the  furrow-brow  of  the  ridges,  and  laying: 
the  furrow-slices  into  the  middle  of  the  open  furrows  between  the  two 
ridges  ;  by  hupping  the  horses  the  seed  is  kept  out  of  the  open  furrow, 
and  retained  upon  the  best  land  of  the  ridges.  Ribs  are  formed  in  the 
length  of  the  ridges.  Supposing  them  to  be  12  inches  asunder,  there  will 
just  be  30  ribs  in  every  feering  of  2  ridges  of  15  feet  each.  Another  im- 
plement which  makes  a  number  of  ribs  at  once  is  described  below. 


11.    SOWING  SPRING  WHEAT  AND  GRASS-SEEDS. 

"  When  winter  froste  constrain  the  field  with  cold, 
The  nfinty  root  can  take  no  steady  hold." 

Dbyden's  VinciL. 

(1749.)  Wheat  cannot  be  sown  in  spring  in  every  sort  of  weather,  and 
upon  every  variety  of  soil.  Unless  soil  possess  a  certain  degi'ee  of  firm- 
ness, that  is,  contains  some  clay,  it  is  not  considered  adapted  for  the  growth 
of  wheat,  at  least  it  is  more  profitable  to  sow  barley  upon  it ;  and  unless 
the  weather  is  as  dry  as  to  allow  strong  soil  to  be  plowed  in  the  proper 
season,  it  is  also  more  profitable  to  defer  the  wheat,  and  sow  barley  in  due 
season.  The  general  climate  of  a  place  affects  the  question  of  so^ving 
wheat  there  in  spring,  and  it  is  a  curious  problem  in  climate  why  wheat 
sown  in  autumn  should  thrive  at  a  place  where  spring  wheat  will  not.  Ele- 
vation of  position,  even  in  a  favorable  latitude,  produces  the  same  effects. 
Experience  in  these  well-known  circumstances  renders  the  farmers  of  Scot- 
land chary  of  soAving  wheat  in  spring,  unless  the  soil  is  in  excellent  con- 
dition, and  the  weather  very  favorable  for  the  pui'pose. 

(1750.)  When  wheat  is  sown  in  spring,  it  is  usually  after  turnips, 
whether  these  have  been  entirely  stripped  from  the  land,  or  partly  con- 
sumed on  the  ground  by  sheep.  In  whichever  of  these  states  of  the  turnip 
crop  may  be  chosen  to  be  followed  by  wheat,  it  is  not  sufficient  merely  to 
raise  a  crop  of  turnips  by  dint  of  a  plentiful  supply  of  manure  at  one  time 
upon  an  otherwise  exhausted  soil  that  will  insure  a  good  crop  of  spring- 
wheat  ;  the  land  itself  should  be  and  have  been  for  some  time  in  good 
heart,  otherwise  the  attempt  will  inevitably  end  in  disappointment. 

(1751.)  On  a  farm  possessing  the  advantages  of  favorable  soil  and  cli- 
mate, and  on  which  it  is  the  custom  to  sow  spring  wheat  every  year,  the 
turnip-land  is  plowed  with  that  view  up  to  a  certain  period  of  the  season, 
not  later  than  the  beginning  of  March  ;  and  even  on  a  farm  on  which 
spring  wheat  can  only  be  sown  occasionally,  when  a  favorable  field  comes 
in  the  course  of  rotation,  or  the  weather  proves  tempting,  the  land  should 
be  so  plowed  as  that  the  advantage  may  be  taken  to  sow  wheat.  Should 
circumstances  warrant  the  attempt,  or  matters  take  an  unfavorable  turn 
for  the  purjjose,  there  will  be  no  harm,  as  the  soil  can  afterward  be  worked 
for  barley. 

(1752.)  Land  should  only  receive  one  fuiTow,  the  seed-furrow,  for  spring 
wheat,  for  if  it  is  plowed  oftener  after  a  manured  green  crop,  and  in  spring, 

(221) 


126  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

when  it  has  become  tender  by  the  winter  frost,  it  would  want  that  firmness 
which  is  essential  for  the  growth  of  wheat.  The  nature  of  this  seed-fur- 
row depends  upon  circumstances.  If  the  land  presents  a  visible  form  of 
ridge,  and  if  it  soon  becomes  wet,  the  best  way  to  plow  it  is  to  gather  it 
up,  and  then  it  will  have  the  appearance  of  l)eing  twice  gathered  up,  as  in 
fig.  139.  If  it  is  flat,  and  the  subsoil  somewhat  moist,  gathering  up  from 
the  flat  will  answer  best,  as  in  fig.  133.  If  the  soil  has  a  dry  subsoil, 
though  of  a  pretty  strong  clay  itself,  it  may  be  cast  with  gore-furrows, 
(6G3).  And  should  it  be  fine  loam  resting  on  an  open  bottom,  the  ridges 
may  be  cast  together  without  gore-fuiTows,  as  in  fig.  135.  It  is  probable 
that  a  whole  field  may  not  be  obtained  at  once  to  plow  up  in  either  of 
these  ways,  and  indeed  such  an  event  rarely  happens  in  regard  to  prepar- 
ing land  for  spring  wheat ;  but  when  it  is  determined  to  sow  it,  a  few 
ridges  should  be  plowed  up  as  convenience  offers,  and  then  a  number  of 
acres  sown  at  one  time.  In  this  way  a  whole  field  may  be  sown  by  de- 
grees, whereas  to  wait  until  the  sowing  of  the  whole  field  at  once  can  be 
obtained,  may  prevent  the  sowing  of  any  part  of  it  in  proper  season.  Nay, 
bad  weather  may  set  in  and  prevent  the  sowing  after  the  land  has  been 
plowed  ;  still  a  favorable  week  may  occur,  and  at  the  worst,  at  the  lattei 
end  of  the  season  the  land  may  be  ribbed  with  the  small  plow,  in  the  mannei 
I  have  described  in  (175S),  and  which  will  move  as  much  of  the  tendei 
part  of  the  soil  on  the  surface  as  sufficiently  to  burj-  the  seed,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  former  furrow  will  still  remain  in  a  firm  state  to  sup- 
port the  wheat  plant. 

(1753.)  The  land  being  plowed,  it  should  be  soicn  as  quickly  as  possible; 
for  which  purpose  the  seed-wheat  should  be  measured  up  in  the  sacks,  oi 
ready  to  be  measured  up  in  the  corn-bam  or  granary,  and  the  means  of 
pickling  it  also  ready  when  wanted.  Wheat  should  be  sown  thick  in 
spring,  because  there  is  no  time  for  the  plant  to  stool  or  tiller,  that  is,  to 
throw  out  young  shoots  from  the  roots,  as  in  the  case  of  autumnal-sown 
wheat.     About  3  bushels  per  imperial  acre  will  suffice  for  seed. 

(1754.)  Seed-wheat  should  he  pickled,  that  is,  subjected  to  a  preparation 
in  a  certain  kind  of  liquor,  before  it  is  sown,  in  order  to  insure  it  against 
the  attack  of  a  certain  disease  in  the  ensuing  summer  called  smut,  which 
renders  the  crop  comparatively  worthless.  Some  farmers  aflfect  to  laugh 
at  this  precaution,  as  originating  in  a  nonsensical  faith  in  an  imaginary 
specific  :  but  the  existence  of  smut  and  its  baneful  effects  uj^on  the  wheat 
crop  are  no  imaginary  inventions,  and  when  experience  has  proved,  in 
numlK>rless  instances,  that  the  application  of  a  steep  has  the  effect  of  ward- 
ing off"  the  evils  of  smut,  the  little  trouble  which  pickling  imposes  may 
surely  be  undertaken,  rather  than  the  whole  crop  be  put  in  jeopardy.  TT'/cy 
pickling  now  should  have  the  effect  of  preventing  the  smut  at  vl  future  pe- 
riod is  a  different  question  ;  and  it  is  perhaps  because  this  question  has  not 
hitherto  been  satisfactorily  answered,  that  pickling  is  thought  lightly  of  by 
some  farmei"s,  rather  than  because  any  valid  objection  can  l>e  urged  against 
its  practice.  Indeed  there  cannot,  for  the  palpable  fact  stands  obvious  to 
conviction,  that  one  field  sown  ANnth  pickled  wheat,  and  managed  in  the 
usual  way,  will  escape  the  smut,  while  an  adjoining  one,  managed  in  ex- 
actly a  similar  manner,  but  sown  with  plain  wheat,  will  be  almost  destroyed 
with  the  disease.  I  have  seen  this  identical  case  tried  by  two  neighboring 
farmers,  the  Messrs.  Fenton,  late  tenants  of  Xevay  and  Eassie,  in  Forfar- 
sliire.  It  is  true  that,  on  some  farms,  wheat  no\\i\  in  a  plain  state  escapes  the 
disease,  as  I  have  heard  Mr.  Oliver,  Lochend,  near  Edinburgh,  state  is  the 
case  with  his  farm  ;  and  it  is  also  true  that  pickling  does  not  entirely  pre- 
vent the  recurrence  of  tlie  disease  on  other  farms ;  but  such  cases  are  ex- 


SOWING  SPRING  WHEAT  AND  GRASS-SEEDS.  127 

ceptions  to  the  rule,  which  is,  if  wheat  is  not  pickled  it  may  be  smutted ; 
at  least  no  one  can  aver  beforehand  that  it  shall  not  be  so ;  and  while  un- 
certainty exists  in  the  recurrence  of  a  serious  disease,  the  safer  practice  is 
to  bestow  the  trouble  of  pickling,  the  expense  being  very  trifling,  rather 
than  incur  the  risk  of  disease.  It  is  now  a  well-ascertained  fact  that  inocu- 
lation will  not  insure  immunity  from  small-pox,  yet  it  will  certainly  piodify 
the  attack  when  it  occurs,  and  so  it  is  with  the  case  of  pickling  wheat ; 
and  as  long  as  means  are  used  to  ward  off  sraall-pox,  so  long  also,  from 
analogy,  ought  wheat  to  be  pickled. 

(1755.)  Wheat  is  pickled  in  this  way.  For  some  days,  say  2  or  3  weeks, 
let  one  of  the  tubs  referred  to  in  (1229)  be  placed  to  receive  a  quantity  of 
chamber  lye,  and  whenever  ammonia  is  felt  to  be  disengaging  itself  freely 
from  the  lye,  it  is  ready  for  use.  It  is  better  that  the  effluvium  be  so  strong 
as  to  smart  the  eyes,  and  water  added  to  dilute  the  liquor,  than  that  the 
lye  be  used  fresh.  This  tub  should  be  removed  to  the  straw-barn,  as  also 
tlie  wheat  to  be  pickled,  and  part  of  the  floor  swept  clean,  to  be  ready  for 
the  reception  of  the  wheat.  Let  2  baskets  be  provided,  capable  of  holding 
easily  about  \  a  bushel  of  wheat  each,  having  handles  raised  upright  on 
their  rims.  Pour  the  wheat  into  the  baskets  from  the  sacks,  and  dip  each 
basketfull  of  wheat  into  the  tub  of  lye  as  far  down  as  completely  to  cover 
the  wheat,  the  upright  handles  of  the  baskets  preventing  the  hands  of  the 
operator  being  immersed  in  the  lye.  After  remaining  in  the  liquor  for 
two  or  three  seconds,  lift  the  basket  up  to  drip  the  surplus  lye  again  into 
the  tub,  and  then  place  it  upon  two  sticks  over  an  empty  tub,  to  drip  still 
more  till  another  basketfull  is  ready  to  be  dripped.  Then  empty  the 
dripped  basket  of  its  wheat  on  the  floor,  and  as  every  basketfull  is  emp- 
tied, let  a  person  spread  by  riddling  through  a  barn  wheat-riddle,  a  lit- 
tle slaked  caustic  lime  upon  the  wheat.  Thus  basketfull  after  basket- 
full  of  the  wheat  is  pickled  till  it  is  all  emptied  on  the  floor,  when  the 
pickled  and  limed  heap  is  turned  over  and  over  again  till  the  whole  mass 
appears  uniform.  The  mixing  by  turning  is  most  surely  managed  in  this 
way.  Let  two  men  be  each  provided  with  a  barn  shovel,  and  let  one 
stand  on  each  side  of  the  heap,  one  with  his  shovel  in  the  right  and 
the  other  with  his  in  the  left  hand ;  let  both  make  their  shovels  meet  in 
their  edges  upon  the  floor,  under  one  end  of  the  heap  of  wheat,  and  each, 
on  lifting  his  shovelfull,  turn  it  over  behind  him,  and  thus  proceed,  shovel- 
full  after  shovelfull,  to  the  other  end  of  the  heap.  Let  them  return  in  a 
similar  manner  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  aye  till  the  heap  of  wheat  is 
completely  mixed  with  the  lime  and  lye.  The  pickled  wheat  is  then 
sacked  up  and  carried  to  the  field  in  carts.  Other  substances  beside 
chamber  lye  are  used  for  pickling  wheat,  such  as  brine  of  salt,  sufficiently 
strong  to  float  an  &<g^ ;  solution  of  blue  vitriol — all  good  enough,  I  dare 
say,  but  when  so  simple  and  efficient  and  easily-obtained  an  article  as 
lye  can  be  had,  it  appears  to  me  unnecessary  to  employ  anything  else.  It 
is  a  powerful  ingredient,  destroying  vegetable  life  in  the  course  of  a  few 
hours,  and  it  is  perhaps  to  this  property  that  is  to  be  ascribed  its  efficacy  as 
a  protection  against  the  attack  of  that  vegetable  enemy  of  the  wheat-crop 
— the  smut.  The  wheat  pickled  with  it  should  therefoi-e  be  used  immedi- 
ately after  the  process ;  and  as  danger  may  be  apprehended  to  pickled 
wheat  being  kept  over  night,  the  quantity  pickled  should  be  sown  at  once, 
and  no  more  should  be  pickled  at  one  time  than  can  immediately  be  sown. 
The  use  of  the  quicklime  seems  to  be  to  dry  the  lye  quickly,  so  that  the 
gi-ams  maybe  easily  separated  from  one  another  in  the  act  of  sowing;  but 
there  may  some  chemical  change  arise  between  them  in  the  circum- 
stances, which  may  be  sei-viceable  to  the  purpose  for  which  both  are  em- 

(223)  ^       -^ 


128  THE   BOOK   OF  THE  FARM SPRING* 

ployed.     Can  it  be  that  the  lime  fixes  the  ammonia  of  the  lye,  and  pre- 
serves it  for  use  until  wanted  by  the  plant  or  seed  1 

(1756.)  There  is  some  art  in  setting  down  sacks  of  seed-corn  on  the 
field.  It  should  be  ascertained  how  many  ridges  of  the  field  to  be  sown 
are  contained  in  an  acre,  so  that  the  sacks  may  be  set  down  at  so  many 
ridges  as  each  sack  contains  seed  to  sow  the  ground,  allo^ving  the  specified 
quantity  of  seed  to  the  acre.  This  instruction  should  be  given  to  the  ]>low- 
man  before  he  proceeds  to  the  field  with  the  sacks,  otherwise  he  may  set 
them  do^\^l  cither  too  close  or  too  wide.  When  one  row  of  sacks  is  suffi- 
cient, and  the  ridges  just  long  enough  for  the  sower  to  carry  as  much  seed 
as  will  bring  him  back  again  to  the  sack,  the  sacks  should  be  set  down  in 
the  middle ;  when  the  ridges  are  short  they  may  be  set  down  on  the  head- 
ridge,  and  when  of  such  a  length  as  to  require  two  rows  of  sacks,  each 
row  should  be  set  on  the  same  ridges,  and  the  distance  between  them 
made  to  suit  the  circumstances  of  the  case.  The  setting  down  of  the  sacks 
should  be  l>egun  from  the  side  at  which  the  sowing  commences,  and  this 
again  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  surface  of  the  field.  If  the  surface  is 
level,  it  matters  not  which  side  is  selected  for  commencing  operations  ;  but 
if  it  has  an  inclination,  then  that  side  which  lies  to  the  left  while  looking 
down,  or  to  the  right  on  looking  up  the  inclination,  should  be  begun  to  be 
sown.  The  reason  for  this  preference  is  that  breaking  in  the  surface  with 
the  harrows — that  is,  the  first  stroke  of  them  over  the  ground,  along  the 
ridge — is  most  difficult  for  the  horse  to  draw;  and  to  ease  their  draught 
the  breaking  should  be  executed  down  hill.  The  sacks  are  always  placed 
on  the  furrow-brow  of  a  ridge,  that  the  hollowness  of  the  open  furrow 
beside  it  may  give  advantage  to  the  person  who  carries  the  seed  to  take  it 
out  more  quickly  and  easily  when  it  sinks  near  to  the  bottom  of  the  sack. 

(1757.)  The  carrier  of  the  seed  is  a  field-worker,  and  the  instant  the  first 
sack  of  seed  is  set  do\vn,  she  proceeds  to  untie  and  fold  back  its  mouth, 
and  fill  the  rusky,  fig.  315,  with  seed,  and  carries  the  first  quantity  to  the 
sower,  who  should  be  ready  sheeted  awaiting  her  arrival  on  the  head-ridge 
at  the  side  of  the  field.  Her  endeavor  should  be  to  supply  him  with  such 
quantities  of  seed  as  will  bring  him  in  a  line  with  the  sack  when  he  wants 
more ;  and  as  the  sacks  are  placed  about  half-way  down  the  ridges  when 
only  one  row  is  wanted,  this  may  easily  be  arranged  ;  or  should  there  be 
two  rows,  she  must  go  from  row  to  row  on  the  same  ridge,  and  endeavor 
to  form  the  same  arrangement.  This  regular  plan  will  give  her  the 
least  trouble,  and  supply  the  sower  always  with  the  requisite  quantities  of 
seed ;  and  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  nothing  can  be  more  annoying 
to  a  sower  than  to  have  his  sheet  brimfull  at  one  time  and  at  another  stint- 
ed ;  and  it  is  also  very  annoying  to  him  to  be  obliged  to  wait  the  arrival 
of  the  seed-carrier,  whereas  she  should  rather 
wait  on  him.     If  the  sacks  of  seed  are  conve-  __^-^v 

niently  placed,  one  active  seed-carrier  will  sen'e 
two  sowers,  at  e,  fig.  322  ;  but  where  the  sacks 
are  set  down  in  more  than  one  row,  and  there 
are  more  than  one  sower,  there  should  be  a  car- 
rier at  each  row. 

(1758.)  The  rusky,  fig.  315,  or  seed-basket,  is 
usually  made  of  twisted  straw  laid  in  rows  above 
each  other,  and  fastened  together  by  means  of 

withes  of  willow.   It  is  provided  with  a  couple  of         ^^^  sked-cors  rcskt. 
handles  of  the  same  material,  sufficient  to  admit 

the  points  of  the  fingers,  and  also  a  rim  around  the  bottom,  upon  which  it 
stands.    In  the  Border  counties  it  is  cairied  on  the  head  or  the  seed-canier 

(?24) 


SOWING   SPRING   WHEAT  AND   GRASS-SEEDS.  129 

wlion  full,  in  other  parts  it  is  carried  in  the  arms  with  the  bottom  rim  sup- 
ported by  the  haunch.  It  should  be  filled  each  time  with  just  the  quantity 
of  seed,  and  no  more,  which  the  sower  requires  at  one  time.  The  mouth  of 
the  sack  should  be  rolled  round  upon  itself,  that  the  seed  maybe  easily  and 
quickly  taken  out,  for  there  is  usually  no  time  to  lose  when  seed  is  sowino-. 
As  one  sack  becomes  empty  it  should  be  taken  by  the  carrier  to  the  nearest 
sack,  and  as  they  accumulate  they  should  be  put  into  one,  and  thus  taken 
forward  out  of  the  way  of  the  harrows.  It  is  not  unusual  to  see  the  sacks 
lying  upon  the  ground  where  they  are  emptied,  and  only  removed  when 
the  harrows  come  upon  them,  and  not  unfrequently  tear  them,  and  they 
are  then  cast  away  to  be  in  the  road  again  when  the  field  is  harrowed  in 
another  direction.  The  carrier  should  be  careful  not  to  spill  the  seed  upon 
the  ground  on  taking  it  out  of  the  sack. 

(1759.)  The  sower  is  habited  in  a  peculiar  manner ;  he  puts  on  a  sow- 
ing-sheet. The  most  convenient  form  of  sowing-sheet  is  that  of  a  semi- 
spheroid,  having  an  opening  at  one  side  of  its  mouth  large  enough  to  allow 
the  head  and  right  arm  to  pass  through,  and  by  which  it  is  suspended  over 
the  left  shoulder.  On  distending  its  mouth  with  both  hands,  and  on  re- 
ceiving the  seed  into  it,  the  supei-fluous  portion  of  the  sheet  is  wound  over 
the  left  arm  and  gathered  into  the  left  hand,  by  which  it  is  held  tightly, 
while  the  load  of  corn  is  securely  supported  by  that  part  of  it  which  passes 
over  the  left  shoulder,  across  the  back  and  under  the  right  arm.  The  right 
arm,  which  throws  the  seed,  finds  easy  access  to  the  corn  from  the  compar- 
atively loose  side  of  the  mouth  of  the  sheet,  between  the  left  hand  and  the 
body  of  the  sower.  A  square  sheet,  knotted  together  in  three  of  its  cor- 
ners, and  put  on  in  a  similar  manner,  is  sometimes  used  as  a  sowing- 
sheet  ;  but  one  formed  and  sewed  of  the  proper  shape,  and  kept  for  the 
purpose,  is  a  much  better  article.  Linen  sheeting  makes  an  excellent  ma- 
terial for  a  sowing-sheet,  and  when  washed  at  the  end  of  the  sowing  season 
will  last  many  years.  The  difl&cult  point  is  to  make  the  sowing-sheet  fit 
the  sower  on  the  top  of  the  left  shoulder,  where  the  greater  part  of  the 
weight  of  corn  is  felt ;  and,  in  attempting  this,  the  principal  thing  to  be 
considered  is  to  make  the  plain  part  which  goes  over  the  shoulder  broad 
enough,  and  to  slope  with  the  shape  of  the  shoulder.  The  gatherings  of 
the  cloth  on  each  side  of  the  shoulder-top  should  be  neatly  executed,  and  a 
couple  of  tapes  drawn  tight  in  a  slot-hem  in  front  of  the  sheet  across  the  breast. 

(1760.)  A  basket  of  wicker- 
work,  such  as  in  fig.  321,  is 
very  commonly  used  in  Eng- 
land for  sowing  seed.  It  is  sus- 
pended by  girthing,  fastened  to 
the  two  loops  shown  on  the  rim 
of  the  basket,  and  passed  either 
over  the  left  shoulder  and  under 
the  right  arm,  or  round  the  back 
of  the  neck  ;  and  the  left  hand 
holds  it  steady  by  the  head  of 
the  wooden  stave  shown  on  the 
other  side  of  the  basket.*  No 
doubt  such  an  instrnment  an- 
swers the  purpose  of  the  sower, 
or  it  would  not  have  been  so 
long  in  use  ;  but,  for  my  part,  I  much  prefer  the  comfortable  feel  of  the 
linen  sheet  to  the  hard  rubbing  of  the  willow  basket. 

[  •  Wilkinson  eays  the  handle  ought  to  be  at  the  bottom  instead  of  top,  projecdng  forward.    Ed.  Farm.  Lib. I 
(225) 9  r.i'    J         b 


THE    ENGLISH    SOWING    BASKET. 


130 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


(1761.)  Both  these  forms  of  utensils  for  sowing  seed  are  intended  for 
the  use  of  one  hand  only  ;  but  some  sowers  throw  the  seed  with  both 
hands,  and  then  the  instrument  must  be  made  to  suit  the  practice.  In 
this  case  a  linen  sheet  will  not  answer;  a  basket  or  box,  made  of  thin 
deal,  having  a  curved  form  to  suit  the  front  of  the  body,  should  be  used. 
It  is  fastened  round  the  body  by  a  strap  and  buckle,  and  is  suspended  be- 
sides by  girthing  fastened  to  loops  on  the  side  next  the  sower,  and  passed 
round  the  back  of  his  neck  ;  and  the  further  side  is  suspended  by  a  strap 
passing  upward  toward  the  chin  of  the  sower,  where  it  divides  into  two, 
and  })asses  over  both  shoulders,  and  is  made  fast  to  the  strap  buckled 
round  the  body.  A  more  simple  form  of  sowing-sheet  for  both  hands,  is  a 
linen  bag  attached  to  a  hoop  of  wood  or  iron-rod,  made  to  suit  the  form 
of  the  body,  buckled  round  it,  aiid  suspended  in  front  in  the  manner  just 
described.     Both  hands  are  thus  at  liberty  to  cast  the  seed. 

(1762.)  In  sowing  with  one  hand,  the  sower  walks  on  the  third  and  fourth 
fuiTow-slices  from  the  open-furrow,  which  he  keeps  on  his  right  hand. 
Taking  always  as  much  seed  as  he  can  grasji  in  his  right  hand,  he  stretches 
his  arm  out  and  back,  with  the  clenched  fingers  looking  forward,  while  the 
left  foot  is  making  an  advance  of  a  moderate  step,  as  represented  by  a, 
fig.  322.     When  the  arm  has  attained  this  position,  the  seed  is  begun  to 

Fig.  322. 


THE  SOWING  OF  CORN  BY  HAND 

be  cast,  which  is  done  with  a  quick  and  forcible  thrust  of  the  hand  for- 
ward. At  the  first  instant  of  the  forward  motion,  the  fore-finger  and  thumb 
are  a  little  relaxed,  by  which  some  of  the  seed  drops  upon  the  fuiTow- 
brow  and  in  the  open  furrow,  and  while  relaxing  tlie  fingers  gradually, 
the  back  of  the  hand  is  turning  upward  till  the  arm  is  stretched  forward, 
when  the  fingers  are  all  thrown  open,  with  the  bark  of  the  hand  upper- 
most. The  f()i-\vard  motion  of  the  hand  is  accompanied  by  a  correspond- 
ing forward  advance  of  the  right  foot,*  which  is  jdanted  on  the  ground 
the  moment  the  hand  has  cast  forward  tlie  most  of  the  seed.  This  posi- 
tion is  attempted  to  be  rejiresenfed  by  the  figure  at  h.  The  figure  which 
the  seed  describes  on  the  ground,  in  being  thus  cast  forward,  is  something 
like  the  area  of  a  section  of  the  extreme  end  of  the  larger  axis  of  a  very 
eccentric  ellipse,  having  one  comer  of  the  section  at  the  open  furrow,  and 

[*  Mr.  WilkinBon,  of  Dutchess  Coiinty,  says  this  is  unnatural ;   that  it  should  be  the  left  foot  in  concp 
with  the  right  hand.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib: 

(226) 


SOWING  SPRING  WHEAT   AND  GRASS-SEEDS.  131 

the  other  stretching  2  or  3  feet  beyond  the  crown  of  the  ridge,  and  its 
broadest  part  spread  over  that  side  of  the  ridge  on  which  the  sower  walks  ; 
this  figure  is  attempted  to  be  shown  hj  b  c  d.  The  moment  the  seed  is 
got  quit  of,  the  hand  is  brought  back  to  the  sowing-sheet  and,  thence  re- 
plenished, is  stretched  back  for  a  fresh  cast,  while  the  left  foot  is  made  to 
advance  simultaneously.  Thus  the  right  hand  and  right  foot  play  into 
each  other  with  a  regular  slmulta7ieotis  motion,  while  the  same  hand  and 
the  left  foot  play  with  an  alternate  motion. 

(1763.)  Many  points  require  consideration  to  enable  the  sower  to  cast 
the  seed  equally  over  the  ground.  If  the  hand  and  feet  do  not  correspond 
in  their  motions,  the  ground  will  not  be  equally  covered,  but  a  strip  be- 
tween the  casts  left  almost  bare.  When  the  braird  comes  up,  the  omis- 
sion shows  itself  like  the  steps  of  a  ladder,  and  hence  it  is  named,  in  some 
parts  of  the  country,  laddering,  in  others,  happergain',  as  if  the  seed  had 
been  cast  in  hopping.  This  error  is  most  apt  to  be  committed  by  a  sower 
with  a  stiff  elbow.  The  arm  should  always  be  thrown  well  back  and  com 
pletely  stretched  out,  though  in  continuing  this  action  it  will  become  pain- 
ful in  the  inner  fold  of  the  elbow-joint.  If  the  hand  is  opened  too  soon,  a 
larger  portion  of  the  seed  than  necessary  will  fall  upon  the  furrow-brow, 
and  the  crown  will  receive  less  than  its  proportion.  This  fault  young 
sowers  are  very  apt  to  commit,  from  the  apprehension  that  they  will  retain 
the  seed  too  long  in  the  hand.  If  the  hand  is  brought  too  high  in  front, 
the  seed  will  be  apt  to  be  acted  on  by  the  wind,  and  tossed  to  a  different 
direction  to  that  intended  by  the  hand.  High  casting  is  a  very  common 
error  with  sowers,  and  is  an  unsafe  practice  in  windy  weather.  In  strong 
wind  the  sower  is  sometimes  obliged  to  walk  on  the  adjoining  ridge  to  the 
windward,  to  sow  the  one  he  wishes ;  and  a  sower  who  casts  high  will 
never  make  good  work  in  such  a  case.  In  casting  high,  the  hand  is  sure 
to  be  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  elbow,  whereas  it  should  always  be 
below  it.  The  hand  should  be  kept  low,  the  arm  stretched  out,  and  the 
seed  made  to  fly  in  a  curve  in  front,  by  a  sharp  turn  of  the  hand,  and  a  free 
opening  of  the  fingers  near  the  end  of  the  action,  the  nearest  edge  of  the 
cast  falling  within  two  paces  of  the  sower.  Seed  when  so  cast  will  be 
little  affected  by  even  a  strong  wind.  Some  sowers  take  long  steps,  and 
fill  their  hand  with  the  seed  as  if  in  a  shovel,  and  of  course  make  long 
casts,  reaching  across  the  lidge  from  open  furrow  to  open  fuiTOw.  Such  a 
sower  will  spill  the  seed  behind  the  hand,  and  make  bad  work  in  wind. 
The  step  should  be  short,  the  casts  frequent,  and  the  seed  held  firmly  in 
the  hand,  when  a  complete  command  of  the  whole  work  will  be  ob- 
tained. 

(1764.)  A  sower  with  both  hands  must  make  high  casts,  otherwise  the 
seed  will  not  reach  the  furrows  as  he  walks  along  the  crown  of  the  ridge, 
which  he  must  do.  I  can  see  no  advantage  attending  this  mode  of  sow- 
ing over  the  other,  but,  on  the  contrary,  a  considerable  risk  of  scattering 
the  seed  unequally,  for  however  dexterous  an  ambidexter  sower  may  be- 
come, his  left  arm  will  not  make  so  perfect  a  cast  as  his  right,  if  he  is  a 
right-handed  person.  In  calm  weather  he  may  get  on  tolerably  well,  as 
also  with  the  wind  direct  in  his  face  or  in  his  back  ;  but  a  side-wind  would 
puzzle  him,  for  while  adjusting  himself  to  it  for  one  of  the  hands,  the 
other  is  immediately  placed  in  a  disadvantageous  position.  In  short,  he 
should  not  sow  with  both  hands  in  wind.  An  Irish  sower  usually  makes 
a  step,  stands  still,  and  scatters  one  handfull  of  seed  with  two  short  and 
one  long  cast  of  the  arm.     This  is  slow  work. 

(1765.)  A  single-handed  sower  makes  a  bout  to  sow  a  ridge.  When 
the  ridge  is  single,  fig.  133,  he  always  keeps  the  open  furrow  on  his  right 


132         THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

hanfl  ;  when  it  is  double,  that  is,  cast  together,  fig.  135,  he  must  go  a  bout 
round  the  crown,  as  well  as  by  the  open  fniTows  ;  and  whore  the  land  is 
plowed  two-out-and-two-in,  fig.  138,  a  mark  of  some  sort  will  be  required 
to  keep  him  in  the  proper  place  between  the  crown  and  open  fiirrows. 

(1766.)  It  is  obvious  that  in  sowing  with  the  hand  the  com  is  scattered 
promiscuously,  and,  in  whatever  anangement  it  may  come  up,  depends 
on  the  form  of  the  ground,  whether  it  had  been  plowed  in  common  fur- 
rows or  in  ribs  ;  for,  in  the  latter  case,  the  com  comes  up  in  rows  or  drills, 
the  com  having  fallen  into  the  hollows  of  the  ribs  when  sown  ;  and  in  the 
former,  broadcast,  that  is.  equally  over  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

(1767.)  The  harrows  follow  the  sowers,  each  sower  keeping  2  pair  of 
hanows  employed  when  the  land  receives  a  double  tine,  that  is,  backward 
and  forward  on  the  same  ground,  which  a  hrealing  in  of  the  seed  should 
always  be.  To  draw  harrows  as  they  should  be  drawn  is  not  so  light  a  work 
for  horses  as  in  appearance  it  is;  and,  indeed,  when  the  tines  are  new  sharp- 
ened and  long,  and  take  a  deep  hold  on  the  ground,  the  labor  is  consid- 
erable. To  hanow  the  ground  well,  that  is,  to  stir  the  soil  over  the  seed, 
and  bring  to  the  surface  and  pulverize  all  the  larger  clods,  requires  the 
horses  to  go  at  a  smart  pace  ;  and,  indeed,  harrows  should  always  be  em- 
ployed with  a  quick  motion.  If  the  men  owe  the  steward  a  grudge  for  his 
sharp  discipline,  spring-wheat  sowing  is  a  favorable  time  to  take  advantage 
of  him,  when  the  land  is  naturally  friable  and  easily  pulverized,  and  the 
horses  are  quite  fresh,  and  when,  on  the  other  hand,  the  lime  of  the  pickle 
annoys  the  sower's  face,  and  the  land  is  rather  soft  for  quick  walking.  If 
they  keep  the  harrows  hard  at  his  heels,  for  very  shame  he  must  sow  hard 
to  keep  out  before  them ;  and  if  he  is  a  slow  sower,  he  must  get  a  good 
heating.  I  never  .see  a  man  sowing  with  his  coat  on  below  the  sowing- 
sheet,  than  a  wish  arises  to  see  the  haiTows  close  at  his  heels  to  punish 
him  for  the  lazy-looking  trick. 

(1768.)  After  the  appointed  piece  of  ground,  whether  a  whole  field  or 
part  of  one,  has  been  sown  and  broken  in,  the  land  is  cross-harrowed 
a  double  tine,  but  as,  in  this,  the  ground  is  not  confined  within  the 
breadths  of  ridges,  the  hari'ows  cover  as  much  of  the  ground  as  they  can, 
and  get  over  it  in  less  time  than  in  breaking  in ;  and,  besides,  the  second 
hanowing  being  easier  for  the  horses,  they  can  walk  faster. 

(1769.)  In  regard  to  harrowing  ribbed  land,  a  double  tine  of  breaking 
in  is  all  that  it  receives  to  place  it  in  the  same  position  as  the  common 
mode  of  seed-fiirrowing  is  placed  after  th«3  cross-harrowing — ribbed  land 
never  being  cross-haiTowcd,  as  that  would  derange  the  drilled-like  state  of 
the  seed,  and  bring  a  large  proportion  of  it  again  to  the  surface. 

(1770.)  To  judge  of  the  harrowing  of  land,  the  sense  of  feeling  is  re- 
quired as  well  as  that  of  sight.  When  well  done,  the  fi-iable  portion  of 
the  soil  seems  uniformly  smooth,  and  any  clods  that  are  seen  should  lie 
free  upon  the  surface.  The  ground,  too,  .should  feel  uniformly  soft  under 
foot.  When  the  land  is  not  enough  haiTOwed,  the  surface  appears  rough, 
and  the  clods  are  still  half  immersed  in  the  soil,  and  the  ground  feels  une 
qually  soft  under  foot,  in  some  parts  resisting  pressure,  in  others  giving 
way  too  easily. 

(1771.)  The  well  hanowing  of  land  is  a  point  of  more  importance  than 
seems  generally  to  be  imagined.  Its  object  is  not  merely  to  cover  the 
seed,  but  to  pulverize  the  ground,  and  render  it  of  a  uniform  texture. 
Uniformity  of  texture  keeps  the  soil  in  a  more  equal  state  of  temperature, 
not  absorbing  rain  so  fast,  nor  admitting  drouth  so  easily,  as  when  the  soi! 
is  rough  and  the  clods  keeping  it  open.  Whenever  the  texture  is  made 
uniform,  the  harrowing  should  cease,  for  it  is   a  fact,  especially  in  light, 

(228; 


SOWING  SPRING  WHEAT  AND  GRASS-SEEDS.  133 

soft  soils,  that  more  harrowing  than  necessary  brings  part  of  the  seed  up 
again  to  the  surface. 

(1772.)  Spring  wheat  following  a  green  crop  is  always  sown  down  with 
grass-seeds,  and  the  land  is  in  a  fit  state  to  receive  them  when  it  is  in  the 
above  condition  of  its  harrowing  ;  but  as  grass-seeds  are  also  sown  at  this 
time  among  the  wheat  that  was  sown  in  autumn,  it  is  requisite  to  consider, 
in  the  first  place,  the  state  of  that  crop  before  proceeding  to  sow  them 
among  the  spring  wheat,  especially  when  both  kinds  of  crop  are  in  the 
same  field.  The  state  of  the  lointer  wheat  depends  entirely  on  the  sort  of 
weather  it  had  to  encounter  in  winter  and  early  spring.  If  the  winter  has 
been  open  and  mild,  the  autumn  wheat  plant  will  have  grown  luxuriantly, 
indeed  so  much  so  that  it  may  have  hecoxaQ  proud,  that  is,  in  a  precocious 
state  of  forwardness  for  the  season.  When  it  is  in  this  state  in  spring, 
which  is  rarely  the  case  in  Scotland,  though  not  unfrequent  in  England, 
a  heavy  fall  of  snow  in  spring,  that  happens  to  lie  for  some  weeks,  will  rot 
a  great  many  of  the  plants ;  and,  instead  of  the  rest  retaining  their  green 
color  under  the  snow,  they  will  become  blanched  at  the  roots,  pressed  flat 
to  the  ground,  and  will  probably  never  rise  again.  Blanks  will  in  conse- 
quence be  formed  where  this  catastrophe  has  happened  ;  but  unless  these 
be  of  large  extent,  or  the  season  be  far  advanced  before  the  wheat  has 
been  liberated  from  its  snowy  covering,  the  plants  will  tiller  out  with  new 
runners  from  the  roots  of  the  surviving  old  plants,  and  occupy  the  blank 
spaces.  When  snow  falls  upon  wheat  in  the  early  part  of  winter,  and 
covers  it  for  a  considerable  time,  it  protects  the  crop  from  injury  from  the 
atmosphere,  and  prevents  the  earth  from  cooling  below  40°  Fahr.  In 
this  position  the  young  plant  retains  its  healthy  green  color,  thoufrh  it 
does  not  grow  much ;  and  whenever  it  is  relieved  from  the  snow,  it  grows 
rapidly,  unless  it  happen  to  encounter  black  frost,  which  changes  its 
greenness  into  a  brown,  and  may  kill  some  of  the  plants ;  but  should  there 
be  no  black  frost,  there  is  no  state  of  the  young  wheat  plant  in  spring  in 
which  it  tillers  so  closely,  and  afterward  grows  so  equally,  as  after  emerging 
in  favorable  circumstances  from  snow.  The  most  trying  time,  however, 
for  winter  wheat  is  in  March,  when  sharp  frosts  frequently  occur  at  night, 
and  bright  sunshine  in  the  day.  The  frost  draws  the  moisture  of  the 
ground  to  the  surface,  and  there  freezes  it ;  when  the  sun  shines  upon  the 
ice  it  melts,  and  most  frequently  very  rapidly,  and  the  consequent  evapora- 
tion produces  such  an  intense  degree  of  cold  as  even  to  kill  the  plants  sud- 
denly ;  and  if  they  escape  destruction  in  this  way,  the  damp  ground  that 
had  been  raised  up  by  means  of  the  expanded  condition  of  the  ice  sud- 
denly contracts  by  its  melting,  leaving  the  plants  with  their  roots  half 
drawn  out  of  the  earth,  in  which  state  many  perish.  It  must  be  owned, 
however,  that  this  particular  effect  is  most  commonly  produced  on  loamy 
soils  which  rest  on  impervious  clay  subsoil  and  not  on  a  dry  subsoil,  so 
that  draining  may  be  reasonably  expected  to  prevent  this  injury.  Con- 
tinued rains  upon  winter  wheat  make  it  change  its  color  to  a  bluish  hue, 
and  if  the  air  is  temperate  the  plant  becomes  tender,  and  at  length  sets  up 
with  red-pointed  leaves,  as  if  it  would  grow  no  more.  Continued  drouth 
in  spring,  on  the  other  hand,  makes  winter  wheat  of  a  vivid  green,  espe- 
cially in  fresh  weather  ;  but  should  it  be  cold  and  inclined  to  frost,  the 
points  of  the  leaves  become  brown,  which  latter  effect  is  invariably  in- 
duced by  the  cold  east  winds  so  prevalent  in  spring  in  this  country. 
Drouth  and  heat  combined  always  promote  the  vigor  of  the  wheat  plant. 

(1773.)  Although  I  have  said  that  double  harrowing  across  prepares  the 
land  on  which  spring  wheat  has  been  sown  for  grass-seeds,  it  should  not 
be  imagined  these  are  sown  whenever  wheat-seed  is  sown,  because  the  lat- 

(229) 


134  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

ter  may  be  sown  at  any  time  during  winter  or  early  spring  that  tlie  state 
of  tlie  weather  and  soil  will  allow  ;  Imt  when  spring  wheat  is  sown  at  the 
latest  period  of  the  season,  then  grass-seeds  may  not  only  be  sown  among 
this,  but  among  all  the  spring  wheat  that  had  been  previously  sown  :  and 
at  the  same  time  among  the  winter  wheat,  if  the  land  that  has  stood  all 
winter  is  dry  enough  to  bear  harrowing  at  the  time.  Frost  injures  clover- 
seeds,  and  will  even  kill  them  when  exposed  to  it,  so  that  they  cannot 
safely  be  sown  very  early  in  the  season ;  but  there  is  not  much  risk  of 
frost  being  so  powerful  in  March  as  to  injure  seed  that  is  harrowed  in. 
Many  farmers  used  to  sow  grass-seeds  without  harrowing,  trusting  to  so 
small  seeds  finding  their  way  into  the  soil  among  the  clods,  and  of  being 
covered  by  their  mouldering,  and  this  practice  is,  1  believe,  not  yet  relin- 
quished ;  but  the  safer  and  more  correct  practice  is  to  cover  every  kind  of 
seed  when  it  is  sown  by  haiTOwing.  It  may  happen  that  in  the  same  field 
in  which  the  latest  spring  wheat  has  been  sown,  may  be  found  some  that 
had  been  sown  at  a  former  period,  and  even  winter  wheat  may  occupy 
another  part  of  it.  When  this  is  the  case,  and  especially  if  the  last  sown 
completes  the  cropping  of  the  field,  then  the  grass-seeds  should  be  so\nti 
over  the  whole  field  at  one  time,  beginning  with  that  part  which  has  just 
been  sown,  continuing  it  over  that  which  was  the  next  last,  and  finishing 
upon  the  winter  wheat ;  because  it  is  desirable  first  to  finish  the  land  that 
has  been  most  recently  worked,  in  case  the  weather  should  change,  and 
prevent  the  finishing  of  the  whole  field.  Should  barley,  however,  have 
still  to  be  sown  on  that  field,  it  will  be  better  to  defer  the  sowing  of  the 
grass-seeds  upon  the  wheat  until  the  whole  field  is  sown  at  one  time  ;  and 
in  this  case  the  new-sown  spring  wheat  can  be  water-furrowed  and  put 
past  danger  for  the  time.  If  the  winter  wheat  in  the  same  field  is,  on  the 
other  hand,  far  advanced,  and  the  weather  still  favorable  to  its  growth,  the 
grass-seeds  should  be  sown  among  it,  for,  if  delayed  too  long  among  strong 
plants,  part  of  the  seed  may  not  find  its  way  to  the  soil,  and  the  subse- 
quent hariowing  may  injure  the  progi'ess  of  the  already  forward  plant. 
In  such  a  case  the  spring  wheat  should  be  sown  with  the  grass-seeds  at 
the  same  time,  and  the  barley-land  can  be  sown  by  itself,  when  the  barley- 
seed  is  finishing. 

(1774.)  The  grass-sowing  machine  is  a  most  perfect  instrument  for  the 
sowing  of  grass-seeds,  distriliuting  the  seeds  with  the  utmost  precision,  and 
to  any  amount,  and  scattering  them  so  near  the  ground  as  to  render  their 
sowing  a  matter  independent  of  windy  weather.  This  machine  will  be  found 
in  Plate  XXVI.,  fig.  316,  and  a  detailed  description  of  it  byMr.  Sliixht  will 
be  found  below.  Its  management  is  easy,  when  the  ground  is  plowed  in 
individual  ridges  ;  the  horse  which  draws  it  walking  in  the  open  furrow, 
as  in  a,  fig.  133,  and  the  machine  reaching  in  length  to  the  crown  of  tie 
ridge  on  each  side,  to  h  and  h,  sows  the  width  of  a  ridge  at  once,  the  lene^th 
of  the  machine  being  made  to  suit  the  breadth  of  the  ridges  adopted  on  the 
farm.  The  gearing  is  put  out  of  action  till  the  horse  enters  the  open  fur- 
row from  the  head-ridge,  when  it  is  put  on  and  it  is  again  taken  off  when 
the  machine  reaches  the  opposite  head  ridge.  The  seed  is  supplied  at  one 
of  the  head-ridgos,  and  the  head-ridges  are  sown  by  themselves.  When 
ridges  are  coupled  together,  the  horse  walks  down  in  the  middle  between 
the  crown  and  the  open  furrow,  taking  the  furrow-brow  as  a  guide  for  the 
line  he  should  keep.  Where  ridges  are  plowed  in  breaks,  as  two-out-nnd- 
two-in,  fig.  138,  it  is  necessary  to  use  some  marks  on  the  spaces  of  the 
ridges  between  the  crown  and  open  furrows,  to  guide  the  line  of  the  ma- 
chine. The  driver  ought  to  be  provided  with  double-reins.  Were  this 
machine  to  proceed  onward,  sowing  without  inteiTuption  for  10  hours  at 

C230) 


Uook  of  the  Farm. 


!>G©Ig@:2:  W[»[£[£[L. 


Plate  xxiir. 


T         i  ■"  6  .. 


Book  ol  the  I'aruu         BWQAlS)©^©'?   ©@Waii3©  SSl^SKiaKIE,.  Hate  XXVI 


SOWING  SPRING  WHEAT  AND    GRASS-SEEDS.  135 

the  rate  of  2^  miles  per  hour,  it  would  sow  54  acres  of  ground;  but,  of 
course,  the  turnings  of  the  landings,  and  the  time  spent  in  filling  the  ma- 
chine occasionally  with  seed,  cause  a  considerable  deduction  from  that 
quantity.  The  machine  is  also  used  to  sow  corn  in  broadcast,  and  it  an- 
swers the  purpose  very  well,  but  not  perhaps  in  so  superior  a  manner  to 
the  hand  as  it  does  the  grass -seeds,  nor  is  it  so  generally  employed  to  sow 
corn  as  grass-seeds,  but  for  what  reason  I  cannot  say.  There  was  a  reason 
for  this  before  the  introduction  of  the  third  or  front  wheel,  the  weight  of 
the  box  when  full  of  coi'n  being  too  heavy  for  the  horse's  back,  especially 
in  going  down  hill.  I  cannot  refrain  from  pointing  out  the  superior  con- 
struction of  this  machine,  as  represented  in  Plate  XXVI. ,  in  putting  it  in 
the  power  of  the  person  who  drives  it  to  contract  its  length,  so  as  to  admit 
the  machine  easily  into  a  field-gate,  and  thereby  to  dispense  with  removing 
it,  at  any  time,  from  its  cari'iage. 

(1775.)  After  the  grass-seeds  are  sown,  the  ground  is  haiTowed  to  cover 
them  in ;  and  for  this  purpose  lighter  harrows  are  used  than  those  for  or- 
dinary harrowing ;  and  being  light,  are  not  unfrequently  provided  with 
wings,  to  cover  a  whole  ridge  at  a  time,  so  that  in  following  the  sowinp-- 
machine,  the  process  connected  with  the  grass-seed  sowing  may  be  finish- 
ed at  once.  There  is  some  dexterity  required  in  driving  winged  grass- 
seed  han-ows.  It  is  not  convenient  to  move  them  from  one  ridge  to  an- 
other immediately  adjoining,  as  a  part  of  the  implement  will  have  to  turn 
almost  upon  a  pivot ;  in  doing  which,  unless  conducted  with  great  care 
injury  is  apt  to  be  done  to  it.  And,  besides,  it  is  a  particularly  awkward 
movement  to  hup  the  horses  with  these  harrows.  The  plan  to  avoid  the 
inconvenience  alluded  to,  is  to  hie  the  horses  at  the  end  of  all  the  landings, 
and  leave  an  intermediate  unhaiTowed  ridge  at  every  turning,  which  will 
be  greatly  facilitated  if  the  plowman  lifts  up  the  near  wing  from  the  ground 
with  a  hooked  stick  when  the  turning  is  to  commence,  and  lets  it  drop  down 
again  when  it  is  finished. 

(1776.)  The  land  may  be  rolled  or  not,  accoi^c/ing  to  circumstances,  be- 
fore the  grass-seeds  are  sown.  If  it  is  dry,  even  strong  land  would  be  the 
better,  at  this  season,  to  be  rolled,  to  reduce  the  clods  before  they  become 
very  hard,  and  to  form  a  kindlier  bed  for  the  small  seeds.  Should  it,  how- 
ever, be  in  a  waxy  state,  between  the  wet  and  the  dry,  the  rolling  had  better 
be  deferred  until  afterward.  When  it  is  in  a  proper  state  for  rolling  at  the 
time  of  sowing  the  grass-seeds,  it  should  be  rolled  before  the  sowing,  and, 
of  course,  before  the  harrowing  of  the  grass-seeds  ;  because,  were  the  land 
left  with  the  smooth  rolled  surface,  and  rain  come  after,  and  this  succeed- 
ed by  drouth,  which  is  not  an  unfrequent  state  of  the  weather  at  this  sea- 
son, the  smooth  ground  would  become  so  battered  and  hardened  as  to  curb 
the  wheat  braid  considerably  ;  whereas,  were  it  rolled  before  it  was  sown, 
and  then  haiTowed,  the  harrowing  would  again  raise  a  small,  round  clod, 
which  would  prevent  the  battering  by  rain,  and  consequent  inciustation  of 
the  land,  while  the  smooth  ground  would  offer  a  fine  surface  for  the  small 
grass-seeds  to  spread  themselves  upon.  On  lighter  soils,  such  as  hazel 
loams  and  tui-nip  soils,  it  is  better  not  to  roll  until  the  land  has  been  sown 
and  harrowed,  because  the  smooth  I'olled  surface  assists  in  repelling  the 
drouth  for  a  considerable  time,  and  rain  can^not  injure  such  a  soil  in  any 
way. 

(1777.)  The  roller  is  represented  below,  where  it  is  particularly  described 
by  Mr.  Slight  in  its  principles  and  action.  It  is  most  conveniently  formed 
of  cast-iron,  and  in  two  pieces,  and  mounted  with  shafts  and  framing.  The 
cast-iron  gives  weight,  which  a  roller  should  always  have,  and  being  in  two 
pieces,  gives  a  facility  to  turn  on  little  space.     In  driving  it,  the  plowman 

(231) 


136  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

may  sit  on  the  front  of  the  framing,  if  he  wishes,  and  urge  the  horses  with 
whip  and  reins.  The  framinij^  sometimes  supports  a  box,  into  which  stones 
are  placed  to  render  the  roller  heavier,  and  this  device  may  be  necessary 
when  reducing  hard  clods  of  clay,  in  summer.  Whether  used  fortius  pur- 
pose or  not,  tiie  box  is  useful  in  carrying  any  stones  that  may  be  found  on 
the  land  to  either  side  of  the  field.  It  has  often  seemed  to  me  ridiculous 
to  see  a  small  stone-roller,  or  one  lightly  constructed  of  wood,  used  to  cmsh 
clods  on  new  plowed  heavy  land.  Instead  of  breaking  them,  a  light  roller 
only  presses  them  into  the  softer  soil  upon  which  they  are  lying.  The  roll- 
er is  found  to  do  its  work  in  the  best  manner  when  drawn  across  the 
ridges,  at  risjht  angles  to  the  open  furrows,  which  are  thus  easily  passed  over. 

(1778.)  The  finishing  process  consists  of  water-fur  rowing,  that  is,  making 
a  plow-furrow  in  the  open  fuiTows,  for  the  purpose  of  affording  facilities 
to  rain-water  to  flow  oft'  the  surface  of  the  land.  It  is  executed  with  a 
common  plow  and  one  horse,  or  with  a  small  double  mould-board  plow 
and  one  horse  ;  and  in  the  execution,  the  plow  obliterates  the  horse's  foot- 
marks. When  the  land  is  harrowed  after  the  rolling,  as  in  the  case  of  heavy 
land,  the  water-furrowing  is  done  after  the  harrowing,  and  finishes  the 
work  of  the  field;  but  when  rolling  is  the  finishing  operation,  as  in  the 
case  of  light  soils,  the  water-fuiTOwing  is  executed  immediately  after  the 
han'owing  and  before  the  rolling.  Water-furrowing  after  rolling  gives  a 
very  harsh-looking  finish  to  a  field. 

(1779.)  The  presser-roller,  used  to  give  consistency  to  light  soils,  is  seen 
below,  where  Mr.  Slight's  description  of  it  will  be  found.  Like  the  best  of 
our  agricultural  implements,  it  is  of  English  origin,  where  it  has  long  been 
employed  to  compress  light  soils.  It  is  used  in  this  manner  in  compressing 
the  soil.  Driven  by  one  horse,  it  follows  the  last  of  2  plows,  after  they  have 
laid  over  their  fun-ow-slices ;  and  on  passing  along  these  furrow-slices, 
not  only  compresses  them  into  less  bulk,  but  leaves  a  groove  on  each  of  them 
to  receive  the  seed  when  the  land  is  sown.  With  1  presser,  2  acres  of  ground 
can  only  thus  be  compressed  in  the  course  of  a  day;  and,  where  a  consid- 
erable extent  of  spring  wheat  may  be  sown,  this  rate  of  sowing  would  be 
too  slow.  Either  the  number  of  pressers  should  be  increased,  or  a  consider- 
able extent  of  land  be  pressed  before  it  is  sown;  for  it  would  be  tiresome 
work  to  sow  only  2  acres  a  day  of  a  large  field,  which  might  rccjuire  a  fort- 
night of  2  plows  to  plow.  Perhaps  the  most  convenient  plan  for  most  farm- 
ers would  be  to  have  2  pressers  in  operation,  and  sow  the  ground  compressed 
every  two  days,  that  is,  8  acres,  which  would  be  a  large  enough  sowing  of 
spring-wheat  in  one  day  upon  a  farm  that  worked  4  pair  of  horses;  and 
this  j)lan  may  be  followed,  with  perfect  safety  to  the  wheat  croj),  for  a 
double  tine  along  of  the  harrows  is  quite  sufficient  to  cover  pressed  spring 
wheat ;  and,  indeed,  it  should  receive  no  more,  imless  perhaps  a  single 
tine  along,  in  case  the  surface  is  considered  not  sufficiently  fine,  for  cross- 
harrowing  would  discompose  the  seed  that  had  fallen  in  rows  into  the 
grooves  made  by  the  pressers.  Another  plan  is  to  plow  and  press  the  lea 
early  in  winter,  allow  it  to  consolidate  still  more,  and  then  sow  an  entire 
field  with  wheat  in  sjiring,  if  the  weather  be  favorable,  and  if  not,  it  will 
be  ready  for  oats.  This,  I  conceive,  would  be  an  excellent  plan  to  follow 
on  light  soils,  that  are  in  a  rich  enough  state  for  spring  wheat. 

(1780.)  This  same  instrument  may  be  beneficially  employed  in  com- 
pressing light  turnip-land  as  it  is  plowed  into  ridges,  and  rendering  it 
more  fit  for  spring  wheat ;  and  in  effecting  this  pur])ose  it  is  employed  in 
the  same  manner  as  on  lea. 

(1781.)  But  the  presser  may  be  employed  on  even  strong  lea,  and  the 
crop  of  wheat  consequent  thereon  increased  to  a  sensible  degree,  as  the 

(232) 


SOWING  SPRING  WHEAT  AND  GRASS-SEEDS.  137 

following  case  will  testify  :  "  A  very  striking  instance  of  the  utility  of  this 
machine,"  says  Mr.  Hugh  Watson,  a  gentleman  whose  name  is  well  known  in 
this  country  as  an  eminent  farmer,  "  was  exhibited  on  a  field  belonging  to 
my  friend  Captain  Barclay  AUardyce  of  Ury,  who  last  season  (1832)  broke 
uj)  a  piece  of  grass  land  near  his  mansion-house,  supposed  to  have  lain  out 
a'.iout  one  hundred  years.  It  was  a  strong  soil,  and  required  4  horses  to 
Avork  the  plow,  and  it  was  followed  by  the  presser,  leaving  the  work  in 
such  a  finished  state  that,  although  Captain  Barclay's  intention  was  to  sow 
the  field  with  oats  after  the  preparation  of  a  winter's  exposure,  he  was 
induced  to  try  a  crop  of  wheat,  and  succeeded  beyond  his  expectation,  hav- 
ing reaped  50  bushels  per  imperial  acre,  while  the  probability  is  that  if  the 
field  had  been  sown  in  spring  with  oats  they  would  all  have  rotted."  "  I 
have  used  the  presser,"  continues  Mr.  Watson,  "for  two  seasons,  and  can 
with  confidence  recommend  it  on  all  light  soils  with  every  sort  of  corn 
cropT  *  It  would  thus  appear  that  the  use  of  the  presser  is  almost  of  gen- 
eral application,  and  that  the  ground  may  be  plowed  a  considerable  time 
before  it  is  sown,  which  renders  it  of  use  even  on  a  winter  furrow.  Sev- 
eral farmers  in  Forfar  and  Fife  shires,  I  am  aware,  have  used  this  instru- 
ment for  several  years,  but  I  have  not  learned  with  what  success. 

(1782.)  With  regard  to  the  vai'ieties  of  wheat  which  you  should  sow  in 
spring  in  preference  to  others,  is  a  subject  in  which  I  feel  I  cannot  advise 
with  confidence.  The  erroneous  classification  of  wheat  by  botanists,  in  as 
far  as  it  affects  Agriculture,  into  beardless  or  winter  and  bearded  or  spring 
wheat,  is  apt  to  mislead  the  farmer ;  and  were  he  so  far  to  rely  on  the 
opinions  of  botanists  as  to  try  these  two  distinctions  of  wheat  in  the  season 
said  to  be  suitable  to  each,  he  would  certainly  be  disappointed,  for  the 
results  would  probably  be  the  very  opposite  aiiticipated.  For  this  reason 
I  quite  agree  with  Mr.  Lawson  in  what  he  has  said  on  the  subject.  "  Bot- 
anists," he  states,  "  generally  divide  the  common  beardless  and  bearded 
wheats  into  two  distinct  species,  terming  the  former  Triticum  hyhermim, 
or  winter  wheat,  and  the  latter  Triticum  oestivum,  or  summer  wheat.  But 
the  propriety  of  the  distinction  may  well  be  questioned,  more  particularly 
as  the  chief  distinguishing  character  between  them  consists  in  the  varieties 
of  the  former  being  beardless,  or  nearly  so,  while  the  awns  of  the  latter 
are  generally  2,  3  or  more  inches  in  length ;  and  it  being  an  established 
fact  that  the  awns  or  beards  in  grasses  form  by  no  means  a  permanent 
specific  distinction,  and  that  in  many  cases  they  do  not  even  constitute  a 
variety,  so  much  does  their  presence  or  absence  depend  upon  the  effects  of 

climate,  culture,  soil,  &c But  the  principal  objection  to  the  names 

commonly  used  is  that  they  make  no  proper  distinction  between  the  two 
great  classes — winter  and  spring  wheats ;  for  instance,  under  Triticum  hy- 
hernum  are  included  several  of  the  earlier,  and,  without  doubt,  the  best 
sorts  of  spring  wheat ;  and  under  Triticnvi  oBstivum  are  included  sev- 
eral bearded  wheats,  equally  hardy,  and  requiring  as  long  time  to  arrive 
at  matui'ity  as  our  common  winter  sorts."  t  Colonel  Le  Couteur  falls 
into  the  same  error  when  treating  of  the  classification  of  wheat,  by  divi- 
ding all  wheats  into  the  two  distinctions  of  "beardless  or  winter  wheats," 
and  "bearded,  or  spring  wheats." J 

(1783.)  Although  the  subject  is  thus  rendered  by  botanists  and  writers 
on  the  cultivated  varieties  of  wheat  sufficiently  puzzling  to  the  farmer,  yet 
there  are  a  few  considerations  which  may  direct  you  in  the  choice  oT  your 
spring  wheat.  I  may  premise  that  you  cannot  make  a  mistake  in  regard 
to  a  winter  wheat ;  for  however  early  may  be  the  habit  of  the  variety 

*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Aericulture,  vol.  iv. 

t  Lawson's  Agriculturist's  Manual.  t  Le  Couteur  on  Wheat 

(233j 


138  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

sown,  the  very  circumstance  of  liaving  sown  it  in  autumn,  when  there 
is  not  sufficient  time  to  mature  the  plant  before  winter  will  convert  it 
for  a  time  into  a  winter  variety.  The  wheat  j)lant  is  a  true  annual,  but 
when  sown  late,  and  the  progress  of  its  growth  retarded  by  depression 
of  temperature,  it  is  converted  for  a  time  into  a  biennial.  It  is  therefore 
highly  prcibable  that  as  the  nature  of  all  wheats  is  to  bring  their  seed  to 
maturity  in  the  course  of  one  season,  that  any  variety  sown  in  spring 
would  mature  its  seed  in  the  course  of  the  ensuing  summer  and  autumn. 
I  suj)po.se  there  is  no  doubt  of  this  being  a  fact ;  nevertheless,  circum- 
stances concur  to  render  the  fact  of  doubtful  applicaticm  in  this  climate.  A 
variety  of  wheat,  for  instance,  that  has  long  been  cultivated  in  winter  in 
the  same  latitude,  on  being  sown  in  spring  will  not  mature  its  seed  that 
season  in  the  same  latitude,  should  the  temperature  fall  below  its  usual 
average,  or  should  it  be  cultivated  on  very  inferior  soil  to  what  it  has 
been  accustomed ;  so  that  in  practice  it  is  not  safe,  in  a  precarious  climate, 
to  sow  ever}/  variety  of  wheat  in  spring.  One  criterion,  however,  may  safely 
be  applied  to  any  variety  of  wheat  in  order  to  ascertain  its  character,  pro- 
vided its  history  is  known,  which  is,  that  a  wheat  brought  from  a  warmer 
to  a  colder  climate  will  prove  earlier  in  the  latter  locality  than  the  native 
varieties,  and,  in  so  far,  is  better  suited  for  sowing  in  spring  in  that  latitude 
than  the  native  varieties,  and  if  you  can  ascertain,  besides,  that  the  same 
variety  is  an  early  one  in  the  warmer  latitude — bringing  its  seed  to  matu- 
rity in  a  short  period,  perhaps  not  exceeding  4  months — then  you  may 
safely  sow  it  as  a  spring  wheat,  whether  it  be  a  red  or  white  colored 
variety. 

(17S4.)  In  my  own  experience  of  spring  wheat  the  old  Lammas  red,  and 
another  old  variety  which  I  have  not  heard  of  for  many  years,  the  Cobham 
red,  were  at  one  time  considered  excellent  varieties  of  spring  wheat.  Of 
the  Lammas  red,  I  have  seen  a  field  of  35  imperial  acres  sown  on  the  8th 
March,  and  cut  down,  an  excellent  crop,  on  2Gth  August.  This  was,  how- 
ever, in  the  memorable  year  for  all  kinds  of  good  crops,  1815.  The  variety, 
I  believe,  exists  to  the  present  day,  and  is  still  a  favorite  with  may  farm- 
ers, and  in  my  opinion  deservedly  so. 

(ITe.'j )  [The  harrow,  considering  the  operation  it  lias  to  perform,  in  covering  the  seeds  that 
have  beun  cast  upon  the  surface  of  the  soil,  is  an  implement  of  no  small  importance  ;  and  yet  its 
effects  are  apparently  rude  and  uncertain,  while  its  construction  is  of  the  simidesi  order.  So  sim- 
ple, indeed,  is  this  construction,  that  at  a  very  remote  period  it  appears  to  have  taken  that  form 
which,  in  so  far  as  the  simple  principles  of  the  action  are  concerned,  is  almost  incapable  of  farther 
improvement.  Variations  in  size,  in  weight,  in  materials,  and  slight  changes  of  form,  have  from 
time  to  time  been  proposed  and  effected  ;  but  yet  no  important  change  has  been  made  in  the  ac- 
tion of  the  implomeni,  though  among  these  changes  a  more  uniform  distribution  of  its  effects  over 
the  surface  id  the  soil  has  been  attained.  The  only  important  improvement  on  the  harrow  of  which 
\\'e  have  any  historical  data,  was  achieved  about  fifty  years  ago  by.  I  believe,  the  late  Mr.  Low,  Gor- 
donbaiik,  Berwickshire,  fatherof  Professor  Low.  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh  ;  and  this  improve- 
ment lay  chielly  in  the/orw.  but  which  also  afforded  a  more  uniform  distribution  of  effect.  Pre- 
vious to  the  period  Just  alluded  to.  the  seed  harrow  was  always  constructed  in  the  form  of  a  rec- 
tangular frame  of  wood,  consisting,  as  it  still  does,  of  four  longitudinal  bars,  known,  in  the  language 
of  the  agricultural  mechanic,  by  the  term  hidh,  which  arc  framed  together  by  mortising,  with  four 
lighter  transverse  bars,  or  slota.  The  dimensions  of  the  rectangular  harrows  are.  on  an  average, 
3  feet  n  inches  in  breadth,  measuring  over  the  bulls,  and  3  feet  10  inches  in  length  over  the  slots. 
The  bulls  are  nencrally  about  4  feet  6  inches  of  extreme  length,  3  inches  in  breadth,  and  3  to  3| 
inches  in  depth;  the  slots  are  3  inches  in  breadth,  and  J  to  1  inch  in  depth.  Each  bull  is  armed 
with  .')  tines  or  teeth  of  malleable  iron,  about  10  inches  in  length.  They  are  fixed  in  the  bull  by 
being  driven  into  an  au),'er  hole  bored  through  it.  and  project  downward  from  6  to  7  inches. 

(1786.)  The  'mprorcd  form  given  to  the  harrow,  as  above  alluded  to.  clianges  the  rectangle  into 
a  rhomboiii.  and  this, when  duly  nrojiortioned.  ijives  to  the  implement  as  has  been  supposed,  as  high 
a  degree  of  perfection,  in  point  of  form,  as  it  appears  capable  of  attaining.  Fig.  323  represents  a  pair 
of  the  rhftmboiilal  harrows  in  the  working  position.  The  frame  of  these  harrows  consists  of  the 
same  number  of  parts  as  the  common  sort  already  alluded  to.  Four  bulls  a  a  a  a,  and  four  slots  b 
b  h  b,  the  breadth  of  the  frame  over  the  bulls,  at  rV'ht  angles  to  them,  is  3  feet  6  inches  ;  and  in  the 
same  manner,  over  the  slots  the  len^'th  is  the  same,  but  the  bulls  extend  at  each  end  4  inches  be- 
yond the  slots,  making  their  entire  Icncth.  including  the  obliquity,  about  4  feet  6  inches.  The 
"dimensions  of  the  parts  vary  a  lilile.  according  to  the  quality  of  the  material  employed,  from  2^  to 
3  inches  in  breadth  by  3  to  3J  inches  in  depth,  for  the  bull.  The  slotB  are  from  2J  to  3  inches  in 
(234) 


SOWING  SPRING  WHEAT  AND   GRASS-SEEDS. 


139 


breadth,  and  from  §  to  1  inch  in  depth,  the  bulls  being  mortifei,  and,  when  the  slots  have 
been  inserted,  are  fixed  with  wooden  pegs  driven  through  the  bulls.  In  each  harrow  an  iron 
bar  c  c,  having  a  number  of  holes  punched  in  it,  is  likewise  fixed  into  mortises  in  the  two  outer 
bulls  on  the  left  side,  for  the  attachment  of  the  yoke.  Each  bull  is  divided  into  four  equal  parts, 
the  extreme  division  being  about  1  inch  clear  of  the  mortise  of  the  slot,  and  at  each  division  the 


-t30^O 


bulls  are  bored  with  an  auger  for  the  reception  of  the  tines,  and  in  thus  boring,  a  slight  inclination 
forward  below  is  given  to  the  tines,  though  this,  it  must  be  admitted,  is  not  of  verj-  great  import- 
ance. The  length  of  the  tine  is  about  10  inches,  of  which  6  or  7  inches  project  below  the  bulls; 
and  it  has  been  recommended  that  the  front  row  should  be  7  inches,  the  succeeding  rows  dimin- 
ishing gradually  to  6  inches,  to  compensate  for  the  effect  of  draught  of  the  horses  tending  to  ele- 
vate the  fore-parts  of  the  harrows.  This  tendency  to  rise  in  front  is  not  so  great  as  has  been  sup- 
posed, for  the  weight  of  the  swingti-ees  and  whole  yoke  will  nearly  compensate  for  the  effect  of 
the  angle  of  draught.  In  all  cases  of  this  kind,  the  yoke,  consisting  of  chains,  hooks  and  swing- 
trees,  of  which  the  latter,  in  the  harrows-yoke,  forms  a  portion  of  considerable  weight,  the  sjstem 
resolves  itself  into  a  catenarian  curve,  more  or  less  perfect,  of  which  the  point  c,  where  the  yoke 
is  attached  to  the  harrow,  will  approximate  to  the  apex  of  the  curve,  and  consequently  to  a  hori- 
zontal line,  thereby  neutralizing  the  tendency  to  rise  in  the  front  of  the  harrows. 

(1787.)  There  ia  one  point  in  the  improvement  of  this  harrow  that  appears  to  me  of  even  more 
importance  than  the  rhomboidal  shape  ;  it  is  the  joints  or  hinges  d  d.  In  the  one  harrow,  fig.  323,  the 
tail  of  the  double  joints  of  the  hinge  is  prolonged  into  a  bolt  d  e,  de.  passing  through  all  the  ^i"^' 
and  secured  with  screw-nuts  at  e  e.  The  single  joints  are  in  like  manner  prolonged  into  the  bolts 
fp.fg,  thus  serving  to  add  greatly  to  the  strength  as  well  as  to  the  efficiency  of  the  harrows.  The 
loose  joints  d  f,  df  have  been  found  to  answer  their  purposes  mMch  better  than  the  well-htted 
joints  originally  given  to  them,  by  their  allowing  of  a  sreat  freedom  of  action,  and  the  double  jomts 
d  d  are  therefore  now  usually  made  as  in  the  figure,  the  span  of  the  bow  d  being  about  6  meshes, 
with  a  small  eye  at  each  end  to  fit  the  joint-bolt.  The  eye  of  the  single  joint/  is  about  1^  or  -  in- 
ches diameter,  having  thus  sreat  freedom  to  play  upon  the  joint-bolt.  . 

(1788.)  From  the  figure  of  the  rhomboidal  barrow,  when  duly  constructed,  it  can  only  pertorm 
its  maximum  of  effect  when  drawn  forward  with  its  slots  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  ot  its  mo- 
(235) 


140 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


tion,  and  this  is  effected  by  the  master  swing-tree  h.  Tliis  tree,  for  harrows  of  the  dimensions  here 
described,  requires  to  be  4  feet  6  inches  in  length  between  the  points  of  attachment,  and  it  is  con- 
nected to  the  liarrows  by  means  of  the  S  hooks  and  shackles  at  c  c.  Tlie  balance  of  draught  of 
the  liarrows  is  adjusted  by  shifting  the  shackles  into  tlie  ditFercnt  holes  of  the  bars  c  c.  until  the 
harrows  are  found  to  lie  at  right  angles  to  the  draught  wlien  in  motion ;  and  this,  be  it  obseni-ed.  is 
not  attained  by  having  an  equal  number  of  tines  on  each  side  of  the  center  of  the  swing-tree  /;,  for 
there  is  found  to  be  a  greater  resistance  to  the  forward  motion  of  the  implement  on  the  left  than 
there  is  upon  the  right  side,  arising,  it  is  supposed,  from  the  tines  presenting  a  broader  surface  to 
resistance  on  tliat  side  than  on  tlie  other.  The  other  parts  of  the  yoke  i,k,  I,  are  the  common  plow 
swing-trees. 

(1789.)  The  objects  to  be  attained  on  the  construction  of  the  rhomboidal  harrow  are  chiefly  uni- 
formity and  equal  di.stribution  of  effect  from  the  tines,  and  to  cover  the  greatest  breadth  of  surface, 
with  such  cffect.«.  In  these  respects,  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  rhomboidal  affords  advantages 
over  tlie  rectangular  form,  but  such  advantages  seem  to  fall  only  within  certain  limits;  for  the  rec- 
tangular harrow,  if  due  attention  is  jiaid  to  its  construction  and  position  of  yoking,  and  if  mounted 
with  the  hinge-joints,  will  perform  all  the  functions  ascribed  to  the  rhomboidal  harrow  witli  equal 
effect.  Though  the  rectangular  form  presents  no  advantage  in  point  of  expense,  there  v\ould  be 
this  advantage  in  construction,  that,  by  keeping  simply  to  one  dimension  of  breadth  no  mistake 
could  occur  with  the  maker  to  mar  the  attainment  of  the  objects  in  view ;  whereas  we  find  rhom- 
boidal liarrows  made  at  all  angles  of  obliquity,  though  the  length  and  breadth  may  be  the  same  in 
all ;  and  such  being  the  case,  many  of  them  must  be  defective  in  some,  if  not  in  all  the  points 
eoutrhl  for.  To  exhibit  this  more  clearly,  and  to  render  the  basis  of  construction  of  this  simple  im- 
plement practically  intelligible,  let  us  suppose  that  a  pair  of  harrow  s  carrying  forty  tinea  are  to 
be  so  constructed  "as  to  cover  9  feet  in  breadth,  we  shall  have  39  spaces  between  the  extreme 
tines,  wtiich  are  to  form  equal  intervals.  Draw  a  base-line  a'  If,  fig.  323.  and  having  set  from  a 
scale,  or  at  full  size,  a  distance  a'  L'  equal  to  9  feet ;  divide  this  into  39  equal  parts  and.  from  the 
points  of  division  draw  the  dotted  lines  at  right  angles  to  a'  b',  the  distance  between  the  divisions 
will  be  2  76  inches,  or  say  2|  iuche.«,  which  represents  the  distance  at  which  the  tines  will  pass 
throui-'h  the  ground.  Having  determined,  also,  the  distance  between  the  tines  as  tliey  stand  in  the 
bulls  to  be  9 J  inches:  set  off,  on  the  first  dotted  line  1.  any  distance  a'  m,  which  last  point  m  will 
be  the  place  of  the  first  tine.  With  a  length  of  38  inches,  or  4  tine  spaces  as  belbre  fixed,  setoff 
from  the  point  m  a  distance  vt  n,  cutting  the  fifth  dotted  line  in  n.  which  last  point  will  be  the 
place  of  the  .5th  tine,  or  the  foremost  in  the  first  ball.  If  a  line  is  then  drawn  through  the  points 
m  n,  it  will  cut  the  divisions  2,  3,  4,  in  the  points  o  a  p,  indicating  the  three  intermediate  tines  of 
the  first  bull,  and  the  line  ni  n  is  the  true  position  of  the  central  line  of  the  bull,  forming  an  angle 
of  73^  nearly  with  the  base-line.  A  line  drawn  through  m  to  q,  and  parallel  to  a'  b',  will  deter- 
mine the  position  of  the  first  tine  on  each  succeeding  bull,  where  tlie  line  intersects  the  6th,  11th, 
IGth.  21st.  <!cc.,  of  the  dotted  lines  of  division,  and  lines  drawn  through  those  last  points  of  inter- 
section parallel  to  the  first  line  m  n,  will  determine  the  central  line  of  all  the  bulls  in  the  pair  of 
harrows.  It  is  then  only  necessary  to  extend  the  length  of  the  bull  requisite  to  contain  the  mortise 
for  the  slot,  with  a  sufficientexteut  beyond  to  rirevent  tlie  bursting  of  the  wood  ;  this,  as  already  sta- 
ted, may  be  about  4  inches,  o<r  the  bulls  will  be  about  4J  feet  in  length. 

(1790.)  Were  it  desired  to  have  the  tines  so  placed  as  to  follow  in  the  ground  at  equal  dis- 
tances of  2J  inches  in.«tead  of  2J  inches,  in  this  case  the  distance  between  the  extreme  tines 
would  be  39  limes  2J  inches,  or  8  feet  IJ  inches.  The  line  a'  V  ,  fig.  323,  would  now  be  made  3 
feet  \\  inches,  and  being  divided  into  39  equal  parts,  and  the  lines  of  division  drawn  as  before,  a 
repetition  of  the  process  described  in  (1789/  will  give  the  true  form  of  the  rhomb  for  tliis  particu- 
lar breadth,  and  so  of  any  others  ;  and  it  should  be  particularly  observed  tliat  in  any  ca.se  where 
the  rhomb  has  been  correctly  laid  down,  the  harrows  should  progress  with  the  front  row  of  tines 
at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  direction  in  which  they  are  drawn  forward.  Attention  to  this  will 
insure  the  best  possible  effects  from  the  harrow,  and  at  the  same  time  cover  the  greatest  breadth 
of  surface  that  it  is  capable  of  harrowing,  to  the  best  advantage. 

(1791.)  I  have  said  that  the  common  rectangular  harrow  is  capable  of  producing  equal  effects 
with  those  of  the  rhomboidal ;  and  though  thi,*  cannot  be  said  of  all  common  harrows,  the  con- 
struction of  such  as  will  do  this  is  not  more  difficult,  while  it  is.  perhaps,  a  little  Ies.s  expensive. 
The  chief  difference  lies  in  the  mode  of  applying  this  harrow,  for,  when  duly  constructed,  it  is 
only  necessary,  in  order  to  produce  equal  intervals  of  the  tines,  to  yoke  the  harrows  in  such  posi- 
tion as  will  make  the  bulls  lie  upon  the  ridge  with  the  same  degree  of  obliquity  that  those  of  the 
rhomboidal  shape  occupy  when  they  are  dravm  in  the  position  due  to  the  angle  of  their  respective 
rhomb.  It  is  neces.sarj-,  however,  in  order  to  secure  the  due  performance  of  the  rectangular  har- 
row, to  pay  attention  to  its  construction  as  regards  the  distance  between  the  bulls,  and  the  rule  is 
nmpiy  this:  Whatever  breadth  the  pair  of  harrows  are  intended  to  cover,  divide  the  whole 
breadth  into  a  number  of  divisions,  one  less  than  the  whole  number  of  tinea  in  the  pair,  and  the 
distance  from  center  to  center  of  the  bulls  must  be  made  equal  to  as  many  of  these  divisions  as 
there  are  tines  in  each  bull.  Thus,  taking  the  first  case  of  the  rhomboidal  harrow  (1789)  we  have  5 
times  2  J  inches  nearly,  or  133  inches  for  the  distance  between  the  centers  of  the  bulls,  or  3  feet  8  in- 
ches in  breadth  overall.  To  complete  the  arrangement,  the  harrows  must  he  jointed  as  in  the  rhom- 
boidal form,  and  mounted  with  iron  draught-bars,  as  at  c  c,  fig.  323,  so  that  the  point  of  draueht 
can  be  adjusted  to  bring  the  harrows  to  their  proper  position ;  and  here  it  may  be  remarked  that 
thev  should  never  be  drawn  by  the  extreme  angle  :  but  if  not  hinsre-jointed,  the  angle  with  the 
second  bull,  and  the  fore  *lot,  will  be  tolerably  near  to  the  true  point  of  draught.  A  common  and 
a  very  u.Beful  practice  has  long  exi-sted.  of  coupling  two  harrows  together  by  a  bar  of  wood  or 
iron,  called  a  rider.  This  bar  falls  looselv  at  each  end  upon  a  stud  projecting  upward  from  the 
second  bull  of  each  harrow,  and  the  bar  being  adjusted  to  that  length  which  keeps  the  two  har- 
rows at  their  proper  distance,  serves  to  prevent  them  from  riding  over  one  another,  and  to  make 
them  cover  their  full  extent  of  surface.  The  introduction  of  the  rider  was  an  evident  approach 
to  the  more  perfect  modem  improvement  of  the  hmge-joinu. 
(236) 


SOWING  SPRING  WHEAT  AND   GRASS-SEEDS. 


141 


(1792.)  The  extensive  application  of  iron  has  of  late  years  brought  the  use  of  that  material  to  the 
formation  of  the  harrow  as  well  as  of  the  plow,  and  iron  harrows  are  now  coming  very  generally 
into  use,  both  in  the  rectangular  and  the  rhomboidal  form.  Fig.  324  represents  the  malleable-iron 
rhomboidal  harrow,  as  commonly  constructed,  and  its  dimensions  are  the  same  as  already  given 
for  those  of  wood.  The  arrangClnent  of  the  parts  are  somewhat  different,  and,  from  the  nature  of 
the  materials,  the  dimensions  of  the  parts  differ  also  more  materially.  Thus,  the  bulls  a  a  a  a  are 
\  inch  in  breadth  and  1  inch  in  depth,  swelled  out  where  the  mortises  for  the  slots  are  formed,  and 
also  for  the  tines,  their  ends  projecting  only  2  inches  beyond  the  slot.     The  slots  h  b  h  are  2  inches 


Fig.  324. 


THE  IRON  RHOMBOIDAL  HARROWS,  WITH  THEIR  YOKE  OF  SWING-TREES. 

in  breadth,  f  inch  in  depth,  and  there  being  only  three  of  them,  the  middle  one  is  so  placed  as  to 
be  free  of  the  middle  row  of  tines  ;  while  the  end  slots  are  elongated  toward  the  meeting  sides  of 
the  pair,  and  are  there  formed  into  the  hinge-joints  i.  d,  as  formerly  described  for  the  wooden  har- 
rows. The  draught-bars  c  c  are  inserted  in  the  projecting  ends  of  the  first  and  second  bulls,  and 
retained  in  round  pivot-holes  ;  the  swing-trees  h  ik  I  are  the  same  as  described  for  the  wooden 
harrows.  The  construction  of  the  iron  harrow  is  so  similar  to  the  others  that  it  is  unnecessary  to 
enter  into  farther  details  regarding  it;  but  it  may  be  remarked  that,  from  the  almost  imperishable 
nature  of  the  materials,  as  compared  with  wood,  there  seems  every  reason  to  expect  the  iron  im- 
plement will  entirely  supersede  the  wooden  ;  and  though  the  price  of  the  iron  harrows  is  consid- 
erably above  that  of  wood,  the  additional  first  cost  is  more  than  repaid  by  the  greater  durability 
of  the  iron.  There  is  good  reason  al.so  to  believe  that  by  a  construction  more  adapted  than  the 
present  to  the  natm-eof  the  material,  the  price  may  yet  be  considerably  reduced. 

(1793.)  The/orw  of  the  tine/i  of  the  harrow,  as  regards  their  effects  in  stirring  the  soil  and  cov- 
ering the  seed,  is  deserving  of  inquiry.  In  the  wooden  implement,  we  are,  from  the  nature  of  the 
material,  confined  to  one  form  of  tine ;  that  which  has  for  its  horizontal  section  an  oblong  square  ; 
the  tines  in  these  cases  being  |  inch  broad  by  |  inch  thick,  must,  for  the  safety  of  the  wood,  have 
the  greatest  dimension  lying  in  the  direction  of  the  fibres  of  the  wood.  Another  and  a  better 
form,  for  the  purpose  of  stirring  the  soil,  is  that  which  has  its  cross-section  forming  an  exact  square 
of  I  inch  on  each  side,  and  inserted  in  the  bull  with  its  diagonal  pointing  in  the  direction  of  the 
progressive  motion.  This  form  and  position  of  the  tine,  however  well  adapted  to  the  soil,  cannot, 
with  propriety  or  safety  to  the  implement,  be  used  in  the  wooden  harrow,  from  the  powerful  ten- 
dency it  has  to  split  the  wood.  In  the  iron  implement  this  difficulty  does  not  exist;  and  as  this 
form  of  tine  is  in  every  respect  best  adapted  to  the  intended  purpose,  it  should  never  be  omitted 
in  the  iron  harrow.  Whatever  be  the  cross-section  of  the  tine,  in  that  part  which  passes  through 
the  bull,  the  projecting  part  is  tapered  toward  the  point,  not  uniformly,  but  a  little  barreled,  and 
terminates  in  an  obtuse  point.  In  all  wooden  harrows  *he  tines  are  simply  driven  firmly  into  the 
(237, 


142  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

wood  after  it  has  been  bored.  In  inoHt  irua  harrows  they  are  fixed  in  the  oame  manner :  but  as 
the  tines  are  Hometinieo  liable  to  become  luo(<e,  when  simply  inw.-ried  and  driven  down  by  (he 
hammer,  they  are,  when  a  more  perfect  constnictiuu  is  followed,  fixed  by  being  driven  Irom  be- 
low, and  secured  by  a  ncrew-nut  above. 

(1794.1  (J raxx-scfd  Harroirt.  or  those  that  are  employed  for  giving  a  light  covering  to  gra^s- 
seedswncn  sown,  differ  from  the  common  harrow  in  no  respect  except  in  dimensions  and  weight. 
They  have  generally  the  same  number  of  tines,  bulls  and  slots.  Tlie  breadth  over  all  is  about  3 
feet,  or  from  that  down  to  33  inches,  and  the  distance  between  the  tints  about  7  inches,  giving  a 
length  of  bull  3 J  feet,  and  the  tines  vary  from  5  to  C  inches  in  lengtli.  Harrows  of  lliis  descrip- 
tion are  freijuently  useil  by  English  farmers  to  give  the  last  turn  of  harrowing  in  grain,  and  a  fine 
finish  to  the  surface.  Grass-seed  harrows  are  made  of  iron  as  well  as  of  wood,  but  withal  it  is  liCt 
held  a.-*  an  ess>ential  implement,  Uie  common  harrows  being  more  frequently  used  for  the  purpose 
to  which  the  grass  seed  harrow  is  more  especially  and  almost  exclusively  adapted. 

(1795.)  Various  other  forms  of  harrows  are  adapted  for  special  purposes,  such  as  the  bufhhar- 
row,  which  is  a  frame  of  wood  interwoven  with  the  smaller  branches  or  croppings  of  trees,  and 
in  this  manner  employed  instead  of  the  grass-seed  harrow  described  above,  and  it  is  also  employed 
for  harrowing  in  top-dres-iing  upon  grass. 

(17yt;.|  The  Iron-irrb  Harrow  is  a  late  invention  by  the  ingenious  and  indefatigable  Mr.  Smith, 
late  of  Deanston,  for  the  same  purpose.  It  is  formed  of  an  assemblage  of  annular  disks  of  cast- 
iron,  of  the  size  and  shape  of  the  common  playing-quoit ;  and  these  are  interwoven  with  iron 
wire  tif  about  \  inch  diameter,  in  a  certain  regular  form,  until  the  whole  forms  a  flexible  web,  in 
which  the  disks  have  liberty  to  play  and  roll  about  within  small  limit.s.  The  web  may  be  2  yards 
in  length  by  1  in  breadth,  and  is  simply  dragged  over  the  ground,  when  it  is  said  to  give  the  t-ur- 
face  a  finish  superior  to  anything  hitherto  proposed  or  introduced. 

(ITltT.)  The  Brakeharroir  is  only  an  enlargement  of  the  common  implement,  wherein  every 
part  is  increased  in  size  and  weight  for  the  purpose  of  breaking  down  and  pulverizing  rough  and 
stubborn  laud.  Brakes  are  made  of  various  forms,  such  as  rectangular,  rhomboidal,  and  triangu- 
lar: anil  every  form  has  its  advocates,  the  preference  being  given  frequently  to  that  which  acci- 
dent had  thrown  in  the  way  of  the  experimenter;  and  without  taking  measures  to  compare  its 
etlects  with  those  of  other  forms,  the  implement  is  marked  as  the  most  perfect  of  its  kind.  There 
appears  no  good  reason  for  concluding  that  any  one  of  the  above  forms  is  better  than  another, 
provided  proper  weight  is  put  in  the  implement,  and  the  tines  of  proper  length  and  number,  and 
disposed  in  a  manner  that,  with  a  duly  applied  draught,  will  make  an  equal  distribution  of  its  jml- 
verizing  effects  over  the  surface  which  it  covers.  The  extended  application  of  draining,  and  the 
increasing  employment  of  the  grubber,  which  1  shall  shortly  have  to  notice,  appear  in  some  meas- 
ure to  be  superceding  the  brake-harrow. 

(1T9S.)  Tne  Broadcast  Soicing--machinc  has  now  come  mlo  jireUy  general  use,  especially  in 
tho.<e  districts  where  the  arable  system  is  under  tlie  best  management,  and  on  large  farms  is 
nearly  superseding  the  process  of  hand-sowing.  It  not  only  sows  all  Uie  white  grains,  wheat, 
barley,  oats,  when  sown  broadcast,  in  a  verj-  uniform  manner,  and  with  any  desired  allowance 
per  acre  ;  but  it  serves  in  a  superior  manner  for  grass-seeds,  in  point  of  distribution,  and,  in  the 
case  of  windy  weather,  is  greatly  superior  to  hand-sowing.  This  last  advantage  arises  chiefly 
from  the  low  position  of  llie  discharging  orifices,  as  compared  with  the  bight  of  the  hand  in  sow- 
ing ;  but  partly  also  from  the  more  direct  discharge  of  the  seed  from  the  machine  ;  its  velocity  of 
discharge,  likewise,  and  the  distance  it  has  to  fall,  being  always  uniform.  The  nice  gradation  of 
the  discharge  is  one  of  its  chief  qualifications,  for  it  may  be  adjusted  to  sow  any  required  quan- 
tity per  acre,  between  the  lowest  and  the  highest,  that  may  be  judged  expedient,  and  in  all  cases, 
from  the  uniformity  of  the  distribution,  a  considerable  saving  in  seed  may  be  eflectcd. 

(179U.)  I  have  on  previous  occasions  had  to  notice  the  rather  curious  facts  of  the  introdncticn 
of  certain  practices  from  England  into  the  Scottish  system  of  farming.  Such  practices  have 
remained  either  stationarj-  in  the  former  countn,-,  or  have  been  but  partially  extended,  whereas 
the  practices  thus  borrov%-ed  by  the  latter  have  been  improved  on  and  widely  extended.  The 
machini'  now  under  consideration  is  another  example  of  this  ;  for  though  it  appears  to  have  been 
originally  brought  into  Scotland  from  Yorkshire,  I  believe  it  is  even  now  but  sparingly  used  in 
England,  while  here  it  is  in  extensive  use  in  the  best  arable  districts,  and  still  rapidly  extending. 
In  the  course  of  some  inquiries  as  to  the  period  when  this  machine  was  first  adopted  in  Scotland,  I 
have  been  enabled,  through  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Scouler,  Haddington,  to  fix  the  time  of  its  introduc- 
tion to  the  year  1(117,  and  the  first  machine  so  made  appears  to  have  been  by  Mr.  Robert  Lowrie, 
EdinL'ton,  who  makes  the  following  statement:  "  The  first  broadcast  sowing-machine  that  came 
into  this  county  (nerwickshire)  was  ordered  by  myself  from  England  from  Mr.  Short  of  Cliiver- 
ton  by  Hackhill ;  it  was  a  smart  thing,  wheeled  by  a  man,  and  was  about  8  feet  long  ;  it  is  still  in 
the  possession  of  Mr.  Wilson  of  Edineton  Mains.  I  got  tliat  machine  in  1816.  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  I  made  one  from  it  for  Mr.  Wripht.  late  tenant  in  Prenderguest,  which  was  IT)  feet  long, 
and  was  drawn  by  one  horse.  So  far  as  I  know,  this  was  the  first  sowing-machine  made  in  Scot- 
land ;  and  after  it  had  sown  Mr.  \Vrii;ht's  crop  of  that  season,  I  exhibited  the  machine  at  the  Ag- 
ricultural Shows  of  Coldstream  and  Kelso,  and  received  premiums  for  it  at  both  places:  tliis  was 
in  1817 ;  and  in  the  following  year  I  made  one  of  the  same  dimensions  for  Mr.  Wilson's  father, 
the  late  Mr.  Abraham  Wil.sou."  From  Berwickshire  the  machine  made  its  way  immediately 
into  East-Lothian,  where  the  manufacture  of  it  was  taken  up  by  the  lale  Mr.  Adam  .Scouler  after 
the  machines  of  Mr.  Lowrie  above  referred  to.  and  has  been  successfully  carried  on  bv  his  suc- 
cessors, Mes,srs.  Scouler  and  C6ni|)any  of  Haddington.  The  machine  here  referred  to  "as  having 
been  brought  from  Chiverion.  is  the  same  as  are  yet  to  be  found  in  the  ncirthem  and  eastern  coun- 
ties, and  used  chiefly  for  .-iowing  grass  seeds  ;  its  application  to  tlic  sowing  of  grain  having  made 
little  progres.'*,  or  it  may  rather  be  considered  as  having  been  superseded  by  U>e  drill  system  of 
sowing,  so  much  practiced  in  these  counties  of  England. 

(1800.)  In  the  early  application  of  the  broadcast  machine,  it  was  mounted  on  two  wheels:  but  a 
few  years'  experience  pointed  out  the  advantages  of  a  third  wheel,  which  was  applied  to  it  by 
(238) 


SOWING  SPRING  WHEAT  AND   GRASS-SEEDS.  143 

Messrs.  Scouler  about  tlic  j-ear  1830,  the  third  wheel  being  applied  as  a  swivel  or  fore-carriage. 
The  carriage  is  still  subject  to  considerable  variety  of  construction,  but  these  varieties  are  not  of 
a  nature  to  alter  its  general  character.  A  carriage  of  a  nearly  triangular  form  is  very  generally 
adopted,  the  apex  being  in  front  over  the  swivel-bar.  A  rectangular  carriage  is  also  very  much 
employed,  and  this  is  the  most  workmanlike  construction,  though  perhaps  not  the  cheapest,  but 
it  is  withal  the  most  convenient  and  useful  form.  As  regards  the  general  construction,  an  import- 
ant improvement  has  been  introduced  within  the  last  six  years  ;  this  is  the  cutting  of  the  seed- 
chest  into  sections.  The  chest  is  usually  made  18  feet  long,  which  being  far  beyond  the  width  of 
any  field-gate,  produced  a  necessity  for  changing  the  position  of  the  chest  when  passing  through 
a  gateway.  It  was  therefore  the  practice  to  lift  the  chest  from  its  vi'orking  position  parallel  to  the 
a\le  of  the  machine,  and  deposit  it  parallel  to  the  horse-shafts  until  it  had  passed  through  the  gate. 
This  was  clearly  both  imperfect  and  inconvenient,  and  these  defects  gave  rise  to  the  cutting  into 
sections,  the  middle  part  being  9  feel,  and  the  extremes  each  4J  feet,  so  that  when  the  latter  are 
folded  up,  the  extreme  length  of  chest  is  9  feet. 

(1801.)  The  illustrations  of  this  machine  which  I  have  here  given  in  Plate  XXVI.  are  taken 
from  those  manufactured  by  James  Slight  and  Co.,  Edinburgh,  and  they  exhibit  the  machine  in 
its  most  complete  state,  embracing  the  chest  in  sections,  with  the  mode  of  supporting  the  same ; 
this  last  improvement  having,  it  is  believed,  been  first  introduced  by  the  above-named  house.  In 
Plate  XXVI.,  fig.  316,  is  a  view  in  perspective  of  the  entire  machine,  as  it  appears  when  in  work, 
and  fig.  317  a  section,  on  a  scale  of  J  inch  to  a  foot,  taking  the  chest  transversely  through  its 
center,  the  carriage  being  cut  in  the  same  line,  or  parallel  to  the  horse-shafts.  In  these  two  figures 
the  same  letters  mark  corresponding  parts.  The  carriage  is  marked  aba,  fig.  316,  and  is  a  frame 
of  hard  wood,  the  bars  of  which  are  from  4  to  5  inches  in  depth,  and  2|  inches  in  thickness;  the 
dimensions  of  the  frame  being  7  feet  in  breadth  over  all,  and  4  feet  in  length  over  the  rails,  of 
which  there  are  three,  as  seen  at  b  b.  The  hind  wheels  c  c  are  34  inches  in  hight,  generally 
formed  with  cast-iron  naves,  wooden  spokes  and  felloes;  or,  as  in  the  figure,  the  felloes  are  super- 
seded by  a  simple  hoop  of  malleable  iron  2J  inches  by  |  inch,  which,  for  light  carriages  of  this 
description  that  never  travel  on  hard  roads,  is  found  sufficiently  serviceable.  The  axle  of  these 
^vheels  is  1^  inches  diameter,  seen  at  d,  in  fig.  317,  and  is  in  two  lengths  supported  in  pillow- 
blocks  bolted  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  bars  aaa  of  the  frame,  and  meeting  in  the  middle  bearing. 
The  nigh-side  wheel  is  fixed  dead  upon  the  axle,  carrying  the  axle  round  with  it  to  give  motion 
to  the  pitch-chain  d  e  of  fig.  317,  and  w^hich  is  seen  also  at  a,  in  fig.  316,  where  it  is  seen  as  en- 
tering the  chest.  The  off-side  wheel  may  in  this  case  be  also  fixed  dead  upon  the  other  half  of  the 
axle,  or  it  may  run  loose.  But  the  axle  may  also  be  made  in  one  piece,  the  off-side  wheel  being 
left  loose,  which  is  necessary  for  the  convenience  of  turning  round,  this  wheel  being  disengaged 
from  turning  with  the  other.  The  front  wheel/,  fig.  317,  and  seen  also  partially  in  fig.  316,  is  24 
inches  diameter,  usually  of  cast-iron,  and  is  supported  on  the  cast-iron  sheers  g,  which  are  4  inches 
wide  between  the  arms,  and  terminates  upward  in  the  lower  half  of  the  swivel-plate  h,  and  this, 
again,  is  furnished  with  a  strong  pivot,  passing  upward  through  the  head  i  of  the  cast-iron  fore- 
beam  i  k.  The  head  of  the  fore-beam  is  formed  into  a  swivel-plate  corresponding  to  that  of  the 
sheers  g.  and  is  bolted  to  the  two  foremost  bars  b  b  oi  the  carriage.  Two  small  pillars  I  are  cast 
upon  projecting  ears  of  the  swivel-plate  of  the  sheers  g,  and  bolts  passing  through  these  pillars 
and  the  splinter-bar  m,  bind  these  parts  firmly  together,  producing  an  effective  swivel-carriage. 
The  horse  shafts  n  n,  broken  off  in  fig.  317,  are  attached  to  the  splinter-bar  m  by  means  of  a  long 
draft-bolt  passing  through  the  ends  of  the  shafts,  and  through  eyes  fixed  in  the  splinter-bar. 

(1802.)  The  seed-chest  o  o  is  18  feet  in  length,  formed  of  |-inch  deal.  The  breadth  of  the  bottom 
board  is  &\  inches,  projecting  on  one  side  2^  inches,  forming  an  apron,  on  which  the  seed  falls  from 
die  orifices.  The  sides  of  the  chest  are  10^  inches  in  depth,  and  the  cover  14  inches  in  breadth,  9 
inches  of  which  form  a  hinged  flap,  as  seen  in  the  figure.  The  chest  is  bound  together  upon  ends 
and  partitions  of  hard-wood  1  j  inches  thick;  when  in  sections  as  here  described,  each  section  has 
two  such  ends,  and  the  middle  section  has  two  partitions  in  the  middle,  set  at  2J  inches  apart. 
When  the  chest  is  in  one  length,  two  ends  and  the  two  middle  partitions  only  are  required.  The 
joints  or  hinges  of  the  sections  are  formed  of  the  iron  straps  p  p,  two  of  which  are  securely  riveted 
on  each  side  of  the  chest,  having  eyes  formed  at  the  apex  q  q,  and  through  these  eyes  a  small 
bolt,  q,  passes  from  side  to  side,  which  completes  the  hinge ;  and  by  withdrawing  the  bolt  the 
parts  of  the  chest  are  at  once  disengaged.  For  the  better  connection  of  the  segments,  however, 
when  the  machine  is  in  action,  the  contiguous  ends  are  held  in  contact  by  a  bolt  and  nut,  as  seen 
at  &  in  fig.  318,  which,  together  with  fig.  319,  are  on  a  scale  of  1  inch  to  a  foot.  The  two  extreme 
segments,  also,  are  supported  by  the  light  tension  chain  i"  i'  i'  i",  which  passes  over  the  two  upright 
iron  stanchions,  k  k'  the  tops  of  which,  i'  t'  form  the  suspending  fulcra  for  the  chain,  while  its 
extremities  are  secured  at  the  po'nts  if  i"  with  adjusting  nuts. 

(1803.)  The  sowing-geer  of  the  machine  consists  of  the  following  parts:  The  main  axle  of  the 
carriage  is  mounted  with  a  pitch  chain-wheel  4  inches  diameter,  placed  upon  the  axle  close  to  the 
middle  bar  a  of  fig.  316,  and  seen  in  full  at  d  e,  fig.  317  ;  a  corresponding  wheel  r  is  placed  upon  a 
short  axle  within  the  seed-chest,  and  between  the  two  middle  partitions  of  the  chest.  In  this  way 
motion  is  communicated  from  the  carriage-wheels  c,  and  their  axle,  to  the  axle  of  the  small  wheel 
r,  fig.  317.  A  light  shaft,  |  inch  square,  is  coupled  to  the  ends  of  the  axle  of  the  wheel  r,  extend- 
ing to  each  end  of  the  chest;  when  the  chest  is  entire,  each  of  these  shafts  is  al.so  entire;  but 
in  the  present  case  each  shaft  is  in  two  pieces,  coupled  at  the  junction  of  the  segments  of  the 
che-ft  by  means  of  small  clutch  couplings  attached  to  the  ends  of  the  shaft,  and  these  engage  or  dis- 
engage of  themselves  when  the  segments  of  the  chest  are  let  down  or  folded  up.  These  last- 
mentioned  shafts  are  supported  in  bearings  of  hard-wood  laid  in  the  bottom  of  the  chest,  at  dis- 
tances of  from  2  to  2 J  feet,  and  the  journals,  which  are  1|  inches  long,  covered  with  straps  of 
Btoiil  hoop-iron.  The  shafts  are  armed  with  the  seed-wheels  of  the  form  as  .shown  at  r  in  fig.  318, 
which  are  placed  upon  it  at  distances  of  6^  inches,  32  wheels  being  required  for  an  18-feet  chest. 
The  seed-wheels  have  suffered  a  variety  of  changes  :  originally  circular  brushes  were  employed  , 
then  came  wooden  naves,  of  about  3  inches  in  length  and  21  inches  in  diameter;  and  into  these 
(239) 


144  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

were  inserted  leaves  or  teeth  of  hoop-iron,  about  1  inch  broad  and  1  inch  long,  and  this  form  of 
wheel  is  still  much  employed.  In  the  progressive  stapes  of  the  machine  it  was  famished  with 
one  set  of  these  smalK  shafts,  carrying  brushes,  and  another  set  carrj-ing  wheels,  as  above  de- 
scribed :  the  former  being  then  thought  necessary  for  sowing  grass-seeds,  and  the  latter  were  cm- 
ployed  for  grains:  observation  shortly  pointed  out  that  the  toothed  wheels  were  equally  well 
adapted  for  either  grass-eeeds  or  grain,  and  the  brushes  have  consequent!}'  been  laid  aside*  The 
wheels  represented  by  r,  fig.  318,  are  of  cast-iron,  of  very  light  fabric ;  they  are  ten-toothed,  and 
are  4i  inches  in  diameter,  measnrinu  to  the  extreme  points  in  the  cross-section  :  the  points  of  the 
teeth  are  slightly  rounded,  to  adapt  them  to  the  concave  groove  or  cup  that  is  formed  in  the  back 
of  the  chest  around  each  discharging  orifice  :  the  wheels  are  cast  with  a  square  eye,  and  fixed 
opon  the  shaft  by  barbing  the  angles  of  the  shaft  round  the  eye  of  the  wheel. 

(1P04.)  Corresponding  to  each  seed-wheel,  a  discharging  orifice  »  is  formed  in  the  back  of  the 
chest ;  these  are  I  inch  diameter,  and  their  center  is  1 J  inches  above  the  apron  board /"tr.  On  the 
inside  of  the  back-board  oval  excavations  are  made  in  the  wood  around  the  orifices,  leaving 
the  bottom  of  the  cnps  or  edges  of  the  orifice  not  exceeding  1-16  inch  lliick :  and  in  this  oval  cup 
the  seed-wheel  sinks  until  the  points  of  the  teeth  arc  only  I  inch  clear  of  the  bottom  of  the  cup 
or  the  edges  of  the  orifice  a«  seen  at  .«.  The  position  of  the  seed-wheels  in  relation  to  die  bot- 
tom/ "  of  the  chest  is  such  as  to  make  the  teeth  turn  at  about  i  inch  clear  of  the  bottom.  The 
seea  orifices  are  defended  by  the  iron  plates  d',  fig.  319,  of  a  triangular  form,  the  apices  d'  are 
driven  into  the  apron,  which  secures  lliat  point  of  the  plates,  and  tlie  other  two  points  are  fixed  by 
nailing.  The  fixing  of  the  plates  requires  some  attention,  in  order  that  the  orifices  may  exactly 
coincide  with  those  of  the  slide  1 1;  without  perfect  coincidence  in  these  two  parts  the  sowing 
will  be  unequal. 

(1805.)  The  slide  is  a  bar  of  hoop-iron  2  inches  in  breadth,  and  about  1-12  inch  in  thickness  ;  it 
is  perforated  at  the  regular  distance  by  means  of  a  punching  instrument,  and  gauged  to  determine 
the  precise  inter\'al8.  In  the  entire  chest  the  slide  b  in  two  lengths,  but  in  that  now  described 
each  half  is  again  cut  in  two  at  the  junction  of  the  sections,  and  connected  by  a  slip  hinge-joint. 
The  slide  is  held  in  its  place  by  the  small  clasps  e'  e",  and  a  elamp^"is  riveted  upon  it  at  any  con- 
venient point ;  the  short  arm  of  the  lever  ic  enters  an  opening  m  this  clamp,  while  its  fulcrum 
lies  in  the  plate  b,  which  carries  a  perforated  stud,  and  is  fixed  on  the  back  of  the  chest  as 
in  fig.  318.  forming  the  fulcrum  of  the  lever,  by  means  of  which  the  slide  is  moved  over  the  seed- 
orifices.  To  effect  the  precise  adjustment  of  the  orifices,  the  slide  is  made  in  two  halves,  and  at  each 
end  of  the  chest  an  adjusting-screw  v  acts  in  a  nut  attached  to  the  end  of  the  chest,  the  point  of 
each  screw  being  brought  to  bear  against  the  end  of  the  slide,  which  is  here  thickened  to  meet 
the  point  of  the  screw.  "  The  adjustment  will  be  understood  by  reference  to  fig.  319.  which  repre- 
sents a  portion  of  the  slide  of  the  left-hand  half  of  the  chest.  The  slide  is  here  supposed  to  have 
been  pushed  toward  the  right  hand  by  means  of  the  adjusting-screw  r,  fig.  316,  till  the  orifices 
have  been  reduced  to  the  desired  size,  as  here  shown  in  fig.  319  about  half  shut ;  in  this  elate  the 
machine  is  supposed  to  be  fit  for  sowing,  and  that  it  has  reached  the  end  of  the  field,  when  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  shut  while  turning ;  the  shutting  is  effected  by  moving  the  slide  still  farther, 
to  the  right  hand,  by  means  of  the  lever,  until  the  orifices  are  entirely  closed.  Both  ends  of  the 
chest  having  undergone  this  operation,  which  is  done  in  an  instant,  but  in  reverse  directions,  the 
machine  may  go  to  any  distance  without  discharging  a  grain ;  but  whenever  it  has  been  turned 
into  the  next  ridge,  the  "levers  ir  are  thrown  in  the  opposite  direction,  moving  the  slide  toward  the 
adjusting-screw  r,  and  this  being  done  at  both  ends,  the  orifices  will  have  attained  precisely  the 
same  area  as  before,  and  thus  the  shutting  and  opening  again  to  the  same  area  :  and  of  course  the 
same  discharge  is  effected  for  any  number  of  turns  without  the  smallest  variation,  so  long  as  the 
screw  r  remains  unaltered. 

(1806.)  For  the  purpose  of  equalizing  the  distribution  of  the  seed  over  the  surface  of  the  ground 
after  it  has  left  the  discharging  orifice,  the  bottom-board  /  «•  of  the  eeed-chest  is  made  to  project 
beyond  the  back  of  the  chest  about  2J  inches,  as  at  ?r,  fig.  318.  forming  an  apron  on  which  the 
seed  is  first  received  from  the  orifice,  and  being  thus  checked  in  its  descent,  is  thereby  more 
aniformly  scattered  over  the  surface.  Another  precaution  is  taken,  the  better  to  secure  a  uniform 
discharge  in  the  case  of  s<iwing  on  ground  that  has  a  high  inclination.  In  sowing  up-hill,  in  such 
situations  the  weight  of  the  basket  is  thrown  more  upon  that  side  of  the  chest  from  which  it  is 
discharcred,  tending  thereby  to  increase  the  discharge.  On  sowing  down-hill,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  effe."t  of  pressure  is  reversed,  and  the  discharge  will  be  less.  To  avoid  these  inconveniences, 
Messrs.  Sconlcr.  among  their  other  improvements  in  this  machine,  introduced  a  tilting  motion  to 
tbe  seed  chest  in  the  following  manner :  on  the  two  outward  bearers  a  a  of  the  carriaee  bolsiers 
y  y,  having  a  semi-circular  scat  of  about  8  inches  diameter,  and  corresponding  to  these,  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  chest,  are  formed  two  circular  bearing  or  journals  y  y  f  on  the  bottom  of  the  chest  and 
concentric  with  the  shaft  of  the  seed  wheels  r,  figs.  317  and  31*.  Upon  these  journals  the  chest 
can  be  tilted  to  a  certain  extent  backward  or  forward,  and  this  is  eCected  by  the  lever  z.  which 
may  be  variously  attached  to  tlie  chest.  In  the  present  case  it  is  a  fork  thrust  into  two  apertures 
in  the  chest,  forming  a  lever,  whose  arm  is  retained  in  the  sheers  of  the  quadrant  a',  and  bj* 
raising  or  depressing  the  lever  z  the  chest  is  tilted  backward  or  forward  as  the  sower  sees  it 
neces.«arv  ;  the  lever  being  retained  in  the  required  position  by  a  bolt  passed  through  the  lever 
and  the  t^icn  corresponding  hole  in  the  quadrant 

(1807.)  As  the  seed  chest  is  18  feet  in  length,  and  it  may  sometimes  be  desirable  to  reduce  its 
breadth  of  sowing  to  16  or  to  15  feet,  suiting  ridees  of  these  breadths,  the  reduction  is  effected  by 
stopping  two,  three,  or  more  of  the  seed  orifices  at  each  end.  For  this  purpose  the  orifices 
intended  to  be  stopped  are  provided  with  a  flat  swing-cla.ep.  turning  upon  a  pin  to  which  it  is  riv- 
eted, and  having  a  flat  tail  which  is  brought  over  the  orifice  that  is  to  be  stopped.  Two  of  tliese 
clasps  arc  seen  at  each  end  of  fig.  316,  under  x,  where  they  are  in  the  position  tliat  leaves  the 
orifice  open. 

(1808.)  The  fotrinsrueer  of  this  machine  has  undergone  a  variety  of  changes.     In  the  example 
before  na.  the  pitch-chain  is  employed  to  communicate  motion  from  the  first  mover — the  carriage 
(210) 


SOWING  SPRING  WHEAT  AND  GRASS-SEEDS.  145 

axle — to  the  seed-wheels.  It  has  the  property  of  great  simplicity,  but  has  been  objected  to  on  the 
score  of  its  keeping-  the  seed-wheels  constantly  in  motion,  whether  sowing  or  not,  which  has  been 
supposed  to  have  a  tendency  to  injure  the  grain  which  lies  in  contact  with  the  wheels.  Perhaps  there 
ma}'  be  grounds  for  this  supposition  ;  but  if  it  do  exist,  the  deterioration  must  be  very  trifling.  Be 
these  surmises  what  they  may,  diey  have  given  rise  to  the  means  of  prevention,  by  employing  a  ge>ar- 
ing  that  disengages  die  seed-wheels  from  the  first  mover  when  the  machine  is  being  moved  and 
no  discharge  of  seed  required.  Fig.  320  represents  a  very  perfect  and  convenient  arrangement 
of  this  kind,  and  which  has  been  very  successfully  employed,  but  is  a  little  more  expensive  than 
the  chain-gearing,  a  is  the  seed-chest,  h  h  z.  part  of  the  carriage,  and  o  o  the  middle  and  back 
transverse-bars  of  the  same  (con-esponding  to  h  b.  fig.  316.)  The  bar/e  is  one  side  of  a  tight  cast- 
iron  sheers,  which  is  bolted  to  the  bars  o  o  (standing  in  the  place  of  the  middle  longitudinal  bar  a 
of  fig.  316;)  and  the  three  equal  wheels  c  c  c  are  set  in  the  sheers — the  first  of  the  three  being 
upon  the  carriage-axle,  which  is  in  halves  as  before,  and  the  meeting-ends  supported  on  the 
sheers  c.  The  last  of  the  three  wheels  takes  into  the  wheel  h,  mounted  on  the  central  portion  of  the 
seed-wheel  shaft,  as  before  described  in  (1805) ;  and  <Z  is  a  fourth  wheel,  of  equal  size  with  c  c. 
mounted  on  the  lever  g-,  which  is  forked  to  receive  the  wheel  d,  and  to  embrace  the  sheers/e  at 
e,  upon  which  last  point  the  lever  turns  as  a  fulcrum.  It  will  be  evident  that  by  lifting  the  lever 
g,  and  throwing  it  forward  upon  the  seed-chest,  the  wheel  d  will  be  ungeared  from  the  first 
wheel  c;  and  though  it  remains  in  contact  with  the  middle  wheel  c,  no  motion  will  be  communi- 
cated to  the  seed-wheels  until  the  lever  is  returned  to  its  original  position. 

(1809.)  In  using  the  broadcast  machine,  it  is  frequently  drawn  by  one  horse;  but  it  forms  a 
rather  heavy  draught,  and  is,  therefore,  more  frequently  the  work  of  two  horses.  The  chest  is  filled 
from  end  to  end  with  the  seed-corn,  and.  the  horses  walking  in  the  furrow,  the  machine  sows  the 
half  ridge  on  either  side.  When  the  chest  has  been  filled,  and  the  machine  brought  to  that  posi- 
tion which  places  the  horses  in  the  furrow — the  sower  having  previously  determined  the  degree 
of  opening  in  the  orifices  that  will  deliver  the  desired  quantity  per  acre,  he  throws  each  slide  out- 
ward again.st  its  graduating  screw,  which  will  produce  the  proper  opening,  (1807)  ;  and  this  done, 
the  hur.scs  are  driven  forward.  On  arriving  at  the  farther  end  of  the  ridge,  and  before  entering 
upon  the  he'adridge,  the  slides  are  witlidravvn  toward  the  center,  closing  up  the  vents;  the  ma- 
cliine  is  then  turned  round  on  the  head-ridge,  and  takes  up  a  position  on  the  next  furiow,  when 
the  process  is  repeated,  and  so  on  till  the  field  is  sown  all  over,  the  head  ridges  being  the  last  por- 
tion of  the  work,  and  here  the  blinding  of  the  extreme  orifices  come  frequently  into  play,  if  the 
head-ridges  are  of  less  breadth  than  those  of  the  field. 

(1810.)  It  has  often  been  suggested  tliat  a  register  screw  or  index  would  be  a  useful  appendage 
to  tlie  machine,  by  which  the  .sower  could  at  once  fix  upon  the  extent  of  opening  in  the  seed- 
vents.  This  addition,  however  well  it  may  appear  in  theory,  appears,  in  the  practical  application 
of  the  machine,  to  be  of  little  value  ;  for  the  eye  of  an  experienced  sower  will,  on  passing  over  a 
few  yards  with  the  machine,  by  simple  ocular  inspection,  be  able  to  judge  of  the  quantity  of 
seed  he  is  bestowing  upon  the  soil.  If  experimental  accuracy  is  required,  the  sower  may  then 
put  into  the  chest  as  much  grain  as  will  just  cover  the  seed-wheels,  and  then  measvre  in  one  or 
two  bushels,  and  proceed  to  sow  this  until  as  much  remains  as  will  just  cover  the  wheels  again, 
so  that  the  measured  quantity  is  found  to  have  been  discharged.  By  now  measuring  the  number 
of  yards  in  length  that  have  been  sown  with  two  bushels,  he  will  ascertain  by  calculation  the  pro- 
portional quantity  required  for  an  acre.  Thus,  let  the  intended  quantity  to  be  sown  upon  an 
acre  be  5  bushels,  and  that  one  bushel  has  been  sown  in  the  experiment  which  has  covered  140 
yards  of  the  18-feet  ridge,  or  two  half  ridges  equal  to  18  feet,  or  6  yards.  The  imperial  acre  con- 
tains 4,840  square  yards,  and  this  divided  by  6,  the  yards  in  the  breadth  of  the  ridge,  we  have  8065 
as  the  number  of  lineal  yards  in  length  of  an  18-feet  ridge  to  make  up  an  acre;  and  l-.'i  of  this,  or 
161.2  lineal  yard.s,  is  the  extent  that  should  have  been  covered  by  1  bushel  of  seed-corn.  The 
machine  having,  as  supposed,  covered  only  140  yards,  it  follows  that  the  sowing  is  about  I  part 
of  the  bushel  too  thick  ;  the  graduating  screws,  therefore,  must  be  turned  forward  about  half  a  turn, 
and  the  experiment  repeated  if  thought  necessary.  It  is  seldom,  however,  that  such  experirnenis 
will  be  required  in  the  hands  of  a  practical  sower. 

(1811.)  In  reference  to  the  inconvenience  attending  the  great  length  of  the  seed-chest  as  taken 
notice  of  at  (1800)  when  it  is  in  one  length,  there  remains  to  be  observed  that  tlie  method  by 
which  it  is  shifted  is  thi.s  :  in  its  working  state  the  chest  is  kept  in  its  bolsters  by  means  of  two 
quadrants  attached  to  the  lower  part  of  the  chest,  one  being  on  each  side  of  the  carriage  ;  the.se 
are  fonned  concentric  with  the  curvature  of  the  bolster  i/  y,  fig.  317,  and  a  bolt,  over  which  the 
quadrant  slides,  is  screwed  into  the  side  of  the  carriage,  and  this  retains  the  chest  in  its  place. 
When  it  is  found  necessary  to  move  the  chest,  the  two  bolts  are  unscrewed,  which  sets  the  chest 
at  liberty  ;  it  is  then  lifted  from  its  bolstei-s  and  laid  longitudinally  on  the  carriage.  In  this  opera- 
tion, however,  the  pitch-chain,  when  that  medium  of  power  is  employed,  has  to  be  disengaged  by 
withdrawing  a  coupling-link  from  the  chain;  but  when  the  medium,  fig.  320,  is  employed,  there 
is  nothing  required  but  the  unscrewing  of  the  quadrant-bolts  to  set  the  chest  at  liberty.  It  is  then 
lilted  and  laid  longitudinally  on  the  carriage  as  before.  The  price  of  these  machines  ranges  from 
£:i0to£l2.  .'  o  r  ft 

(1812.)  The  Presser-RoUer  is  an  implement  of  very  recent  introduction  to  the  operations  of  the 
farm,  and,  like  many  others  of  the  useful  class  of  agricultural  machines,  its  origin  is  to  be  traced 
to  England.  Although  the  presserdoes  not  take  its  place  in  the  first  raqk,  yet  it  pos.sesses  quali- 
ties who.se  effects  on  the  soil  give  it  a  position  by  no  means  low  in  the  scale  of  usefulness.  The 
chief  object  of  its  application  is  to  produce  consolidation  in  the  soil  over  a  narrow  space,  in  which 
space  the  seeds  of  plants  are  to  have  root ;  hence  its  effects  are  applicable  only  to  the  drill  sys- 
tem of  culture,  and  that  only  under  particular  circumstances,  namely,  consolidating  soils  whose 
texture  is  too  loose  and  friable  for  the  continued  support  of  wheat  plants,  and  to  produce  close 
contact  in  the  furrow-slices  of  lea  when  plowed  for  a  seed-furrow. 

(1813.)  The  Presser-Roiler  is  represented  in  its  most  common  form  by  fig.  325,  which  is  a  view  of 
tlie  machine  in  perspective,  and  is  of  extremely  simple  construction.  The  carriage  consists  of  a 
(289) 10  ^        ^ 


146 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


rectangular  frame  a  a ;  its  length  over  the  front  and  hack  bars  is  3  feet  8  inches,  and  its  breadth 
over  the  sides  4  feet  8  inches ;  a  third  longitudinal  bar  is  introduced  between  those  of  the  back  and 
front  solely  to  increase  the  rigidity  of  the  carriage-frame.     A  pair  of  horse-shafts  b,  are  bolted 


Fig  325. 


THE    FRESSER-ROLLER. 


X 


upon  the  frame,  the  nSgh-side  shaft  being  laid  upon  the  side-rail,  and  the  other  at  the  usual  dis- 
tance, to  afford  space  for  a  horse  to  travel.  A  cast-iron  bracket  is  appended  by  bolting  to  each 
side-rail ;  one  of  these  is  seen  at  c  ;  its  eye  or  center  descends  to  a  distance  of  8  inches  below  the 
bottom  of  the  rail ;  an  axle  of  2  inches  square  extends  between,  and  is  supported  in  the  eye  of  the 
bracket  in  which  it  turns  upon  its  journals  ;  this  axle  carries  the  two  pre.«singwhepls  d  d,  which 
are  fitted  to  turn  with  the  axle,  but  are  movable  in  ihe  transverse  direction,  and  provided  with  the 
means  of  being  fixed  at  any  desired  distance  apart,  though  9  to  10  inches  is  the  usual  space. 
The  axle  carries  also  the  light  carriage-wheel  c.  of  2  feet 
10  inches  diameter,  which  may  be  placed  either  outside  or 
inside  of  the  carriage-frame,  and  is  usually  made  of  cast- 
iron,  turning  upon  the  axle,  this  being  requisite  for  the  more 
convenient  turning  round  of  the  machine.  The  oft'-side 
shaft  b  having  but  an  imperfect  connection  to  the  carriage- 
is  supported  bj'  the  iron  stay-rod /";  and  two  iron  scrapers  ir 
are  attached  to  the  hind  bar  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  off 
any  soil  that  may  adhere  to  the  wheels.  Fig.  326  is  an  edge- 
view  of  the  two  pressing-wheels  detached  from  the  carriage, 
in  which  a  a  is  the  axle  broken  off,  b  b  are  the  two  pressing- 
wheels  as  they  appear  edgeways ;  they  are  2  feet  10  inches 
of  extreme  diameter,  and  their  breadth  5^  inche.s,  their 
weight  being  about  2  cwts.  each  ;  the  rim  or  periphery-  of 
the  wheel  is  sloped  off  on  both  sides  to  an  angle  of  about 
70°,  forming  two  opposite  conical  frusta,  but  a  cylindrical 
band  is  left  in  the  middle  of  about  1^  inches  in  breadth.  The 
pressing-wheels  are  held  at  the  required  distance  by  the 
square  collars  cc  c  fitting  round  the  axle  and  sliding  upon  it 
to  the  proposed  distance  apart,  where  they  are  fixed  by  the 
pinching-screws  c  c  c.  d  d  represents  a  "transverse  section 
of  ground  undergoing  the  pressing  process;  the  shaded  part 
of  the  section  exhibits  the  state  of  a  soft,  loose  soil,  when 
pressed  by  the  roller,  and  the  dotted  lines  ejf,  ef,  that  of  newly  plowed  lea  undergoing  the 
operation  of  consolidation. 

(1814.)  As  explained  in  the  text  above,  and  with  reference  again  to  fig.  32.1,  the  pressing- 
wheels  a.-c  to  be  undir.stood  as  running  always  upon  the  last  turned  up  furrows  but  one  ;  while 
the  carriage-wheel  runs  always  upon  the  solid  land,  where  the  horse  also  walks,  the  shafts  being 
placed  at  that  side.  But  the  nresser  is  now  being  more  advantageously  used  as  to  time,  in  the 
consolidation  of  soft  soils,  bv  being  constructed  with  four,  nix.  or  more  pressine  wheels  ;  and  in 
this  fonn  the  carriage  wheel  is  not  required.  In  using  the  presser  of  this  construction,  the  field 
must  be  ploveed  for  the  sccdfurrow  all  over,  cither  entirely  or  in  part,  before  the  pressing  is  be- 
gun ;  and  the  field  is  regularly  gone  over  by  tho  presser,  which,  from  its  now  increased  weight, 
will  require  two  horse.*.  In  this  form,  with  six  pressincwhoels,  and  with  two  horses,  the  ma- 
chine will  press  roll  from  eight  to  nine  acres  in  a  day.  There  remains  to  be  observed,  in  regard 
to  the  last  form  of  the  machine,  that,  in  order  to  secure  facility  of  turning  about,  the  wheels  must 
either  be  all  set  upon  a  round  axle,  or  they  must  be  set  ujion  an  axle  in  two  lengths,  if  it  is  con- 
tinued of  a  square  form  ;  and  there  is  conse<in<iitly  required  a  middle  beoring" ior  the  meeting 
ends  of  the  axle.  For  this  puri)ose,  a  third  bracket  is  appended  to  the  middle  rail  of  the  frame, 
fig.  325.  I  have  found  both  of  these  modes  of  constniction  perfectly  suitable  in  practice  ;  and  the 
entire  weight  of  the  six-wheel  rollers  amounts  to  about  12  or  13  cwt.s.  The  price  of  the  two- 
wheeled  presser  is  £C  lO.s.,  and  for  each  additional  wheel,  with  its  mounting,  £l  12s. 

(1815.)  The  common  Land-Roller  is  an  implement  of  great  simplicity  of  construction,  ihe  act- 
ing part  of  it  being  a  cylinder  of  wood,  of  stone  or  of  metal,  and  in  many  cases  its  only  append 
age  is  a  rectangular  frame  of  wood,  consisting  of  two  strong  end  bars,  selected  for  having 
curvature  to  keep  clear  of  the  ground.     In  these  the  gudgeons  of  the  roller  are  borne,  and  whu 
(290) 


J        J'       s 

EDGE  VIEW  OF  THE  PRESSING- 
WHEELS. 


SOWING  SPRING  WHEAT  AND  GRASS  SEEDS. 


147 


are  connected  by  two  transverse  rails,  to  one  of  which  the  horses  are  yoked.  Simple  as  this  im- 
plement appears,  there  is  hardly  an  article  in  the  establishment  in  which  the  farmer  is  more  liable 
to  fall  into  error  in  his  selection.  From  the  nature  of  its  action,  and  its  intended  effects  on  the 
soil,  there  are  two  elements  that  should  be  particularly  kept  in  view — weight  awA  diameter  of  the 
cylinder.  By  the  former  alone  can  the  desired  effects  be  produced  in  the  highest  degree,  but 
these  will  be  always  modified  by  the  diameter.  Thus,  a  cylinder  of  any  given  weight  will  pro- 
duce a  greater  pulverizing  effect  if  its  diameter  is  one  foot,  than  the  same  weight  would  produce 
if  the  diameter  were  two  feet ;  but  then  the  one  of  lesser  diameter  will  be  much  worse  to  draw  ; 
hence  it  becomes  necessary  to  choose  a  mean  of  these  opposing  principles.  In  doing  this,  the 
material  of  the  cylinder  comes  to  be  con.sidered.  In  the  first  place,  wood,  which  is  frequently 
employed  for  the  formation  of  land-rollers,  may  be  considered  as  least  adapted  of  all  materials  for 
the  purpose  ;  its  deliciency  of  weight  and  liability  to  decay  render  it  the  most  objectionable  of 
all  others.  Second,  stone,  though  not  deficient  in  weight,  possesses  one  marked  disadvantage, 
liability  to  fracture  ;  this  of  itself  is  sufficient  to  place  stone  rollers  in  a  doubtful  position  as  to 
fitness.  This  brings  us  to  cast-iron,  which  i.s  undoubtedly  the  most  appropriate  of  all'materials 
for  this  purpose.  It  is  unnecessary  here  to  enter  into  the  inquiry  as  to  the  most  advantageous 
diameter  for  a  laud-roller  ;  the  subject  has  already  been  elaborately  discussed  ;  *  let  it  suffice  to 
say  that  experience  has  proved  that  a  diameter  of  2  feet  is,  under  any  circumstances,  the  one 
that  will  produce  the  best  effects  with  a  minimum  of  labor  from  the  animals  of  draught ;  the 
weight  being  of  course  proportioned  to  the  force  usually  applied,  which  is  in  general  two  horses. 
The  weight  df  roller,  including  frame  corresponding  to  this,  is  from  12  to  15  cwts. ;  but  it  is  bet- 
ter that  the  roller  itself  be  rather  under  the  weight,  and  that  the  carriage  be  fitted  up  with  a  box, 
in  which  a  loading  of  stones  can  be  stowed,  to  bring  the  machine  up  to  any  desired  weight.  In 
a  large  and  heavy  roller,  in  one  entire  cylinder,  the  inconvenience  of  turning  at  the  headlands  is 
very  considerable,  and  has  given  rise  to  the  improvement  of  having  the  cylinder  in  two  lengths; 
this,  with  a  properly  constructed  carriage,  produces  the  land-roller  in  its  most  perfect  form. 

(1816.)  Fig.  327  is  a  perspective  of  the  land-roller  constructed  on  the  foregoing  principles,     a  a 
is  the  carriage-frame,  consisting  of  two  semi-circular  ends  of  cast-iron,  connected  by  two  trans- 


THE    LAND    ROLLER. 


verse  bars  of  hard  wood,  and  these  last  are  crossed  by  the  horse-shafts  b.  The  cylinder  c  is  in 
two  lengths  of  3  feet  to  3  feet  3  inches  each,  and  2  feet  in  diameter  ;  the  thickness  of  the  metal  is 
from  J  of  an  inch  to  1  inch,  according  to  the  weight  required  ;  and  each  half  length  of  the  cylin- 
der has  a  cross  fitted  into  each  end,  through  the  centers  of  which  the  axle  passes.  The  axle,  in 
consequence  of  the  cylinder  being  in  two  lengths,  requires  to  be  of  considerable  strength,  usually 
2J  inches  diameter,  and  of  malleable  iron ;  upon  this  the  two  sections  of  the  cylinder  revolve 
freely,  and  the  extremities  of  the  axle  are  supported  in  bushes  formed  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
semi-circular  end-frames.  Two  iron  stay-rods  pass  from  the  end  frames  to  the  shafts  as  an  addi- 
tional support  to  the  latter.  The  price  of  the  land-roller,  fitted  up  as  here  represented  and 
described,  is,  according  to  weight,  from  £10  to  £14.1 

[t  We  cannot  forbear  recommending  here  the  use  of  a  machine  invented  by,  we  think,  a  Mr. 
Gray,  of  Lower  Virginia.  It  was  brought  to  our  notice  by  one  of  those  too  rare  men  among  farm- 
ers— one  who  thinks — Hon.  W.  Carmichael,  of  Clueen  Anne's  County,  Maryland.  The  simple 
name  of  this  implement  indicates  the  simplicity  of  its  construction,  being  called  the  drag-log.  It 
is  made  of  a  log  of  wood  say  5  feet  long,  more  or  less,  and  12  or  14  inches  square,  with  the  tongue 
of  a  common  ox-cart  pinned  down  in  the  middle  on  the  top  of  it,  instead  of  a  pair  of  shafts,  as  in 
the  land-roller  here  represented.  To  this  tongue  is  to  be  hitched  a  span  of  oxen  and  the  log  thus 
dragged  over  the  surface  of  cloddy  plowed  land.  It  will  be  found  to  pulverize  the  land  more  at 
one  operation  tlian  rolling  at  two.  Instead  of  burying  the  clods  it  mashes  and  grinds  them  to 
powder  as  it  proceeds.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

'  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  i. 

(291) 


148  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


12.    SOWING   OAT-SEED. 

"Though  ley  land  you  break  up  when  Christinas  is  gone, 
For  sowing  of  barley  or  oats  thereupon, 
Yet  haste  not  to  fallow  till  March  be  begun. 
Lest  afterward  wishing  it  had  been  undone." 

TUSSER. 

(1817.)  After  what  has  been  said  of  plowing  lea  ground  (919),  and  of 
tne  mode  of  sowing  seed  upon  the  land  by  hand,  fig.  322,  and  of  the  prop- 
erties of  different  kinds  of  oats  cultivated  in  this  country  (1519),  little  re- 
quires to  be  added  here  on  the  sowing  of  oats,  except  the  manner  in  which 
that  operation  \s  finished. 

(1818.)  Beans  and  spring  wheat  are  not  sown  upon  every  species  of 
farm,  the  former  being  most  profitable  in  deep,  strong  soils,  and  the  latter 
is  only  to  be  commended  after  turnips,  on  land  in  good  heart,  situate  in  a 
favorable  locality  for  climate,  and  the  crop  eaten  off  by  sheep  ;  but  oats 
are  sown  on  all  sorts  of  farms,  from  the  strongest  clay  to  the  lightest  sand, 
and  from  the  highest  point  to  which  arable  culture  has  reached  on  moor- 
land soil,  to  the  bottom  of  the  lowest  valley  on  the  richest  deposit.  The 
extensive  breadth  of  its  culture  does  not,  however,  imply  that  the  oat  is 
naturally  suited  to  all  soils  and  situations,  for  its  fibrous  and  spreading 
roots  indicate  a  predilection  for  fnable  soils  ;  but  its  general  use  as  food 
amonof  the  agricultural  population  has  caused  its  universal  culture  in 
Scotland,  while  its  ability  to  support  the  strength  of  horses  has  induced  its 
culture  to  be  extended  throughout  the  kingdom  ;  and  it  is  certainly  a  re- 
markable fact  with  what  admirable  effect  this  plant  has  adapted  itself  to 
the  various  circumstances  in  which  it  is  cultivated,  and  this  result  is,  most 
probably,  owing  to  the  same  food,  namely,  the  decomposed  grasses  with 
which  this  plant  is  uniformly  supplied. 

(1819.)  All  the  varieties  of  oats  cultivated  may  be  practically  classed 
under  three  heads,  the  common,  the  improved,  and  the  Tartarian.  The 
common  varieties  include  all  those  having  a  pyramidal  spike,  soft  sti-aw, 
long  grains  possessing  a  tendency  to  become  awny,  and  which  are  late  in 
reaching  maturity.  Among  the  named  varieties  are  the  following  in  com- 
mon use  :  early  and  late  Angus,  Kildrummie,  Blainslic,  white  Siberian, 
fig.  307,  Cumherlayid,  sandy,  and  Dyoch,  which  last  two  are  recent  varie- 
ties, and  others.  It  is  unnecessary  to  point  out  the  superior  character- 
istics of  each  variety,  for  in  the  respective  districts  in  which  they  are  sown, 
each  is  considered  best  suited  to  the  locality  in  which  it  is  cultivated — an* 
opinion  which  may  safely  be  disputed.  The  four  last  named  are  in  high 
repute  at  present,  owing  to  their  recent  introduction  ;  and  it  is  probable 
that  any  recent  variety  will  answer  best  for  a  shorter  or  longer  period. 
All  common  oats  are  sown  on  the  inferior  soils,  and  in  the  most  elevated 
fields  of  farms,  and  the  season  for  sowing  them  is  the  beginning  of  March. 
Of  the  improved  varieties  are  the  potato  oat,  which  has  long  been  culti- 
vated as  the  only  variety  ;  but  of  late  years  the  Hopetoun  oat  has  been 
added  to  the  short  list.  Before  it  the  Georgian  was  introduced,  but  did 
not  succeed.  Both  the  potato  and  Hopetoun  oats  have  long,  strong  straw, 
large  spikes,  come  early  to  maturity,  and  are  chiefly  cultivated  on  the 
best  and  lowest  lying  ground.  The  grains  are  very  similar,  the  Hopetoun 
being  distinguished  by  a  tinge  of  red  on  the  bosom,  fig.  306,      These  oats 

"(292) 


Book  cf  the  Parm.  ©a][LlL   ©©^JKI©  jflAvy >] J?Jl©a  H»tc  XXVII 

Thr  nor  Lrrer  Drill  Sutring  Macliinr.  The  common  Thrill  Sov'inp  Marlnne. 


BcoTc  of  the  Farm- 

■u-yBM]?  Ajg©  [13Si^!I  ®y©7  SS3]1,L<, 


Plate  XXXI 


SOWING  OAT-SEED.  149 


are  sown  a  fortnight  after  the  common.  The  cultivation  of  the  Tartarian 
varieties,  both  black  and  white,  is  chiefly  confined  to  England,  for  the  use 
of  horses,  and  are  there  cdWedi  feed  oats.  I  am  surprised  that  this  oat 
should  be  cultivated  at  this  time  of  day,  both  on  account  of  its  coarseness, 
as  well  as  the  disagreeable  work  which  it  occasions  in  the  barn  by  its  long 
hygrometric  awns. 

'  (1S20.)  The  plowed  lea-ground  should  be  dry  on  the  surface  before  it  is 
sown,  as  otherwise  it  will  not  harrow  kindly ;  but  the  proper  dryness  is  to 
be  distinguished  from  that  arising  from  dry,  hard  frost.  It  will  not  be  pro- 
per to  wait  until  every  spot  of  the  field  is  dry  alike,  as  even  thorough-drain- 
ing will  not  insure  that ;  though  spottiness  shown  in  spring  is  a  good  crite- 
iion  wliether  land  has  been  enough  drained,  or  where  it  most  requires  it. 
Should  the  lea  have  been  plowed  some  time  before,  and  from  young  grass, 
the  furrow-slices  will  be  found  to  lie  close  together  at  seed-time ;  but  should 
it  have  been  recently  plowed  or  from  old  lea,  or  on  stiff  ground  in  a  rather 
wet  state,  the  furrow-slices  will  not  lie  close  together,  but  be  as  far  asunder 
as  to  allow  a  good  deal  of  the  seed  to  drop  down  between  them,  and  where 
this  happens  the  seed  will  be  lost,  as  oats  will  not  vegetate  from  a  depth  of 
6  or  7  inches.  In  all  cases  of  lea  where  the  furrow-slices  are  not  close,  in 
order  to  save  a  part  of  the  seed,  and  avoid  a  thin  crop,  the  ground  should 
be  harrowed  a  single  tine  before  being  sown.  The  tines  of  harrows 
should  be  particularly  sharp  when  used  for  covering  in  seed  upon  lea. 
When  oats  are  sown  by  hand  upon  dry  lea-ground,  the  grains  rebound  from 
it  and  dance  about  before  depositing  themselves  in  the  hollows  between 
the  crests  of  the  furrow-slices,  and  thus  accommodating  themselves  to  the 
form  of  the  ground,  are  not  so  liable  to  be  happerga' ed  in  sowing  as  other 
grains.  Were  the  ground  only  harrowed  in  along  the  ridges,  so  as  not  to 
disturb  the  seed  along  the  furrow- slices,  the  germs  of  the  crop  would  come 
up  in  as  regular  rows  as  if  sown  by  drill ;  but  as  the  land  receives  cross- 
haiTowing  as  well  as  along,  the  braird  comes  up  broadcast,  notwithstand- 
ing the  position  the  seed  assumes  when  it  settles  on  the  ground.  The 
quantity  of  common  oats  sown  is  usually  6  bushels  to  the  imperial  acre  ; 
and  in  deep  friable  land  in  good  heart,  5  bushels  of  potato  oats  suffice,  A 
man  does  a  good  day's  work  if  he  sows  broadcast  16  imperial  acres  of 
ground  in  10  hours,  that  is,  scatters  80  bushels  of  potato  oats  and  96 
bushels  of  common  oats  in  that  time.  Some  men  can  sow  120  bushels  of 
common  and  100  of  potato  in  that  time,  that  is,  20  acres  ;  and  double-hand- 
ed sowers  can  sow  more  than  this  latter  quantity.  Two  sowers  keep  one 
seed-carrier  fully  employed,  and  indeed  if  the  sacks  are  not  conveniently 
placed  (1756),  one  will  not  be  able  to  supply  them  both,  but  2  seed-carriers 
will  easily  supply  3  sowers  ;  and  every  sower  employs  2  pairs  of  harrows 
breaking  in  after  him,  with  a  double  tine.  So  that  the  number  of  sowers 
is  regulated  by  the  number  of  pairs  of  harrows  that  a  farm  can  furnish. 
The  arrangement  of  the  labor  for  sowing  an  oat-field  may  be  seen  in  fig. 
322,  where  2  sowei's  and  1  seed-carrier  are  represented,  but  the  harrows  of 
1  sower  only  are  shown  in  view.  See  from  (1762)  to  (1766)  inclusive. 
After  the  land  is  broken  in  with  a  double  tine,  it  is  harrowed  across  with  a 
double  tine,  which  cut  across  the  fuiTOW-crests,  and  then  along  another 
double  tine,  and  this  quantity  generally  suffices.  At  the  last  harrowing  the 
tines  should  be  kept  clean,  and  no  stones  should  be  allowed  to  be  trailed 
along  by  the  tines,  to  the  manifest  ribbing  of  the  surface.  On  old  lea,  or 
on  hard  land,  another  single  turn  across  or  angle-ways  may  be  requird  to 
render  the  land  fine  enough  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  on  a  free  soil  a  single 
tine  along  after  the  double  one  cross  may  suffice.  In  short,  the  harrow- 
ing  should  be  continued  as  long  and   no  longer  than  the  ground  feels  uni- 


150  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

formly  smooth  and  firm  under  the  foot,  having  no  hard  places,  or  others 
sinking  into  hollows  l»y  the  pressure  of  the  foot  (1770).  The  head-ridges 
are  harrowed  round  by  themselves  at  last.  See  (1771).  The  land,  after 
the  oat-seed  is  sown,  is  always  icater-furroiced  in  every  open  furrow 
(1778);  and  it  should  also  be  rolled  (1777),  according  to  circumstances  ; 
that  is,  the  young  braird  on  strong  land  being  retarded  in  its  growth,  when 
the  earth  is  incrusted  by  rain  after  rolling,  it  is  safe  to  leave  the  rolling  of 
such  land  until  the  end  of  spring,  when  the  crop  has  made  a  little  progress, 
and  when  the  weather  is  usually  dry.  Light  friable  land  should  be  rolled 
immediately  after  the  seed  is  sown  and  harrowed,  if  there  is  time  to  do  it; 
but  the  rolling  of  one  field  should  cause  no  delay  to  the  sow-ing  of  others  in 
dry  weather.  There  will  be  plenty  of  time  to  roll  the  giound  after  the  oat- 
seed  and  other  urgent  operations  at  this  season  are  finished,  and  especially 
as  rolling  mayhe  speedily  performed.  The  cutting  oi  gaws  should  never  be 
neglected  in  finishing  oft"  an  oat-field,  to  carry  oft'  water  along  hollows  or 
in  the  open  furrow  beside  the  lowest  hedge-ridge,  as  particularly  described 
in  (918).  Oats  are  sown  broadcast  by  machinery  as  well  as  by  hand.  The 
machine  is  the  same  as  is  used  for  sowing  grass-seeds,  and  figured  at  fig. 
316,  Plate  XXVI.,  and  already  described  by  Mr.  Slight  in  (1798)  to 
(1811).  As  constructed  at  first  upon  two  wheels,  this  machine,  when  load- 
ed with  a  full  complement  of  oat-seed,  was  too  heavy  for  a  horse's  back, 
especially  on  going  down  hill ;  but  the  addition  of  the  third  wheel  disposes 
of  that  objection,  and  I  believe  it  is  now  pretty  extensively  employed  in 
sowing  corn. 

(1821.)  But  oats  are  also  sown  in  rows  by  such  drill-machines  as  are 
represented  in  figs.  325  and  326,  Plate  XXVII.,  and  described  below  by 
Mr.  Slight.  In  using  dj-ill-machines,  the  land  should  first  be  harrowed  a 
double  tine  along,  and  then  a  double  tine  across  the  ridges,  and  ajjain  a 
single  tine  along.  The  drill  then  sows  the  oats  across  the  ridges,  and  the 
land  is  finished  by  harrowing  a  single  tine  also  across  the  ridges.  The 
water-furrowijig  and  rolling  should  be  executed  in  the  manner  described 
(1820)  for  broadcast  sowing.  The  drill  seems  to  me  not  well  adapted  for 
sowing  corn  on  lea  ground.  It  cannot  pass  through  it,  even  after  it  has 
been  well  cut  with  the  harrows,  with  the  facility  it  does  through  ground 
in  a  soft  state;  and  on  hard  ground  and  upon  old  lea  it  is  questionable 
whether  the  coulters  can  penetrate  so  far  as  to  deposit  the  seed  at  a  depth 
to  be  out  of  reach  of  birds  and  drouth ;  and  every  stone  in  such  ground 
being  rather  firmly  imbedded,  will  be  apt  to  cause  the  drill  to  go  out  of  its 
proper  course,  while  at  the  same  time  the  risk  at  least  of  partially  dis- 
placing the  old,  uncorrupted  tui'f  will  be  imminent.  In  these  latter  cases 
I  would  recommend  the  broadcast  machine  or  the  hand  in  preference  to  the 
drill ;  and  I  would  confine  the  drill  in  sowing  oats  to  tender  land  as  in  the 
neighborhood  of  towns,  where  it  is  made  tender  by  the  application  of 
large  quantities  of  street-manure,  and  where  drilling  is  advisable  as  aftbrd- 
ing  a  facility  for  cleaning  the  land  of  surface-weeds,  a  multitude  of  which, 
and  especially  wild  mustard,  Sinapis  arrcfisis,  are  apt  to  sjiring  uji  from  the 
use  of  street-manure.  In  England,  however,  where  the  drilling  of  grain  is 
followed  out,  it  must  be  owned  that  their  plowing  with  the  wheel-plow 
and  sowing  with  the  drill-machine  are  so  perfect  in  their  operation  that 
the  seed  is  laid  in  the  fuiTows  with  certainty,  and  without  at  all  disturbing 
the  furrow-slice. 

(1822.)  At  a  time  when  a  less  rational  system  of  husbandrj' was  pursued  than  now  happily  pre- 
vails— that  is,  when  land  was  allowed  to  be  overrun  with  surface-water  ;  when  lea  was  plowed, 
out  of  choice,  in  a  wet  state,  because  the  labor  of  doing  it  was  easier  for  half  starved,  jaded  horses  ; 
when  land  was  harrowed  with  small,  light,  loose  harrowe,  funiishcd  with  short,  blunt  tines ;  when 
the  leaturf  consiBted  chiefly  of  the  longh  roots  of  perennial  weeds — in  these  circamstances lea 
(294) 


SOWING  OAT-SEED. 


151 


ground  required  a  great  deal  of  harrowing  to  bring  it  to  a  tolerable  degree  of  tilth,  eight  or  nine 
double  tines  being  considered  no  more  than  necessary.  The  great  length  of  time  required  to  do 
this,  obliged  the  oat-seed  to  be  begun  early,  so  early  indeed  as  Tusser  recommends  it  to  be  begun 
in  January : 

"  In  January,  husband  that  poucheth  the  groats, 
Will  break  up  his  ley,  or  be  sowing  of  oats  ;" 

if  the  husbandman  desires  to  pocket  the  gain  of  a  good  crop ;  and  by  the  time  the  crop  was 
finished,  every  creature,  man  and  beast,  ■were  almost  worn  out  with  fatigue.  The  land  being 
now  made  tender  and  fertile  by  draining,  cleaning  and  manuring,  oats  have  time  to  come  to  ma- 
turity when  sown  long  after  January,  and  its  harrowing  is  now  finished  in  one-third  of  the  time, 
and  with  one-fourth  the  labor  it  was  then. 

(1823.)  The  oat  crop,  when  very  young — that  is,  ^vhen  the  plant  has  not  pushed  its  leaves  more 
than  2  inches  above  the  ground — is  subject  to  a  very  serious  disease  called  the  grtib,  a  name  de- 
rived from  the  grub  or  larva  of  a  particular  insect,  the  Tvpnla  oleracea,  Meadow -crane  fiy,  attack- 
ing its  roots,  and  causing  the  plant  to  decay,  and  even  to  die  when  seriously  injured  by  this  insect. 
The  perfect  female  insect  is  represented  of  the  natural  size  at  a,  fig.  328,  and  which  will  at  once 


be  recognized  as  that  well  known  by  the  familiar  names  of  Long'-Zeg-g,  Tailors,  Jenny-the-spinner. 
Its  body  is  near  1  inch  long,  of  a  brownish-gray  color,  and  its  wings  pale-brown.  In  the  female 
the  abdomen  is  thickest  near  the  middle,  from  which  it  tapers  to  a  point  at  the  hinder  extremityj 
that  of  the  male  is  thicket  at  the  hinder  extremity,  which  forms  a  kind  of  club.  "  This  insect,' 
says  Mr.  Duncan,  "  is  very  plentiful  during  the  summer  months  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  Its 
long  legs  are  of  great  advantage  to  it  in  places  it  frequents,  as  they  enable  it  to  skip  over  the 
grass  as  if  on  stilts ;  and  it  still  "farther  facilitates  its  motions  while  so  doing,  by  keeping  the  wings 
expanded,  to  render  it  buoyant.  The  female  lavs  a  great  number  of  eggs,  which  are  very  small  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the  in.sect,  and  of  a  black  color.  These  she  places  at  some  depth  m  the 
earth,  which  she  pierces  for  the  purpose  with  her  ovipositor.  The  insects  may  easily  be  seen 
performing  this  operation,  and  it  will  at  once  be  known  that  they  are  so  employed  by  the  singu- 
lar position  they  assume.  The  body  is  placed  in  a  perpendicular  direction,  supported  on  the 
hinder  feet  and  extremity  of  the  abdomen,  while  the  wings  are  expanded,  and  the  anterior  legs 
(295) 


152  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FAR»I SPRING. 


rest  on  the  eurronnding  plant8.  When  a  dufficicnt  number  of  egps  have  been  laid  in  one  spot, 
the  insect  moves  on  to  another,  without  ciianging  the  vertical  poBturc  of  her  body,  merely  drag- 
ging herself  forward  by  her  forelef,'8,  aiding  her  movements  with  her  wings."  It  is  in  the  larva 
state  that  these  insects  injure  crops,  meudow -grass  not  being  their  only  food  ;  they  attack  dif- 
ferent kinils  of  corn,  especially  oats,  the  effects  of  pruhbhip-  in  which  are  well  known  to  every 
farmer.  When  full  grown,  the  hirvn*  are  in  the  shape  of  an  elongated  cylinder,  somewhat  sud- 
denly attenuated  at  Iwili  extremities,  and  are  of  a  dull  grayish  color,  and  without  feet.  The  head 
is  furnished  with  two  hooks,  one  on  each  side.  The  pupa  is  not  unlike  the  chrysalis  of  some  kinds 
of  moth  ;  and  it  is  nearly  of  the  same  color  as  the  larvK,  the  edges  of  the  segments  being  furnished 
with  pretty  strong  hairs."  The  larva;  reside  generally  about  1  or  2  inches  beneath  the  surface,  mining 
their  wav  "among  the  roots  of  the  herbaijc,  and  causing  it  to  wither  for  want  of  nourishment.  They 
prefer  a  "soil  which  has  been  long  undisturbed  by  ilic  plow  ;  and  if  it  contains  some  portion  of 
peat  earth,  it  seems  thereby  better  adapted  to  their  tastes.  "  In  the  rich  district  of  Sunk  Island, 
in  Holdemess,  in  the  spring  of  1813,"  say  Messrs.  Kirby  and  Spence,  "hundreds  of  acres  of  pas- 
tures have  been  entirely  destroyed  by  them,  being  rendered  as  completely  brown,  as  if  they  had 
suffered  a  three  months"  drouth,  and  destitute  of  all  vegetation,  except  a  few  thistles.  A  square 
foot  of  the  dead  turf  being  dug  up,  210  grubs  were  counted  in  it ;  and  what  furnishes  a  striking 
proof  of  the  prolific  powers  of  these  insects,  last  year  it  was  diflicult  to  find  a  sinirle  one."'  '•  Al- 
ter mentioning  their  extensive  devastations,  it  may  occasion  surprise."  as  Mr.  Duncan  well  re- 
marks, "  to  be  told  that  many  eminent  ob.servers  are  of  opinion,  that  these  maggots  cat  nothing 
but  the  fine  mould  they  find  at  the  roots  of  plants,  and  that  the  injury  caused  to  the  latter  arises 
solelv  from  their  disturbing  the  soil,  and  preventing  the  rootlets  fixing  themselves.  Such  was  the 
opinion  of  Reaumur :  and  the  generality  of  subsequent  writers  on  the  subject  have  yielded  to 
his  authority.  •  -  Mr.  Stickney,  who  has  published  '  Ohferra/ions  on  the  Grub.'  made  some  ex- 
periments for  the  express  purpose  of  determining  this  point,  and  they  convinced  him  that  the 
larva?  devour  the  roots  of  grasses.  Indeed,  unless  this  were  the  case,  it  would  be  impossible  to 
account  for  the  herbage  withering  to  such  an  extent  in  places  where  the  maggots  prevail  ;  for 
this  could  never  arise  from  such  small  creatures,  even  though  very  numerous,  burrowing  in  and 
loosening  the  .wil.  When  earth-worms  are  plentiful,  they  must  produce  a  considerable  disturb- 
ance in  the  soil  by  their  winding  galleries;  but  these  so  far  from  retarding,  have  always  been 
regarded  as  promoting  the  growth  of  plants.  'The  grub  of  this  tipula,'  says  Mr.  Stickney,  as 
quoted  by  Mr.  Duncan,  •  commits  its  ravages  chiefly  in  the  first  crop,  after  the  breaking  up  of  the 
grass-land,  also  after  clover  and  beans  ;  the  fly  from  which  the  insect  is  produced  having  deposited 
its  eggs  in  the  soil  among  the  grass,  clover,  or  beans.  .  .  On  investigating  the  habits  of  this 
insect,  I  found  that  it  took  the  fly-state  about  the  beginning  of  the  month  of  August ;  I  therefore 
concluded,  as  we  got  our  clover-hay  from  the  land  a  little  after  midsummer  that,  if  we  plowed 
the  clover  stubble  any  time  after  that,  and  before  the  month  of  August,  it  would  be  nearly  free 
from  the  grub,  as  instinct  has  directed  the  fly  not  to  leave  its  eggs  upon  the  naked  soil  where  no 
vegetable  is  growing.  I  knew  of  no  application  to  the  land,'  adds  Mr.  Stickney,  '  that  will  in  any 
way  destroy  the  grub :  but  we  are  much  indebted  to  the  rook,  and  a  variety  of  other  birds,  for 
keeping  its  depredations  within  limited  grounds.'!  The  saturation  of  ^le  soil,"  concludes  Mr. 
Duncan,  '•  with  some  caustic  fluid,  seems  the  only  waj'  by  which  this  maggot  can  be  destroyed. 
The  perfect  insects  are  easily  caught ;  but  they  are  so  generally  distributed,  and  usually  so  plenti- 
ful, that  their  destruction  in  "this  way  would  be  a  hopeless  task. "J  The  rook  fCorriisfrvgile^usJ 
may  be  seen  busily  engaged  in  turning  over  everj'  loose  turf  clod  on  a  grubbed  field  of  oats,  af- 
ter the  young  crop  has  evidently  assumed  an  unhealthy  hue.  This  hue  should  not  be  mistaken 
for  the  yellowish  tint  exhibited  by  the  plant  when  the  support  derived  from  the  seed  is  exhaust- 
ed, and  before  the  rootlets  have  obtained  sufficient  scope  in  the  ground  to  maintain  the  plant 
The  grub  taint  is  of  a  bluish  and  reddish  tint,  and  many  of  the  plants  evidently  appear  to  be  dy- 
ing, and  the  consequence  is,  that  large  spaces  are  left  without  a  plant  The  usual  expedient  em- 
ployed by  the  farmer  is  rolling  the  ground,  especially  in  the  night ;  but  this  is  a  useless  remedy. 
Holes  have  been  recommended  to  be  made  a  few  inches  asunder  with  the  dibble,  into  which  the 
grubs,  it  is  said  will  fall  and  perish;  but  why  they  should  thus  die  when  they  can  penetrate  the- 
ground,  is  what  I  cannot  conceive.  The  ravages  are  generally  committed  in  dry  weather  with  an 
easterly  wind,  and  when  rain  falls  they  cease.  It  is  surprising  how  a  field  will  recover  fi-om  the 
effects  of  grubbing.  One  season  a  field  of  mine,  of  fine  deep  hazel  loam,  after  two  years  grass, 
was  dreadfully  grubbed,  and  after  trying  the  u.sual  remedies  to  get  quit  of  the  insects  without  ef- 
fect, a  rainy  night  silenced  them.  Most  of  the  field  appeared  bare  after  having  exhibited  a  beau- 
tiful braird,  but  on  the  plants  recjuiring  renewed  growth,  they  tillered  out  with  great  force,  and 
covered  the  ground  almost  as  thickly  as  desirable.  At  harvest  the  crop  was  a  very  strong  one 
the  straw  being  difficult  for  women  to  cut  with  a  common  sickle  ;  the  spikes  were  verj-  large  and 
full ;  the  stooks,  when  set  without  hood-sheaves,  stood  about  6  feet  in  bight,  and  the  yield  was 
not  less  than  60  bushels  to  the  imperial  acre.  On  good  soil  I  would  have  no  fear  of  potato  oats 
tillering  out  after  being  severely  grubbed,  sufficiently  to  afford  a  good  crop;  but  such  a  result 
should  not  be  expected  of  common  oats  upon  inferior  soil. 

(1824.)  [Crrniii  Drillinsr  Machines. — The  introduction  of  the  drill-system  into  the  agricultural 
practice  ot  any  country,  will  always  form  an  era  in  the  annals  of  its  Agriculture  :  but  it  is  often  a 
difiScult  matter  to  define  the  precise  time  of  its  introduction,  more  especially  when  we  find  that, 
by  tracing  backward  into  the  history  of  man  in  his  social  capacities,  the  practice  of  drilling  grain 
extends  backward  to  the  most  remote  antiquity.  A  curious  and  interesting  example  of  this,  in  an 
antiquarian  point  of  view,  is  to  be  seen  in  the  scries  of  Hindoo  models  of  agricultural  implements 
in  the  Museum  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  in  Edinburgh.  Among  them  is  to  be 
seen  a  correct  model  of  a  rudely  constructed  drill  machine  possessing  all  the  essential  points 
of  the  more  elaborate  modem  implement ;  and  among  a  people  so  little  liable  to  change,  there 

*  Kirby  and  Spence'g  Introduction  to  EnlomoloEy.  vol.  i. 

t  British  Farmer's  Magazine,  vol  vi.  JQuarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  xL 

(296> 


SOWING   OAT-SEED. 


153 


can  be  uo  doubt  that  the  machine  is  of  very  remote  Crispin,  compared  with  which,  the  earliest  of 
our  modern  drills  are  but  things  of  the  moment :  and  all  of  them,  of  whatever  degree  of  merit,  are 
but  improvements  on  the  Hindoo  original.  Among  the  early  notices  of  the  introduction  of  the 
system  in  England,  we  find  Amos*  recommending  it  as  early  as  ITS'}  as  the  result  of  numerous 
comparative  experiments ;  and  the  figures  which  he  gives  of  the  drill  sowing-machine,  which 
he  recommends  not  as  an  original  invention,  but  an  amplification  of  that  given  by  Duharael,  is  al- 
most identical  iu  ever}'  essential  point  with  the  most  approved  drill  sowing-machine  used  in  the 
present  day  in  England,  and  which  may  be  held  as  the  most  perfect  machine  of  its  kind  ;  but 
from  the  excessive  elaboration  employed  in  its  construction,  its  high  price  lays  an  interdict  upon 
it-<  introduction  into  the  economical  practice  of  Scotch  farming,  the  price  being  at  least  six  times 
that  of  the  common  drill  used  in  Scotland. 

11825.)  The  mode  of  distributing  the  seed  adopted  in  the  broadcast  sowing-machine,  from  the 
simplicity  of  the  principle,  opened  a  ready  means  of  acquiring  a  drill  sowing-machine  at  a  mode 
rale  price  ;  it  accordingly  quickly  followed  the  introduction  of  the  broadcast-machine,  and  until 
very  lately  no  change  of  importance  has  been  made  upon  ihe  common  Scotch  drill.  Slight  modi 
fications,  however,  had  been  eii'ected  occasionally,  such  as  varying  the  distance  between  the  rows, 
the  machine  always  covering  the  same  breadth,  but  varying  in  the  number  of  coulters.  Thus,  a 
machine  to  cover  7^  feet  in  breadth,  could  change  the  number  of  its  coulters  from  11  to  10,  9  or  8, 
the  spaces  between  the  rows  being  respectively  8,  9,  10,  and  11  inches,  or  thereby. 

(1826.)  The  Common  or  East  Lothian  Drill  Sowi/iir-Mrtchine,  has  been  here  taken  to  illustrate 
the  principles  of  the  machine.  Though  it  may  be  deficient  in  some  points  as  compared  with  those 
of  Berwickshire  and  B-oxburgshire,  yet  its  extreme  simplicity  and  cheapness  has  brought  it  into 

Fig.  329. 


SECTION    OF  THE  COMMON  DRILL  SOWING-MACHINE. 

very  extensive  adoption,  not  only  in  East  Lothian,  but  in  other  districts  where  the  drill-system  is 
followed.  Fig.  325,  Plate  XXVII,  is  a  view  in  perspective  of  this  machine,  and  for  the  better 
elucidation  of  its  construction,  the  annexed  cut,  fig.  329,  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  parts  in 
longitudinal  section,  and  for  convenience  of  reference  the  letters  mark  corresponding  parts  in  both 
figures.  The  figures  represent  a  machine  of  six  rows,  which  is  the  size  most  generally  used, 
chiefly  because  it  can  be  drawn  by  one  horse ;  but  also  in  the  event  of  its  being  employed  along 
swelling  ridges,  its  covering  but  a  small  breadth  secures  a  nearly  equal  depth  for  the  deposition 
of  the  seed,  which  cannot  be  easily  done  under  the  same  circumstances  if  the  machine  is  mounted 
with  a  greater  number  of  coulters.  But  it  follows  from  the  peculiarity  of  structure,  the  coulters 
being  permanently  fixed  in  position  for  the  depth  to  which  they  penetrate  the  soil,  that  the  ma- 
chine is  best  adapted  for  sowing  across  the  ridge.s,  and  hence  it  is  almost  invariably  worked  in 
that  direction,  though  when  worked  in  the  direction  of  the  ridge  the  breadth  covered  by  the  ma- 
chine is  equal  to  one-fourth  of  an  18-feet  ridge. 

(1827.)  In  the  construction,  a  is  a  bed-plank  5  feet  1  inch  in  length,  14  inches  in  breadth,  and 
2^  inches  in  thickness.  Across  the  ends  of  this  are  bolted  the  two  side  bars  b  b.  each  33  inches 
in  length,  2|  inches  in  depth,  and  2J  inches  in  breadth.  These  last  are  crossed  by  the  bar  m  m, 
bolted  to  the  side-bars,  serving  a  special  purpose,  to  be  afterward  noticed  ;  and  these  four  parts 
form  the  simple  frame-work  of  the  machine.  The  seed-chest  c  is  4  feet  8  inches  in  length,  placed 
between  the  side-bars  6,  and  attached  to  these  and  the  bed-plank.  The  chest  may  be  about  10 
inches  in  depth,  2^  inches  wide  at  bottom,  and  15  inches  at  top,  with  a  hinged  cover.  The  chest, 
so  mounted  with  the  seed-wheels  and  axle  g,  fig.  329,  and  with  side  plate,  lever,  and  adjusting 
screw  in  all  respects  similar  to  the  broadcast-machine  (1801),  except  that,  in  place  of  the  apron  on 
which  the  seed  falls  in  the  broadcast,  the  orifices  deliver  the  seed  directly  into  a  small  hopper- 
ehaped  aperture  formed  in  the  bed-plank,  immediately  under  the  orifice  i,  fig.  329.  The  carriage- 
wheels  d  d  axe  3  feet  1  inch  in  diameter ;  the  axle  of  one  of  them  is  seated  in  a  strong  bush  or 
plummer-block,  and  coupled  to  the  small  shaft  of  the  seed- wheels,  thereby  giving  them  the  re- 
quisite motion,  their  revolution  coinciding  with  that  of  the  wheels,  and  the  opposite  wheel  d  turns 

*  Theory  and  Practice  of  DriU-Husbandry.    By  William  Amos,  1802. 
(297) 


154 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


upon  an  axle  fixed  permanently  upon  Uie  bed  frame.  The  horse-shafts  e  are  jointed  to  the  bed 
plank  at  /;,  and  appear  broken  oft' at  f,  fig.  329,  by  strap-and  hook  hinges,  and  the  handles//  are 
bolted  to  the  lower  side  of  the  bed  plank.  The  coulters  k  k  consist  of  an  iron  shank  J  iucli  square, 
furnished  ai  the  lower  end  with  a  pointed  sheath  of  sheet  iron  about  1-10  inch  thick;  tlie  sides  of 
this  sheuth,  being  about  D  inches  broad,  and  ")  inches  or  more  in  bight  riveted  upon  the  bottom  of 
the  shank,  which  at  this  place  is  f()rj:,'ed  into  a  wedge  shape,  to  receive  the  sheath.  The  coulters  are 
fixed  at  loj)  in  mortises  cut  in  the  bed-plank,  and  lenced  with  plates  of  iron  above  and  below, 
where  they  are  secured  by  means  of  wedges;  and  they  are  farther  supported  by  the  coullerbar 

0.  seen  in  section  in  fig.  3.!!t.  This  bar  is  bolted  under  the  heel  of  the  handles,  and  to  it  the  coul- 
ters are  attached  by  eye-bolts.  The  seed  on  leaving  the  orifices,  falls  into  tlie  funnel-shaped  recep- 
tacle i  in  the  upper  side  of  the  bed  plank,  from  which  it  passes  down  the  tube  t  t  into  the  sheath  of 
the  coulter,  by  which  it  is  deposited  into  the  rut  formed  by  the  sheath. 

(1828.)  From  the  construction  and  action  of  this  machine,  and  the  resistance  of  the  soil  to  the 
passage  of  the  coulters  through  it,  there  is  a  constant  tendency,  produced  by  the  traction  of  the 
horse  when  the  machine  is  in  action,  to  elevate  the  extremity  of  the  handles;  and  by  thus  swing- 
ing upon  the  axle  of  the  wheels  the  coulters  are  withdrawn  from  their  action  on  the  soil,  and 
from  forminir  the  rut  for  the  reception  of  the  seed.  The  tendency  thus  produced  being  greater 
than  a  man  is  capable  of  continuing  to  contend  with,  is  counteracted  by  the  application  of  the 
balance-chain  /  /,  as  shown  in  fig.  3i9,  producing  a  change  of  direction  in  the  line  of  draught,  and 
of  the  point  of  attachment  of  the  draught.  In  this  machine  the  true  point  of  attachment 
is  in  the  hinge  h,  fig.  329 ;  and  the  tendency  of  the  draught,  when  applied  simply  to  this 
point,  is  to  cause  the  point  h  to  approach  an  imaginary  straight  line  lying  between  the 
horse's  shouldiT  and  the  point  of  resistance  at  lower  k  in  the  figure,  and  the  effect  of  this 
is  to  bring  h  forward  and  downward,  or  to  throw  lower  k  backward  till  it  loose  hold  of  the 
soil,  thereby  destroying  the  intended  effect  of  the  coulter.  The  counteraction  of  this  is  effected 
by  the  po.sitiou  of  the  balance  chain,  and  its  attachments  to  the  machine.  The  first  part  of  it  is  a 
simple  rod,  fixed  to  the  shafts  at  /,  and  to  the  extremity  of  a  pendant  attached  to  the  hind  bar  of 
the  shafts  at  h  ;  the  chain  then  passes  under  the  coulter-bar  o,  and  on  to  the  cross  bar  of  the  han- 
dles, as  seen  in  fig.  325,  Plate  XXVII.,  where  it  terminates  in  a  handle  furnished  with  a  spring- 
catch,  by  which  it  can  be  hooked  under  tension,  to  the  crossbar  of  the  handles,  or  by  disengaging 
the  catch,  the  chain  hangs  loose.  'When  the  chain  is  brought  under  tension,  and  the  shafts  borne 
up  by  the  horse,  the  resistance  to  the  coulters  is  transferred  to  the  back  of  the  horse,  through  the 
medium  of  the  chain  acting  on  the  shaft  at  the  point  /,  and  on  the  pendant  h,  the  point  of  which 
being  below  the  plane  of  the  shaft,  changes  the  direction  of  the  tractive  force  from  e  A  to  c  middle 

1,  and  leaves  the  handles  in  a  nearly  quiescent  state.  The  marker  »n  «  is  another  appendage  to 
the  machine,  which,  although  not  so  necessary  as  the  balance-chain,  is  generally  applied  to  this 
drill-machine,  especially  when  sowing  across  the  ridges.  It  consists  of  the  bar  to  to.  and  the 
marking-rod  to  h.  The  latter  is  swing-jointed  on  a  stud  fixed  in  the  ends  of  the  marker-bar  to  m, 
and  having  a  stop  on  the  joint,  by  which  cither  of  the  markers  can  be  retained  in  the  position  of 
that  on  the  further  side  of  fig.  325,  or  let  down,  as  in  that  of  the  nigh  side.  The  use  of  the  marker 
is  to  trace  a  line  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  parallel  to  the  direction  in  which  the  machine  trav- 
els, and  at  a  distance  from  the  middle  point  of  the  surface  covered  by  the  machine,  equal  to  the 
entire  breadth,  so  covered  ;  hence,  on  returning  to  sow  the  next  breadth,  the  horse  should  walk 
exactly  upon  the  line  drawn  by  the  marker.  In  sowing  with  the  machine  here  described,  the 
distance  from  line  to  line  will  be  4  feet  6  inches;  the  distance  between  the  rows  being  9  inches. 

.The  wheels  are  usually  set  54  inches  apart,  measuring  at  the  point  where  they  rest  on  the 
ground  ;  or  their  distance  in  any  machine  may  be  found  by  multiplying  the  number  of  coulters  by 
the  number  of  inches  given  to  the  interval  between  the  rows  or  coulters  ;  thus  six  coulters  of  9 
inches  interval,  give  6  X  9  =  54  inches.  From  the  construction  of  the  machine  it  is  found,  thai 
when  the  balance-chain  is  under  tension,  the  coulters  are  drawn  to  the  ground,  and  the  handles 
also  drawn  downward  ;  but  on  releasing  the  chain,  which  is  done  at  the  land-ends  and  turnings, 
the  conductor  must  support  the  handles  to  keep  the  coulter  from  the  ground,  and  in  this  state,  if 
the  handles  are  let  go  when  the  machine  is  standing,  the  coulter  will  pass  forward  and  the  han- 
dles will  fall  to  the  ground.  To  prevent  this  last  inconvenience,  a  crutch  is  usually  appended 
to  the  marker-bar,  which,  on  stopping,  is  allowed  to  drop  to  a  perpendicular  position,  resting  on 
the  ground,  and  thus  keeps  the  machine  upon  a  level.  This  appendage  not  being  of  much  im- 
portanc',',  is  left  out  of  the  figure. 

(1829.)  This  sowing-machine  has  been  long  and  successfully  manufactured  by  Scouler  and  Com- 
pany of  Haddington  ;  and  with  slight  variations  by  various  other  implement  makers,  as  Morton, 
Leith  Walk,  Kdinburgh  ;  James  Slight  and  Company,  Edinburgh,  &.C.  The  price  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  coulters,  from  i6  to  £10. 

(1830.)  To  render  the  expensive  English  drill  machines  Jwhich  we  have  omitted,  and  which 
cost  in  England  from  S.'iO  to  SOO,]  more  generally  useful,  it  is  not  an  uncommon  practice  in  Eng- 
land for  the  owner  of  one  to  travel  the  country  with  it  at  seed-time,  and  undertake  to  sow  the 
fields  of  any  farm,  where  the  farmer  may  choose  to  employ  him.  The  charge  is  usually  Ss.  6d.  per 
imperial  acre,  the  farmer  supplying  the  requisite  number  of  horses  to  work  the  drill,  and  under- 
taking to  deliver  it  at  the  farm  on  which  it  is  to  be  next  employed. 


(298) 


THE  LAMBING  OF  EWES.  155 


13.  THE  LAMBING  OF  EWES. 


"Ah  gentle  shepherd,  thine  the  lot  to  tend, 
Of  all  that  feel  distress  the  most  assailed, 
Feeble,  defenceless  ;  lenient  be  thy  care  ; 
But  spread  around  thy  tend'rest  diligence 
In  tlow'ry  spring-lime,  when  the  new  dropt  lamb, 
Tott'ring  with  weakness  by  his  mother's  side, 
Feels  the  fresh  world  about  him;  and  each  thorn, 
Hillock,  or  furrow,  trips  his  feeble  feet : 
O  guard  his  meek  sweet  innocence  fiom  all 
Th'  num'rous  ills  that  rush  around  his  life." 

Dyeb. 


(1831.)  Tlie  lambing  season  of  Leicester  and  other  heavy  breeds  of 
sheep,  reared  in  the  arable  part  of  the  country,  commences  about  the  11th 
of  March,  and  continues  for  about  the  space  of  3  weeks.  There  is  no 
labor  connected  with  the  duties  of  the  shepherd  which  puts  his  attention 
and  skill  to  so  severe  a  test  as  the  lambing  season  ;  and  a  shepherd  whose 
unwearied  attention  and  consummate  skill  become  conspicuous  at  that 
critical  period  of  his  flock's  existence,  is  an  invaluable  sei'vant  to  a  stock 
farmer — his  services,  in  fact,  are  worth  far  more  than  the  amount  of  wages 
he  receives  ;  for  such  a  man  will  save  the  value  of  his  wages  every  year, 
in  comparison  with  an  unskillful  shepherd,  and  especially  in  a  precarious 
season,  by  so  treating  both  the  ewe  and  lamb,  during  the  time,  and  for 
some  time  after  the  lambing  season,  that  the  lives  of  many  are  preserved 
that  would  otherwise  have  been  lost.  To  make  my  meaning  more  plain, 
suppose  a  shepherd  that  has  attentively  observed  the  tupping,  and  marked 
the  reckoning  of  every  ewe,  and  who  has  put  the  ewes  in  proper  time  in 
a  suitable  place  to  lamb  in — that  renders  them  requisite  assistance,  and 
no  more,  at  the  proper  instant  of  lambing,  and  treats  them  afterward  ac- 
cording to  the  circumstances  of  the  weather — that  sees  the  lamb  supplied 
with  milk  by  day  and  night,  when  its  mother  happens  to  be  unkind  to  it, 
or  feeds  it  with  milk  obtained  elsewhere,  when  the  ewe  has  too  scanty  a 
supply  to  support  it — that  knows  how  to  aiford  relief  to  the  ewe  in  case 
of  sickness  and  inflammation  after  lambing,  and  who  castrates  the  lamb  at 
the  proper  period  of  its  strength,  and  in  the  proper  state  of  the  weather — 
that  knows  the  manner  how,  and  the  time  when,  to  put  an  additional  lamb 
to  a  ewe  that  has  abundance  of  milk,  and  to  take  it  from  another  which  has 
too  little  for  a  pair — suppose  that  by  doing  all  this  in  a  skillful  manner, 
night  and  day,  until  the  lambing  is  not  only  entirely  completed,  but  the 
lambs  reared  beyond  danger,  he  saves  the  lives  of  10  ewes  worth  40s. 
each,  and  of  20  lambs,  that  will  come  to  be  worth  20s.  each,  and  this  is 
no  extravagant  supposition  in  a  large  standing  flock  of  fifteen  scores  of 
ewes,  it  is  clear  that,  in  so  doing,  he  will  save  his  wages  of  c£40.  Few 
shepherds  are  so  successful,  although  I  have  known  two  instances  of  such 
success  ;  and  no  better  proof  need  be  adduced  of  the  fewness  of  skillful 
shepherds,  than  the  loss  which  every  breeder  of  sheep  sustains  every  year, 
especially  in  bad  weather.  I  knew  a  shepherd  who  possessed  unwearied 
attention,  but  was  deficient  in  skill,  and  being  over-anxious,  always  assisted 
the  ewes  in  lambing  before  the  proper  time ;  and  as  he  kept  the  ewes  in 
too  high  condition,  the  consequence  was,  that  every  year  he  lost  a  number 
of  both  ewes  and  lambs,  and  in  one  season  of  bad  weather  the  ic«s  amount- 
ed to  the  large  number  of  26  ewes,  and  I  forget  of  how  many  lambs,  in  a 

(299) 


156  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

flock  of  only  10  scores  of  ewes.     I  knew  another  shepherd  who  was  far 
fi"om  being  solicitous  about  his  charge,  though  certainly  not  careless  of  it, 
yet  his  skill  was  so   undoubted   that   he  chiefly  depended  upon  it,  and  his 
success  was  so  eminent  that  the  loss  of  a  ewe  or  a  lamb  under  his  charge 
was  matter  of  suiprise.     Of  these  two  sorts  of  shepherds — tlie  attentive 
and  the  skillful — it  would   aj)pear  that  the   skillful  is   the  safer,   and  of 
course  the  n)ore  valuable',  though  it  must  be  owned  that  it  is  better  to  pre- 
vent evils  by  skillful  attention,  than  to  cure  them  by  attentive  skill;  yet  it 
is  only  by  the  union  of  both  these  qualities  that  a  perfect  shepherd  can  be 
formed.     In   contradistinction  to  a  skillful  shejiherd,  whose  qualifications 
have  been  just  noticed,  let  me  advert  to  a  few  particulars  mentioned  by 
Mr.  Price  as  occurring,  apparently  as  a  matter  of  course,  at  the  lambing 
season.    He  says  that  in  preparing  ewes  for  lambing.  "  the  ewes  are  driven 
into  a  pound,  and  the  looker  takes   them   singly,  throics  them  doicn,  and 
removes  with  the  shears  the  wool  on  their  tail,  udders,  and  inside  of  their 
thighs."     If  this  is  a  common  practice,  think  of  its  barbarity,  of  throwing 
down  a  ewe  on  the  ground  big  with  lamb,  nay,  on  the  eve  of  lambing,  in 
order  to  remove  a  trifling  impediment  to  the  lamb's  sucking,  which  can  be 
removed  at  any  time  after  lambing.     But  there  is  a  reason,  it  seems,  for 
this  treatment,  called  clatting,  and  it  is  this  :   "  The  removal  of  the  wool 
renders  the  pait  much  weaker," — neatness  of  appearance  being  preferred  at 
this  particular  time  to  the  comfort  and  ease  of  the  animal — "  and  enables 
the  lamber  to  see  ivhen  the  cioe  has  lamhed,  from  a  stain  which  generally 
appears  on  the  back  part  of  her  udder.    Were  not  this  appearance  to  take 
place,  the  lamber  would  sometimes  he  at  a  loss,  as  the  young  ewes  frequently 
desert  their  young,  and  endeavor  to  escape  along  with  the  other  ewes 
grazing  with  as  much  unconcern  as  if  nothing  had  happened."     Observe 
here  the  great  skill  and  attention  of  a  shepherd  who  is  at  a  loss  to  know 
whether  a  ewe  has  lambed  or  not ;  and  who,  it  seems,  does  not  even  know 
whether  a  ewe  is  in  lamb  or  not,  until  he  has  thrown  her  down  to  remove 
the  wool ;  for  "  the  barren  ewe,  or  those  which  are  not  pregnant,  are  dis- 
tinguished at  the  time  of  clatting  by  not  having  any  swelling  in  their  udder 
or  belly,  and  by  their  skipping  about  nimbly."      Think  also  of  what  sort 
of  care  is  bestowed  on  a  newly  lambed  flock  in  a  low  country,  when  such 
losses  as  these  are  incuired  :  "  I  have  known  thousands  of  lambs  lost  from 
being  drowned  in  a  wet  stormy  night;  I  once  beheld  30  or  more  lying 
together  drowned  in  a  ditch.     The  ewes  and  lambs  seek  the  corners  of 
pasture-fields  during  the  continuance  of  severe  weather,  and  when  the 
lambs  get  under  these  high  shores  and  fall  in,  it  is  utterly  impossible  for 
them  to  extricate  themselves  ;  besides,  as  there  are  many  huddled  together, 
they  often  push  one  another  in."     That  lambing  paddock  must  be  strangely 
managed  which  presents  such  a  scene  as  this  :  "  Lambing  presents  a  scene 
of  confusion,  disorder  and  trouble,  which  it  is  the  lamber's  business  to  rec- 
tify, and  for  which  he  ought  always  to  be   prepared  :  some  of  the  ewes 
perhaps   leave   their  lambs,  or  the  lambs  get  intermixed,   and  the  ewes 
which  have  lost  their  lambs  run  about  bleating,  while   others  want  assist- 
ance."    It  seems  a  shepherd  cannot  recognize  the  lambs  of  ewes,  and  so 
they  must  be  marked.      "The  twins  are  marked  with  a  mixture  of  tar  and 
lampblack,  by  means  of  small  figures  fixed  in  an  iron  handle  about  8  inches 
long;"  "and  the  twin  lambs  are  easily  separated,  for  the  ewe  very  frequently 
walks  away  with  one  Isimb,  leaving  the  other  in  the  field,  to  the  covfusion 
of  the  lamher ;  therefore  they  should  be  marked  as  early  as  possible  to  pre- 
vent this  confusion."     "  The  lamber  must  take  the  lamb  to  its  mother 
which  he  will  find  out  by  its  number;"  and  yet  the  number,  it  seems,  will 
not  always  enable  the  lamb  to  find  out  the  mother ;  for  "  if  the  lamber 
^300) 


THE  LAMBING  OF  EWES.  157 

finds  a  young  lamb,  and  is  not  certain  whicli  may  he  its  mother,  a  cii'cum- 
stance  which  sometimes  occurs  when  ewe's  drop  twins,  and  leave  one  of 
them,  he  may  readily  discover  her  by  taking  away  the  lamb  she  is  foster- 
ing, and  putting  the  doubtful  one  on  in  its  stead,  when  she  will  display 
evident  tokens  whether  it  belongs  to  her."  This  method  of  trial  and  error 
the  shepherd  may  have,  of  course,  to  put  to  every  ewe  before  he  dis- 
covers the  ti'ue  mother;  for  as  he  knows  neither  the  mother  nor  the 
lamb,  the  lamb  may  chance  to  belong  to  a  ewe  which  has  a  single  lamb  as 
well  as  to  one  which  has  twins,  unless  the  single  lambs  are  left  unmarked ; 
or,  at  any  rate,  he  may  present  the  marked  and  known-to-be-a-twin  lamb 
to  a  ewe  that  has  a  single  one,  as  readily  as  to  one  that  has  twins.  It  will 
excite  no  surprise  to  learn  that  with  shepherds  so  wretchedly  qualified  foi 
their  profession  as  the  above  particulars  show,  in  "  most  years  not  more 
lambs  than  one  to  each  ewe"  were  obtained ;  and  that  out  of  800  ewes 
of  a  certain  flock  only  100  pairs  were  saved,  though  it  is  stated  by  Mr. 
Price  that  with  more  skill  afterward  the  number  of  pairs  increased  to 
200.  Here,  then,  is  an  instance  where  the  improved  skill  of  one  man 
saved  the  lives  of  200  lambs,  which  would  come  to  be  worth  £200,  equal- 
ing the  wages  of  at  least  4  good  shepherds.*  I  would  not  have  noticed 
these  egregious  blunders,  said  by  Mr.  Price  to  be  committed  by  shepherds 
in  a  low  country  like  Romijey  Marsh,  in  Kent,  so  prominently,  had  not  Mr. 
Youatt  adopted  the  sentiments  of  Mr.  Price  in  the  very  particulars  quoted 
above,  in  his  excellent  treatise  on  the  history  and  diseases  of  sheep.t  Were 
a  shepherd  of  a  Leicester  flock  in  Scotland  made  aware  that  he  was  sus 
pected  of  such  ignorance  of  the  nature  of  sheep  he  would  be  quite  ashamed; 
and  so  would  shepherds  even  of  the  hill  country,  who  cannot  have  so  inti 
mate  a  knowledge  of  every  individual  of  their  flock,  usually  toccuying  a 
wide  range  of  mountain  land,  as  their  brethren  of  the  profession  tending 
flocks  within  much  more  limited  bounds. 

(1832.)  Before  the  season  of  lambing  an'ives,  the  shepherd  should  have 
a  small  field  of  1  or  2  acres  or  a  sheltered  corner  of  a  grass-field  of  like 
size,  conveniently  situated  as  near  the  steading  as  possible,  fenced  round  with 
nets,  and  fitted  up  with  sheds  made  of  hurdles  set  up  in  the  most  sheltered 
part,  against  a  wall  or  hedge,  and  lined  in  the  inside  and  comfortably 
roofed  with  straw.  Such  straw-sheds  form  most  comfortable  places  of 
refuge  for  ewes  that  may  lamb  in  the  night,  or  that  have  lambed  in  the 
day,  and  require  protection  from  frost,  snow,  rain,  or  cold  in  the  night,  until 
the  ewes  are  perfectly  recovered  from  lambing,  and  the  lambs  sufficiently 
strong  to  bear  the  weather  in  the  open  field.  The  small  hand  tumip-slicer, 
fig.  245,  will  be  found  on  such  occasions  a  very  convenient  instrument,  for 
cutting  turnips  in  such  turnip-troughs  as  fig.  225,  for  the  ewes  in  the  pad- 
dock, or  in  small  boxes  for  them  in  the  shed.  Common  kale  or  curly-greens 
is  excellent  food  for  ewes  that  have  lambed,  the  nuti'itive  matter  of  which, 
being  mucilaginous,  is  wholly  soluble  in  water,  and  beneficial  in  encourag- 
ing the  necessary  discharges  of  the  ewe  at  the  time  of  lambing.  According 
to  the  late  Geo.  Sinclair,  1  lb.,  or  7,000  grains  of  green  curled  kale,  {Brassi- 
ca  oleracea  viridis,)  yields  5,680  grains  of  water,  880  grains  of  wood  fibre, 
and  440  grains  of  nutritive  matter,  which  last  is  all  soluble  in  water.f  In 
these  respects  kale  is  better  food  for  ewes  after  lambing  than  Swedish  tur- 
nips, which  become  rather  too  fibrous  and  astringent  in  spring  for  the  se- 
cretion of  milk.  A  large  lantern  which  sheds  plenty  of  light  is  an  essen 
tial  article  of  furniture  at  night  to  a  shepherd.  As  foxes  are  apt  to  snatch 
away  young  lambs  at  night  even  close  to  the  lambing-houses,  I  have  found 

-  Price  on  Sheep.  t  Youatt  on  Sheep. 

J  Sinclair'a  Hortus  Gramineus  Woburnensis,  edition  of  1824. 
(301) 


158  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


an  effectual  preventive  to  their  depredations  in  setting  a  shep-net,  as  in  fig. 
217,  in  front  of  the  lambing-houses,  leaving  a  sufficient  space  for  a  few 
ewes  with  their  lambs  taking  up  their  lair  within  the  net.  When  thus 
guarded,  the  foxes  are  afraid  to  enter  the  net,  being  apprehensive  that  it 
is  set  as  a  trap  to  ensnare  them.  Such  an  expedient  is  even  more  neces- 
sary in  the  corner  of  the  field  chosen  for  the  lambing-ground.  A  large 
lantern  fixed  on  a  stake  within  the  lambing-ground,  and  so  placed  as  to 
throw  light  upon  the  whole  ground,  will  be  found  a  useful  assistance 
to  the  shepherd  in  showing  him  the  ewes  that  evince  symptoms  of 
lambing.  A  net  and  lantern  are  also  good  safeguards  against  foxes  at 
night  in  the  grass-field  where  the  recovered  ewes  with  their  lambs  should 
be  gathered  for  the  night.  This  expedient  of  net  and  lantern  I  was  in- 
duced to  try  after  losing,  for  a  year  or  two,  several  lambs  by  the  fox  ;  and 
such  was  its  efficacy  in  deterring  that  nightly  prowler  from  visiting  the 
lair  of  ewes  and  lambs,  that  not  a  lamb  was  lost  ever  after.  A  fox  will  not 
meddle  with  a  lamb  above  a  month  old. 

(1833.)  Being  thus  amply  provided  with  the  means  of  accommodation, 
the  shepherd,  whenever  he  observes  the  predisposing  symptoms  of  lambing 
in  as  many  ewes  as  he  knows  will  lamb  first — and  these  symptoms  are,  en- 
largement and  reddening  of  the  parts  under  the  tail,  and  drooping  of  the 
flanks — he  places  them  of  an  afternoon,  within  the  enclosed  lambing- 
gr(jund  in  the  paddock  or  field,  as  described  above,  and  provides  them 
with  cut  turnips.  The  more  immediate  symtoms  of  lambing  are  when  the 
ewe  stretches  herself  frequently  ;  separating  herself  from  her  companions  ; 
exhibiting  restlessness  by  not  remaining  in  one  place  for  any  length  of  time  ; 
lying  down  and  rising  up  again,  as  if  dissatisfied  with  the  place;  pawingthe 
ground  with  a  fore-foot ;  bleating  as  if  in  quest  of  a  lamb;  and  appearing 
fond  of  the  lambs  of  other  ewes.  In  a  very  few  hours,  or  even  shorter  time, 
after  the  exhibition  of  these  symptoms,  the  immediate  symptom  of  lamb- 
ing is  the  expulsion  of  the  bag  of  water  from  the  vagina,  which,  when  ob- 
served, the  ewe  should  be  narrowly  watched,  for  the  pains  of  labor  may 
be  expected  to  come  on  immediately.  When  these  are  felt  by  her,  the 
ewe  presses  or  forces  with  earnestness,  changing  one  place  or  position  for 
another,  as  if  desirous  of  relief  Up  to  this  time,  not  ahand  should  be  put 
upon  her,  nor  until  the  hoofs  of  the  fore-feet  of  the  lamb,  and  its  mouth 
lying  upon  them,  are  distinctly  seen  to  present  themselves  in  the  passage. 

(1834.)  The  natural  presentation  of  the  lamb  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
calf,  described  in  (1653).  When  time  has  been  given  to  obsene  that  the 
ewe  is  not  able  to  expel  the  lamb  by  her  own  exertions,  it  is  the  duty  of 
the  shepherd  to  render  her  assistance,  before  her  strength  fails  by  unavail- 
ing pressing.  The  exact  moment  for  rendering  assistance  can  only  be 
known  by  experience  ;  but  it  is  necessary  for  a  shepherd  to  know  it,  as 
there  is  no  doubt  that  hasty  parturition  often  superinduces  inflammation, 
if  not  of  the  womb  itself,  at  least  of  all  the  external  parts.  When  assist- 
ance should  be  rendered,  the  ewe  is  laid  gently  over  upon  the  ground  on 
her  near  or  left  side,  and  her  head  a  little  up  the  hill ;  and  to  prevent  her 
being  dragged  on  the  ground  when  the  lamb  is  being  extracted,  the  shep- 
herd places  the  heel  of  his  left  foot  against  the  belly  of  the  ewe,  and  kneels 
on  his  right  knee  on  the  ground  across  the  body  of  the  ewe,  which  lies  be- 
tween his  heel  and  knee,  with  his  knee  pressing  against  her  rump.  Hav- 
inrr  both  his  hands  free,  and  his  face  toward  the  tail  of  the  ewe,  he  first 
proceeds  to  push  out  from  him,  with  both  hands,  one  leg  of  the  lamb  and 
then  the  other,  as  far  as  they  will  go  ;  then  seizing  both  legs  firmly,  above 
the  fetlock  joints,  between  the  fingers  of  his  left  hand,  he  pushes  them  from 
him  downward  from  the   ewe's  back,   with   considerable   force,  while  by 

(302) 


THE   LAMBING   OF  EWES.  159 

pushing  in  the   space  between  the  tail  of  the  ewe   and  the  head  of  the 
lamb  toward  him,  with  the  side  of  his  right  hand,  he  endeavors  to  slip  the 
the  vulva  of  the  ewe  over  the  cantle  of  the  lamb.     These  pushes  are  only- 
given  simultaneously  with  the  pressing  of  the  ewe,  merely  to  assist  her,  and 
keep  good  what  is  obtained  at  each  pressing,  and  not,  as  it  were,  to  tear 
the  lamb  from  her  perforce.     Whenever  the  head  is  cleared,  the  shepherd 
seizes  the  neck  of  the  lamb  behind  the  head  with  the  right  hand,  and  pulls 
out  the  body.     The  lamb  is  then  placed  at  the  ewe's  head,  for  her  to  lick 
and  i-ecognize,  which  she  will  instantly  do,  if  her  labor  has  not  been  se- 
vei'e  ;  but  if  it  has  she  will  likely  become  sick,  and  be  careless  of  the  lamb 
as  long  as  the  sickness  continues,  which  is  evinced  by  quick  breathing.  If 
the  pains  have  been  very  sharp,  and  thisher  first  lamb,  and  she  is  not  over- 
come by  sickness,  she  may  start  to  her  feet,  and  run  away  from  the  lamb. 
The  attempt  should,  of  course,  be  prevented,  and  the  tail  of  the  lamb  put 
into  her  mouth  to  make  her  notice  it.     While  still  lying  on  her  side,  her 
abdomen  should  be  felt,  to  ascertain  if  there  is  another  lamb  to  come  ;  and 
if  there  is,  the  pains  accompanying  its  passage  may  have  been  the  cause 
of  her  carelessness  for  the  first  lamb  ;  and  if  the  second  one  is  in  natural 
position,  it  will  most  probably  by  this  time  be  showing  itself  in  the  passage, 
and  if  this  be  the  case,  the  best  plan  is   to  take  it  away  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  first,  and  the  ewe  feeling  the  attempt,  will  at  once  assist  on  her 
part  by  pressing.     The  existence  of  a  second  lamb  is  worth  attending  to 
on  another  account,  inasmuch  as  some  ewes  become  so  engi'ossed  with  the 
first  lamb,  that  the  pains  attending  the  second  are  neglected  by  them,  and 
they  will  indicate  no  signs  of  it  for  a  time.     When  a  second  is  found  in  her 
she  must  be  watched,  that  whenever  it  comes  into  the  passage,  it  may  be 
taken  away;  butunlesss  it  actually  makes  its  appearance   there,  it  should 
not  be  attempted  to  be  taken  away.     Should  it  not  make  its  appearance  in 
a  reasonable  time,  it  may  be  suspected  that  the  lamb  is  either  dead,  or  not 
in  a  natural  position,  and  examination  should  be  made  by  the  fingers  into 
the  state  of  the  case.     A  dead  lamb  is  easily  known  by  the  feel,  and  should 
be  extracted  immediately,  as  it  can  afford  no  assistance  of  itself ;  but  should 
the  lamb  be  alive,  it  may  be  necessary  to  introduce  the  hand  to  ascertain 
its  position.     Before  the  hand  is  introduced,  it  should  be  smeared  over 
with  goose  grease.     If  the  head  is  bent  back,  it  must  be  placed  straight,  or 
if  one  leg  or  both  be  folded  back,  they  must  be   brought  forward,  one  by 
one,  into  the  proper  position.     In  short,  all  the  presentations  offered  by  a 
lamb  require  the  same  means  to  be  used  to  place  them  in  a  proper  posi- 
tion, as  in  the  case   of  a  calf;  but  with  a  Leicester  ewe  there  is  the   addi- 
tional difficulty  of  two,  and  even  more,  lambs  at   a  birth,  and  mistaking  a 
leg  of  one  lamb  for  that  of  another.     The  method  of  extracting  a  lamb  as 
described  above,  is  adopted  by  a  shepherd  who  has  no  assistants;  but  when 
he  has  assistance,  he  adopts  another  and  more  easy  plan  for  himself.    The 
assistant  holds  the  ewe  in  any  way  the   most  easy  for  her  and  himself,  so 
as  to  prevent  the  body  being  dragged  along  the  ground  while  the  shepherd 
is  extracting  the  lamb,  which  he  does  by  placing  himself  behind  the  ewe, 
and  performs  the  extraction  by  pulling  the  legs  toward  him,  while   the  as- 
sistant endeavors  to  make  the  vaginal  skin  pass   over  the  lamb's  head, 
which,  when  accorapUshed,  the  shepherd  seizes  the  neck  by  his  left  hand, 
and  holds  the  legs  still  in  his  right,  takes  away  the   lamb  as  quickly  as  he 
can,  and  places  it  before  the  ewe.     There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  dis- 
position of  ewes  to  assist  in  lambing.     Some,  when  they  find  they  are  as- 
sisted, give  themselves  httle  trouble  ;   while   others   press  with  vigor  from 
first  to  last;  and  others  only  press  at  long  intei-vals.     A  ewe  that  presses 
strongly  and  continuously,  will  become  sooner  exhausted  than   one  that 

1303) 


160  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

takes  more  leisure,  and  in  the  former  case  there  is  more  danger  in  neglect 
ing  to  make  examination  ol'  the  presentation  in  time,  that  is,  before  the 
ewe  has  become  exhausted.  I  remember  of  seeing  a  lamb's  head  without 
any  of  the  legs  protruded  by  the  ewe,  and,  being  allowed  to  remain  in  that 
state  too  long,  the  lamb  was  found  strangled  to  death  by  the  force  of 
pressing.  This  was  a  case  of  neglect,  as  the  head  should  not  have  been 
allowed  to  come  out  without  one  accompanying  leg  at  least.  I  remember 
of  another  case  in  which  there  was  no  appearance  of  a  lamb,  though  the 
ewe  had  pressed  for  a  consideiable  time.  On  examination  it  was  found 
that  the  mouth  of  the  womb  was  closed  up.  Inflammation  had  no  doubt 
at  one  time  existed,  and  a  discharge  of  lymph  had  caused  adhesion.  The 
shepherd,  nothing  daunted,  very  ingeniously  introduced,  in  his  smeared 
hand,  a  pen-knife,  between  the  middle  and  fore-finger,  and  cut  an  incision 
across  the  pursed  mouth  of  the  womb,  and  thereby  liberated  two  lambs, 
and  the  ewe  was  not  at  all  the  worse  for  the  operation. 

(1835.)  When  lambing  has  taken  place  in  the  day,  the  ewe  with  her 
lambs  are  best  at  liberty  within  the  inclosed  area  of  the  lambing  ground, 
but  in  rain  or  snow,  she  should  be  taken  under  shelter  to  lamb,  and  kept 
there  for  some  time  until  the  weather  prove  better,  or  she  be  completely 
recovered  from  the  effects  of  paiturition.  Should  she  lamb  at  night,  it 
should  be  under  cover,  whatever  may  be  the  slate  of  the  weather.  In  the 
day,  it  matters  not  for  lambs  how  cold  the  air  is,  provided  it  is  dry.  The 
cleaning  or  placenta  generally  drops  from  the  ewe  in  the  course  of  a  very 
short  time,  in  many  cases  within  a  few  minutes,  after  lambing.  It  should 
be  carried  away,  and  not  allowed  to  lie  upon  the  lambing  ground.  The 
lamb  is  fondly  licked  by  the  ewe  at  first,  and  during  this  process  makes 
many  fruitless  attempts  to  gain  its  feet,  but  it  is  surprising  how  very 
soon  after  an  easy  lartli  it  can  stand ;  and  the  moment  it  does  so,  its  first 
effort  is  to  find  out  the  teat,  expressing  its  desire  for  it,  by  imitating  the 
act  of  sucking  with  its  lips  and  tongue,  uttering  a  plaintive  cry,  and  wag- 
ging its  long  tail.  It  is  considered  a  good  sign  of  health  when  a  lamb 
trembles  after  biith.  There  are  various  obstacles  to  its  finding  the  teat  at 
first ;  the  long  wool  on  the  ewe's  flank  hides  it,  the  wool  on  the  udder  in- 
terferes with  it,  and  what  is  still  more  tantalizing  to  the  anxious  toper,  the 
intense  fondness  of  its  own  mother  urges  her  to  turn  herself  to  fondle  it 
with  her  mouth — uttering  affectionate  regards — but  the  motion  has  the  ef- 
fect of  removing  the  teat,  the  veiy  object  of  its  solicitude.  When  at  length 
a  hold  of  what  it  wants  is  attained,  it  does  not  easily  let  it  go  until  satis- 
fied with  a  good  drink.  When  a  fond  ewe  has  twin  lambs,  one  can  easily 
obtain  the  teat,  while  she  is  taken  up  in  caressing  the  other.  This  is  the 
usual  conduct  of  strong  lambs ;  and  on  once  being  filled  with  warm  milk, 
progress  rapidly  to  increasing  strength,  and  are  soon  able  to  bear  very  rough 
weather.  But  lambs  after  a  protracted  labor,  or  the  first  lamb  of  young  ewes, 
are  so  weakly  at  first  as  to  be  unable  to  reach  the  teat  by  their  own  strength, 
when  they  must  be  assisted,  and  the  assistance  is  given  in  this  way.  Turn- 
ing the  ewe  over  upon  her  rump,  the  shepherd  reclines  her  back  against 
his  left  leg,  which  is  bent,  while  he  supports  himself  kneeling  on  the  light 
one.  Removing  any  wool  from  the  udder  by  the  hand,  and  which  is  all 
that  is  necessary,  without  clatting  or  doddcrinp,  as  it  is  called  in  Scotland, 
he  first  presses  the  wax  out  of  the  teats,  and  then  takes  a  lamb  in  each 
hand,  by  the  neck,  and  opens  the  mouth  with  a  finger,  and  applies  the 
mouth  to  a  teat,  when  the  sucking  proceeds  with  vigor.  A  young  ewe  or 
gimmer  is  apt  to  be  shy  to  her  first  lamb ;  but  after  she  has  been  suckled, 
either  in  this  or  in  the  natural  way,  she  will  never  forsake  her  offspring. 
Indeed,  it  is  a  good  plan  for  a  shepherd  to  give  every  lamb  its  first  suck 

(304) 


THE  LAMBING   OF  EWES.  161 


in  this  way,  as  it  not  only  saves  it  much  trouble,  and  puts  it  in  the  way  of 
gaining  strength  rapidly,  but  affojds  Inmself  a  favorable  opportunity  of  ex- 
amining the  state  of  the  udder,  whether  it  is  in  a  proper  state  for  yielding 
milk,  or  feels  hard,  or  is  inflamed.  The  proper  treatment  of  the  udder 
when  in  an  inflamed  state  will  be  found  below.  Gimmers  have  so  scanty 
a  supply  of  milk  that  it  is  expedient  for  the  shepherd  to  support  their 
lambs  partially  on  cow's  milk,  until  they  can  afford  the  requisite  supply, 
which  will  be  induced  partly  by  suckling,  and  partly  from  new  grass. 
When  the  shepherd  has  lambs  to  support  for  a  short  time,  he  should 
supply  them  with  milk  at  regular  times,  such  as  in  the  moniing  and 
evening,  and  see  that  the  lambs  are  suckled  by  their  mothers  during  the 
day,  and  thus  endeavor  to  bring  on  a  suflRciency  of  milk.  The  dairy- 
maid should  put  the  cow's  milk  for  the  shepherd  in  bottles,  at  the  hours 
when  the  cows  are  milked,  in  the  morning  and  evening,  and  he  adminis- 
ters it  to  young  lambs  while  warm  from  the  cow,  and  it  is  done  in  this 
way  :  Sitting  down,  let  him  take  a  mouthfull  of  milk  from  a  bottle,  and 
holding  up  the  open  mouth  of  the  lamb,  he  pours  the  warm  milk  into  it  in 
a  small  stream  from  his  mouth  ;  and  thus  mouthfull  after  mouthfull  until 
the  lamb  is  filled.  This  auxiliary  supply  of  milk  should  be  withheld  the 
moment  the  ewe  can  support  her  lambs  herself,  for  cow's  milk  is  not  so 
congenial  to  a  lamb's  constitution  as  that  of  its  own  mother.  The  ewes 
are  kept  on  the  lambing  ground  till  they  have  completely  recovered  from 
the  effects  of  lambing  and  the  lambs  have  become  strong,  and  the  ewes 
and  lambs  have  become  well  acquainted  with  each  other.  The  time  re- 
quired to  accomplish  this  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  lambing,  and  the 
stale  of  the  weather.  The  ewes,  with  their  lambs,  are  then  put  into  a  field 
of  new  grass,  where  the  milk  will  flush  upon  the  ewes,  much  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  lambs.  It  is  generally  a  troublesome  matter  to  drive  ewes 
with  young  lambs  to  any  distance  to  a  field,  because  of  the  ewes  always 
turning  round  and  bewildering  the  lambs.  A  dog  more  frequently  irri- 
tates the  ewes  than  assists  the  shepherd  in  this  task.  I  believe  the  best 
plan  is  to  lead  the  flock  instead  of  driving  it,  by  canying  a  single  lamb, 
belonging  to  an  old  ewe,  by  the  fore  legs,  which  is  the  safest  mode  of 
carrying  a  lamb,  and  walking  slowly  with  it  before  the  ewe,  while  she  will 
follow  bleating  close  at  the  shepherd's  heels,  and  the  rest  of  the  ewes  will 
follow  her  of  course.  If  the  distance  to  the  field  is  considerable,  the  de- 
coy lamb  should  be  set  down  to  suck  and  rest.  With  plenty  of  food,  and 
a  safeguard  of  net  and  lantern  at  their  lair  at  night,  to  keep  off"  the  foxes. 
the  flock  will  not  fail  to  thrive  apace.  In  case  this  safeguard  is  not  adopt- 
ed, and  which  I  believe  is  rare,  it  may  be  proper  to  tell  you  the  distinctive 
maiks  of  the  attacks  of  a  dog  from  that  of  foxes  on  a  lamb  flock.  The 
fox  always  attacks  a  lamb  on  the  neck  behind  the  head,  and,  if  scared  from 
his  purpose,  distinct  holes  made  by  the  teeth  will  be  found  on  each  side 
of  the  neck,  whereas  a  dog  seizes  any  part  of  the  body,  and  worries  by  the 
under  part  of  the  neck.  Some  ewes  will  fight  off*  either  dog  or  fox,  and 
be  able  to  protect  a  single  lamb  ;  while  others  become  so  frightened  at 
once  from  an  attack,  that  they  do  not  know  whither  to  flee  for  refuge. 
After  such  an  attack,  the  bleatings  of  the  ewes  and  lambs  in  search  of 
each  other,  which  is  an  unusual  occuiTence  at  night,  will  soon  acquaint 
the  shepherd  that  some  disaster  has  happened  to  his  flock.  The  fox,  if  not 
immediately  disturbed,  cairies  off"  his  prey,  while  the  dog  womes  and 
leaves  behind  him  what  he  does  not  eat. 

(1836.)  All  the  preceding  cases  of  lambing  are  easy  to  the  shepherd, 
but  others  usually  occur  which  put  his  skill  to  the  test.  Malformations  of 
the  body  of  the  lamb  create  difficult  parturition,  and  endanger  the  life  of 

(305) 11 


162  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


the  ewe.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  bring  the  head  of  a  wry-necked  lamb 
into  the  passage  of  the  womb,  but  it  must  be  done  before  the  entire  body 
can  be  extracted,  and  if  not,  the  head  of  the  lamb  should  be  taken  off 
rather  than  the  ewe  should  lose  her  life.  Sometimes  twin  laml«  die  in 
the  womb  several  days  before  the  period  of  lambing,  and  as  they  cannot 
present  themselves  to  the  birth,  they  must  be  extracted  by  force,  or  even 
cut  away  in  pieces,  or  they  may  be  pulled  away  in  pieces.  In  such  a  case 
the  placenta  will  be  corrupted,  and  it  may  be  a  considerable  time  before 
it  is  entirely  got  rid  of  by  the  ewe  by  pressing.  I  have  seen  it  so  corrupt- 
ed that  it  came  away  in  discharges  from  the  ewe  as  black  and  as  viscid  as 
tar.  When  twins  are  about  to  be  lambed,  the  only  care  required  is  to 
ascertain  that  each  is  presented  separately.  A  breech  presentation  is  a 
difficult  one,  and  the  extraction  is  impracticable  until  the  hind-legs  are 
first  brouorht  out ;  and  in  extracting  by  the  breech,  the  operation  should 
be  done  quickly  at  the  last  to  prevent  the  lamb  drowning  in  the  liquor 
amnii.  In  all  cases  of  extraction,  it  should  be  made  a  point  to  have  the 
back  of  the  lamb  next  to  the  back  of  the  ewe. 

(1S37.)  Much  trouble  is  experienced  by  shepherds  when  ewes  will  not 
take  their  own  lambs.  A  ewe  that  beats  off  her  own  single  lamb  and  en- 
deavors to  purloin  one  from  another  ewe,  should  be  immediately  put  into 
the  shed  and  confined  to  a  spot  by  a  short  string  tied  above  the  fetlock 
joint  of  one  of  her  fore-legs  to  a  stub  dnven  into  the  ground.  AVhen  she 
endeavors  to  leave  her  lamb,  the  string  pulls  her  foot  off  the  ground,  and 
while  her  attention  is  taken  up  with  the  string,  the  lamb  seizes  the  teat 
and  sucks  in  the  mean  time.  The  stratagem  often  repeated  takes  the 
courage  from  her,  and  makes  her  take  with  the  lamb.  Tn  every  case  of  a 
ewe  refusing  to  let  her  lamb  suck,  the  shepherd  should  particularly  exam- 
ine the  udder,  and  see  there  is  no  inflammation  or  uneasiness  in  it ;  and 
if  there  is,  he  should  endeavor  to  remove  it  before  putting  the  ewe  under 
discipline.  It  is  surprising  how  soon  a  lamb  learns  to  steal  a  suck  from  a 
ewe  ;  if  it  cannot  approach  by  the  flank,  it  will  seize  the  teat  from  behind 
between  the  hind  legs.  When  a  ewe  will  allow  but  one  of  her  twins  to 
suck  her,  she  should  be  held  till  both  suck  her,  and  in  a  little  time  she  will 
take  with  both.  It  is  not  suiprising  that  one  ewe  should  refuse  to  take 
the  lamb  of  another  ;  and  yet  it  is  necessary  when  a  lamb  is  left  an  orphan, 
or  is  a  supernumerary,  to  mother  it,  as  it  is  termed,  upon  another  ewe. 
For  example,  when  a  gimmer  that  has  little  milk  has  twins  at  a  time  when 
another  ewe  that  has  plenty  of  milk  produces  a  single  lamb,  it  is  for  the 
benefit  of  both  ewe  and  lamb  that  the  ewe  which  has  plenty  of  milk 
should  bring  up  two  lambs ;  and  the  transference  is  easily  enough  accom- 
plished while  all  the  lambs  are  still  wet,  and  two  of  them  are  placed  be- 
fore the  ewe  at  once  ;  but  when  a  ewe  does  not  die  till  two  or  three  days 
after  she  has  lambed,  it  will  be  difficult  to  make  another  ewe  that  lambs  a 
single  lamb,  as  the  other  ewe  dies,  take  the  older  lamb  along  with  her 
own.  The  usual  plan  in  such  a  case  is  to  rub  the  body  of  the  older  lamb 
with  the  new  dropped  one,  before  the  new  lambed  ewe  has  had  an  op- 
portunity of  recognizing  her  own  lamb,  and  to  place  both  before  her  at  the 
same  time  ;  and  she  may  take  both  without  scruple  ;  but  the  probability 
is  that  she  will  reject  the  older  one,  when  she  should  be  put  into  a  dark 
corner  of  the  shed  and  confined  in  it  by  a  board  placed  across  the  comer, 
only  giving  her  room  to  rise  up  and  lie  down,  and  to  eat,  but  not  to  turn 
quickly  round  upon  the  stranger  lamb,  which,  rubbing  against  her  wool, 
and  sucking  her  against  her  inclination,  will  soon  acquire  the  odor  of  her 
own  lamb,  and  ingratiate  itself  in  her  favor.  Another  case  of  difficulty  is 
when  a  twin  lamb  dies  at  birth  from  a  ewe  that  has  plenty  of  milk,  while 

(306) 


THE  LAMBING   OF  EWES.  163 

another  ewe  has  had  twins  and  is  unable  to  support  them  ;  and  the  expe- 
dient is  to  strip  the  skin  immediately  off  the  new-born  dead  lamb  and  sew 
it  on  the  body  of  one  of  the  lambs  belonging  to  the  other  ewe,  and  pre- 
sent both  the  foster-lamb  and  her  own  at  the  same  time  to  the  ewe  that 
has  plenty  of  milk.  It  is  probable  that  the  dark  corner  will  require  to  be 
used  before  a  cordial  reception  is  given  to  the  foster-lamb.  Should  all  the 
above  expedients  fail  to  mother  the  lambs  upon  the  ewes — and  they  may 
fail,  though  under  the  guidance  of  a  skillful  shepherd  they  seldom  do — 
the  lambs  should  be  taken  away  and  brought  up  as  jjets  on  cow's  milk. 

(1838.)  The  lamb  of  a  fat  ewe  is  always  small  when  lambed,  and  is 
plump  and  lively,  but  the  ewe  in  that  state  runs  a  great  risk  in  lambing  of 
inflammation  in  the  passage  of  the  womb.  A  lean  ewe  bears  a  lamb  large 
in  the  extremities,  and  thin  and  weak  in  the  body.  A  very  old  ewe's  lamb 
is  both  small  and  weak.  The  lamb  of  a  gimmer  is  small,  and  she  not  hav- 
ing sufficient  milk  to  rear  it,  continues  small ;  and  the  lamb  of  a  hogg  is 
still  worse  off.  The  best  plan  of  managing  ewes  for  rearing  good  lambs, 
is  to  keep  them  always  in  fair  condition  in  winter,  and  until  they  have 
lambed,  after  which  event  they  should  have  the  best  grass  the  farm  can 
afford.  New  grass  always  produces  abundance  of  milk,  and  it  springs 
earlier  than  old.  In  case  of  snow  covering  the  ground  in  spi'ing,  when 
the  ewes  are  heavy  in  lamb,  they  should  get  a  few  turnips  and  plenty  of 
hay,  and  clover-hay  if  possible,  until  the  ground  is  again  clear ;  but  in 
open  weather  in  winter,  there  is  nothing  better  for  them  than  gi-ass  which 
had  been  kept  rough  for  the  purpose  in  autumn.  While  confined  on  the 
lambing-ground,  ewes  should  have  turnips  and  hay  to  support  them  ;  and 
after  lambing  there  is  nothing  better  for  them  than  cabbage  or  kale,  in  de- 
fault of  which  a  little  oil-cake  will  encourage,  at  that  time,  the  necessary 
dischai'ges  and  purify  the  body.  New  grass  also  operates  medicinally  on 
the  system. 

(1839.)  It  is  necessary  to  say  a  few  words  on  the  rearing  of  fet  lamhs. 
Wherever  these  are  there  must  be  orphans  or  supernumeraries  in  the  flock, 
and,  in  either  case,  the  deserted  creatures  would  die  were  they  not  reared 
by  hand.  As  a  remarkable  instance  of  lambs  being  obliged  to  be  made 
pets  from  supernumerary  births,  I  remember  one  season,  in  a  small  flock 
of  Leicester  ewes,  50  in  all,  48  having  twins,  and  two  trines.  The  two 
lambs  which  constituted  the  trines  were  properly  taken  away  to  relieve 
the  ewes,  and  brought  up  by  hand  as  pets.  When  ewes  die  it  is  scarcely 
possible  avoiding  having  pets,  on  account  of  the  improbability  of  ewes 
lambing  single  lambs  just  in  time  to  receive  those  that  have  become  or- 
phans. Pet  lambs  are  supported  on  cow's  milk,  which  they  receive  warm 
from  the  cows  each  time  they  are  milked,  and  as  much  as  they  can  drink. 
In  the  intervals  of  meals,  in  bad  weather,  they  are  kept  under  cover,  but 
in  good  weather  they  are  put  into  a  gi-ass  paddock  during  the  day,  and 
under  shelter  at  night  until  the  nights  become  warm.  They  are  fed  by 
hand  out  of  a  small  vessel,  which  should  contain  as  much  milk  as  is  known 
each  can  drink.  They  are  first  taught  to  drink  out  of  the  vessel  with  the 
fingers  like  a  calf  (1683),  and  as  soon  as  they  can  hold  a  finger  steady  in 
the  mouth,  a  small  tin  tube,  about  3  inches  in  length,  and  of  the  thickness 
of  a  goose  quill,  should  be  covered  with  several  folds  of  linen,  sewed 
tightly  on,  to  use  as  a  substitute  for  a  teat,  and  by  which  they  will  drink 
their  allowance  of  milk  with  great  ease  and  celerity,  A  goose  quill  would 
answer  the  same  purpose,  were  it  not  that  it  is  easily  squeezed  together 
by  the  mouth.  When  the  same  person  feeds  the  lambs — and  this  should 
be  the  dairy-maid — the  lambs  soon  become  attached  to  her,  and  would  fol- 
low her  everywhere ;  but   to  prevent  their  bleating,  and   to  make  the^ 

(307) 


164 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


Fig.  3i25. 


THE  SHEPHERD  3 
CROOK. 


contented,  an  apron  or  a  piece  of  cloth,  hung  on   a  stake  or  bush  in  the 
paddock,  will  keep  them  together. 

(1840.)  A  very  common   method  practiced  by  shepherds  of  Leicester 
eheep,  when  they  wish  to  catch  a  ewe  to  give  a  weakly  twin  lamb  a  suck, 
or  to  examine  the  state  of  her  udder,  is  to  stoop  down  and  run  in  upon  hei 
from  behind  and   seize   her  by  a  hind  leg.     This  is  a  safe 
enough  mode  of  catching  a  sheep  when  dexterously  done; 
but  when   it   fails,  that   is,  when   the   captor  cannot  keep 
himself  out  of  view  until   he  seizes  the  ewe,  she  will  start 
and  run  oft',  and  alarm  the  other  ewes  beside  her,  and  ev- 
ery alarm  to  a  ewe,  whether  lambed  or  about  to  lamb,  is 
injuiious,  and   at  any  rate  cannot  do  any  good.     In  these 
circumstances,  a  crook  does  the  same  thing   more  quietly 
and  as  securely.     It  consists  of  a  round  rod   of  iron,  bent 
in  the  form  shown  in  fig.  325,  furnished  at  the  point  with  a 
knob,  that  the  animal  may  not  be  injured  by  a  sharp  point, 
and  at  the  other  end  with  a  socket,  which  receives  a  long 
shaft  of  wood,  5  or  9  feet   long,  according  to  fancy.      The 
hind-leo-  is  hooked  in   at  a,  from  behind   the  sheep,  and   it 
fills  up  the  narrower  part  beyond  a,  while  passing  along  it 
until  it  reaches  the  loop,  when  the  animal  is  caught  by  the 
hock,  and  when  secured  its  foot   easily  slips  through   the 
loop.     Some   caution   is  required   in  using  the  crook,  for 
should  the  sheep  give  a  sudden  start  forward  to  get  away, 
the  moment  it  feels  the  crook,  the  leg  will  be  drawn  forci- 
bly throuo-h   the  narrow  part,   and   strike  the  bone   with 
8uch  violence  against  the  bend  of  the  loop  as  to  cause  the  animal  consid- 
erable pain,  and  even   occasion  lameness  for  some   days.     On  first  em- 
bracino-  the  leo-,  the  crook  should  be  drawn  quickly  toward  you,  so  as  to 
brino-  the  bend  of  the   loop  against  the  leg  as  high  up  as  the  hock,  before 
the  sheep  has  time  even  to  break  off",  and  being  secure,  its  struggles  will 
cease  the  moment  your  hand  seizes  the  leg. 

(1841.)  When  those  male  lambs  which  are  not  to  be  kept  as  tups  attain 
the  ao-e  of  from  10  days  to  a  month,  they  are  castrated.  Some  Ijreeders 
advocate  castration  in  a  day  or  two  after  birth,  while  others  will  not  allow 
the  operation  to  be  performed  until  the  lamb  is  one  month  old.  My  opin- 
ion is,  that  both  these  periods  are  extremes.  A  lamb  of  a  day  old  cannot 
be  confirmed  in  all  the  functions  of  its  body,  and  indeed  in  many  instances 
I  question  whether  the  testicles  can  then  be  found.  At  a  month  old,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  lamb  may  be  so  fat  and  the  weather  warm,  that  cut- 
ting may  be  attended  with  febrile  action.  I  prefer  the  operation  being 
j>erformed  at  from  10  to  15  days,  when  the  creature  has  attained  some 
strength,  and  yet  its  parts  have  not  yet  become  rigid.  Castration  is  per- 
formed in  this  way.  Let  the  assistant  hold  the  body  and  both  legs,  one 
in  each  hand,  as  represented  in  fig.  32G.  The  shepherd  then  causes  the 
testicles  to  press  the  scrotum  a  smooth  ;  and  making  an  incision  through 
the  integuments  of  the  scrotum  to  the  testicles,  he  pushes  out  one  testicle 
farther  than  the  other,  seizes  it  with  his  teeth  and  draws  out  the  spermatic 
cord  until  it  breaks,  and  does  the  same  with  the  other  testicle,  when  the 
operation  is  finished.  Advantage  is  taken  of  the  o])portunity  to  dock  the 
tail,  which  is  left  at  c  as  long  as  to  reach  to  the  meeting  of  the  hams.  In 
performing  docking,  the  division  should  be  made  in  a  joint,  otherwise  the 
portion  of  the  vertebra  which  has  been  cut  through  will  have  to  be 
sloughed  off"  before  the  wound  can  heal.  Ewe  lambs  are  also  docked  at 
this  time,  but  they  are  not  held  up  for  the  operation,  being  merely  caught 

(308) 


THE  LAMBING  OF  EWES. 


165 


Fig.  326. 


THE  CASTRATION   OF  LAMBS. 


and  held  until  it  is  done.  In  England,  docking  is  performed  at  the  third 
joint,  which  leaves  a  mere  stump  of  a  tail.  The  male  lamb,  after  being 
docked,  is  let  down  to  the  ground  by  the  tail,  which  has  the  effect,  it  is 
said,  of  righting  the  parts  about  the  scrotum 
after  castration.  The  same  opportunity  is 
taken  to  mark  the  ears  of  lambs,  and  in  the 
case  of  stock  in  hill  farms,  where  it  is  not 
easy  to  gather  flocks  frequently,  the  opera- 
tion is  now  easily  performed  ;  but  as  Leices- 
ter lambs  are  not  marked  in  the  ear  at  this 
time,  I  shall  defer  describing  that  operation 
until  its  proper  season  in  summer.  The 
scrotum  does  not  bleed  in  castration,  but  the 
tail  sometimes  bleeds  for  a  long  time  in  two 
minute  and  forcible  streams,  though  usually 
the  bleeding  soon  stems.  Should  it  continue 
so  long  as  to  sicken  the  lamb,  a  small  cord 
should  be  tied  firmly  round  the  end  of  the 
tail,  but  this  must  not  be  allowed  to  remain 
on  above  24  hours,  as  the  point  of  the  tail 
would  slough  off.  The  object  of  docking  is 
to  keep  the  sheep  behind  clean  from  filth 
and  vermin ;  but  as  the  tail  is  a  protection  against  cold  in  winter,  it  should 
not  be  docked  too  short,  as  is  the  case  in  England.  Tup-lambs  are  al- 
lowed to  retain  their  full  tails  until  a  year  old,  in  order  to  strengthen  the 
back.  Great  caution  is  required  in  castrating  lambs  ;  it  should  not  be 
done  in  rainy  weather,  nor  in  very  cold  weather,  nor  in  fiost  ;  nor  should 
the  lambs  be  heated  before  the  operation.  It  is  best  performed  early  in  the 
morning,  in  fresh  weather,  with  a  westerly  breeze.  The  ewes  and  lambs 
should  be  driven  gently  to  a  corner  of  the  field,  but  not  by  the  dog,  whose 
duty  is  only  to  prevent  a  ewe  breaking  away.  One  assistant  should  catch 
the  lambs,  and  another  hold  them  while  the  shepherd  operates.  It  is  not 
easy  to  catch  a  lamb  with  a  sheep's  crook,  their  small,  active  limbs  easily 
escaping  from  the  loop,  but  it  may  be  effectually  used  in  hooking  the  neck, 
when  the  captor  runs  in  upon  the  lamb  and  secures  it.  Where  there  is  a 
bught  or  open  shed  in  a  field,  the  lambs  and  ewes  may  be  driven  loosely 
in,  and  the  lambs  captured  there.  The  old-fashioned  mode  of  castrating 
lambs  is  to  cut  off  the  point  of  the  scrotum  and  extract  both  testicles  by 
the  large  incision  ;  but  the  extensive  wound  thus  made  takes  a  considera- 
ble time  to  heal,  whereas  the  simple  incision  now  m.ade  heals  almost  al- 
ways by  the  first  intention.  In  some  cases,  however,  inflammation  ensues, 
and  the  scrotum  swells,  and  even  suppurates,  when  the  wound  should  be 
carefully  examined,  the  matter  discharged,  and  the  wound  soon  heals  up. 
The  operation  should  always  be  done  in  the  morning,  that  the  several 
cases  may  be  observed  during  the  day  ;  and  should  the  weather  have 
changed  for  the  worse  toward  the  afternoon,  the  ewes,  with  the  lambs  that 
have  just  been  cut,  should  be  brought  into  shelter  all  night.  Besides  the 
state  of  the  weather,  one  cause  of  inflammation  is  the  scratching  of  the 
wound  of  the  scrotum  by  the  points  of  the  stubble  among  the  new  grass, 
and  this  irritation  is  most  likely  to  be  induced  when  the  castration  has 
been  performed  by  cutting  off  the  point  of  the  scrotum.  To  avoid  this 
source  of  initation,  the  new  cut  lambs  should  be  put  into  a  field  of  new 
grass  where  the  stubble  is  short,  or  into  a  field  of  old  grass  for  a  few  days. 
Hill  lambs  should  be   driven  the  night  before  being  castrated  into  a  bught 


or  inclosure  where  they  will  be  ready  and  cool  for  the  operation   in  the 


(309) 


166  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


morning.  The  practice  of  applying  turpentine  to  the  incision  on  the  scro- 
tum gives  unnecessary  pain  and  serves  no  good  purpose.  Sometimes  one 
of  the  testicles  does  not  descend  into  the  scrotum,  in  which  case  the  lamb 
becomes  what  is  called  a  chaser,  that  is,  one  who  constantly  chases  the  fe- 
males of  the  flock,  when  near  him,  from  morbid  desire. 

(1842.)  These  are  the  various  risks  which  ew6s  and  lambs  are  subject 
to,  until  they  may  be  said  to  be  beyond  danger;  and  when  they  have 
passed  through  these  several  trials  in  safety,  the  shepherd  may  calculate 
on  the  result  of  his  success — he  may  then  endeavor  to  ascertain  whether 
he  has  increased  the  breeding  part  of  his  flock  in  the  proportion  it  should 
have  increased.  He  should  not  be  satisfied  with  his  exertions,  unless  he 
has  preserved  one-half  the  number  of  ewes  with  twin-lambs,  nor  should 
he  congratulate  himself,  if  he  has  lost  a  single  ewe  in  lambing.  I  am 
aware  these  results  cannot  always  be  commanded,  but  I  believe  an  atten- 
tive and  skillful  shepherd  will  not  be  satisfied  for  all  his  toil,  night  and 
day,  for  three  weeks,  if  he  has  not  attained  these  results.  The  ewes  may 
have  lambed  twins  to  gieater  number  than  the  half,  and  yet  many  pairs 
may  have  been  broken  to  supply  the  deficiencies  occasioned  by  the  deaths 
of  single  lambs.  The  death  of  single  lambs  is  a  vexatious  matter  to  a 
shepherd,  as  it  not  only  breaks  his  pairs,  but  imposes  very  considerable 
trouble  on  him  in  mothcrhg  the  severed  twins  upon  other  ewes ;  and  yet 
the  trouble  must  be  undertaken  to  retain  the  ewes  that  have  lost  their 
lambs  in  milk,  and  so  maintain  them  in  proper  condition  for  future  years. 
In  fine,  steady  weather,  the  shepherd  proceeds  with  his  labor  in  compara- 
tive ease  ;  but  when  stormy  or  wet  weather  prevails,  or  comes  at  unex- 
pected intervals,  the  number  of  lambings  are  not  only  accelerated,  but 
every  ewe  most  probably  creates  some  trouble  even  in  the  day  time.  True, 
"  daylight  has  many  eyes,"  and  permits  him  to  observe  many  casualties  in 
time  to  remedy  their  effects  ;  but  at  night,  in  bad  weather,  with  glimmer- 
ing light,  difficulties  increase  tenfold,  and  so  sensibly  have  I  witnessed 
these  difficulties  myself,  I  am  convinced  every  farmer  of  a  large  flock 
would  find  it  repay  it  at  the  end  of  the  lambing  season,  in  the  increased 
number  of  preserved  lambs  and  ewes,  to  afford  the  shepherd  assistance  at 
mght  in  the  most  busy  period  of  the  lambing  season,  according  to  the  cii-- 
cumstance  of  the  case.  In  regard  to  Cheviots,  it  is  considered  a  favorable 
result  to  rear  a  lamb  for  each  ewe  ;  and  with  Black-faced  ewes,  18  lambs 
out  of  the  score  of  ewes  is  perhaps  one  as  favorable.  Cheviots  yield  a 
few  pairs.  Black-faced  very  few.  The  former  sometimes  require  assist- 
ance in  lambing,  the  latter  seldom. 

(1843.)  The  state  of  the  new  grass-fields  occupied  by  ewes  and  lambs 
requires  consideration.  Ewes  bite  very  close  to  the  ground,  and  eat  con- 
stantly as  long  as  the  lambs  are  with  them  ;  and  as  they  are  put  on  the 
new  grass  in  the  latter  part  of  March,  before  vegetation  is  usually  much 
advanced,  they  soon  render  the  pasture  bare  when  overstocked,  and  the 
weather  is  unfavorable  to  vegetation.  In  cold  wccathcr  in  spring,  bitten 
grass  soon  becomes  brown.  Whenever  the  pasture  is  seen  to  fail,  the 
ewes  should  be  removed  to  another  field,  for  if  the  plants  are  allowed  to 
be  bitten  into  the  heart  in  the  early  part  of  the  year,  the  greater  portion 
of  summer  will  elapse  ere  they  will  recover  from  the  treatment.  In  steady 
growing  weather  there  need  be  little  apprehension  of  failure  in  the  pas- 
ture. The  sown  pastures  consisting  chiefly  of  red  clover  and  rye-grass, 
the  clover  is  always  acceptable  to  sheep  ;  and  in  the  early  part  of  the  sea- 
son young  shoots  of  rye-grass  are  much  relished  by  ewes.  On  removing 
the  stock  from  the  first  to  the  second  field,  it  is  better  to  eat  the  first  down 
as  low  as  it  safely  can  be  for  the  plants,  in  order  to  hain  it,  that  is,  to  leave 

(310) 


THE   LAMBING  OF  EWES.  167 

it  for  at  least  a  fortnight,  to  allow  the  young  plants  to  spring  again  with 
vigor,  and  which  they  will  do  with  a  much  closer  bottom  than  if  the  field 
had  been  pastured  for  a  longer  time  with  fewer  stock.  Such  a  field  eaten 
down  to  the  end  of  May  or  beginning  of  June,  and  allowed  to  spring  af- 
terward in  fine  growing  weather,  will  yield  a  much  heavier  crop  of  hay 
than  if  it  had  not  been  depastured  in  spring  at  all.  Although  the  whole 
breadth  of  young  grass  on  a  farm  pastured  lightly  with  ewes  and  lambs  in 
the  spring  were  to  grow,  as  the  season  advances  more  rapidly  than  the 
ewes  could  keep  it  down,  it  will  never  produce  the  fine,  sweet,  fresh  pas- 
ture which  field  after  field  will  yield  that  has  been  eaten  down  in  succes- 
sion, and  then  entirely  hained  for  a  time.  But  in  removing  ewes  and 
lambs  from  a  short  to  a  full  bite  of  grass,  considerable  caution  is  requisite 
in  choosing  the  proper  time  for  the  removal.  It  should  be  accomplished 
in  dry  weather,  and  in  the  afternoon ;  because,  continued  damp  or  rainy, 
or  cold  wet  weather,  renders  new  grass  so  succulent  and  fermentable  as 
almost  certain  to  produce  the  green  skit  in  lambs  that  are  put  upon  it,  al- 
though the  damp  weather  should  increase  the  ewes'  milk. 

(1844.)  Carse  farms  have  neither  a  standing  nor  a  flying  stoclv  of  ewes,  and  consequently,  have 
no  lambing  season;  neither  have  farms  in  the  neighborhood  of  large  towns,  nor  dairy  farms,  nor 
pastoral  ones  for  the  breeding  of  cattle ;  so  that  ewes  and  lamb.s  are  only  found  on  pastoral  farms 
that  are  devoted  to  the  breeding  of  sheep,  or  on  farms  of  mixed  husbandry.  But  pastoral  farms 
rear  breeds  of  sheep  very  different  in  their  nature  from  the  breed,  the  management  of  which,  I 
have  described.  On  our  hills,  the  Cheviot  and  Black-faced,  or  Heath  sheep,  were  long  the  only 
inhabitants,  but  now  the  valuable  Soulhdowns  are  added  to  the  list.  The  Cheviot  and  Southdown 
range  along  semi-upland  green  mountain  pastures,  such  as  the  Downs  and  the  green  hills  of  Che- 
viot, in  England,  and  the  green  hills  of  Ochils,  Sidlaws  and  the  Lammermuir  group,  which 
stretches  across  the  south  of  Scotland  ;  while  the  Blackfiiced  roam  on  the  highest  mountains,  not 
only  as  far  as  a  plant  of  heath  can  grow,  but  even  beyond  it,  in  the  regions  of  the  cryptogamia. 

(1845.)  In  as  far  as  the  assistance  of  the  shepherd  is  required  to  be  given  to  ewes  in  the  act  of 
lambing,  the  observations  I  have  made  in  reference  to  the  lambing  of  Leicester  ewes  will  apply  to 
those  of  the  Cheviot,  Southdown  and  Black-faced  breeds;  but  the  ewes  of  these  breeds  do  not 
require  assistance  nearly  to  the  same  extent  as  Leicester  ewes,  the  lambs  of  the  latter  being  gen- 
erally larger  in  proportion  to  the  ewes,  and  they  are  more  square-built  in  form.  Single  lambs  of 
the  other  breeds  are  generall3'  brought  forth  without  any  assistance,  and  twin-lambs  are  so  few 
that  the  ewes  bearing  them  may  be  singled  out  for  remarkable  attention.  A  Cheviot  single  lamb 
soon  gets  on  foot  after  being  lambed,  and  its  acute  instinct  as  soon  directs  it  to  the  teat.  The 
Black-faced  lamb  is  fully  more  active  after  being  dropped,  gaining  its  feet  in  a  few  minutes,  and 
its  rough  coat  of  wool  serves  to  protect  it  at  once  from  the  weather.  Placed  in  shelter  derived 
from  one  of  the  many  natural  inequalities  of  the  ground  common  in  a  pastoral  country,  both  these 
breeds  may  easily  be  tended  in  the  lambing  during  the  day;  but  the  constant  attention  required 
of  the  shepherd  limits  his  ability  to  superintend,  at  this  particular  period,  a  lambing  flock  bej'ond 
a  certain  number;  400  ewes  are  as  many  as  one  shepherd  can  superinted  in  the  course  of  the  day, 
to  render  them  the  as.sistance  they  may  stand  in  need  of;  to  see  that  the  new  lambed  ewes  and 
lambs  are  placed  in  shelter  until  they  have  both  perfectly  recovered,  and  are  able  to  take  to  the 
pasture ;  and,  in  case  of  bad  weather,  to  see  that  the  ewes  are  supplied  with  some  turnips  and 
hay,  to  enable  them  to  support  their  lambs  until  the  weather  becomes  favorable.  If  one  shep- 
herd fulfills  these  duties  in  the  daj-,  he  does  quite  enough,  so  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  have 
an  assistant  for  him  in  the  night,  to  see  that  the  ewes  are  gathered  into  the  shelter  at  nightfall,  and 
to  take  a  weakly  lamb,  or  all  the  lambs  that  have  dropped  during  the  night,  into  sheds  erected  on 
purpose  as  a  protection  against  bad  weather.  To  ascertain  the  state  of  his  flock,  he  should  go 
through  them  with  a  lantern,  at  least  every  two  hours,  and  oftener  if  necessary.  Lord  Napier 
I'ecommends  the  construction  of  a  '•lavtbi/i^  park,"  for  the  use  of  ewes,  and  gives  the  cost  of 
making  one  to  comprehend  25  acres  of  ground,  which  shall  accommodate  200  ewes,  with  2  stells 
and  2  stell-houses,  and  hay-racks,  at  ^^90,  which,  at  7  per  cent,  interest,  with  repairs  of  racks,  &c., 
will  incur  an  annual  cost  of  £7  5s.  8d.  for  sheep.*  Such  a  place  of  shelter  and  of  inclosure  would, 
no  doubt,  be  useful  to  a  certain  extent,  but  only  to  a  limited  extent:  for  such  a  park  can  only  be 
in  one  part  of  the  grazings,  where  at  times  it  will  no  doubt  be  exposed  to  the  weather,  and  as  25 
acres  would  only  contain  1-5  of  the  flock  at  a  time,  in  stormy  weather  the  rest  of  the  flock,  whether 
already  lambed  or  yet  to  lamb,  require  shelter  as  well  as  ewes  expected  to  Iamb  ;  and  the  dividing 
of  the  flock  every  day  to  get  the  200  ewes  with  their  lambs  out,  and  other  200  driven  in,  would 
make  a  serious  commotion  among  them  at  a  very  critical  period  of  the  ewes.  I  cannot  help  thinking 
that  a  chosen  spot  selected  to  afford  shelter,  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  weather,  to  all 
the  ewes  yet  to  lamb  within  a  given  time,  and  where  they  could  be  partly  supported  on  artificial 
food,  while  those  which  have  lambed  could  occupy  at  night  a  sheltered  part  of  the  best  portion  ot 
the  pastures,  would  disturb  lambing  ewes  far  less  than  a  lambing  park  which  was  not  constantly 
occupied  by  all  the  ewes.  It  should  be  remembered  that  hill  sheep  cannot  be  so  easily  shiftedfrom 
one  place  to  another  as  Leicester  sheep,  and  especially  in  a  grazing  which  has  few  or  no  mclo- 

*  Napier  on  Practical  Store  Farming. 
(311) 


168  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

sares.  Small  pieces  of  English  blanketing,  to  be  kept  dry  when  not  in  use.  to  wrap  round  and 
keep  warm  a  weakly  lamb  in  ilic  shed,  until  it  has  recovered  by  the  eflect  of  its  mother's  milk,  or 
by  warm  cow's  milk  administered  by  the  shepherd,  will  he  found  a  u.scful  article  by  every  shep- 
herd, and  may  be  the  means  of  prcHervinij  the  life  of  many  n  lamb.  Many  a  lamb  I  have  seen 
recruited  by  this  means,  when  it  would  have  otherwise  perished  of  inanition.  The  period  of 
lambing,  in  hill  sheep,  is  longer  than  that  of  Leicester,  because  the  gimmers  are  not  tupped  in 
the  auliimn  until  a  fortnight  after  the  ewes,  and,  of  course,  do  not  begin  to  lamb  in  the  spring 
until  a  fortnight  later.  The  ewes  begin  to  lamb  about  the  20th  April,  and  the  gimmers  a  fortnight 
after.  To  strengthen  the  gimmers,  and  to  bring  a  flu.«h  of  milk  upon  them,  they  are  st^parated 
from  the  ewes  about  a  month  before  llicir  lambing  time,  and  are  supplied  with  turnips  to  the 
amount  of  a  double  horse-load,  say  \T>  cwts.,  to  every  100  or  120  gimmers.  About  a  fortnight  be- 
fore the  ewes  lamb,  they  get  the  same  quantity  of  turnips  for  every  160  ewes.  In  mountain 
farms,  where  there  are  no  turnips,  hay  should  be  sui)plied  in  the  same  manner  to  gimmers  and 
ewes.  A  (|uantity  of  hay,  expended  at  this  time,  will  be  more  than  repaid  in  the  safety  of  lambs 
and  vigor  of  ewes,  especially  in  unfavorable  weather. 

(18-1»>.)  These  few  observations  of  Mr.  Little  on  the  qualifications  of  a  hill  shepherd,  are  worth 
your  attention,  as  containing  much  good  practical  sense  and  truth.  "Much."  he  truly  says,  "of 
the  success  in  sheep-farming  depends  on  the  skill  and  application  of  shepherds,  as  well  as  on  the 
judgment  of  farmers.  As  the  situation  of  a  shepherd  is  one  of  considerable  trust,  he  ought  to  be 
honest,  active,  useful,  and  of  a  col7n  temper  ;  for  if  at  any  time  a  shepherd  gets  into  a  pa-ssion  with 
his  sheep,  it  is  attended  with  great  disadvantage  in  herding,  or  in  working  among  them.  I  have 
known  a  hasty,  pa-ssionate  man,  with  a  rash  dog,  give  himself  double  the  trouble  in  managing  a 
birsel  of  sheep,  besides  abusing  the  sheep,  that  a  calm,  good  tempered  man,  with  a  sagacious, 
close-mouthed  dog,  would  have  had  in  the  same  circumstances.  The  qualification  required  in 
taking  care  of  a  hirsel  of  sheep,  is  not  in  running,  hounding  and  training  dogs,  nor  in  performing 
a  day's  work  of  any  other  kind  ;  but  to  direct  them  according  to  the  soil,  climate,  and  situation  of 
the  farm,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  obtain  the  greatest  quantity  of  food  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 
Their  health  and  comfort  should  be  carefully  loooked  after  by  the  shepherd  ;  and  if  his  exertions 
are  made  with  judgment,  they  are  of  very  great  consequence  to  the  farmer.  It  is  not  by  walking 
much,  and  doing  a  great  deal,  that  a  shepherd  is  a  good  one  ;  but  it  is  knowing  where  to  walk,  so 
as  to  disturb  the  sheep  the  least,  and  by  doing  at  the  time  whatever  is  necessary  to  be  done. 
There  is  not  an  experienced  shepherd  who  has  been  any  length  of  time  on  one  farm,  who  does 
not,  as  soon  as  he  rises  in  the  morning,  and  observing  the  state  of  the  weather,  know  almost  to  a 
certainty  where  to  find  every  sheep  on  the  hill,  and  will  accordingly  take  his  course  to  the  places 
he  knows  his  presence  is  most  wanted.  The  object  in  looking  over  a  hill  every  evening  and 
morning  is  to  a.^certain  if  there  be  no  trespassers  nor  diseases  among  the  sheep  which  require 
looking  after.  If  any  of  your  own  or  neighbor's  sheep  have  tresspassed,  it  is  very  foolish  to  dog 
or  abuse  them,  for  the  more  gently  you  can  turn  them  back  the  belter.  If  the  boundary  should  be 
on  the  top  of  a  bight,  to  which  sheep  are  apt  to  draw  at  night,  it  is  better  to  turn  your  own  a 
little  closer  to  the  boundary  in  the  afternoon,  than  to  turn  back  your  neighbor's;  and  it  will  answer 
the  same  purpose ;  and  if  the  two  Hocks  are  gently  divided  in  the  morning  without  dogs,  they 
will  become  so  well  ac<iuainted  with  their  own  side  that  at  the  very  sight  of  the  shepherd  they 
will  lake  to  it  without  farther  trouble.  Tho.se  shepherds  who  dog,  force  and  shed  much  about 
a  march,  I  consider  them  as  bad  herds  for  their  musters  as  for  the  neighboring  farmer.  If  the 
boundary  be  a  brook  or  low  ground,  where  the  sheep  graze  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  and  if  tres- 
passers are  likely  to  be  considerable,  the  same  plan  of  turning  the  sheep  should  be  taken  as  on 
the  bight,  except  that  they  are  to  be  turned  down  in  the  morning,  and  set  out  in  the  af\ernoon. 
When  a  sheep  dies  on  the  hill,  or  any  disease  appears  among  them,  the  dead  or  diseased  sheep 
should  be  removed  immediately,  but  particularly  so  if  the  disease  appears  of  an  infectious  nature. 
Looking  regularly  over  a  hill  is  of  great  consequence,  also,  in  case  of  any  sheep  falling  into  a 
ditcb,  or  lamb  losing  its  mother,  or  when  they  are  annoyed  by  flies  or  maggots,  or  by  foxes  or 
dogs  worrying  them,  or  when  they  fall  on  their  backs  and  cannot  get  up  again.  All  these  inci- 
dents an  active  shepherd  with  a  good  eye  will  soon  discover,  however  much  a  flock  may  be  scat- 
tered over  a  farm In  good  weather  the  shepherd  may  possibly  do  all  that  can  be  done 

among  the  ewes  in  the  lambing  season  ;  but  in  bad  weather  it  is  the  farmer's  interest  to  afford 

every  necessary  assistance,  for  tlie  want  of  which  serious  losses  have  often  been  incurred 

Knowing  sheep  by  head-mark  often  saves  a  shepherd  much  trouble,  particularly  in  the  lambing 
season,  ajjd  .it  all  sortings  of  the  sheep;  yet  there  are  many  good  shepherds  who  do  not  know 
sheep  bjf  liead-mark,  and  there  are  some  very  ordinary  ones  who  have  a  talent  in  that  way. 
Every  individual  may  be  known  by  the  sforlc  mark.  To  possess  the  knack  of  conntina  sheep 
readily  is  of  no  small  service  to  the  shepherd,  for  he  ought  always  to  be  able  to  count  his  flock 
when  he  makes  his  rounds  on  the  hills.  There  are  few  shepherds  who  aocu.stom  themselves 
to  count  sheep,  who  cannot,  wherever  they  meet  with  them  on  a  hill,  count  100  going  at  large,  or 
even  200,  and  it  seldom  happens  that  a  greater  number  than  200  will  be  found  together  in  an  open 
hirsel.  To  know  the  number  in  the  ilifierent  lots  is  of  great  use  in  case  of  a  hasty  blast,  as  you 
can  in  that  event  know,  almost  to  a  certainty,  whether  or  not  any  sheep  are  wanting,  and  from 
what  part  of  the  farm.  A  shepherd  ought  likewi.se  to  be  able  to  do  nni/  kind  of  work  nboiit  a 
theep  farm,  such  as  cutting  lambs,  smearing,  slaughtering,  dressing  for  the  market,  repairing 
stone-dykes,  cleaning  out  drains,  mowing  grass,  making  hay.  casting  and  winning  peat-turf  for 
fuel,  &-C. ;  but  he  ought  at  no  time  to  noglect  the  sheep  for  such  work.  Shepherds  are  generally 
accounted  lazy,  but  those  who  really  care  for  their  sheep  will  not  be  so.  Much  walking  unfits  a 
man  for  hard  labor,  as  much  as  hard  labor  unfits  a  man  lor  much  walking;  but  laborers  will  gen- 
erally be  found  more  lazy  in  a  hill,  or  among  sheep,  than  sheijhcrds  will  be  found  at  field  work."* 

(1847.)  Ewes  in  lambs  are  liable  to  abortion,  or  slippinn'  of  the  lamb,  as  it  is  usually  termed,  as 
well  as  the  cow,  but  not  so  much  so,  nor  is  the  complaint  considered  epidemical  in  the  sheep. 

*  Little's  Practical  Observations  on  Mountain  Sheep. 
(312) 


THE  LAMBING  OF    EWES.  169 

Various  causes  produce  it,  such  as  severe  weather  in  winter,  having  to  endure  much  fatigue  in 
snow,  leaping  ditches,  being  frightened  by  dogs,  overdriving.  It  is  stated  by  Mr.  Youatt,  that 
too  liberal  use  ol  salt  will  produce  abortion.  The  wool  is  apt  to  come  off  in  spring  after  abortion. 
It  is  scarcely  possible  to  predicate  abortion  in  sheep  on  account  of  their  woolly  covering  ;  but  its 
immediate  etiects  of  dullness  in  the  ewe,  and  of  a  redness  under  the  tail,  will  be  symptoms  nouced 
by  an  observant  shepherd.  "  The  treatment  after  abortion,"  observes  Mr.  Youatt,  "  will  depend 
entirely  on  the  circumstance  of  the  case.  If  the  foetus  had  been  long  dead,  proved  by  the  fetid 
smell  of  it,  and  the  vaginal  discharge,  the  parts  should  be  washed  with  a  weak  solution  in  water 
(1  to  10}  of  the  chloride  of  lime,  some  of  which  may  also  be  injected  into  the  uterus.  If  fever 
should  supervene,  a  dose  of  Epsom  salts,  timeously  administered,  will  remove  the  symptoms.  If 
debility  and  want  of  appetite  should  remain,  a  little  gentian  and  ginger,  with  small  doses  of  Ep- 
som salts  will  speedily  restore  the  animal.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  food  shall  not  be  too 
nutritive  or  loo  great  in  quantity."  In  protracted  labor  when  the  ewe  is  becoming  weak,  she 
will  be  much  relieved  by  receiving  a  table-spoonfull  of  brandy  and  sweet  spirit  of  nitre  in  equal 
parts,  with  a  drinking-horn.  To  produce  pains  in  a  ewe  when  she  becomes  apathetic  in  lambing, 
2  table-spoonsfull  of  a  strong  infusion  of  the  ergot  of  rye,  repeated  in  a  second  dose  in  a  quarter  of 
an  hour,  will  produce  pains  and  ease  the  labor.  In  cases  where  it  is  impossible  to  extract  the 
lamb,  and  the  life  of  both  lamb  and  ewe  are  in  danger,  the  Caesarian  operation,  that  is,  extracting 
the  lamb  from  the  womb  by  an  incision  made  in  the  side  and  the  womb  of  the  ewe,  has  been  per- 
formed with  success.  "  In  some  lambs  that  are  born  apparently  dead,  the  vital  principle  is  not  ex- 
tinct, but  it  would  soon  be  so  if  the  little  animal  were  suffered  to  remain  on  the  cold  damp  grass. 
Every  lamb  that  is  found  in  this  situation  should  be  carefully  examined,  and  if  there  is  the  slight- 
est degree  of  warmth  remaining  about  it,  the  shepherd  should  blow  into  its  mouth  in  order  to  iu- 
flute  the  lungs  :  many  a  little  one  has  thus  been  saved.  The  shepherd  need  trouble  himself  very 
little  about  the  expulsion  of  the  placenta  or  cleansing,  although  a  day  or  two  may  pass  before  it  is 
detached.  A  couple  of  ounces  of  Epsom  salts,  with  a  little  ginger,  may  be  given  if  there  should 
be  a  longer  delay,  or  if  symptoms  of  fever  should  be  exhibited  :  but  the  farmer  would  do  well  to 
avoid  the  rough  barley  or  the  misletoe,  or  in  fact  any  stimulant,  fur  there  is  at  this  time  sufficient 
disposition  to  fever,  without  its  being  artificially  set  up."  "The  intiammation  of  the  womb,  after 
parturition,  usually  comes  on  between  the  first  and  the  fourth  day,  and  especially  when  any  vio- 
lence has  been  used  in  extracting  the  lamb.  It  is  a  most  fatal  disease,  and  speedily  runs  its 
course.  The  treatment  should  be  bleedings  and  purgatives  of  Epsom  salts.  Connected  with  this 
disease  are  after-pains  or  heaving,  to  which  ewes  are  subject,  and  which  are  fie(]uently  severe 
and  destructive.  They  are  apparently  the  same  pains,  but  considerably  stronger,  which  Nature 
uses  to  expel  the  lamb.  It  is  evidently  produced-by  the  ewes  being  too  well  kept  during  their 
pregnancy.  It  cannot  be  too  often  repeated,  that  it  is  a  fatal  error  to  overfeed  the  ewes  at  this 
period  with  a  view  of  giving  them  strength  to  support  their  approaching  labor.  It  is  an  nnscien- 
titic  and  injurious  practice,  and  severely  does  the  farmer  suffer  for  it.  But  there  is  some  epidemic 
influence  at  work,  or  the  constitution  of  the  sheep  is  at  that  time  irritable  almost  beyond  belief" 
Young  lamb.s,  as  long  as  they  are  dependent  on  their  mother  for  food,  are  sul>ject  to  a  few  dis- 
eases. A  change  to  new  luxuriant  grass  in  damp  weather  may  bring  on  the  sku  or  diarrhoaa,  and 
exposure  to  cold  may  produce  the  same  effect.  As  long  as  it  feeds  and  plays  there  is  little  dan- 
ger ;  but  should  it  appear  dull,  its  eyes  watery  and  heavy,  and  its  joints  somewhat  stiff;  remedial 
means  should  immediately  be  u.sed.  "  A  gentle  aperient  is  first  indicated  in  order  to  carry  off' any 
ofiensive  matter  that  xaay  have  accumulated  in  and  disturbed  the  bowels:  halt  an  ounce  of  Epsom 
salts,  with  half  a  drachm  of  ginger,  will  constitute  the  best  aperient  that  can  be  administered.  To 
that  must  be  added  a  table-spoonfull  of  sheep's  cordial,  consisting  of  equal  parts  of  brandy  and 
8w»et  spirit  of  nitre,  housing  and  nursing."  But  there  is  a  species  of  apparent  purging,  which  is 
a  more  dangerous  disease  than  the  skit.  ''In  the  natural  and  healthy  state  of  the  milk  and  the 
stomach,  curd  produced  by  the  gastric  juice  gradually  dissolves  and  is  converted  into  ch3'me ;  but 
when  the  one  takes  on  a  morbid  hardness,  and  the  other  may  have  lost  a  portion  of  its  energy,  the 
stomach  is  literally  filled  with  curd,  and  all  its  functions  suspended.  The  animal  labors  under 
seeming  purging,  from  the  quantity  of  whey  discharged,  but  the  actual  disease  is  constipation.  It 
is  apt  to  occur  about  the  time  when  the  lamb  begins  to  graze,  and  when  the  function  of  the 
stomach  is  naturally  somewhat  deranged.  Chemistry  teaches  u.s.  that  while  a  free  acid  produces 
coagulation  of  the  milk,  an  alkali  will  dissolve  that  coagnlum.  Magnesia,  therefore,  should  bead- 
ministered,  suspended  in  thin  gruel,  or  ammonia  largely  diluted  witli  water,  and  with  them  should 
be  combined  Epsom  salts  to  hurry  the  dissolved  mass  along,  and  ginger  to  excite  the  stomach 
to  more  powerful  contraction.  Read's  stomach-pump  will  be  found  a  most  valuable  auxiliary 
here.  A  perseverance  in  the  use  of  these  means  will  sometimes  be  attended  with  success,  and  the 
little  "patient  being  somewhat  relieved,  the  lamb  and  the  mother  should  be  moved  to  somewhat 
better  pasture."  Besides  looseness,  lambs  are  at  times  subject  to  cosliveness  in  the  bowels.  In 
the  first  few  days  of  its  existence  the  fseces  they  void  has  a  very  viscid  consistence,  which,  when 
it  falls  on  the  tail,  has  the  effect  of  gluiaig  it  to  the  vent  and  of  stopping  up  that  passage.  On  the 
removal  of  the  obstruction  by  scraping  with  a  knife,  the  symptom  will  also  be  removed.  A  worse 
species  of  costiveness  is,  when  a  few  drops  of  liquid  faces  fall  occasionally  to  the  ground  accom- 
panied by  straining,  as  it  is  generally  accompanied  with  fever  that  may  be  dangerous.  Halfounce 
doses  of  Epsom  salts  should  be  administered  every  six  hours  until  the  bowels  are  evacuated,  after 
which  both  ewe  and  lamb  should  be  turned  into  more  succulent  pasture,  as  the  cause  of  the  com- 
plaint is  to  be  found  in  bare  pasture  and  dry  weather.  In  cases  of  fever,  which  may  bo  observed 
from  the  dullness  of  the  lamb  and  its  quick  breathing,  the  administration  of  tolerable  doses  of  Ep- 
som salts  will  generally  avert  the  malady  at  its  commencement.  After  recovery  from  lambing, 
the  only  complaint  the  ewe  is  subject  to  is  inflammation  in  the  udder,  or  udder-clap,  or  garget. 
Of  this  complaint  Mr.  Youatt  gives  a  good  idea  of  its  origin  and  of  its  treatment  in  these  words  : 
"  The  shepherd,  and  especially  in  the  early  period  of  suckling,  should  ob.serve  whether  any  of 
the  ewes  are  restless  and  exhibit  symptoms  of  pain  when  the  lambs  are  sucking,  or  will  not 
permit  them  to  suck  at  all.    The  ewe,  like  the  cow,  or  oftener  than  that  animal,  is  subject  to  in- 

"Vi\ 


X70 


THE   BOOK   OF  THE   FARM SPRI\r:. 


fiammation  of  the  uildcr  during  the  time  of  Ruckling,  caus«d  either  by  the  hardness  or  dryness  of 
the  soil  on  which  ohe  lies ;  on  tlic  other  hand,  by  iu*  loo  great  mnixture  and  tilth,  or  by  some  ten- 
dency to  general  infliimmation,  anil  determined  to  the  udder  by  llie  bumps  and  bruises,  sometimes 
not  a  little  severe,  from  the  head  of  the  lamb.  If  there  is  any  refusal  on  the  part  of  the  ewe,  or 
even  di><inclinatinii.  to  permit  tin- young  one  to  suck,  nhe  must  be  caught  and  examined.  There  will 
generally  be  found  redness  anil  enlargi'im-nt  and  tenderness  of  one  or  both  of  the  teats,  or  some- 
times the  whole  of  the  udder,  and  several  small  dislinct  kernels  or  tumors  on  ditierent  parts  of  the 
has.  The  udder  should  be  cleared  of  the  wool  which  s'lrmunds  it.  and  should  be  well  fomented 
with  warm  water,  a  dose  of  K;"8um  salts  ailniinistered.  and  then,  if  there  are  no  large  distinct 
knots  or  ki-rnels,  she  should  be  returned  to  her  lamb,  whose  sucking  and  knocking  about  of  the 
adder  will  eoniribiite  more  than  by  any  other  means,  to  the  dispersion  of  the  tumor  and  the  regu- 
lar How  of  milk.  It  may  occasionally  be  necessary  to  confine  her  in  a  pen  with  her  little  one,  in 
order  that  he  may  have  a  fair  chance  to  suck.  A  day.  however,  having  passed,  and  she  not  per- 
mittinc  it  to  suck,  the  lamb  must  be  taken  away,  the  fomentation  renewed,  and  an  ointment  com- 
posed 1  drai'lim  ore:im|)lior  rubbed  down  with  a  few  drops  of  spirit  of  wine,  1  drachm  of  mercu- 
rial ointment,  and  1  oz.  of  elder  ointment,  well  incorporated  together,  must  be  rubbed  into  the 
affected  part,  or  the  whole  of  the  udder,  two  or  three  times  a  day.  She  must  also  be  bled,  and 
the  physic  repeated.  If  the  udder  should  continue  to  enlarge,  and  the  heat  and  tenderness  shoald 
iucrea.se,  and  the  knots  and  kernels  become  more  numerous  and  of  greater  size,  and  some  of  them 
should  begin  to  soften  or  evidently  to  contain  a  fluid,  no  time  mast  be  lo.st,  for  this  disease  ia 
abundantly  more  rapid  in  its  pro?ress  in  the  sheep  than  in  the  cow.  A  deep  incisum  niu-si  be 
made  into  that  part  of  the  udder  where  the  swellings  are  ripest,  the  pus  or  other  matter  squeezed 
out,  and  the  part.s  well  fomented  again.  To  this  should  succeed  a  weak  solution  of  the  chloride 
of   lime  with   which    the 

ulcer  should  he  well  bath-  Fig.  332. 

ed  two  or  three  times  in 
a  day.  When  all  fetid 
smell  ceases  and  the 
wound  looks  healthy,  the 
friar's  balsam  may  be  sub- 
tituted  for  the  chloride  of 
lime.  The  progress  of  dis- 
organization and  the  pro- 
cess of  healing  are  almost 
incredibly  rapid  in  these 
cases,  and  the  lamb  may 
sometimes  be  returned  to 
the  course  of  a  few  days. 
There  are  particular  sea- 
sons, especially  damp  and 
warm  ones,  when  there  is 
a  superfluity  of  grass,  in 
which  garget  is  peculiarly 
frecjueiit  and  fatal.  With- 
out warning,  the  udder 
swells  universally  with 
hardened  teat^,  which 
Bometitties  brings  on  great 
inflammation,  and  if  it  has 
not  stopped  iu  the  course 
of  24  liours.  iiart,  if  not  the 
whole,  of  the  udder  morti- 
fies, and  the  mortification  rapidly  spreads,  and    the  sheep  dies."* 

(1841*. )  In  case  of  an  individual  ewe,  of  a  large  flock  of  a  pastoral  farm,  strayina:  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  shed  erected  to  aHbrd  shelter  to  ewes,  or  has  suffered  in  hard  labor,  or  baa  a 
weakly  lamb,  or  has  twins  which  are  apt  to  stray  from  her  or  she  iVom  them,  or  has  been  over- 
taken by  a  rude  bla.st  immediately  uf\er  lambing,  a  contrivance  to  aflbrd  such  ewes  temporary 
shelter,  esp.jcially  under  night,  having  been  used  by  Mr.  Nicholas  Burnett,  HIaik  Hedley,  near 
Gateshead,  with  success,  seems  to  deserve  attention.  It  consists  of  an  inclosure  of  boards, 
or  a  box,  as  seen  in  fig.  33-2,  whereof  a  is  the  front,  which  removes  by  hooks  at  the  sides  to 
admit  the  ewe  and  her  lamb  within,  and  when-  she  is  provided  with  a  mani;cr  A  to  contain 
sliced  lurnij)  or  oil  cake,  and  a  rack  r  for  hay,  to  fill  both  of  which  access  is  obtained  by  the  lid 
d,  movable  on  its  hinges.  I  have  been  assured  by  Mr.  Burnett,  that  in  using  this  contrivance, 
which,  being  a  liu'ht  implement,  can  be  ea.sily  carried  to  any  spot,  he  has  had  the  satisfaction 
of  using  it  as  a  means  of  saving  the  lives  both  of  ewes  and  lambs  which  would  have  otherwise 
perished  from  exposure.  The  size  of  the  ewe-house,  as  it  is  called,  may  be  made  to  suit  that  of 
the  sheep  bred  on  the  farm  and  as  it  is  not  costly,  any  number  can  be  made  to  be  used  at  a  lime. 
The  fork  e  Icanini;  at:ainst  the  side  of  the  ewe  house  may  be  used  to  ijrasp  a  ewe's  neck,  while 
Ivinsron  the  trround,  and  to  fasten  it  down,  while  the  shepherd  is  lambing  her  without  other  as- 
sistance ;  but  the  method  of  holding  a  ewe  between  the  heel  and  the  knee,  which  I  have  before 
described,  renders  such  an  instrument  of  little  us<'. 

(1849.)  One  of  the  greatest  sources  of  loss  among  lambs  on  hill  farms  is  a  fall  of  snow  at  the 
lambiu?  season  or  a  continuance  of  snow  to  that  period.  Ground  rendered  wet  by  the  melting  of 
new-fallen  snow,  is  in  a  worse  state  for  lambs  than  when  made  wet  by  rain,  as  in  the  latter  case 
the  temperature  of  the  air  is  higher,  though,  of  course,  wet  ground  of  any  kind  is  inimical  to  the 


THE    KWE-HOUSE. 


Yountt  on  Sheep, 
(314) 


THE  LAMBING   OF  EWES. 


171 


THE    MOUNTAIN    SNOW-HARROW. 


safety  of  new-dropped  lambs.  In  such  a  case,  the  driest  part  of  the  farm  combined  with  shelter 
should  be  chosen  for  the  lambmg  ground,  though  it  may  be  inconvenient  in  some  other  respects 
bat  should  the  best  lambing  ground  be  covered  with  old  snow,  especially  in  sheltered  spots  and 
tlie  temperature  of  the  air  be  generally  above  the  freezing  point,  could  the  snow  be  stined  b'-v  anv 
means,  it  would  melt  •'      ' 

much   faster    than  it  Fig.  333. 

would  of  itself  A 
snoia-harrow  or  snow- 
plow  will  be  found  a 
useful  implement  for 
the  purpose,  and 
those  recommended 
by  Mr.  Hepburn  of 
Culquhalzie  seem  to 
possess  every  requi- 
site. The  snowhar- 
row  is  represented 
by  fig.  333.  It  con- 
sists of  a  single  bull 
a  b,  i\  inches  square, 
and  6  feet  long;  and 
in  the  middle  of 
which,  on  the  under 
Bide,  a  piece  of  1^ 
inch  plank  c  d,2  feet 
long,  is  sunk  flush 
transversely,  for  the 
attachment  of  the 
draught-hook  c,    and 

the  siilt  e  to  steady  the  motion  of  the  implement.     In  the  bull  are  fixed  by  screw-nuts  at  intervals 
of  10  inches,  7  cutters//,  &c..  9  inches  long  and  If  inches  broad,  sabre-shaped,  with  their  points 
turned  backward,  so  as  to  be  less  liable  to  be  arrested  by  obstacles  on  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Between  these  cutters  are  fixed  6  shorter  ones  g  g,  &c..  3  inches  long,  having  their  points  turned 
forward.     This  implement,  dragged  by  one  horse  ridden  by  a  boy,  and  the  stilt  held  by  a  man, 
cuts  the  frozen  snow  into  strips  of  5  or  6  inches  broad,  which  are  easily  pulverized  by  the  feet  of 
the  sheep,  or  divided  by  the  suowplow.     The  severe  snow  storm  of  1823  lay  on  the  hills  from 
February  to  May  ;  and  the  protracted  snow-storms  of  1837-8.  with  repeated  falls  and  alternations 
of  frost  and  thaw,  caused  the  death  of  many  a  sheep  before  and  at  the  lambing  season.  The  snow 
became  so  compacted  in  the  latter  j-ear,  that  the  common  snow-plow  was  unable  to  penetrate  the 
snow,  and  the  common  harrow  to  break  its  glazed  surface.    With  the  view  of  obviatin"  both  these 
inconveniences,  Mr.  Hepburn  contrived   the  snow-harrow  described  above,  and  also  the  snow- 
plow,  of  which  the  following  is  a  description  in  Mr.  Hepburn's  own  words  :  "  The  severity  of  the 
winter  of  1837-8  in  mountain  sheep  pasture,  led  me  to  attempt  the  snow-plow,  with  or  without  the 
aid  of  Uie  snow-harrow,  for  being  applied  in  such  situations.     To  enable  the  plow  to  clear  tracks 
for  the  sheep  along  the  hill-sides,  it  is  necessary  it  should  be  made  to  throw  the  snow  wholly  to 
the  lower  side.     To  effect  this  I  caused  to  be  fitted  to  the  plow  a  a,  fig.  334,  the  body  of  which 
forms  an  isoceles  triangle  whose  sides  are  7^  feet,  and  its  base  6  feet  in  length,  the  depth  of  the 
sides  being  15  inches,  a  shifting  head  bed,  wiih  unequal  sides,  one  b  c,  being  18  inches,  the  other 
b  d,  30  inches  long,  fixed  by  iron  pins  passing  through  to  pairs  of  eyes  as  seen  at  c,  attached  to  the 
head  and  to  the  sides  of  the  plow  respectively,  so  as  to  bring  the  point  of  the  attached  head  of  the 
plow  nearly  into  the  line  of  its  upper  side,  or  next  the  hill.     The  stilt  e  at  the  same  time  was  made 
movable  by  a  hinge-joint  at  its  anterior  extremity,  fixed  to  the  bottom  of  the  head  from  the  post/ 
so  as  to  be  capable  of  being  fixed  to  the  cross-bar  or  stretcher  g  a,  either  in  a  line  bisecting  the 
angle,  as  at  h.  which  is  the  position  for  level  ground,  or  in  the  line  alternately,  of  either  of  the  sides 
b  a  or  b  g,  when  to  be 

used  on   a    declivity.  Fig.  334. 

The   draught-chain  is  g, 

fixed,  not  to  the  shift- 
ing head,  but  to  the 
upright  frame-post  /, 
in  the  uo.<e  of  the 
plow,  which  rises  10 
or  12  inches  above  the 
mould-boards.  When 
a  plow  so  constructed 
is  to  be  worked  along 
a  declivity,  with  the 
left  hand  toward  the 
hill,  the  shorter  limb 
of  the  shifting  head  is 
fixed  on  the  left  side 
of  the  plow,  near  the 

point,  and  the  longer  '^^^  mountain  turn-wrist  snow-plow. 

limb  on  the  right  side,  toward  thp  middle-,  and  the  stilt  being  fixed  in  the  left  extremity  of  the 
cross-bar,  nearly  m  a  line  with  a  temporary  point,  the  plow  is  necessarily  drawn  in  the  direction 
of  us  left  side,  so  as  to  throw  the  snow  wholly  to  the  rie-ht  down  the  hill.  When  the  plow  is  to 
return  across  the  declivity,  with  its  right  side  to  the  hill,  the  movable  head  is  detached  by  drawing 
(315)  ^  o  ,  J  s 


172  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


out  the  Nnch-pins,  is  tnrncd  np  side  down,  and  fixed  in  the  reverse  position  ;  the  shorter  limb  be- 
ing attached  to  the  right  side,  and  the  longer  to  the  left  side  of  the  plow,  while  the  stilt  is  brought 
to  the  right  extreniiiy  a  of  the  crossbar.  The  plow  is  then  drawn  into  the  direction  of  the  right 
side,  and  the  snow  is  ilirown  wholly  to  the  left,  near  the  lower  side.  Should  the  lower  side  of 
the  plow  show  a  tendency  to  rise,  it  may  either  be  held  down  by  a  second  movable  stilt,  fixed  to 
llie  middle  b  of  the  cross-bar,  or  a  block  of  wood,  or  other  biillast  weight  may  be  placed  on  that 
side  of  the  plow.  The  plow  will  be  found  to  remove  considerably  more  than  its  own  depth  of 
snow.  When  a  plow  of  1  foot  hi:.'h  pas-ses  through  snow  Iri  inches  or  2  feet  deep,  very  little 
of  snow  falls  back  into  the  track,  and  what  does  so  fall  is  ea-sily  cleared  out  by  the  plow  in  retum- 
iag."*  In  lowland  farms  the  snow  remains  around  the  fences  long  after  the  middle  of  the  fields 
are  clear.  A  speedy  means  of  geltintr  rid  of  the  snow  is  to  plow  it  wiili  the  common  plow  repeat- 
edly. Had  I  not  adopted  this  expedient  in  the  spring  of  18v!3,  the  oat-seed  would  not  have  been 
begun  for  a  lortjiight  later  than  it  really  did. 

(le.'iO.)  In  reijard  to  the  treatment  of  sheep  on  turnips  in  spring,  they  are  managed  in  the  same 
way  as  in  winter,  until  removed  to  grass,  which  tliey  are,  whenever  the  turnips  fail,  and  are 
kept  on  for  a  short  time,  until  tlie  weather  becomes  mild  enough  to  have  them  shorn  of  their  wool 
and  then  they  are  sold  to  the  butcher :  but  other  farmers  prefer  selling  them  fat,  in  a  rousrh  state  off 
the  turnips — that  is,  before  the  wool  is  clipped  ofi'them.  The  circumstances  which  regulate  these 
different  cases  will  be  explained  in  a  short  time. 


14.     TRAINING  AND  WORKING  THE  SHEPHERd's  DOG. 

"  He  was  a  gash  an'  faithful  tyke, 
As  ever  lap  a  eheugh  or  dyke, 
His  honest,  sonsie.  bsws'nt  face. 
Aye  gat  him  freemis  in  ilka  place. 
I  His  breast  was  white,  his  touzie  back 

Weel  clad  wi'  coat  o'  glossy  black : 
His  gawcie  tail,  wi'  upward  curl. 
Hung  o'er  his  hurdies  wi'  a  swirl." 

BCBNS.  r, 

(1851.)  The  natural  temper  of  the  shepherd  may  be  learned  from  the 
way  in  which  he  works  his  dog  among  sheep.  When  you  observe  an  aged 
dog  making  a  great  noise,  bustling  about  in  an  impatient  manner,  running 
fiercely  at  a  sheep  and  turning  him  quickly,  biting  at  his  ears  and  legs,  you 
may  conclude,  without  hesitation,  that  the  shepherd  who  owns  him  is  a 
man  of  hasty  temper.  Most  young  dogs  exhibit  these  characteristics  nat- 
urally, and  they  generally  overdo  their  work  ;  and  if  you  ob.'serve  a  shep- 
herd allowing  a  young  dog  to  take  his  own  way,  you  may  conclude  that 
he  also  is  a  man  who  loses  his  temper  with  his  nock.  If  you  observe 
another  shepherd  allowing  his  dog,  whether  old  or  young,  to  take  a  range 
along  the  fences  of  a  field,  driving  the  sheep  within  his  sight  as  if  to  gather 
them,  you  may  be  sure  he  is  a  lazy  fellow,  more  ready  to  make  his  dog 
bring  the  sheep  to  him,  than  he  to  walk  his  rounds  among  them.  Great 
harm  may  accrue  to  sheep  by  working  dogs  in  these  ways.  Whenever 
sheep  hear  a  dog  bark  that  is  accustomed  to  hound  them  every  day,  they 
will  instantly  start  from  their  grazing,  gather  together,  and  run  to  the  far- 
thest fence,  and  a  good  wliile  will  elapse  ere  they  will  settle  again.  And 
even  when  sheep  are  gathered,  a  dog  of  high  travel,  and  that  is  allowed  to 
run  oiJt,  will  drive  them  hither  and  thither,  without  an  apparent  object. 
This  is  a  trick  practiced  by  lazy  herds  every  morning  when  tliey  first 
see  their  flock,  and  every  evening  before  these  take  up  their  lair  for  the 
night,  in  order  to  count  them  more  easily.  When  a  dog  is  allowed  to  run 
far  out,  he  gets  beyond  the  control  of  the  shepherd ;  aiid  such  a  style  of 
working  among  wether  sheep,  puts  them  past  their  feeding  for  a  time ; 
with  ewes  it  is  very  apt  to  cause  abortion  ;  and  with  lambs  after  they  are 

*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Societv,  vol.  xiii. 
(316; 


TRAINING  AND  WORKING  THE  SHEPHERD  S  DOG.  173 

weaned,  it  is  very  apt  to  overheat  them,  and  a  considerable  time  will  elapse 
before  they  recover  their  breath.  Whenever  a  sorting  takes  place  amono- 
the  sheep  with  such  a  dog  they  will  be  moved  about  far  more  than  is 
necessary ;  and  intimidated  sheep,  when  worn  into  a  comer,  are  far  more 
liable  to  break  off  than  those  treated  in  a  gentle  manner.  A  temperate 
herd  works  his  dog  in  quite  a  different  manner.  He  never  disturbs  his 
sheep  when  he  takes  his  rounds  among  them  at  morning,  noon  and  night, 
his  dog  following  at  his  feet  as  if  he  had  nothing  to  do,  but  ready  to  fulfill 
his  duty,  should  any  untoward  circumstance  require  his  sendees,  such  as 
breaking  out  of  one  field  into  another.  When  he  gathers  sheep  for  any 
purpose  of  sorting,  or  of  catching  particular  ones,  the  gathering  is  made  at 
a  corner,  and  to  gain  which  he  will  give  sheep  the  least  trouble,  making 
the  dog  run  out  to  the  right  and  left,  to  cause  the  sheep  to  march  quietly 
toward  the  spot,  and  after  they  are  gathered,  he  makes  the  dog  to  under- 
stand that  it  is  his  chief  duty  to  be  on  the  alert,  and  with  an  occasional 
bark  prevent  any  of  the  sheep  breaking  away.  When  a  sheep  does  break 
away  and  must  be  turned,  he  does  not  allow  the  dog  to  bite  it,  but  only  to 
bark  and  give  a  bound  at  its  head,  and  thus  turn  it.  In  attempting  to  turn 
a  Black-faced  wether  in  this  way,  the  dog  runs  a  risk  of  receiving  an  injury 
from  its  horns,  and  to  avoid  this  I  have  seen  him  seize  the  coarse  wool  of 
of  the  buttock,  and  hang  by  it  like  a  drag,  until  the  sheep  was  turned 
round  in  the  opposite  direction,  when  he  lets  it  go.  In  short,  a  temperate 
herd  only  lets  his  dog  work  when  his  sen-ices  are  actually  required,  he 
fulfilling  his  own  duties  faithfully,  and  only  receiving  assistance  from  his 
doff  when  the  matter  cannot  be  so  well  done  by  himself,  and  at  no  time 
will  he  allow  his  dog  to  go  beyond  the  reach  of  his  immediate  control. 
Dogs,  when  thus  gently  and  cautiously  trained,  become  very  sagacious, 
and  will  visit  every  part  of  a  field  where  sheep  are  most  apt  to  stray,  and 
where  danger  is  most  to  be  apprehended  to  befall  them,  such  as  a  weak 
part  of  a  fence,  deep  ditches  or  deep  furrows  into  which  sheep  may  pos- 
sibly fall,  and  lie  aivalt  or  aicTcivard — that  is,  lie  on  the  broad  of  their  back 
and  unable  to  get  up,  and  they  will  assist  to  raise  them  up  by  seizing  the 
wool  on  one  side  and  pulling  the  sheep  over  upon  its  feet.  Experienced 
dogs  will  not  meddle  with  ewes  having  lambs  at  foot,  nor  with  tups,  being 
quite  aware  of  their  disposition  to  offer  resistance.  They  also  know  full 
well  when  foxes  are  on  the  move,  and  give  evident  symptoms  of  uneasi- 
ness on  their  approach  to  the  lambing  ground.  They  also  hear  footsteps 
of  strange  persons  and  animals  at  a  considerable  distance  at  night,  and  an- 
nounce their  approach  by  unequivocal  signs  of  displeasure,  short  of  grum- 
bling and  barking,  as  if  aware  that  those  noisy  signs  would  betray  their 
OM'n  presence.  A  shepherd's  dog  is  so  incorruptible  that  he  cannot  be 
bribed,  and  will  not  permit  even  a  known  friend  to  touch  him  when  intrusted 
with  any  piece  of  duty.  So  far  as  my  obsen'ation  extends,  I  think  there 
are  two  varieties  of  the  shepherd's  dog — one  smooth,  short-haired,  gener- 
ally black-colored  on  the  back,  white  on  the  belly,  breast,  feet  and  tip  of 
the  tail,  with  tan-colored  spots  on  the  face  and  legs ;  the  other  is  a  larger 
and  longer-bodied  animal,  having  long  hair  of  different  colors,  and  long, 
flowing  tail.  In  their  respective  characters  I  conceive  them  to  be  very  like 
the  pointer  and  the  setter.  The  small,  smooth  kind,  like  the  pointer,  is 
very  sagacious,  slow,  easily  broke  and  trained,  and  admirably  suited  to 
work  in  an  inclosed  and  low  country ;  the  other,  like  the  setter,  is  more 
swift,  bold,  ill  to  break,  and  requiring  coercion,  and  fitter  for  work  on  the 
hills.  The  former  answers  the  habits  of  Leicester  sheep,  the  latter  those 
of  the  Cheviot  and  Black-faced.  The  latter  requiring  a  great  range  to 
work  in,  on  account  of  the  nature  of  the  sheep  and  of  the  giound  which 

(317) 


174  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

they  frequent,  are  bold  and  rough  in  action ;  still  they  should  be  trained  to 
work  with  judgment  and  caution,  and  not  with  recklessness  and  fury. 
Most  shepherds  ])rofess  to  be  able  to  train  young  shepherds'  dogs,  and 
therein  many  display  much  ignorance  of  the  nature  of  the  animal,  and  of 
the  a])titude  of  the  particular  animal  for  the  peculiar  work,  and  the  conse- 
quence is,  many  dogs  are  rendered  unfit  for  tlieir  work.  Every  shepherd's 
pup  has  a  natural  instinct  for  working  among  sheep,  nevertheless  they 
should  always  be  trained  with  an  old  dog.  Their  ardent  temperament 
requires  subduing,  and  there  is  no  more  eflectual  means  of  doing  so  than 
keeping  it  in  company  with,  and  making  it  imitate  the  actions  of,  an  expe- 
lienced,  sober  dog.  A  long  string  attached  to  the  pup's  neck,  in  the  hands 
of  the  shepherd,  will  be  found  necessary  to  make  it  acquainted  with  the 
language  employed  to  direct  the  various  evolutions  of  the  experienced 
dog  while  at  wjork.  With  this  conti-ivance  it  may  be  taught  to  "  hold  aioay 
out  by"  to  "  come  in"  to  "  come  in  behind"  to  "  lie  d^/un,"  to  *'  be  quiet," 
to  "  bark,"  to  "get  over  the  dike  or  fence,"  to  ^^  wear,"  that  is,  to  intercept, 
to  "  heel,"  that  is,  to  drive  on,  to  " kcp,"  that  is,  to  prevent  getting  away;  it 
will  learn  all  these  evolutions  and  many  others  in  a  short  time,  in  imitation 
of  its  older  companion  and  guide.  It  is  supposed  that  the  bitch  is  more 
acute  than  the  dog,  though  the  dog  will  bear  the  greater  fatigue.  Of  the 
two,  I  believe  that  the  quietly  disposed  shepherd  prefers  a  bitch,  and  is 
careful  in  working  her  as  little  as  he  can  when  in  pup.  I  may  mention 
that  the  shepherd's  dog  claims  exemption  from  taxation;  and  I  believe 
that  a  well-trained  one  costs  at  least  dGS. 


15.    SOWING  BARLEY-SEED. 


"  Such  land  as  ye  break  up,  for  barley  to  sow, 
Two  earths  at  the  least,  ere  you  sow  it  bestow. 
If  land  be  thereafter  set  oatitig  apart. 
And  follow  this  lesson  to  comfort  thine  heart." 

TCSSBB. 


(1852.)  It  may  be  laid  down  as  an  axiom,  that  land  which  has  borne 
turnips  which  have  been  eaten  off  by  sheep  should  receive  two  plowings 
of  some  sort  before  it  is  sown  with  barley.  I  have  seen  the  experiment 
ti'ied  of  sowing  barley  on  a  single  fuiTow  on  land  ranging  from  clay  to 
gravelly,  and  the  invariable  result  was  a  manifest  deficiency  of  crop  com- 
pared to  what  had  received  two  fuiTOWs ;  and  this  result  is  not  surprising, 
when  it  is  considered  that  barley  requires  a  deep,  well-pulverized  soil  to 
its  perfect  development,  and  that  it  is  impossible  to  render  any  land  so 
with  a  single  furrow,  that  has  been  trampled  firm  by  sheep,  after  carrying 
a  heavy  crop  of  tuniijis.  Strong  land  yields,  with  a  single  furrow,  a  tough, 
waxy  clod,  very  inimical  to  the  growth  of  barley;  and  light  turnip  soil, 
when  ridged  up  with  a  single  funow,  exhibits  the  growth  of  barley  in 
drills  corresponding  exactly  with  the  drills  which  had  been  manured  for 
turnips.  The  least  diflerence  of  crop  uHth  one  and  two  fuiTows  is  ob- 
served on  fine  hazel  loam,  still  the  superiority  is  to  be  found  with  the  two 
furrows.  Lay  it,  therefore,  down  as  a  nile,  that  barley  land  shall  receive 
two  fun'ows  ;  and  the  only  question  is  in  what  form  these  should  be  given, 
bearing  in  mind,  at  the  same  time,  that  the  land  must  be  deep  and  well 
pulverized,  and  to  settle  what  that  form  should  be  shall  be  our  present 
endeavor. 

(318) 


SOWING  BARLEY-SEED.  175 


(1853.)  On  clay  loam  in  good  heart  it  is  possible  that  some  of  the  tur- 
nip land  that  had  been  ridged  up  for  spring  wheat  had  been,  from  some 
cause,  prevented  fiom  being  sown  with  that  grain,  and,  of  course,  it  must 
be  sown  with  barley.  The  land  had  likely  been  gathered  up  from  the  flat, 
as  in  fig.  133,  or  it  may  have  been  cast,  as  in  fig.  135  ;  in  either  case  the 
barley  land  will  be  desired  to  be  seed-fun-owed  in  the  same  manner,  that 
the  ridging  of  the  whole  field  may  be  uniform.  Since  the  furrow  for  the 
spring  wheat  was  the  seed-furrow,  and  its  ridges  had  been  formed  with  a 
view  to  make  the  surface  of  the  field  uniform  from  side  to  side,  it  will  be 
impossible  to  re-plow  those  ridges  with  one  fuiTow  of  the  common  plow, 
without  disturbing  their  form.  Such  ridges  must  either  be  plowed  tivice 
with  the  common  plow,  to  bring  them  back  to  their  present  form,  for  which 
repetition  of  work  there  may  not  be  sufficient  leisure,  or  they  may  be 
stirred  with  the  grubber,  a  class  of  instruments  with  the  importance  of 
w-hich  you  will  be  made  acquainted  below  by  Mr.  Slight,  or  ribbed  with 
the  small  plow,  fig.  314,  without  affecting  their  form.  The  choice  of  these 
various  modes  of  stirring  the  ground  may  be  taken  according  to  circum- 
stances. If  the  ridges  have  become  much  consolidated  in  consequence  of 
being  plowed  a  considerable  time,  or  of  much  rain  having  fallen,  and  if 
the  soil  itself  be  naturally  firm,  two  furrows  with  the  common  plow  will 
best  put  the  land  into  a  state  for  receiving  barley ;  but  should  they  be  in 
a  somewhat  soft  state,  with  perhaps  rather  too  much  moisture  below, 
though  with  a  kindly  state  of  the  surface,  capable  of  affording  a  fine  tid 
with  the  harrows,  then  the  grubber  is  the  most  proper  implement  for  mak- 
ing a  deep  bed  for  the  barley-seed,  while  it  at  the  same  time  retains  the 
dry  surface  uppermost ;  and  should  the  soil  be  naturally  free  while  it  is 
desired  to  retain  the  upper  stratum  of  soil  still  uppermost,  it  may  be 
ribbed  with  the  small  plow.  Putting  these  ridges  thus  into  the  best  state 
for  the  barley-seed,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  with  the  remainder  of  the 
land.  The  first  furrow  given  to  barley  land,  which  is  at  the  same  time  in 
the  best  direction,  is  the  cross-furrow,  as  in  fig.  312,  because  being  plowed 
in  an  opposite  direction  to  the  seed-furrow  to  be  afterward  given,  the  best 
means  are  taken  to  pulverize  it.  I  need  not  here  repeat  what  has  already 
been  said  so  fully  on  cross-plowing  in  (1718)  to  (1723)  inclusive.  Although 
the  land  may  not  be  all  so  cleared  of  turnips  as  to  allow  the  cross-plowing 
to  extend  from  one  side  of  the  field  to  the  other,  it  should  be  divided  into 
two  portions,  one  of  which  should  be  plowed  and  sown  while  the  other  is 
clearing,  and  which  may  perhaps  be  cleared  by  the  time  the  sowing  of  the 
first  part  is  completed.  After  a  passage  of  the  harrows  a  double  tine  over 
the  cross-plowed  land,  the  ridges  should  be  feered  and  plowed  up  for  the 
seed-furrow,  and  the  usual  form  of  seed-furrow  is  either  gathering  fi-om 
the  flat,  as  shown  in  fig.  133,  or  yoking  two  ridge-breadths  together,  as  in 
fig.  135.  Every  plow  should  be  employed  in  ridging  up  the  seed-furroAV 
for  the  barley-seed,  for  it  is  essential  to  the  success  of  that  crop  that  the 
seed  be  sown  on  the  soil  fresh  turned-up,  or  on  a  Jiot-furroio,  as  it  is  termed. 
Both  the  cross-plowing  and  seed-fuiTow  should  be  deejJ.  The  former  may 
be  turned  up  with  a  broad,  stout  fuiTOw-slice,  but  the  latter  should  be 
plowed  with  a  deep,  narrow  furrow-slice,  in  order  to  pulverize  the  soil  as 
much  as  possible,  and  to  make  the  crests  of  the  furrow-slices  numerous 
and  narrow,  so  as  to  disseminate  the  seed  more  equally  when  sown  by 
hand  ;  for  the  sowing  of  seed  on  a  fine  pulverized  surface  requires  assist- 
ance of  this  sort  to  cause  it  to  be  equally  disseminated,  inasmuch  as  on 
whatever  spot  every  seed  falls,  there  it  lies,  the  soft  earth  having  no  elas- 
ticity Hke  the  firm  furrow-shce  of  lea,  and  hence,  of  all  the  sorts  of  grain, 
barley  is  the  most  likely  to  be  hapversa'ed  in  the  sowing,  and  on  that  ac- 

(319) 


17G  THE   BOOK  OF  THE   FARM-^SPRING. 

count  every  handfull  requires  to  be  cast  with  greater  force  than  other  sorts 
of  grain.      The  walking  on  soft  ground  in  sowing  barley  is  attended  with 
considerable  fatigue,  ajid  as  short  steps  are  most  suited  for  walking  on  soft 
ground,  so  small   handsfuU   are    best  for  grasping  plump,  slippery  barley. 
Barley  may  be  sown  any  time  that  is  proper  for  spring  wheat,  and  it  may 
be  sown  as  late  as  the  end   of  May  ;  but  the  earlier  it  can  be  sown,  the 
better  will  the  crop  be  in  quality  and  uniformity,  though  the  straw  will  be 
less.     The  average  quantity  of  seed  sown  broadcast  is  3  bushels  to  the  im- 
perial acre  ;  when  sown  early  less  will  suffice,  and  when  late,  more  ;  be- 
cause the  later  it  is  sown  there  is  less  time  for  so  quick  a  growing  grain 
as  barley  to  tiller  and  cover  the  ground.     Mr.  Brown  has  some  judicious 
remarks  on  this  subject:  "Among  the  farmers,"  he  says,  "it  seems  a  dis- 
puted point  whether  the  practice   of  giving  so  small  a  quantity  of  seed  (3 
bushels  per   acre)   to   the   best  lands,  is   advantageous.     That  there  is  a 
saving  of  grain  there  can  be  no  doubt ;  and  that  the  bulk  may  be  as  great 
as  if  more  seed  had  been  sown,  there  can  be  as  little  question.     Little  ar- 
gument, however,  is   necessary  to  prove  that  thin  sowing  of  barley  must 
be  attended  with   considerable  disadvantage  ;  for,  if  the  early  ]>art  of  the 
season  be  dry,  the  plants  will  not  only  be  stinted  in  their  growth,  but  will 
not  send  out  offsets ;  and  if  rain  afterward  falls — an  occurrence  that  must 
take  place  sometime  during  the  summer,  often  at  a  late  period  of  it — the 
plants  then  begin  to  stool,  and  send  out  a  number  of  young  shoots.     These 
young  shoots,  unless   under  very  favorable  circumstances,  cannot  be  ex- 
pected to  arrive  at  maturity  ;  or  if  their  ripening  is  waited  for,  there  will 
be  great  risk  of  losing  the  early  part  of  the  crop — a  circumstance  that  fre- 
quently happens.     In   almost   every  instance  an   unequal  sample  is  pro- 
duced, and  the  grain  is  for  the  most  part  of  inferior  quality.     By  good 
judges  it  is  thought  preferable  to  sow  a  quantity  of  seed  sufficient  to  in- 
sure a  full  crop,  without  depending  on   its  sending  out   offsets.     Indeed, 
when  that  is  done,  few  offsets  are  produced,  the   crop  grows  and  ripens 
equally,  and  the  gi-ain  is  uniformly  good."*     There  is  no  grain  so  easily 
affected  by  weather  at  seed-time  as  barley ;  a  dash  of  rain  on  strong  land  will 
cause  the  crop  to  be  thin,  many  of  the  seeds  not  seemingly  germinating 
at  all,  while  others  burst  and  cannot  germinate  ;   and  in  moist,  warm  weather 
the  germination  is  certain  and  very  rapid.     Indeed,  it  has  been  observed 
that  unless  barley  germinate  quickly,  the  crop  will  always  be  thin.    I  have 
seen  the  germ  of  barley  penetrate  the  gi'ound  only  36  hours  after  I  had 
sown  it  myself,  and  when  it  took  place,  the  gi'ound  was  smoking  by  the 
evaporation  of  moisture,  caused  by  a  hot  sun  in  a  calm  atmosphere.     I 
have  also  traced  the   germ   of  barley  to  the  depth  of  9  inches  below  the 
surface.     The  harrowing  which  barley-land  receives  after  being  sown  is 
less  than  oat -land,  a  double  tine  being  given  in  breaking  in  the  seed,  and  a 
double  tine  across  immediately  after.     Then  the   grass-seeds  are   sown 
with   the  grass-seed  sowing-machine,  formerly  described  in   (1774)  ;  the 
land  is  harrowed  a  single  tine  with  the  light  grass-seed  harrows  (1775)  ; 
water-fun-owed   (1778)  ;    and  finished  by  immediate  rolling.     On  strong 
soil,  apt  to  incrust   on  the  surface  with  drouth,  after  rain  the  rolling  pre- 
cedes the  sowing  of  the  grass-seeds,  and  the  process  is  finished  with  the  light 
grass-seed  harrows ;  but  on  all  kindly  soils  the  other  plan  is  best  for  keep- 
ing  out   drouth,  and  giving  a  smoother  surface  for  harvest-work.     The 
head-ridges  are  plowed   and  sown  by  themselves.     Barley  may  be  sown 
with  the  broadcast  machine  as  well  as  oats,  and  it  is  admirably  suited  for 
sowing  with  the  drill  sowing-machine,  which  deposits  the  seed  at  a  uniform 
depth  and  breadth  between  the  rows,  with  about  two  bushels  of  seed  to 

•  Brown  on  Rural  Affairs,  vol.  iL 
(320) 


SOWING  BARLEY-SEED. 


177 


the  acre ;  and  such  an  an-angement  affords  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of 
the  draw-hoe,  to  remove  the  wild  mustard,  which  is  apt  to  spring  up 
among  the  spring  crops  in  the  vicinity  of  large  towns,  vi^here  street-manure 
is  used  to  a  large  extent. 

(1854.)  Barley  is  sown  after  potatoes  and  beans,  but  never  when  the 
weather  will  permit  the  sowing  of  wheat.  When  intended  for  barley,  the 
land  is  gathered  up  for  the  winter,  water-fuiTowed  and  gaw-cut,  to  pre- 
vent water  standing  upon  it ;  and  in  spring  it  is  cross-plowed  and  ridged 
up  with  the  seed-furrow.  Barley  is  sown  also  at  times  after  wheat  or  oats, 
and  the  sample  in  such  a  case  is  always  fine  colored,  but  the  practice  is 
bad  farming,  and  should  never  be  pursued.  It  is  never  sown  in  Scotland 
after  lea,  but  might  be  after  the  land  had  received  a  paitial  fallowino-  in 
spring.  When  sown  in  autumn,  it  does  not  stand  the  winter  well  in  Scot- 
land, though  it  does  in  England.  Winter  barley  is  always  early  ripe,  but 
is  seldom  a  prolific  crop,  and  when  it  tillers  late  in  spring  to  cover  in  the 
ground,  the  produce  is  apt  to  contain  a  large  proportion  of  light  grain. 
As  an  instance  of  late  sowing  of  barley,  I  may  relate  what  has  ff^Jlen  un- 
der my  own  observation.  The  late  Mr.  Guthrie,  of  Craigie,  near  Dundee, 
had  early  plowed  the  greater  part  of  a  field  of  strong  soil  after  turnips,  and 
much  rain  had  afteiward  consolidated.  Being  desirous  of  giving  the  land 
another  furrow  before  sowing  it  with  barley,  he  found  the  plow  bi-ing  up 
large  waxy  clods,  unfit  to  form  a  seed-bed  for  barley.  He  consulted  me, 
and  I  advised  him  to  rib  the  land  with  a  small  plow,  fig.  314,  instead  of 
plowing  it.  His  men  never  having  seen  land  so  ribbed,  I  showed  them 
the  way,  and  saw  the  ground  sown  and  hanowed  with  one  double  tine 
along.  The  sowing  took  place  on  26th  May,  1819,  and  the  ribbed  land 
produced  12  bushels  the  Scotch  acre  more  than  that  which  was  plowed 
with  the  common  plow,  because  all  the  tender  part  of  the  land  had  been 
kept  uppermost. 

(1855.)  Now  that  you  have  seen  the  termination  of  the  sowing  season  of  Uie  various  sorts  of  grain 
usually  cultivated  on  a  fann,  it  may  prove  useful  to  you  to  give  you  an  idea  of  the  principles  of  the 
germination  of  seeds,  and  which  you  will  find  given  here  in  the  words  of  Dr.  Madden.  [The  process 
of  germination  consists  chiefly  of  various  chemical  changes  in  the  composition  of  the  seed,  by  which 
its  substance  is  rendered  soluble,  and  in  tliis  state  furnishes  nourishment  for  the  young  plant.  This 
change  is  effected  by  means  of  a  highly  azotized  principle  present  in  all  seeds,  and  which,  under 
the  joint  influence  of  air,  moisture  and  a  certain  temperature,  undergoes  various  chemical  changes, 
during  the  occun-ence  of  which  it  is  capable  of  exciting  similar  changes  in  other  substances  with 
which  it  may  be  in  contact.  Seeds  are  for  the  most  part  composed  of  starch,  gum,  sugar,  albumen, 
and  various  saline  matters;  of  these  the  starch  is  in  general  the  most  abundant,  and  the  most  im- 
portant change  produced  during  germination  is  the  conversion  of  this  starch  into  sugar.  I  have 
stated  that  the  necessary  conditions  for  efiecting  this  change  are,  independently  of  the  vitality  of 
the  seed  itself,  air,  moisture  and  a  certain  temperature ;  these  three  points  are  sufficient  to  regu- 
late all  the  practical  details  of  the  sowing  of  seed,  both  as  regards  the  weather  and  the  condition 
of  the  soil  in  respect  of  water  and  tillage.*  If  the  season,  for  example,  be  not  far  enough  ad- 
vanced, then  germination  is  either  retarded  by  the  lowness  of  the  temperature,  or  the  vitality  of  the 


SOIL  WITH  WATER  AND  WITHOUT  AIR. 


CLODDT  AND  STONY  SOIL. 


seed  is  altogether  destroyed  by  the  continuance  of  hard  frost.     If,  again,  the  soil  be  too  wet,  the 
seed  does  not  obtain  a  sufficient  supply  of  air,  owing  to  the  interstitiarcanals  already  mentioned— 

*  See  a  paper  by  me  on  this  subject  in  the  Prize  Essavs  of  the  Highland  Agiicultural  Society,  vol.  siv. 
(321) 12 


178 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


(884)  10  (tietJ) — beini:  filled  wiih  water.  To  j:ivc  you  a  better  idea  of  tliis  condition,  you  will  per- 
ceive, in  fig.  33o,  that  the  seed  a  is  not  ouppiied  with  any  air  beyond  whiit  rearheH  it  in  the  state  of 
solution  in  water.  Again,  if  the  Boil  be  not  properly  pulverized,  it  is  very  poiwible  liiat  the  seed 
may  be  badly  situated  for  the  purposes  of  germination,  owing  to  the  obliteration  of  the  interstitial 
canals  by  pressure,  as  is  shown  in  fig.  336.  where  h  represents  a  clod  of  earth,  and  c  a  stone,  be- 
tween which  the  seed  n  is  placed.  I  need  scarcely  mention  the  remaining  cause  of  imperfect 
germination,  viz.,  the  absence  of  moisture,  as  represented  in  fig.  337,  where  a  is  the  seed,  as 
this  is  far  too  rare  an  occurrence,  under  ordinary  circuni.stances,  to  require  notice.  Lasilv,  the 
proper  condition  of  soil  for  germination  is,  as  l>efore  noticed,  l?^."),)  where  Uie  pores  of  each 
particle  are  filled  with  water,  while  the  interstitial  canals  are  filled  with  air.  This  condition  is 
ihown  in  fig.  338,  and  it  will  at  once  be  observed  that  while  the  seed  a  obtains  moisture  by 


Fi?.  337. 


Fig.  338. 


SOIL  WITH  AIR  A.SD  WITHOUT  WATER. 


I 

V 

♦  / 

s  i*. 

* 

» •    ■' 

»» 

■  /• ' 

SOIL  WITH   WATER  A.SD   AIR. 


contact  with  the  dark  saturated  particles  of  soil,  it  receives  a  continuous  supply  of  fresh  air  from 
that  circulating  constantly  through  the  interstitial  canals.  "  Lest  any  one  should  suppose  that  the 
contents  of  these  interstitial  canals  are  so  minute  tiiat  their  whole  amount  can  be  of  little  conse- 
quence, we  may  here  notice  the  fact  that  in  moderately  well  pulverized  soil  they  amount  to  no  less 
than  i  of  the  whole  bulk  of  the  soil  itself.  For  example,  100  cubic  inches  of  too/,-./  soil — that  is.  of 
soil  in  which  the  pores  arc  iillod  with  water,  while  the  canals  are  filled  with  air.  as  fig.  337 — con- 
tain no  less  than  25  cubic  inches  of  air.  According  to  this  calculation,  in  a  field  pulverized  to  the 
depth  of  8  inches,  a  depth  perfectly  attainable  on  most  soils  by  careful  tillage,  every  imperial  acre 
will  retain  beneath  its  surface  no  less  than  l-J,O'15,280  cubic  inches  of  air.  Taking  into  the  calculation 
the  weight  of  soil,  we  shall  find  that  every  additional  inch  you  reduce  to  powder  by  plowing,  you 
call  into  activity  e35j  tons  of  soil,  and  render  it  capable  of  retaining  beneatli  its  surface  1,568.160 
additional  cubic  inches  of  air. —  H.  R.  M.) 

(185fj.)  The  subject  of  the  condition  in  wl)ich  seed  is  usually  found  deposited  in  tie  ground  may 
be  pursued  a  little  farther,  from  the  paper  alluded  to  by  Dr.  Madden,  and  the  first  conditions  that 
strike  one  are  bad  plowing  and  bad  sowing.  In  fig.  339,  the  furrow-sUces  under  a,  h  and  c  arc  all 
ill  plowed,  as  you  may  easily  perceive  ;  and  the  soil  being  so  arranged,  of  course  tlie  seed  will  be 
in^egularly  deposited,  as  seen  at  a,  h  and  c,  in  fig.  340,  where  some  are  too  deep,  as  under  b,  to 

Fi?  339. 


/\ 


''^■J^fMh^:^ 


A^'^ 


a  b 


;«»'^:f»^";^-vrV:;''r-::^:»v';^^:*-t:^B;i 


Fig  341 


^         A 


toliilLiMlM  lin-fffifrrgf 


1^ 


^   ;X- 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  BAD  PLOWINO  ON  SEED.  THE  EFFECTS  OF  BAD  SOWING  ON  SEED. 

germinate  quickly,  if  at  all,  and  others  much  nearer  the  surface,  ns  at  c.  In  these  various  positions 
in  which  the  seed  is  placed,  it  is  obvious  that  the  plants  spriniring  from  them  will  appear  and 
grow  as  irregularly,  as  seen  in  fii.'.  341.  where  the  plants  at  b  are  much  farther  advanced  than 
those  at  a.  In  regard  to  bad  sowing,  ahhough  the  furrow  slices  are  regular  and  well  ploweu  ;n 
the  right-naad  side  of  fig.  339,  from  c  W  d,  yet  the  seed  having  been  irregularly  deposited  on  the 
(322) 


SOWING  BARLEY-SEED. 


179 


surface,  they  have  arranged  themselves  in  one  place  too  thick,  as  at  e  e  e,  fig.  340,  and  too  thin  at 
f  f;  and  the  consequences  are  visible  in  the  position  of  the  plants  in  fig.  341,  where  they  are  too 
thick  at  g  g  g.  and  too  thin  at  h  h.  Where  such  irregularities  exist — and  every  farmer  is  liable 
to  their  consequences  by  the  carelessness  of  their  workpeople,  it  is  clear  that  the  crop  cannot  be 
uniform;  and  it  is  a  fact  which  cannot  be  disputed  however  it  may  be  explained,  that  the  more 
uniform  a  crop  is,  it  is  the  greater,  and  affords  better  grain.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  you  observe 
fig.  342,  you  will  perceive  that  the  seed  has  been  deposited  at  uniform  depths  and  intervals  from  a 

FiR.  343. 


1  i-':  ■  »•  i-;, ;»> -.• ; ■/\(:y;::v>:i;:M'^-=:'\i^ ■  \ V:. 


f  tf  f  1  f  i ft  t  f  t J...I « 


THE  GOOD  iify£CTS  OF  THE  EliUAL  DEFOJITIOS  OF  SEED. 

to  'a,  and  the  consequence  is  that  the  plants  grow  at  uniform  bights  and  strength,  as  from  c  to  c. 
Although  the  favorable  result  is  obtained  by  drill-machines  depositing  every  seed  at  a  regular  depth, 
which  is  not  the  case  of  broadcast  by  hand,  yet  there  are  objections  against  sowing  corn  in  rows, 
which  all  drill  machines  do;  but  could  they  be  made  to  deposit  seed  at  a  uniform  depth,  and  at 
the  same  time  disperse  it  broadcast,  the  objection  would  be  disposed  of  The  objection  to  all 
crops  placed  in  rows  is  that  the  air,  having  free  access  along  the  rows,  while  it  encourages  the 
growth  of  the  cultivated,  so  also  it  does  of  wild  plants,  and  to  destroy  the  latter,  certain  imple- 
ments are  used  to  stir  the  ground,  while  the  former  are,  of  course,  allowed  to  grow ;  but  as  in 
their  progressive  growth  the  plants  throw  out  innumerable  root-fibres  in  every  direction  in  search 
of  food,  the  fibres  which  occupy  the  open  space  between  te  rows  are  destroyed  in  common  with 
the  weeds;  and  though  no  estimate  can  be  formed  of  the  amount  of  injury  which  plants  sustain 
in  the  destruction  of  their  root-fibres,  yet  it  is  consonant  to  reason  that  these  fibres  must  be  essen- 
tial to  the  welfare  of  the  plant,  otherwise  they  would  not  be  sent  forth.  It  would  therefore  be 
worth  while  to  ascertain,  by  experiment,  the  comparative  results  derived  from  depositing  seed 
broadcast  at  a  uniform  depth  with  ordinary  broadcast,  and  with  rows. 

(1857.)  I  have  amused  myself  at  times  in  calculating  the  quantity  of  seeds  of  different  grains 
sown  in  an  acre,  and  on  comparing  the  amount  of  crop  actually  received,  with  what  ought  to 
have  been  their  produce,  and  the  deficiency  which  the  results  bear  out  appears  incredible.  Thus, 
Hunter's  wheat  gives  84  grains  to  1  drachm  \\'eight ;  and  taking  it  at  65  lbs.  per  bushel,  the  num- 
ber of  grains  in  a  bushel  is  698,870,  and  giving  three  bushels  per  acre  for  seed,  there  will  be  sown 
on  an  imperial  acre,  2,095,510  grains,  or  48  grain«  in  the  square  foot.  Now,  I  have  counted  ears 
of  wheat  to  contain  as  high  as  61,  and  as  low  as  24  grains  each,  the  average  thus  being  44  grains ; 
and  allowing  no  more  than  one  ear  of  produce  from  each  grain  sown,  and  allowing  nothing  for 
the  tillering  of  the  crop,  the  produce  ought  to  be  44  fold  ;  but  the  largest  produce  of  wheat  in  the 
Carse  of  Gowrie  is  52  bushels  per  imperial  acre,  or  only  17  fold  for  the  seed  sown :  what  then 
becomes  of  the  other  27  fold  ?  Again,  80  grains  of  Chevalier  barley,  at  69  lbs.  per  bushel,  weighs 
1  drachm,  or  affords  604,160  grains  to  the  bushel,  and  at  3  bushels  to  the  acre,  1,812,480  grains  per 
acre,  or  41  grains  to  the  square  foot.  Now  barley  yields  from  32  to  21  grains  in  the  ear,  the  aver- 
age being  28,  and  allowing  1  ear  from  each  grain  sown,  the  produce  should  be  28  fold  ;  but  60 
bushels  per  acre  is  the  best  crop,  or  20  fold  of  the  seed  :  what  then  becomes  of  the  8  fold  which 
is  wanting  ?  Once  more :  Potato  oats  give  134  grains  to  1  drachm,  at  47  lbs.  per  bushel,  or  806,144 
grains  to  the  bushel,  and  at  6  bushels  an  acre  for  seed,  4,836,864  grains  per  acre,  or  111  grains  per 
square  foot.  Now,  potato  oats  differ  in  the  yield  of  grains  in  the  ear  from  182  to  20,  the  average 
being  64,  or  64  fold,  allowing  1  ear  from  each  grain  sown  witliout  tillering.  Now  72  bushels  is  a 
good  crop  per  acre,  or  12  fold  of  the  seed  :  what  then  becomes  of  the  52  fold  wanting  ?  These 
are  incredible  discrepancies,  and  how  can  they  be  accounted  for  ?  Can  the  attacks  of  insects  and 
vermin,  or  the  effects  of  soil  and  weather,  account  for  the  loss  ?  The  subject  is  worth  investiga- 
tion, and  were  the  result  of  investigation  the  discovery  of  the  means  to  protect  the  seed  while  it 
is  in  the  ground,  the  produce  would  either  be  greatly  increased,  or  the  quantity  of  seed  to  be  sown 
would  require  to  be  much  lessened.* 

*  See  some  speculations  of  mine  on  this  subject  in  vol.  iv.  of  Quarterly  Journjil  of  .Agriculture. 


(323) 


ISO  THE   BOOK  OF  THE   FARM SPRING. 


16.    TURNING   DUNGHILLS  AND  COMPOSTS. 

"The  compost  pilo  examine  now  ami  turn, 
And  if 'lis  not  completely  liecomposed 
Into  one  mass  of  veget-tble  mould, 
With  an  unsp"*™!;  hrtnd  throw  in  more  lime. 

When  unremittini;  cold  retards  the  stage  • 

Of  fermentation,  heat,  then,  genial  heat. 
Must  be  applied. 

Graham. 

(1858.)   The  ordinary  mode  of  treatins^  tlunghills  of  farm-yarfl  manure  is 

very  simple the  principh?  upon  which  it  is  founded  is  quite  consonant  to 

reason and  the  re.'^ults  of  the  application  of  the  manure  so  treated  is  also 

satisfactory.     The  treatment  is,   to  spread  every  kind  of  straw  used  in  lit- 
ter and  every  kind  of  dung  derived  from  the  various  sorts  of  animals  domi- 
ciled in  the  steading  uniformly  in  layers,  as  it  is  supplied,  over  the  area  of 
the  respective  courts;  to  take  this  compound  of  straw  and  dung  out  of  the 
courts  at  a  proper  period,  and  form   it  into  a  heap  in  the  field  where  the 
manure  derived  from  it  shall  he  needed,  with   as  much  care  as  to  mix  the 
different  ingredients  of  the  heap  together  as  they  were  in  the  courts,  and 
to  prevent  tlie  fermentation  of  the  whole  until  the  manure  is  used  ;  and  to 
turn  this  heap  over  in  such   a   way,   and  at  such  a  time,  as  the  manure  it 
contains  shall  be  ready  to  be  applied  to  the  soil  when  wanted.     The  prin- 
ciple of  this  treatment  is  the   simple   one  of  commixing  the  various  ingre- 
dients of  sti-aw  and  dung  so  intimately  together,  fii-st  in  the  couits,  then  in 
the  duno--heap,  when  led  out,  and  lastly  in  the  same  dung-heap  when  turn- 
ed over^to  be  duly  fermented,  as  that  the  fermented  manure  shall  be  aa 
uniform  a  compound  as  the  nature  of  the  materials  of  which  it  is  composed 
will   admit.     And   the  result  is,  when  the  manure  so  treated  is  applied  to 
the  soil,  it  is  found  to  be  the  most  valuable  of  any  known  manure  for  every 
purpose  of  the  farm.     You  have  already  been  told  how  the  courts  should 
be  littered,  and  been  shown  the  advantages  of  attending  to  this  simple  yet 
important  part  of  rural  management  in  (1596)  and  (1597).     You  have  also 
seen  how  those  courts  are  emptied  of  their  contents,  and  the  proper  time 
when  they  should   be  so  emptied,  in  (1598)   and  (1599).     And  you  have 
witnessed  how  their  contents  are  disposed  of  in  heaps  in  the  fields  in  which 
they  shall  be  required,  (1601),  and  the  reasons  why  they  are  formed  in  the 
manner  recommended,  (1602).     My  present  purpose  is  to  inform  you  how 
these  heaps  should  be  turned  in  order  to  bring  them  into  the  degree  of  fer- 
mentation best  suited  for  making  them  into    good  manure  ;  and  the  mode 
of  actually  apjjlying  that  manure  will  be.  shown  to  you  when  we  come  to 
consider  the  culture  of  the  potato  and  turnip  crops. 

(1859.)  Potatoes  are  the  first  crop  which  require  a  large  quantity  of  farm 
duntr.  It  is  the  practice  of  some  farmers  to  drive  the  dung  for  potatoes 
direct  out  of  the  court,  in  its  compressed  state,  and  before  it  has  been  fer- 
mented at  all.  On  strong  soils,  naturally  unsuited  to  the  growth  of  this 
plant,  by  reason  (jf  their  heavy  and  tenacious  character,  long  dung  may  be 
successfully  used,  because?  it  assists  to  relieve  the  pressure  of  the  soil  upon 
the  young  plant.  Indeed,  on  such  soil,  I  have  seen  a  drill  of  potatoes  ma- 
nured with  dry  twisted  straw-ropes  obtained  from  the  coverings  of  the 
stacks  in  the  stack-yard,  and  which  was  so  manured  for  the  purpose  of  as- 
certaining the  diflerence,  if  any,  betwixt  it  and  the  best  made  dung,  pro- 


TURNING  DUNGHILLS   AND  COilIPOSTS.  181 


duce  as  good  potatoes  as  the  dung.  In  like  manner,  potatoes  may  be 
raised  well  on  soils  of  that  character  with  horse-dung  which  has  reached 
that  state  of  worthlessness  caWed  jirc-fa?iged.  In  all  other  sorts  of  soils  the 
use  of  long-dung  incurs  imminent  risk  of  a  deficiency  of  crop,  and  there- 
fore dung  should  generally  be  fermented  for  potatoes.  Dung,  when  laid 
up  in  an  uncompressed  state  in  the  court,  as  noticed  in  (1604),  becomes 
sufficiently  fermented  for  potatoes,  and  may  be  driven  out  atonce  without 
farther  preparation.  There  is  one  objection  to  the  use  of  unfermented 
dung  for  potatoes,  which  seems  to  me  insuperable,  and  it  is,  that  where 
grains  of  every  kind  find  their  way  among  the  litter  of  courts,  and  it  is  im- 
possible to  have  the  straw  threshed  by  the  mill  absolutely  clean,  or  the 
seeds  of  weeds  that  may  have  been  sifted  out  of  the  corn  when  cleaned, 
thrown  upon  the  litter  in  the  courts,  though  they  ought  to  have  been  thrown 
away  elsewhere ;  so  long  as  these  grains  and  seeds  possess  all  their  vitali- 
ty, and  that  will  escape  destruction  in  unfermented  dung,  they  will  sprino- 
up  among  the  potatoes,  not  in  the  intervals  between  the  drills,  where  they 
might  be  removed  by  the  horse-hoes  in  the  process  of  cleaning  the  land, 
but  actually  among  the  potato-plants,  having  vegetated  and  grown  alono- 
with  them,  and  deriving  as  much  nourishment  from  the  dung  as  the  pota- 
toes themselves.  I  have  frequently  seen  such  an  intermixture  with  potato 
plants  at  various  places,  and  a  very  dirty  and  slovenly  farming  it  makes. 
Having  a  piece  of  ground  trenched  from  an  old  plantation,  and  beino- com- 
paratively pretty  clean,  I  was  desirous  of  trying  potatoes  upon  it  for  the 
first  crop,  and  having  no  dung  ready  prepared  for  this  extra  space  of 
ground,  what  was  required  was  taken  out  of  the  court  in  which  the  corn- 
barn  was  situated,  and  the  result  was  as  I  have  just  described.  No  doubt, 
the  weeds  thus  sprung  up.  among  the  potatoes  can  be  removed  by  the  field- 
workers  with  the  draw-hoe,  when  they  are  cleaning  the  crop,  but  the  labor 
of  removing  large  plants  fi-om  that  position,  and  especially  when  forced 
in  growth  by  powerful  manure,  is  considerable,  and  the  weeding  cannot 
be  accomplished  but  by  removing  a  considerable  portion  of  the  useful 
soil  around  the  young  potato  plant.  It  is  clear  that  it  is  much  better  farm- 
ing to  have  no  plants  in  this  position  to  take  away,  than  to  have  to  re- 
move them. 

(1860.)  On  commencing  the  fuming  of  a  dunghill,  it  should  be  consider- 
ed from  which  end  it  will  be  most  convenient  to  take  the  dung  and  lav  it 
on  the  land.  On  the  supposition  that  the  dunghill  occupies  the  position'ex- 
plained  in  (1595),  the  end  from  which  the  dung  will  be  carted  away  will 
be  the  head-ridge.  After  determining  this  point,  the  next  subject  for  con- 
sideration is,  whether  the  dunghill  will  be  once  or  twice  turned  before  it 
is  applied,  and  this  point  is  determined  by  the  crop  for  which  the  dunghill 
is  preparing — if  for  potatoes,  only  one  turning  is  requisite,  and  two  for  tur- 
nips. As  the  first  dunghill  is  intended  for  potatoes,  it  receives  one  tui'ning, 
and  it  should  be  begun  to  be  turned  at  the  end  farthest  from  the  head- 
ridge.  The  unturned  dung-heap  slopes  at  both  ends,  as  observed  in  (1601), 
but  the  turned  dunghill  should  be  made  of  the  same  bight  throughout.  To 
attain  this  end,  the  space  occupied  by  the  workers  at  the  commencement, 
between  the  turned  dung  and  the  dung-heap,  should  be  wider  than  at  the 
middle  of  the  heap,  and  the  dung  should  be  thrown  to  a  greater  hight  than 
the  side  from  which  it  is  taken.  The  usual  width  marked  off  on  the  dung- 
heap  is  3  feet,  which  affords  sufficient  room  for  people  to  work  in  ;  but  the 
first  few  spaces  upon  which  the  first  divisions  of  the  heap  are  laid,  should 
be  held  narrower  than  3  feet,  until  the  desired  hight  of  the  turned  dung- 
hill is  attained  at  the  end.  The  effect  of  this  arrangement  is,  as  the  turn- 
ing approaches  the  middle  of  the   dung-heap,   where   it  is  of  the  greatest 

(325J 


182  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FAR3I SPRING. 


hit^ht,  the  space  upon  whicli  the  diinrr  is  turned  upon  will  be  more  than  3 
feet  in  width,  and  the  additional  width  will  be  required  near  and  at  the 
middle,  that  the  extra  bight  of  the  dung-*ieap  there  may  be  reduced  to  the 
level  of  the  end.  After  the  middle  has  been  passed,  the  spaces  turned  upon 
should  be  gradually  lessened  in  width  toward  the  end  at  which  the  turning 
is  finished,  where,  as  at  the  commencement,  the  turned  dung  will  have  to 
be  thrown  to  a  greater  bight  than  the  dung-heap,  to  attain  the  medium 
hight  of  the  finished  dunghill.  There  is  much  more  of  nice  management 
in  following  those  particulars  of  turning  a  dunghill  than  at  first  sight  may 
appear  necessary,  because  the  turned  dunghill  will  not  ferment  equally 
throughout  if  it  is  of  different  bights.  The  greatest  heat  will  be  at  the 
deepest  part,  where  the  dung  will  become  comparatively  short  and  com- 
pact, while  at  the  shallowest  parts  it  will  continue  crude  and  unprepared  ; 
and  these  different  states  of  manure  have  very  different  effects  on  the  soil. 
In  ordinary  practice,  miscalculations  are  always  made  as  lo  tlie  uniform 
hight  of  dunghills,  for  they  are  lower  at  the  ends  than  at  the  middle  ;  and 
if  an  endeavor  is  afterward  made  to  equalize  the  bight,  it  is  done  by  throw- 
ing bi"-h  dung  of  the  middle  toward  the  ends,  and  the  effect  of  this  expe- 
dient is  that  no  union  takes  place  between  the  dung  which  was  turned  over 
in  the  regular  way  with  what  is  afterward  thrown  upon  it ;  they  ever  after 
remain  in  different  states,  and  rise  differently  to  the  graip  when  removed 
into  the  cart ;  and  the  middle  part,  besides,  becomes  trampled  down  and 
harder  than  the  ends. 

(1861.)  Laying  these  down  as  the  rules  by  which  dunghills  should  be 
turned,  the  mechanical  part  of  the  operation  is  done  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  The  people  required  to  do  this  work  are  a  man  and  a  few  field- 
workers,  according  to  the  size  of  the  dunghills ;  and  of  this  latter  class, 
women  are  by  far  the  best  hands  at  turning  a  dunghill,  because,  each 
taking  a  smaller  quantity  of  dung  at  a  time  upon  a  smaller  graip  than  fig. 
257,  the  dung  is  much  more  intimately  mixed  together  than  when  men 
are  occupied  at  this  work,  for  they  take  large  graipsfull,  and  merely  lift 
them  from  one  side  of  the  trench  they  are  working  into  the  other,  without 
shaking  each  graipfull  loose,  or  scattering  it  to  pieces.  Turning  dung  is 
not  a  cleanly  work  for  women,  their  petticoats  being  apt  to  be  soiled  in  the 
trench  by  the  dung  on  both  sides ;  but  there  is  a  plan  which  Berwickshire 
women  adopt  of  keeping  the  bottom  of  their  dress  clean,  which  is  to  tie  the 
bottom  of  the  petticoat  with  the  garters  just  below  the  knee,  as  long  as  they 
are  at  work.  The  man's  duty  is  to  cut  the  dung-heap  into  divisions  of  3 
feet  wide  across  its  breadth  with  the  dung-spade,  fig.  308,  in  the  manner 
desciibed  in  (1603).  When  the  edge  of  the  dung-spade  becomes  dull,  it  is 
sharpened  with  the  scythe-stone.  The  drier  portions  of  the  dung  are  put 
into  the  interior  of  the  dunghill,  and  when  different  sorts  of  dung  are  met 
with,  they  are  intermingled  in  small  graipsfull  as  intimately  as  possible. 
Each  division  of  the  dunghill  is  cut  down  and  turned  over  to  the  ground 
before  another  is  entered  on,  and  when  the  ground  is  reached,  the  scattered 
straws,  and  earth  that  has  been  damped  by  any  exudation  from  the  dung- 
heap,  are  shoveled  up  either  with  the  broad-mouthed  shovel,  fig.  149,  or 
the  frying-pan  shovel,  fig.  176,  and  thrown  into  the  interior.  When  straw- 
ropes  are  met  with,  they  should  be  cut  into  small  pieces  and  scattered 
among  the  dampest  portions  of  the  dung.  Though  the  dung-heap  is  cut 
into  parallel  trenches,  the  dung  from  the  top  of  one  trench  is  not  thrown 
into  the  bottom  of  the  former,  but  rather  thrown  upon  the  breast  of  the 
turned  dung,  so  as  the  turned  dung  may  slope  away  from  the  work-people. 
The  utility  of  this  firm  is,  that  when  the  dung  is  carting  away  it  rises 
freely  with  the  graip.    When  a  dung-heap  is  thus  turned  over,  and  its  form 

(326) 


TURNING  DUNGHILLS  AND   COMPOSTS.  183 

preserved  as  it  should  be,  it  constitutes  a  pai'allelopipedou,  and  is  a  well 
finished  piece  of  work. 

(1862.)  Unless  much  rain  has  fallen  from  the  time  the  dung  was  led  out 
of  the  court  until  the  heap  is  tuined,  the  dung  will  not  be  very  moist,  and 
not  at  all  wet,  but  in  a  free  workable  state,  with  a  slight  degree  of  heat  in 
it,  and  evaporation  would  be  observable  from  it,  were  the  air  cold  when 
it  was  turning.  Very  little  moisture  will  be  observed  as  having  come  from 
the  heap.  After  this  turning  over,  shaking  up  and  mixing  together,  which 
should  be  finished  in  the  same  heap  as  quickly  as  possible,  that  the  whole 
mass  may  have  the  same  time  to  ferment,  the  operation  being  performed 
about  a  fortnight  before  the  time  of  planting  potatoes,  in  the  latter  end  of 
April  and  beginning  of  May,  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  is 
then  such  as  a  considerable  degree  of  heat  may  be  expected  to  show  itself  in 
the  dung  in  the  course  of  a  few  days.  There  is  no  danger  of  this  first  fermen- 
tation proceeding  to  a  gi'eat  degree  of  heat,  as  the  air  is  still  cool  at  nio^hts 
and  the  largest  proportion  of  the  heap  consists  of  the  dung  of  cattle,  which 
is  slow  of  fermentation  at  all  times,  and  particularly  in  the  early  part  of  the 
season.  The  first  external  symptom  that  fermentation  is  proceeding  in  the 
heap  is  subsidence  of  its  bulk,  w-hich  in  the  course  of  a  fortnight  may  con- 
tract one  foot  of  hight.  A  perceptible  smell  will  then  arise  from  the  duno-, 
accompanied  with  a  flickering  of  the  air  over  it,  which  is  occasioned  by 
the  escape  of  vapor  and  some  of  the  gases,  but  chiefly,  I  apprehend,  aque- 
ous vapor.  By  inserting  a  walking-stick  into  the  heap  here  and  there,  a 
heat  considerably  more  than  that  of  the  hand  will  be  felt,  and  by  pushino-  this 
stick  into  different  parts  of  the  dunghill,  the  relative  heat  of  those  parts 
will  be  ascertained,  and  the  greatest  heat  may  be  expected  to  be  felt  at 
the  side  opposite  whence  the  wind  blows,  if  there  be  wind,  or  even 
a  breeze.  The  substance  of  the  dunghill  becomes  more  consolidated  in 
consequence  of  the  fermentation,  and  also  more  uniform;  and  a  black- 
colored  liquid  will  be  found  in  some  degree  to  ooze  from  its  sides.  If  the 
soil  upon  which  the  dunghill  stands  was  soft  when  the  dunghill  was  formed, 
the  oozing  will  then  be  absorbed  by  it,  and  exhibit  no  wetness  of  surface  ; 
but  if  the  soil  be  firm,  then  the  moisture  will  remain  on  the  surface,  and  form 
small  pools  in  the  ruts  of  the  cart-wheels  or  open  furrows.  All  the  leakao-e, 
even  if  collected  in  one  pool,  would  afford  but  a  trifling  quantity ;  indeed 
much  moisture  cannot  exude  from  a  dung-heap  derived  from  courts  in 
which  the  cattle  are  duly  supplied  with  abundance  of  litter  to  keep  them 
both  dry  and  warm.     So  much  for  the  ^o^c/^o-dunghill. 

(1863.)  As  to  the  turnip-dunghiW,  it  receives  a  somewhat  different  treat- 
ment, but  still  conformable  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  destined.  It  is 
turned  twice,  and  on  this  account  it  is  begun  to  be  turned  at  the  opposite 
end  from  that  for  potatoes ;  but  the  same  rules  are  followed  in  doino-  it  as 
just  described  for  the  potato-dunghill,  and  it  also  is  allowed  to  ferment  for 
about  a  fortnight.  At  the  second  turning,  which  is  given  about  a  fortnight 
or  ten  days  before  the  dung  is  used,  the  operation  is  commenced  at  the 
end  at  which  the  former  turning  terminated,  and  it  is  much  more  easily 
performed  than  the  first,  inasmuch  as  the  substance  is  easier  cut  with  the 
dung-spade,  more  free  to  separate  and  shake  with  the  graip,  and  less  care 
required  to  retain  the  rectangular  figure  formerly  given  to  the  dunghill. 
The  weather  at  the  second  turning  will  be  warm,  and  the  fermentation,  of 
course,  rapid,  so  that  apprehension  may  be  excited  that  it  will  proceed  to 
an  injurious  extent  for  the  materials  composing  the  dunghill.  For  raising 
turnips,  however,  there  is  little  dread  of  the  fermentation  proceeding  toa 
far,  as  it  is  matter  of  experience  that  the  more  effete  the  dung  is,  the  more 
valuable  it  is  for  the  nourishment  of  the  turnip  plant,  as  is  well  known  to 

(327) 


184  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

every  turnip  farmer.  Wlien  in  this  valuable  state  heat  has  almost  entirely 
left  it,  it  has  become  like  soft  soap,  anil  rises  in  lumps  with  the  graip,  and 
would  almost  cut  into  pieces  witli  the  shovel.  It  is,  moreover,  sappy,  co- 
hesive, greasy,  and  of  a  dark-brownish  black  color.  Tlie  larger  the  mass  in 
which  tlie  dung  in  this  state  is  found,  the  more  valuable  it  is  for  turnips. 
To  check  rapid  fermentation,  a  spitfull  of  earth  around  the  dunghill  thrown 
upon  its  top,  will  have  that  effect  to  a  certain  degree.  It  is  supposed  by 
many  farmers  who  grow  Swedish  turnips  to  a  large  extent,  that  dung  of 
the  same  year  cannot  be  transfomied  into  this  state  in  time  for  Swedish 
tumij)H,  which  ought  to  be  sown  before  the  middle  of  May  ;  and  in  the 
temperature  of  ordinary  seasons  in  Scotland  at  that  time,  the  observation, 
I  dare  say,  is  correct.  To  obviate  the  want  of  so  valuable  an  ingredient 
as  oUl  muck,  it  is  the  practice  of  some  farmers  to  keep  dung  on  puqiose 
over  the  year.  This  would  no  doubt  be  a  difficult  matter  on  farms  which 
depend  entirely  on  their  own  produce  for  the  manure  applied  on  then  ;  but 
let  the  sacrifice  be  made  for  one  year  either  to  collect  farm-yard  dung  from 
external  sources,  and  form  it  into  a  dunghill  for  the  succeeding  year,  or 
purchase  other  maimre  to  a  large  extent  for  one  year,  to  raise  a  crop  of 
turnips,  and  reserve  the  farm-yard  dung  for  the  Swedish  turnips  of  the 
next  year,  and  the  object  is  gained.  I  have  known  many  farmers  attain 
this  object  to  a  partial  extent,  but  no  one  whom  I  have  observed  practice 
it  to  so  great  an  extent  as  Mr.  Smith,  when  he  was  at  Grindon  in  North 
Durham,  where  he  possessed  the  fine  stock  of  Short-Horns  that  was  ad- 
mired by  all  who  saw  them.  The  dung  of  the  year  was  made  fit  for 
white  turnips,  which  were  not  sown  for  a  month  or  so  after  the  Swedes, 
and  when  both  heat  and  time  combine  to  bring  it  to  a  proper  state  for  use. 
(1864.)  The  subject  of  composts,  when  followed  out  in  all  its  bearings, 
is  an  extensive  one — for  there  is  not  a  single  article  of  refuse  on  a  farm 
but  what  may  form  an  ingredient  of  a  compost,  and  be  converted  into  a 
manure  fit  for  one  or  more  of  the  cultivated  crops.  At  the  same  time  there 
is  great  labor  attending  the  formation  of  composts  of  every  kind,  as  the  ma- 
terials cannot  be  collected  together  without  horse-labor ;  and  in  summer, 
when  those  materials  are  most  abundant,  the  labors  of  the  field  are  most 
important,  and  to  devote  then  the  time  required  to  collect  them,  would  be 
to  sacrifice  part  of  the  time  that  should  be  occupied  in  indispensable  field- 
labor.  I  believe  the  most  economical  mode  of  forming  composts  is  to  col- 
lect materials  at  times  when  leisure  offers  for  the  purpose ;  and  when  they 
have  accumulated  in  sufficient  quantity  in  the  space  allotted  for  their  use, 
they  can  be  put  together  by  the  field-workers  when  not  necessarily  en- 
gaged in  the  field.  This  advice  will  not  suit  the  temper  of  those  who, 
wishing  to  obtain  their  object  at  once,  would  make  the  forming  of  com- 
posts, or  any  other  thing  they  have  in  hand  at  the  time,  the  principal  busi- 
ness of  the  farm  ;  but  you  should  be  very  cautious  in  determining  to  exe- 
cute any  piece  of  work  that  diverts  horse-labor  from  its  legitimate  pursuits. 
I  speak  on  this  subject  in  this  manner  from  direct  experience,  for  I  was 
once  strongly  impressed  with  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  using  com- 
posts;  and  having  plenty  of  materials  at  my  command  for  making  what  I 
conceived  should  be  good  manure  for  the  land,  I  persuaded  myself  that 
manure  to  any  extent  miglit  be  made  on  the  farm.  Having  access  to  an 
unlimited  quantity  of  rough  bog-turf  and  peat,  large  quantities  of  dry  leaves 
in  autumn,  black  mould  to  some  extent,  and  those  usual  refuse  products 
of  the  farm — quicken  and  potato-haulms,  with  plenty  of  shell-marl  and  a 
stratum  of  fine  clay  associated  with  it,  and,  of  course,  Hme-shells  from  the 
market-town  at  all  times,  1  was  in  these  circumstances  perhaps  fully  more 
favorably  situated  for  making  composts  than  most  farmers.     But  little  did 

(328) 


TURNING  DUNGHILLS  AND  COMPOSTS.  185 

I  anticipate  the  labor  I  undertook.  Two  years  convinced  me  that  it  was 
no  child's  play  to  collect  together  bog-turf,  marl,  lime,  dry  leaves  and  rub- 
bish into  one  focus,  and  cart  them  all  out  again  to  the  field  or  fields  des- 
tined to  receive  the  benefits  of  their  composition.  I  put  together  the  ma- 
terials in  the  best  manner  I  could  devise  or  hear  of,  turned  them  at  proper 
times  with  the  greatest  care,  and  certainly  enjoyed  the  satisfaction  of  ma- 
king a  great  deal  of  stuff  apparently  well  adapted  for  the  pui"pose  intend- 
ed ;  and  in  regard  to  its  quality,  I  invariably  found  that  the  oldest  made 
compost  looked  richest,  most  uniform  in  its  texture,  and  most  active  in  its 
effects,  like  old  rotten  muck;  but  notwithstanding  these  favorable  appear- 
ances, unless  very  large  quantities  were  applied,  little  benefit  was  derived 
from  them ;  and  even  from  40  to  50  cart-loads  to  the  imperial  acre  did  not 
produce  the  good  effects  of  12  cart-loads  of  good  muck.  I  could  have 
managed  the  manual  part  of  the  work  to  any  extent,  for  hired  laborers 
could  have  been  found  to  do  it  by  piece-work,  and  the  bog-turf  was  ob- 
tained on  that  condition  ;  but  the  horse-labor  was  overpowering,  for  every 
acre  thus  required  a  cartage  of  SO  to  100  loads  to  provide  no  more  than 
sufficient  manure  for  it.  An  extra  pair  of  horses  could  not  have  over- 
taken the  additional  labor  thus  imposed  on  the  horses,  and  to  incur 
that  expense  continually  for  the  problematical  good  to  be  derived  from 
the  largest  source  of  materials  I  possessed,  namely,  grassy-bog-turf,  and 
peat-turf,  was  more  than  the  most  sanguine  farmer  is  warranted  in 
risking. 

(1865.)  It  may,  perhaps,  prove  interesting  to  relate  a  few  of  the  com- 
posts I  made  with  those  materials.  1.  The  first  was  a  compound  of  peat- 
turf  and  lime-shells.  The  turf  was  wheeled  to  the  margin  of  the  bog  on 
hard  land,  and  allowed  to  lie  some  weeks,  to  drip  the  water  out  of  it,  and 
to  make  it  lighter  for  cartage.  The  lime  was  mixed  in  the  proportion  of 
1  cart  of  lime  to  27  of  turf  After  the  compound  was  twice  turned,  the  mass 
became  a  fine  greasy  pulp  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  in  spring  and  the 
early  part  of  summer — so  gi'easy  that  no  one  could  walk  on  it  without  slip- 
ping. It  was  applied  to  good  turnip  land,  to  raise  turaips,  and  the  rule 
adopted  to  determine  the  quantity  requisite  for  an  acre  was,  in  the  first 
place,  to  fill  the  drills  with  it,  and  the  quantity  required  to  do  this  was  from 
30  to  40  double  cart-loads  per  acre.  The  crop  of  white  turnips  was  only 
tolerable,  and  certainly  not  nearly  equal  to  what  was  raised  in  the  same  field 
with  12  loads  of  fai-m-yard  dung,  while  the  field  became  troublesomely 
covered  with  the  bog-thistle,  as  also  the  common  field-thistle,  and  a  few  of 
the  bur-thistle,  the  lime  not  having  been  in  sufficient  quantity  to  destroy  the 
vitality  of  the  thistle-seed  contained  in  the  turf,  though  the  degree  of  heat 
created  in  the  mass  to  reduce  it  to  a  pulp  was  considerable.  2.  Another 
compost  was  made  of  peat-turf  and  farm-yard  dung,  with  a  sprinkling  of 
lime,  as  directed  by  the  late  Lord  Meadowbank  in  his  celebrated  treatise 
on  that  subject,  and  which  you  may  consult.*  The  effect  produced  from 
this  was  better  than  the  former  compost,  but  still  not  equal  to  the  usual 
quantity  of  dung.  3.  A  mixture  of  lime  and  black  mould,  on  some  head- 
ridges  that  had  too  much  earth  accumulated  upon  them,  was  only  applied 
before  the  land  was  drilled  up  and  dunged  for  turnips,  to  thicken  the  soil ; 
and  labor  such  as  this  is  not  thrown  away.  4.  I  tried  a  compost  of  rape-cake 
and  earth,  the  compound  was  not  proportioned,  but  enough  of  the  cake 
was  sprinkled  on  while  the  earth  was  turning  over,  to  bring  a  very  brisk 
fermentation  to  the  mass.  After  the  heat  had  nearly  subsided,  it  was  ap- 
plied for  turnips,  and  with  much  success.     I  may  mention  that  no  account 

•  Meadowbank's  Direction  for  Preparing  Manure  from  Peat,  edition  of  1842. 
(329)  ^       ^ 


186  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


was  taken  of  the  exact  numher  of  cart-loa<ls  per  acre  of  this  or  any  other 
of  the  composts  that  were  applied,  such  particulars  being  seldom  noted  by- 
fanners,  who  are  chiefly  guided  by  judgment  in  the  quantity  of  manure 
which  any  crop  should  receive.  5.  Shell-marl  and  bog-turf,  when  mixed, 
produced  no  heat,  and  of  course  were  never  reduced  into  a  unifonn  mass, 
for  without  the  agency  of  heat  it  is  impossible  to  make  any  compost  homo- 
geneous. 6.  The  bog-turf  burnt  in  the  form  of  kilns,  produced  ashes 
which  varied  much  in  their  specific  gravities  ;  those  of  a  white  color  being 
light  and  incftective  as  a  manure,  while  the  red  color  were  heavy,  earthy 
in  appearance,  and  well  suited  to  raise  turnips  ;  but  I  was  unable  to  dis- 
tino-uish  beforehand  which  turf  yielded  the  white  and  which  the  red  ashes. 
The  troulile  attending  the  casting  of  the  turf  in  the  bog,  wheeling  it  to  the 
side,  exposing  it  to  the  air  to  dry,  and  afterward  either  burning  it  to  ashes, 
or  carting  it  away  for  compost,  was  much  greater  than  the  quantity  of 
ashes  obtained,  or  the  quality  of  compost  formed  would  remunerate.  Two 
years'  labor  with  this  concoction  of  materials  were  sufficient  to  give  me  a 
distaste  for  the  business,  and  at  length  I  dropped  it,  and  prefened  going 
into  the  neighbonng  towns  to  purchase  street  and  stable  and  cow-house 
manure,  and  bone-dust.  These  never  disappointed  me,  and  the  eating  off 
of  the  turnips  which  they  raised  every  year  with  sheep,  soon  put  the  soil  in 
a  fertile  state.  Not\vithstanding  this  resolution,  I  made  a  point  every  year 
of  making  up  a  large  compost-heap  of  the  quicken  gathered fiom  the  fallow 
land,  as  it  was  preparing  for  the  turnips — of  the  potato-haulms  as  they 
were  haiTOwed  together — and  of  the  dried  leaves  in  autumn,  which  would 
otherwise  have  blown  about  the  lawn  and  shrubberies — and  of  any  other 
refuse  that  could  be  collected  together  on  the  farm.  These  with  the  as- 
sistance of  a  little  fresh  horse-dung,  and  such  water  as  the  liquid-manure 
tank,  which  was  situate  in  the  compost  court,  afforded,  a  compost  was 
foiTiied  every  year,  which  assisted  in  extending  the  boundaries  of  the  turnip 
crop;  and  if  that  portion  of  the  crop  was  not  always  heavy,  the  gieater  or 
less  proportion  of  the  turnips  eaten  off  by  sheep  enabled  it  to  produce  its 
share  of  the  succeeding  coiii  crops  and  grass,  while,  at  the  same  time,  the 
soil  was  thickened  by  the  mould  reduced  from  the  compost.  7.  Any  of 
the  animals  that  fall  by  disease,  when  their  carcasses  are  subdivided,  and 
mixed  in  a  large  quantity  of  earth  powdered  with  a  little  quicklime,  will 
make  a  compost  far  superior  to  any  of  the  preceding  vegetable  materials, 
for  raising  turnips,  especially  Swedes.  8.  The  produce  of  privies,  and 
pigeons'  dung,  as  well  as  the  dung  of  fowls  from  the  hen-houses,  form  ex- 
cellent ingredients  for  putting  into  the  tank  of  liquid  manure  to  melt,  and 
afterward  to  distribute  it  over  a  compost.  9.  Of  late  years  saw-dust,  which 
was  long  considered  a  useless  article,  and  which  maybe  obtained  in  quan- 
tity on  some  farms  where  saw-mills  are  at  work,  is  now  rendered  useful  in 
compost  by  being  mixed  with  farm-yard  dung,  fermented  to  a  considerable 
degiee  of  heat,  and  then  subdued  with  water;*  and  it  may  also  be  mixed 
with  ^  of  its  proportion  of  lime  and  road  scrapings,  and  turned  and  kept 
in  compost  for  3  years.t  Such  a  compost  has  raised  crops  of  turnips,  as  evi- 
denced by  Mr.  William  Sim,  Drummond,  Inveniess-shire,  and  Mr.  H.  H. 
Drummond  of  Blair-Drummond,  Perthshire.  10.  Spent  tanner's-bark, 
when  laid  down  for  a  time  on  the  road  around  the  steading  and  trampled 
under  foot  and  bruised  by  cart-wheels,  and  then  formed  into  a  compost 
with  either  dung  or  lime,  and  allowed  to  stand  for  a  considerable  time, 
might  be  rendered  into  good  manure  for  turnips.  Saw-dust  and  tanner's 
baz-k,  or  refuse  of  the  bark  of  fir-trees,  will  not  bear  the  expense  of  a  long 


*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricnltural  Society,  vol.  xiii.  t  Ibid.,  vol.  svi. 

(330) 


TURNING  DUNGHILLS  AND  COMPOSTS.  187 

carriage;  but  where  a  supply  of  them  is  near  at  hand,  their  decomposition, 
though  occupying  a  long  time  to  effect,  is  worth  the  trouble.  11.  In  the  vi- 
cinity of  villages  where  fish  are  cured  and  smoked  for  market,  refuse  of  fish 
heads  and  guts,  or  liver  and  oil  refuse,  make  an  excellent  compost  with 
earth.  Near  Eyemouth  and  Bummouth,  on  the  Berwickshire  coast,  30 
barrels  of  fish  refuse,  with  as  much  earth  from  the  head-ridges  as  will 
completely  cover  the  refuse,  is  suffcient  dunging  for  an  imperial  acre. 
The  barrel  contains  30  gallons,  and  4  baiTels  make  a  cart-load,  which  sell 
for  Is.  6d.  per  barrel.  From  400  to  600  barrels  may  be  obtained  for  each 
farm  in  the  neighborhood  in  the  course  of  the  season.  12.  Whale-blubber 
when  mixed  with  earth  forms  a  good  compost  for  turnips.  As  this  is  a 
most  caustic  substance  in  a  fresh  state,  it  should  be  compounded  with  a 
large  proportion  of  earth,  and  turned  over  and  kept  for  at  least  3  years 
until  the  compost  becomes  inert.  I  have  seen  a  blubber  compost,  2  years 
old,  applied  as  top-dressing  on  grass,  burn  up  every  plant  by  the  roots,  but 
after  it  becomes  apparently  effete  it  raises  excellent  turnips.  13.  I  have 
heard  of  a  compost  being  made  of  whin  and  broom  cuttings  and  earth,  3 
loads  of  earth  to  one  of  the  cuttings  being  mixed  together  and  watered  for 
2  or  3  days,  and  to  remain  untouched  for  8  or  10  days  more,  when  it  is 
turned  and  again  allowed  to  rest  for  10  days,  when  it  is  fit  to  be  applied  as 
manure.  The  cost  of  making  this  compost  was  estimated  at  2s.  per  cart- 
load, and  it  is  said  to  have  raised  wheat  and  oats  well.  But  the  fish  refuse 
which  I  noticed  before  is  to  be  obtained  at  some  places  at  2s.  a  load,  and 
there  can  be  no  comparison  in  the  relative  value  of  it  and  the  cuttings. 
You  thus  see  how  endless  is  the  subject  of  composts  for  manure  ;  and  it 
is  obvious,  from  what  has  been  said,  that  the  kind  of  compost  which  you 
may  make  depends  entirely  on  the  nature  of  the  materials  which  can  be 
supplied  in  your  immediate  neighborhood. 

(1866.)  So  numei'ous  are  the  articles  which  are  now  presented  to  the 
notice  of  the  farmer  in  the  name  of  manures,  that  but  to  notice  each  shortly 
would  occupy  many  pages  ;  nor  is  it  incumbent  on  me  to  describe  them 
at  present,  as  the  greatest  number  have  yet  to  establish  a  character  for 
themselves  by  repeated  experiments  in  successive  years.  This  will,  no 
doubt,  put  some  of  them  to  too  severe  a  trial ;  but  it  will  be  necessary, 
inasmuch  as  they  may  not  be  able  in  the  second  year  to  confirm  the  pre- 
tensions they  assumed  in  the  first.  I  remember  of  a  compound  which  be- 
came celebrated  some  years  ago,  after  one  year's  trial,  for  the  turnips 
raised  with  it  were  really  good,  and  could  have  stood  a  comparison  with 
those  grown  by  the  best  muck  of  the  farm  ;  but,  alas,  in  the  second  year, 
even,  the  substance  was  almost  a  complete  failure — not  that  the  original 
composition  would  have  failed  in  the  second  any  more  than  it  did  in  the 
first  year,  but  the  demand  for  it  in  the  second  year  had  probably  increased 
so  much  in  consequence  of  the  success  attending  its  use  in  the  first,  that 
the  manufacturer,  to  supply  the  market  with  the  desired  quantity,  had 
taken  the  liberty  to  injure  its  quality  ;  and  the  consequence  to  him  was 
exactly  what  he  himself  might  have  anticipated  :  the  farmer  lost  faith  in 
the  manure  and  distrusted  the  manufacturer.  I  was  induced  by  a  flaming 
advertisement  which  appeared  constantly  in  the  papers  at  the  time,  to  try 
a  compound  manure ;  but  in  this  substance  I  was  only  once  deceived — 
"  once  and  for  aye,"  for  in  truth  it  had  no  better  effect,  in  raising  turnips, 
for  which  it  was  specially  recommended,  than  black  mould  which  was 
tried  alongside  of  it.  Such  results  as  these  should  induce  caution  in  the 
use  of  compound  manures,  the  composition  of  which  is  unknown  to  you ; 
still  it  is  right  to  try  them,  as  some  one  may  turn  out  to  be  a  really  valua- 
ble substance ;  but  the  trials  should  be  made  at  first  on  a  small  scale,  if 

(331) 


188  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

« 

■you  are  among  the  first  to  try  it ;  but  if  you  hear  of  others  havins^  suc- 
ceeded, then,  of  course,  your  confidence  may  be  yielded  to  it  with  the 
greater  safety.  To  make  known  whetlier  any  new  suV)stance  has  succeed- 
ed or  not,  I  think  it  is  incumbent  on  every  farmer  to  do  so  for  the  sake  of 
his  brother  fanners,  and  there  are  now  many  pubHcations  which  devote 
themselves  to  the  promulgation  of  loiral  practice.  But  I  have  been  of 
opinion  for  many  years  that  no  farmer  should  purchase  any  compounded 
substance  advertised  as  a  manure,  unless  it  happens  to  be  a  natural  sub- 
stance;  for,  even  in  the  hands  of  honest  men,  compounds  may  fail  to  con- 
tinue to  afford  the  satisfaction  they  once  did,  as  carelessness  in  compound- 
ing an  article  that  is  much  in  demand,  and  of  which  large  quantities  are 
made  at  a  time,  is  a  very  natural  and  not  an  uncommon  consequence. 
Besides,  failure  in  a  case  of  this  kind  is  a  very  serious  matter  to  the  fanner. 
It  is  not  merely  the  value  of  the  article  itself  which  constitutes  his  entire 
loss,  though  even  that  may  be  considerable,  but  the  consequence  to  future 
years.  The  crop  immediately  dependent  on  the  manure  is  not  only  defi- 
cient, but  the  remaining  part  of  the  deficient  crop  is  ahvays  of  inferior 
quality.  This  is  an  invariable  effect  in  every  crop  ;  and  its  converse  be- 
ing equally  true,  that  a  full  crop  is  always  one  of  fine  quality,  and  not  only 
this,  but  eveiy  crop  in  the  course  of  the  rotation  is  affected  by  the  state  of 
the  one  which  directly  receives  the  manure,  that  is,  if  the  fallow  crop,  as 
the  turnip  crop  is  called,  be  deficient  and  of  inferior  quality,  the  succeed- 
ing ones  will  not  exhibit  that  vigor  of  growth  by  which  a  fiill  fallow  crop 
is  invariably  succeeded.  I  do  not  pretend  to  explain  the  cause  of  this  re- 
sult, nor  have  I  ever  seen  it  attempted  to  be  explained,  but  as  a  fact  it  is 
indisputable,  and  I  have  heard  the  fact  noticed  by  many  farmers.  You 
thus  see  how  very  much  it  is  for  your  interest  to  be  assured  of  the  efficacy 
of  every  manure  that  you  are  to  apply.  To  be  assured  of  their  efficacy, 
it  has  been  recommended  to  analyze  every  manure  before  it  is  applied,  in 
oi'der  to  ascertain  whether  it  is  really  the  article  it  is  given  out  for.  As 
an  instance  of  the  necessity  for  such  analysis,  I  will  quote  a  case  or  two 
adduced  by  Mr.  Madden.  He  says  :  "  Three  different  specimens  of  ni- 
trate of  soda  were  submitted  to  analysis,  when  they  were  found  to  contain 
respectively  14,  25  and  26  per  cent,  of  common  salt.  Now  these  speci- 
mens were  purchased  from  extensive  dealers  in  the  article,  and  were  con- 
tained in  the  bags  in  which  it  was  imported,  so  that  we  have  no  reason  for 
suspecting  the  honesty  of  the  retailer;  and  it  follows,  therefore,  that  this 
shameful  amount  of  adulteration  must  be  effected  prior  to  its  being  shipped 
for  Britain.  1  would  desire  that  you  bear  in  mind,  however,  the  fact 
that  the  presence  of  common  salt,  even  to  this  enormous  extent,  may  be 
natural,  but  yet  the  imposition  upon  the  British  farmer  is  equally  glaring, 
whichever  be  the  case,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  statement  regard- 
ing saltpetre.  This  article,  likewise,  contains  common  salt,  though  in 
much  smaller  quantities  ;  but  in  this  instance  the  fact  is  not  attempted  to 
be  concealed.  Every  cargo  is  analyzed  at  the  India  House  before  it  is 
sold,  and  the  per  centage  of  salt  marked  upon  it ;  and  the  amount  of  salt 
is  deducted  from  the  lot  purchased.  For  example,  suppose  the  saltpetre 
contained  10  per  cent,  of  salt,  if  the  purchaser  buys  100  cwts.  he  receives  the 
100,  but  only  pays  for  90.  Hence,  therefore,  there  is  no  deception  ;  but 
we  would  ask  how  it  happens  that  the  same  is  not  done  with  the  nitrate 
of  soda,  and  that  those  specimens  containing  from  14  to  26  per  cent,  of 
salt,  should  all  be  sold  at  one  and  the  same  price  ]  Why,  if  justice  were 
done  in  this  case,  the  specimen  containing  26  per  cent,  should  have  sold 
at  22s.  in  place  of  25s.,  if  that  be  the  fair  price  for  the  lot  containing  14 
per  cent. ;  and  if,  on  the  contrary,  25s.  is  the  proper  price  for  the  pure  ar- 

(332) 


TURNING  DUNGHILLS  AND  COMPOSTS.  189 

tide,  these  three  lots  should  have  sold  respectively  at  21s.  6d.,  18s.  9d.,  and 
18s.  6d.  per  cwt."  I  may  here  mention,  casually,  in  regard  to  the  pres- 
ence of  salt  in  both  the  saltpetre  and  nitrate  of  soda,  that  it  must  be  natural, 
and  not  placed  there  by  human  agents ;  for  common  salt  in  the  countries 
whence  these  articles  are  imported,  is  much  higher  priced  than  the  ar- 
ticles themselves.  Strictly  in  connection  with  the  purity  of  manures  is 
the  price  demanded  for  them  of  the  fai-mer.  If  other  articles  are  charged 
in  the  same  proportion  as  saltpetre  is,  as  is  shown  by  the  following 
statement  of  Dr.  Madden,  the  profits  of  the  manure-dealer  must  be 
much  greater  than  those  of  the  farmer,  even  after  all  the  risk  he  runs 
in  using  manures  unknown  to  him.  "  Before  leaving  this  interesting  sub- 
ject," continues  Dr.  Madden,  "  I  would  make  one  other  observation,  viz., 
concerning  saltpetre.  I  find  by  reference  to  the  most  extensive  purchas- 
ers of  this  article,  that  it  sells  at  the  India  House  in  5-ton  lots  at  a  price 
varying  from  25s.  to  29s.  per  cwt. ;  whereas  it  is  retailed  to  farmers  at  the 
enormous  charge  of  from  50s.  to  55s.  For  example,  I  analyzed  a  speci- 
men sold  to  a  farmer  at  55s.  per  cwt.,  and  detected  2  per  cent,  of  salt  in  it ; 
whereas  another  specimen,  purchased  at  the  India  House  at  28s.  6d.  per  cwt., 
contained  less  than  1^  per  cent,  of  salt ;  and,  be  it  remembered,  the  lots 
were  purchased  at  nearly  the  same  time,  during  which  there  had  been  lit- 
tle or  no  fluctuation  in  the  mai-ket."  In  a  note.  Dr.  Madden  mentions  the 
pi'actice  of  an  extensive  dealer  in  nitrate  of  soda  in  England,  that  he  ex- 
amines whatever  he  buys,  and  finds  the  average  amount  of  salt  to  be  from 
8  to  10  per  cent.,  and  that  he  rejects  as  ^^  useless  stuff"  any  lot  containing 
over  13  per  cent.*  The  purity  of  so  simple  a  substance  as  saltpetre  or 
nitrate  of  soda  can  at  once  be  ascertained  by  analysis,  but  the  case  is 
rather  different  with  many  of  the  compounds  at  present  offered  to  the  ac- 
ceptance of  farmers  ;  their  analysis  can  hardly  prove  so  satisfactory.  If 
experiments  ai'e  to  be  made  with  substances  extraneous  to  the  farm,  I 
think  that  chemist  would  act  most  judiciously  who  would  suggest  a  mix- 
ture of  a  few  of  those  simple  substances  which  he  conceives  would  benefit 
any  particular  crop,  or  the  whole  series  of  crops  usual  through  a  rotation, 
rather  than  any  compound,  however  high  sounding.  A  farmer  can  at 
once  see  what  he  is  about  when  he  himself  forms  a  compound  of  various 
simple  substances,  differently  proportioned,  as  suggested  to  him  by  an  in- 
telligent chemist.  He  can  purchase  each  of  these  in  as  pure  a  state  as 
they  usually  are  made  by  practical  chemists,  who  make  them  on  a  large 
scale.  He  himself  does  not  know  what  may  be  the  result  of  their  appli- 
cation ;  he  only  expects  results  such  as  he  is  led  to  expect  from  the  in- 
formation given  him  by  the  chemist ;  but,  working  as  he  does,  even  in  tiie 
dark,  when  he  works  under  the  guidance  of  a  scientific  man,  who  has  no 
interest  in  the  materials  he  recommends,  he  has  confidence  in  what  he  is 
about  to  undertake,  because  he  considers  himself  as  his  own  agent  in  the 
business,  pui'chasing  simple  ingredients,  the  nature  of  which  is  known  to 
every  one,  and  the  commixing  of  which  has  been  performed  under  his 
own  eye.  Far  different  is  the  case  when  he  employs  an  article  the  purity 
or  impurity,  the  efiicacy  or  inefficacy,  of  which  is  equally  unknown  to  him, 
and  in  the  application  of  which  he  cannot  anticipate  a  single  result.  Till 
some  such  plan  is  established  for  the  use  of  extraneous  manures,  their  re- 
sults will  be  determined  by  mere  chance,  and  the  confidence  of  the  farmer 
in  them  will  fluctuate  every  year  as  the  result  turns  out  favorably  or  oth- 
erwise, till  at  length  the  use  of  them  will  be  abandoned  with  contempt. 
All  natural  substances  used  as  manure,  such  as  bones,  gypsum,  guano, 
nitrate  of  soda,  &c.,  are  not  the  objects  of  the  foregoing  remarks;    but 

*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xiv. 


190 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


should  it  be  objected  that  the  substance  of  the  compound  manures,  being 
themselves  natural  compounds,  cannot  be  sold  as  simple  substances,  it  may 
be  answered  that  all  the  natural  compounds  which  they  contain,  by  being 
rendered  dry  or  concentrated,  could  be  sold  as  natural  compounds,  which 
rnay  perhaps  become  equally  valuable  as  others  ;  but  as  long  as  they  are 
mixed  up  with  other  matter,  no  one  can  say  whether  the  valuable  or  val- 
ueless materials  in  them  predominate. 

(1S67.)  A  simple  list  of  the  various  ingredients  at  present  in  the  market 
for  the  use  of  farmers  will  puzzle  you  as  to  the  choice  you  should  make 
amon"  them.  The  names  and  prices  are  taken  from  the  Mark-Lane  Ex- 
jness  of  24th  April,  and  the  New  Farmers'  Journal  of  8th  May,  1843. 
They  are  as  follows  : 


Aniiiialized  black,  £3  38.  to  X3  58.  per  ton  at 

Duiiliar. 
As?iiciilturiil  palt,  34s.  per  ton. 
Ciiiefoii,  21s.  per  cwt. 
Clarke's  desiccated   compost,  £3  128.  6d.  per 

lilid.,  sudicicnl  for  3  acres. 
Chloride  lime,  288.  per  cwt. 
Daniell's  new  Bristol  manure,  8?.  per  qr. 
Graves,  £6  10s.  per  ton. 
Gypsum  at  the  water-side,  328. 6d.  per  ton;  land 

and  housed,  38s.  to  42s.  per  ton,  according  to 

quantity. 
Grimwade's  preparation  for  turnip-fly,  10s.  6d. 

per  packet,  sufficient  for  3  acres. 
Guano,  10s.  to  14s.  per  cwt.,  according  to  quality. 
Hunt's  bone-dust,  ISs.  per  qr. 
Hunt's  half-inch  bone,  Ifis.  per  qr. 
Hunt's  artiKcial  guano,  £S  per  ton. 
Hunt's  new  fertilizer,  13.s.  4d.  per  qr. 
Lance's  carbon,  12s.  per  qr. 
Lance's  humus,  14s.  per  qr. 
Liverpool  Abbattoir  Company's  animalized  ma- 

nurin.Ef  powder,  £2  10s.  per  ton. 
Muriate  of  ammonia,  24s.  per  cwt. 
Muriate  of  lime,  12s.  per  cwt. 
Nitrate  of  soda,  18s.  to  18s.  6d.  per  cwt.,  duty 

paid. 
Nitrate  of  potash  (saltpetre)  26s.  6d.  per  cwt. 


Owen's  animalized  carbon,  25s.  per  ton.  free  on 
board  at  Copenhagen. 

Potter's  artificial  guano,  158.  per  cwt. 

I'oittevin's  patent  disinfected  manure,  13s.  6d. 
per  qr. 

Poittevini's  highly  concentrated  manure,  308. 
per  qr. 

Petre  salt,  4s.  per  cwt. 

Rape  dust,  £7  to  £8  per  ton. 

Rape-cake,  £6  10s.  to  £7  per  ton. 

Rag's,  £4  to  £4  10s.  per  ton. 

Sodaash,  14s.  to  168. 

Sulphuric  acid,  2^d.  per  lb. 

Sulphur  for  destroying  worms  in  turnips,  168. 
per  cwt. 

Soap-ashes,  10s.  per  ton. 

Sulphate  of  soda.  ~s.  6d.  per  cwt. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia.  18s.  per  cwt.  at  Dundee. 

Trimmer's  compost  for  clover,  wheat  and  tur- 
nips. 

Urate  of  the  London  Manure  Company,  £5  per 
ton. 

Watson's  granulated  compost,  10s.  per  cwt 

Wolverhampton  imperial  compost,  (Alexan- 
der's,) 12s.  per  qr.,  subject  to  carriage  to 
London,  or  forwarded  from  Wolverhampton. 

Willey  dust,  £i  48.  per  ton. 

Wright's  alkalies,  288.  to  42s.  per  cwt. 


The  following  are  the  weights  per  bushel  of  some  of  the  substances  enu- 
merated above : 


Per  bushel — Iba.      lbs. 

Agricultural  salt 75  to  80 

Alexander's  compost 65 

Bone-dust 42  to  44 

Clarke's  desiccated  compost 60  to  65 

Daniell's  Bristol  manure 50 

Guano,  foreign 56 

Potter's 65 

Gypsimi 80  to  84 

Hunt's  new  fertilizer 65 

Muriate  of  amniouia 65  to  70 


Per  bushel — lbs.     lbs. 

Nitrate  of  soda 80 

Petre  salt 75 

Rape-dust 56 

Saltpetre 80 

Soda-a.sh 60 

Sulphate  of  ammonia 70 

of  soda 60  to  65 


Trimmer's  compost  for  clover,  wheat 

and  turnips 60  to  65 

Urate 50 

(1868.)  To  reduce  farm-yard  dung  to  the  saponaceous  state  recommended  and  described  in 
(1863),  is  contrary  to  the  theory  propounded  by  non-practical  writers;  and  for  the  ordinary  ma- 
nuring of  the  farm,  the  recommendation,  it  may" be  acknowledged,  is  carried  to  an  extreme;  but 
for  the  purpose  of  raising  a  good  crop  of  turnips,  and  especially  of  that  invaluable  kind  the  Swe- 
dish, it  is  beyond  dispute  that  no  manure,  of  whatever  kind,  is  so  congenial  to  their  constitution  as 
well-made  old  muck.  Until,  therefore,  a  substitute  is  found  for  this  infrrcdient,  equal  to  it  in  effica- 
cy, and  as  attainable,  it  u  ill  be  made  and  applied  by  every  farmer  who  is  desirous  of  raising  a  good 
crop  of  Swedish  turnips.  The  recorde<l  opini<ms  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy  on  this  subject,  though  oft  re- 
ferred to  to  caution  practical  men  against  hisconchisions,  nevertheless  deserve  examination,  because 
of  the  common-sense  like  manner  in  which  he  states  his  views,  and  on  this  account  these  should  be 
the  more  explicitly  refuted  ;  and  that  they  will  one  day  be  refuted  I  have  no  doubt,  for  I  am  per- 
suaded that  where  practice  and  theory  disagree,  theory  will  be  found  to  be  in  the  wrong.  In 
regard  to  the  general  principle  of  the  action  of  vegetable  manures,  he  says:  "There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  straw  of  diiferent  crops,  immediately  plowed  into  the  ground,  afPords  nourishment 
to  plants,  but  there  is  an  objection  to  this  method  of"  using  straw,  from  the  difficulty  of  burying  long 
straw,  and  from  its  rendering  the  husbandry  foul."'  You  observe  at  once,  here,  that  the  theory 
(334) 


TURNING  DUNGHILLS  AND  COMPOSTS.  191 

of  the  use  of  clean  straw  as  a  manure  is  objected  to  solely  on  the  score  of  a  difficulty  of  using  it 
in  that  state  in  practice.  K  svch  an  objection  may  be  valid  against  the  use  of  straw,  so  may  it 
be  against  tlie  use  of  unfermented  dung.  If  practice  is  to  be  respected  in  this  instance,  why  not 
in  the  other ;  but  Sir  Humphry  proceeds  to  render  the  straw  more  manageable  when  he  says — 
'•  When  straw  is  made  to  ferment,  it  becomes  a  more  manageable  manure  ;  but  there  is  likewise, 
on  the  whole,  a  great  loss  of  nutritive  matter.  More  manure  is  perhaps  supplied  for  a  rough 
crop ;  but  the  land  is  less  improved  than  it  would  be  supposing  the  whole  of  tlie  vegetable 
matter  could  be  finely  divided  and  mixed  with  the  soil."  Here  the  remark  suggests  itself,  that 
if  straw  is  allowed  to  be  fermented  because  of  its  being  more  manageable  in  that  state  for  prac- 
tice, so  might  dung  be  allowed  to  be  more  fermented  for  the  same  reason.  If  deference  is  paid  to 
practice  in  one  case,  why  not  in  tlie  other?  To  obviate  the  inconvenience  of  burying  long  straw, 
Sir  Humphry  recommends  it  to  be  chopped  thus :  "  It  is  usual  to  carry  straw  that  can  be  em- 
ployed for  no  other  purpose  to  the  dunghill  to  ferment  and  decompose  ;  but  it  is  worth  experi- 
ment whether  it  may  not  be  more  economically  applied  when  chopped  small  by  a  proper  machine, 
and  kept  dry  till  it  is  plowed  in  for  the  use  of  a  crop.  In  this  case,  though  it  would  decompose 
much  more  slowlj*,  and  produce  less  effect  at  first,  yet  its  influence  would  be  much  more  lasting." 
1  have  no  doubt  that  chopped  straw  would  raise  potatoes  on  strong  clay  land,  and  when  applied 
on  summer-fallow  a  good  crop  of  wheat  would  also  be  raised  ;  but  in  all  free  soils,  straw,  in 
whatever  state,  vrhether  long  or  chopped,  ■would  only  keep  tlie  soil  .so  open  as  to  let  in  drouth, 
retard  vegetation,  and  it  would  be  found  lying  at  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  in  an  inert  stale,  as 
useless,  in  short,  s.sji re-fan gcd  straw.  In  regard  to  the  fermentation  of  farm-yard  dung — which  is 
a  composite  manure — Sir  Humphry  admits  the  propriety  of  its  undergoing  a  slight  fermentation,  as 
thus:  "  A  slight  fermentation  is  undoubtedly  of  use  in  a  dunghill ;  for  by  means  of  it  a  disposition 
is  brought  on  in  the  woody  fibre  to  decay  and  dissolve,  when  it  is  carried  to  the  land  or  plowed 
into  the  soil,  and  woody  fibre  is  ahoai/s  in  great  excess  in  the  refuse  of  the  farm."  So  that  fermenta- 
tion in  the  dunghill  is  necessary  to  the  dissolution  of  woody  fibre,  and  as  woody  fibre  is  in  great 
excess  in  the  refuse  of  farms,  it  follows  that  fermentation  ought  to  be  generally  allowed  in  dung- 
hills, so  that  the  question  of  fermentation  here  is  only  one  of  degree.  "  Too  great  a  degree  of 
fermentation  is,  however,  very  prejudicial  to  the  composite  manure  in  a  dunghill;  it  is  belter  that 
there  should  be  no  fermentation  at  all,  before  the  manure  is  used,  tlian  that  it  should  be  carried 
too  far.  The  excess  of  fermentation  tends  to  the  destruction  and  dissipation  of  the  most  useful 
part  of  the  mann  re ;  and  the  ultimate  results  of  this  process  are  like  those  of  combustion."  If 
It  is  here  meant  to  convey  the  idea  that  fire fanged  dung  h  fermentation  to  excess,  the  idea 
is  correct,  for  I  suppose  no  fanner  thinks  otherwise  ;  but  that  the  usual  degree  of  fermentation 
allowed  in  dunghills  renders  the  manure  useless,  is  inconsistent  with  experience.  It  is  quite 
true,  as  Sir  Humphry  says,  that  "  it  is  a  common  practice  among  farmers  to  suffer  the  farm-yard 
dung  to  ferment  till  the  fibrous  texture  of  the  vegetable  matter  is  entirely  broken  down,  and  till 
the  manure  becomes  perfectly  cold,  and  so  soft  as  to  be  easily  cut  by  the  spade  ;"  but  so  far  from 
tie  most  useful  part  of  the  manure  being  dissipated  when  the  dung  attains  this  state,  experience 
assures  us  that  the  finest  Swedish  turnips  cannot  be  raised  with  dung  in  a  less  elaborated  state  ; 
and  this  conclusion  is  inevitable,  that  if  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  manure  is  dissipated  by  the 
fennentatiou  usually  allowed  in  dunghills,  diat  mo.st  valuable  part  is  not  required  for  raising  the 
best  crop  of  Swedish  turnips,  and  that  being  the  case,  it  is  unnecessary  to  trouble  ourselves  to 
retain  it.  But  what  are  the  best  parts  of  manure  ?  "  During  the  violent  fennentation."  says  Sir 
Humphry,  '•  which  is  necessary  for  reducing  farm-yard  manure  to  the  state  in  which  it  is  called 
sliort  7nnck,  not  only  a  large  quantity  of  fluid,  but  likewise  of  gaseous  matter,  is  lost ;  so  much  so 
that  the  dung  is  reduced  one  half  to  two-thirds  in  weight ;  and  the  principal  elastic  matter  disen- 
gaged is  carbonic  acid  with  some  ammonia ;  and  both  these,  if  retained  by  the  moisture  in  the 
soil,  are  capable  of  becoming  a  useful  nourishment  of  plants."  No  doubt  both  the  fluid  and  gas- 
eons  products  of  decomposing  vegetables  perform  important  functions  in  the  economy  of  Nature, 
but  if  they  escape  while  dung  is  preparing  in  the  best  state  for  use^ according  to  iuvai'iable  expe- 
rience, it  follows,  as  an  inevitable  consequence,  that  these  products  of  fermentation  are  ttof.  requi- 
site, in  co7ijunction  with  short  muck,  to  raise  a  crop  of  turnips.  Tli^^may  be  u.seful  ingredients 
for  other  purposes,  and  at  other  times,  but  it  is  clear  that  the  turnip  crop  can  be  raised  to  a  better 
state  without  than  with  them.  Why,  therefore,  attempt  to  retain  their  presence  on  the  particular 
occasion  ?* 

(1869.)  Whether  a  more  scientific  mode  of  forming  dunghills,  in  consonance  with  practice,  will 
ever  be  discovered,  I  cannot  pretend  to  say  ;  but,  as  there  seem  no  bounds  to  the  discovery  of 
science  in  other  arts,  we  should  not  limit  its  powers  of  application  to  the  art  of  husbandry.  Ex- 
periments are  at  this  moment  in  progress  on  the  very  subject  of  the  formation  of  farm-yard  dung- 
hills, in  connection  with  which  I  may  mention  the  distinguished  name  of  Professor  Henslow,  of 
Cambridge,  who,  in  a  series  of  letters  addressed  to  the  farmers  of  Suffolk,  and  which  have  ap- 
peared in  the  public  prints,  suggests  the  proprietj'  of  their  performing  experiments  to  ascertain 
whether  the  ammonia  which  escapes  in  the  gaseous  state  as  a  carbonate  of  ammonia  may  not  be 
retained  in  dunghills  by  the  instrumentality  of  gypsum  ?  Should  the  event  prove  successful,  we 
may  perhaps  e.xpect  to  hear  of  important  improvement  in  the  management  of  ordinary  dunghills. 
Till  the  experinients  are  tried,  which  time  alone  can  do,  I  am  happy  in  placing  before  you  the 
opinion  of  so  distinguished  a  philosopher  as  Professor  Sprengel  on  the  vahie  of  old  dvnsr,  when 
he  says  m  his  valuable  essay  on  manures,  which  ought  speedily  to  appear  in  "an  Engli.sh  dress, 
that  "  the  longer  the  dung  is  left  in  the  dunghill,  the  more  advantageous  will  be  the  preparation 
of  the  compost,  because  the  ammonia,  di.«engaa:ed  from  the  dung  and  urine  in  it,  will  become 
chemically  combined  with  humic  acid."  It  will  be  observed  that  these  sentiments  bear  a  strong 
analogy  to  the  subject  which  engages  the  attention  of  Professor  Henslow.  As  a  satisfactory'  con- 
clusion to  the  theoretical  part  of  this  subject,  I  give  vou  the  following  explanation  of  the  ferment- 
ation of  manure,  and  its  effects,  by  Dr.  Madden.— [Whenever  dead  organic  matter,  either  animal 

*  Davy's  Agricultural  Chemistry,  edition  of  1839. 
(335) 


192  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING 


or  vegetalile,  is  cxposod  to  nir  in  a  moiat  stale,  it  absorbg  oxyRcn,  which,  by  entering  into  combi- 
nation wiiJi  its  carbon,  destn)yB  its  original  corapoi<ition,  and  gives  rise  to  the  production  of  variotw 
new  compounds,  wliicli  iu  their  turn  suffer  decon)i)Oiiilion  hy  means  of  fresh  supplies  of  oxygen 
being  absorbed,  and  s<>  on  in  a  continued  series  until  the  whole  mass  is  reduced  to  diemical  com- 
pounds of  such  stability  as  to  resist  the  lartlier  anion  of  oxygen  under  ordinary  circumstances. — 
During  tliis  scries  of  changes,  the  various  solid  compounds  are  converted  first  into  fluid  and  then 
into  fiiseous  products  :  vvliich  latter,  by  escaping  into  the  air.  become  lost.  Chemists  are  much 
divided  as  to  what  precise  amount  of  decomposition  is  requisite  to  render  organic  matter  in  a 
proper  state  to  become  food  for  |)lants :  all  agree  that  ilecomposltion  must  have  commenced,  some 
maintain  that  it  must  he  cotnplrfcd.  My  own  belief,  founded  on  extensive  observation  and  not  a 
few  experiments,  is,  that  all  Ihr  products  of  decommaition,  in  erery  ftafrc,  arc  available  as  food 
for  plants,  provided  they  are  cither  liquid  or  cnpal'le  of  dissolving  in  irater.  These  observations 
will,  of  course,  regulate  us  in  the  management  of  the ""  midden.]'  Whenever  any  moist  organic 
matter  absorbs  oxygen,  its  chemical  union  witli  its  carbon  gives  rise  to  an  increase  of  temperature, 
which  increase  enables  the  surrounding  portions  to  absorb  oxygen  more  rai)idly  than  they  other- 
wise would  do ;  these  parts  in  their  turn  become  heated,  and  thus  the  influence  extends  through 
llie  entire  mass — the  amount  of  heat  being  proportionable  to  the  size  of  the  mass,  its  degree  of 
moisture,  and  quantity  of  air  contained  withm  ils  intersticea  By  careful  management,  you  can 
retard  or  accelerate  llie  fermentation  of  your  "midden"  to  almost  any  extent,  from  scarcely  any 
change  takinc  place,  to  so  great  a  rapidity  as  to  endanger  the  whole  taking  fire  from  the  heat 
evolved.  The  most  profitable  way  for  dung  to  ferment  is  slowly  but  steadily,  so  that  by  the  time 
it  is  required  for  use,  it  will  readily  cut  with  a  spade  like  soft  cheese,  and  exhibit  a  uniform  rich 
brown  color,  and  emit  no  smoke  unless  the  air  be  very  frosty.  During  fermentation,  the  azote 
contained  in  the  various  constituents  of  the  dunghill  unites  with  hydrogen,  and  forms  ammonia  or 
hart.shorn,  which,  being  verj'  volatile,  is  apt  to  escape  with  the  watery  vapor  and  oilier  gaseous 
products  of  decomposition.  Various  means  have  been  of  late  recommended  to  prevent  this,  but 
none  of  them  appear  to  me  at  all  satisfactory,  and  I  believe  have  not  as  yet  given  very  satisfaclorj- 
results  when  applied  to  practice.  The  best  condition  for  a  "midden"  to  be  in  is  when  it  contains 
a  sufficiency  of  water  to  cut  moist,  and  yield  a  little  liquid  by  pressure,  but  not  enough  to  run 
from  it  spontaneously ;  this  is  easily  effected  by  draining  the  "  midden  "  stance,  if  in  the  court,  so 
that  all  superfluous  moisture  runs  off  into  the  drains,  which,  of  course,  must  lead  to  the  liquid  ma- 
nure-tank, from  which  in  dry  weather  it  should  be  pumped  up  and  scattered  uniformly  over  the 
"midden";  in  this  state  of  moisture,  scarcely  a  perceptible  quantity  of  ammonia  is  lost,  as  it  all 
remains  in  solution  ;  and  I  believe  that  tliis  plan  will  be  found  in  all  cases  to  be  superior  to  every 
other  hitherto  devised  for  preserving  farm-yard  dung. — H.  R.  M.] 


17.    PLANTING  POTATOES. 


■' the  potato  plat 

Should  now  be  delved,  and,  with  no  sparing  hand. 

Manured  ;  

The  dibbling  done,  the  dropping  of  the  chips 
Is  left  to  liltle  hnnds,  well  pleased  to  lend 

Their  feeble  help :  " 

Graham. 


(1870.)  The  potato  crop  is  cultivated  on  what  is  calletl  the  fallow-break  <»r 
di\'i9ion  of  the  farm,  being  considered  in  the  light  of  a  green  or  ameli- 
orating crop  for  the  soil.  Following  a  crop  of  grain,  whose  .stubble  is  bare 
in  autumn,  the  soil  is  plowed  early  in  the  season,  that  it  may  receive  all  the 
advantages  which  a  winter's  sky  can  ccnifer  it  in  rendering  it  tender;  and 
as  potatoes  affect  a  dry  and  easy  soil,  the  piece  of  land  intended  for  them 
may  be  ])lowed  and  even  partially  cleaned  in  spring.  Time  for  cleaning  is 
very  limited  in  spring,  and  on  this  account  the  cleanest  portion  of  the  fallow- 
break  should  be  chosen  for  the  potatoes  to  occupy.  The  stubble  will  either 
have  been  cast,  fig.  1:35,  in  autumn,  or  clove  down  without  a  gore-fuiTow, 
fig.  140,  according  as  the  soil  is  strong  or  free  ;  and  having  been  particu- 
larly provided  with  gaw-cuts,  to  keep  the  land  as  dry  as  possilile  all  winter, 
for  a  croji  which  requires  early  culture  in  spring,  as  potatoes  do,  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  land  thus  apjnopriated  will  be  able  to  be  cross-plowed,  fig. 
312,  soon  after  the  sjiriiig  wheat  and  beans  are  sown,  if  either  is  cultivated 
on  the  farm,  and  if  not,  the  cross-jdowing  for  potatoes  constitutes  the  ear- 
liest spring  work  after  the  lea.  After  the  cross-furrow,  the  land  is  thoroughly 

(336) 


PLANTING  POTATOES.  193 

harrowed  a  double  tine  along  the  line  of  the  furrow,  and  then  a  double  tine 
across  it,  and  any  weeds  that  may  have  been  brought  to  the  surface  by  the 
harrowing  are  gathered  off,  along  with  any  isolated  stones  that  would  sp- 
pear  unseemly  on  the  surface.  If  the  land  is  clean,  it  will  be  ready  for 
drilling;  if  not,  it  should  receive  another  plowing  in  the  line  of  the  ridges, 
that  is,  across  the  cross-furrow,  by  being  ridged  up  in  casting,  and  then  again 
harrowed  a  double  tine  along  and  across,  and  the  weeds  again  gathered  off. 
Should  the  surface  be  dry  after  the  harrowing  which  succeeded  the  cross- 
plowing,  and  the  weather  appear  not  likely  to  continue  dry,  the  grubber 
will  be  a  better  implement  to  give  a  stirring  to  the  soil  than  the  plow,  as  it 
will  still  retain  the  dry  surface  uppermost,  and  it  will  also  bring  up  to  the 
surface  any  weed  that  would  entangle  itself  about  the  implement.  The 
two-horse  gi'ubber  is  an  excellent  implement  for  stirring  the  soil  when  it 
has  become  somewhat  solid  by  rain  or  by  lying  untouched  for  a  time. 
The  time  occupied  in  doing  all  this,  as  the  weather  will  permit,  may  be 
about  a  month,  that  is,  from  the  middle  of  March  to  the  middle  of  April, 
when  the  potato  crop  should  be  actively  preparing  for  planting.  As  the 
land  cannot  receive  more  plowing  in  early  spring  than  it  should,  to  stir  the 
land  a  little  more,  and.  make  it  still  more  tender,  the  drills  first  made  for 
securing  the  manure  of  the  potato  crop  should  be  set  up  in  the  double 
mode,  as  particularly  described  in  (1740)  and  (1741). 

(1871.)  The  state  of  the  potatoes,  when  taken  out  of  the  pit,  will  depend 
on  the  temperature  of  the  weather  in  spring,  and  also  on  the  state  they 
were  in  when  pitted  in  autumn.  In  cold  weather,  they  will  not  be  much 
sprouted  in  the  pit  by  the  time  they  should  be  planted ;  but  should  they 
have  been  heated  at  all,  in  consequence  of  the  wet  state  in  which  they  had 
been  pitted,  or  the  unripe  state  in  which  they  had  been  taken  up  aaa  pit- 
ted, they  will  be  sprouted  independently  of  the  temperature  of  the  exter- 
nal air.  When  the  sprouts  are  long,  they  should  be  removed,  as  it  will 
be  impossible  to  preserve  them  entire  ;  but  if  the  quickening  of  the  tubers 
be  mere  buds,  these  can  be  preserved  ;  and  they  are  of  advantage,  inas- 
much as  they  will  push  above  ground  several  days  sooner  than  sets  that 
are  not  sprouted  at  all.  It  should  be  kept  in  mind,  however,  that  sets  with 
long  sprouts,  and  sprouted  sets  which  have  been  long  kept  after  beino- 
taken  out  of  the  pit  until  planted  in  the  field,  are  apt  to  set  up  puny  plants. 
In  selecting  tubers,  therefore,  to  cut  into  sets,  the  middle  sized  that  have 
not  sprouted  at  all,  or  have  merely  pushed  out  buds,  will  be  found  the 
soundest ;  and  wherever  the  least  softness  or  rottenness  is  felt,  the  tubers 
should  be  entirely  rejected,  and  even  the  firm  portion  of  these  should  not 
be  used  as  seed.  The  small  potatoes  should  be  picked  out  and  put  aside 
to  boil  for  poultry  and  pigs.  Those  potatoes  which  are  not  required  for 
seed,  but  are  nevertheless  firm  and  of  good  size,  whether  intended  for  sale 
or  for  use  in  the  farm-house,  should  be  placed  in  an  outhouse,  until  dis- 
posed of  or  used — the  apartment  having,  if  possible,  an  earthen  floor,  and 
kept  in  the  dark,  though  with  access  to  the  air,  and  water  thrown  upon 
the  potatoes  occasionally,  to  keep  them  crisp,  but  not  at  all  moist,  and 
turned  carefully  over  by  hand,  when  the  sprouts  are  taken  off. 

(1872.)  To  insure  the  vitality  of  the  sets  in  the  ground,  even  when 
planted  under  adverse  circumstances,  it  has  been  recommended  to  dust 
them  with  slaked  lime  immediately  on  the  potatoes  being  cut ;  and  the 
sap,  on  exuding  from  the  incised  part,  will  then  be  immediately  absorbed 
by  the  lime,  which,  on  forming  a  paste,  incrusts  itself  on  the  incised  sur- 
face.* Others  recommend  to  dip  the  sets  in  a  thick  mixture  of  lime  and 
water,  which,  on  drying,  envelops  them  in  a  coating  of  plaster.     This  lat- 

*  Prize  Essaya  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xiv. 
(385). 13      =  "  *• 


194  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

ter  plan  would  be  attended  with  some  trouble,  and  seems  to  offer  no  ad- 
vantage over  the  former,  which  is  easily  done  with  a  riddle,  as  the  sets  are 
cut,  and  can  do  no  harm  at  all  events.  It  has  also  been  recommended  to 
sprout  the  sets  prior  to  planting  them,  in  order  to  test  their  vitality.  The 
plan  suggested  is  to  spread  the  sets  on  the  ground,  in  a  part  of  the  field 
they  are  to  be  planted,  2  or  3  inches  thick,  to  cover  them  with  a  thin  coat- 
ing of  earth,  and  then  to  water  the  earth  frequently  w  ith  a  watering-pan, 
until  they  are  all  sprouted,  taking  care  to  have  them  sprouted  by  the  time 
the  land  is  manured  to  receive  them.  They  are  then  to  be  carefully  placed 
in  baskets,  and  set  in  the  ground  with  the  sprouts  uninjured.  This  process 
of  sprouting  is  said  to  accelerate  the  vegetation  of  the  sets  in  the  drill  at 
least  14  days.  If  potatoes  that  have  sprouted  in  the  pit  are  cut  into  sets 
and  iinmcdiatchj  planted,  they  should  be  in  as  favorable  a  state  to  grow  in 
the  drill  as  when  subjected  to  this  process;  and  however  easily  it  may  be 
conducted  on  a  small  scale — for  garden  culture,  for  example — I  consider 
the  suggestion  as  unfit  to  be  practiced  on  a  large  scale  on  a  farm  ;  and  es- 
pecially as  sets  which  are  in  a  dry  state  when  planted  are  found  to  come 
up  in  the  drill  more  equally,  provided  their  vitality  has  been  preserved. — 
Small  whole  potatoes  make  good  seed.  One  season,  happening  to  have 
fewer  sets  cut  than  would  plant  the  ground  the  dunghill  allotted  tf)  the 
potato-land  manured,  some  of  the  small  potatoes,  which  had  been  picked 
out  for  the  pigs  when  the  sets  were  cut,  were  planted  to  finish  the  land 
with  potatoes,  and  the  crop  from  them  was  better  than  on  the  rest  of  the 
field. 

(1873.)  Having  drilled  up  as  much  land  as  will  allow  the  planting  to 
proceed  without  intenuption,  and  having  turned  the  dunghill  in  time  to 
ferment  the  dung  into  a  proper  state  for  the  crop,  and  having  prepared  the 
sets  ready  for  planting,  let  us  now  proceed  to  the  field,  and  see  how  opera- 
tions should  be  conducted  there,  and  in  what  manner  they  are  best  brought 
to  a  termination.  The  sets  are  shoveled  either  into  sacks  like  corn,  and 
placed  in  the  field  at  convenient  distances,  or  into  the  body  of  close  caits, 
which  are  so  placed  on  the  head-ridges  as  to  be  accessible  from  all  points. 
When  the  drills  are  short,  the  most  convenient  way  to  take  the  sets  to  the 
field  is  in  a  cart,  as  the  distance  to  either  head-ridge  is  short ;  but,  when 
the  drills  are  long,  sacks  are  best  suited  for  setting  down  here  and  there 
along  the  middle  of  the  land.  A  small,  round  willow  basket,  with  a  bow 
handle,  should  be  provided  for  every  person  who  is  to  plant  the  sets ;  and, 
as  a  considerable  number  of  hands  are  required  for  this  operation,  boys 
and  girls  may  find  employment  at  it,  over  and  above  the  ordinary  fieldr 
workers.  A  frying-pan  shovel,  fig.  17G,  will  be  found  a  convenient  instru- 
ment for  taking  the  sets  out  of  the  cart  into  the  baskets.  Carts  yoked  to 
single  horses  take  the  dung  from  the  dunghill  to  the  drills.  A  dung-hawk 
or  drag,  with  2  or  3  prongs,  and  about  6  feet  long  in  the  shaft,  such  as  fig. 
343,  is  used  by  the  steward  for  pulling  the  dung  out  of  the  carts.     Boys, 


Fig.  343. 


(T 


THE  DC.NG-H.WVK  OR  DRAG. 


girls  or  women  are  required  to  lead  the  horse  in  each  cart  to  and  from  the 
dunghill  to  the  part  of  the  field  which  is  receiving  the  dung.  The  plow- 
men, whose  horses  are  employed  in  carting  the  dung,  remain  at  the  dung- 

(386) 


PLANTING  POTATOES. 


195 


hill,  and,  assisted  by  a  woman  or  two,  fill  the  carts  with  dung  as  they  re- 
turn empty.  One  man,  the  grieve  or  steward,  hawks  the  dung  out  of  the> 
carts,  and  gives  the  land  dung  in  such  quantity  as  is  determined  on  before- 
hand by  the  farmer.  Three  women  spread  the  dung  equally  in  the  drills 
with  the  small  graips,  while  a  fourth  goes  before  and  divides  it  into  each 
drill  as  it  falls  in  heaps  from  the  carts.  If  the  drills  have  all  been  made 
before,  no  plow  is  employed  in  that  way  while  the  other  operations  are 
proceeding ;  but  plows  are  required  to  split  in  the  drills  and  cover  in  the 
dung  and  sets  as  fast  as  the  planting  is  finished.  All  these  materials  of 
labor  being  provided  for  their  respective  purposes,  let  them  start  to  work ; 
and,  to  render  your  conception  the  better  of  the  manner  in  which  they 
should  be  arranged  relatively  to  each  other,  I  have  contrived  the  annexed 
cut,  fig.  344,  which  shows  you  at  once  how  all  the  people  and  horses  are 
employed. 


Fig.  344. 


<tW  t^,£^^^lSL^^^'i 


POTATO  PLANTING. 


(1874.)  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  back  a  cart  to  the  dunghill,  and 
fill  it  with  dung;  and  in  doing  this  the  carts  are  usually  not  qufte  filled, 
and  the  dung  is  heaped  as  near  the  back  end  of  the  cart  as  is  convenient 
for  the  draught  of  the  horse,  that  the  man  who  hawks  it  out  may  have  the 
less  labor.  The  carts  are  filled,  and  the  bottom  of  the  dunghill  shoveled 
clean  by  the  plowmen  whose  horses  are  employed  in  carting  the  dung ; 
and  whose  number  in  the  figure  is  2,  there  being  3  carts  employed  at  the 
dung :  the  men  are  usually  assisted  by  a  field-worker  or  two,  in  order  to 
keep  the  carts  a  shorter  time  at  the  dunghill.  "Wlienever  the  load  is  ready, 
the  driver  c  starts  with  the  horse  and  cart  g,  and  walks  them  along  the  un- 
dunged  drills,  until  the  horse  meets  the  steward,  who  places  the  licirse  and 
cart  mto  their  proper  place  in  the  drills,  and  then  removes  the  back-board 
oi  the  cart.  To  retain  this  board  within  reach,  he  places  it  upon  its  edge 
on  the  nave  of  the  near  wheel,  where  it  is  held  from  falling  oft'  by  passing 
the  small  coterel,  at  the  end  of  the  chain  attached  to  the  back-board,  into 
the  slit-eye  of  the  stud,  which  projects  from  the  hind-end  of  the  side  of  the 
cart,  and  which  coterel  and  stud  keep  the  back-board,  when  in  use,  fast  in 

(387)  ^  ' 


196  THE   BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

its  proper  place.  If  the  carts  are  ivlwlc-hodied,  the  steward  proceeds,  after 
the  back-board  is  removed,  to  hawk  out  the  dung;  but  if  they  are  tilt  or 
cd?//^-carts,  he  elevates  the  front  a  few  inches,  by  means  of  the  hesp  at- 
tached there,  that  the  dung  may  be  hawked  out  the  more  easily.  The 
wheels  of  the  cart  and  the  horse  occupy  3  drills,  as  at  i,  the  horse  being  in 
the  middle  drill  between  them.  The  steward  h,  with  the  hawk  in  both 
hands,  pulls  out  a  heap  of  dung  i  upon  the  ground,  and  it  invariably  falls 
into  the  middle  drill.  The  horse  is  then  made  to  step  forward  a  few  paces 
and  to  halt  again,  by  the  voice  of  the  steward,  who  then  pulls  out  another 
heap  of  dung.  An  active  man,  accustomed  to  this  sort  of  work,  does  not 
allow  the  horse  to  stand  still  at  all,  but  to  walk  slowly  on  while  he  pulls 
out  the  dung.  When  the  cart  is  emptied,  the  steward  fastens  down  the 
body  of  the  cart,  if  it  is  a  coup  one,  puts  on  the  back-board,  and  the  cart 
again  proceeds  by  its  driver  to  the  dunghill.  When  the  distance  to  the 
dunghill  is  short,  the  carts  are  as  slightly  filled  as  to  dispense  with  the 
back-boaid  altogether  ;  and  when  it  can  be  wanted,  labor  is  considerably 
expedited.  After  the  cart  has  proceeded  a  few  paces,  and  deposited  a  few 
heaps  of  dung,  the  foremost  of  the  band  of  4  women  who  spread  the  dung, 
as  k,  divides  the  heaps,  as  at  ?«,  with  her  small  common  graip  into  other 
two  heaps,  I  and  n,  one  in  each  of  the  drills  beside  her  ;  and  from  m  she 
goes  to  the  next  heap  i  and  divides  it  into  other  two  heaps,  and  so  on  with 
every  heap  of  dung.  The  3  field-workers,  n  op,  having  each  a  small  graip, 
fig.  151,  then  take  each  1  of  the  3  drills  occupied  by  the  horses  and  cart- 
wheels, and  all  spread  the  dung  before  them  equally  along  the  bottom  of 
the  drills  I  m  n,  each  taking  care  to  remain  in  her  own  drill  from  the  one 
end  of  the  field  to  the  other,  shaking  to  pieces  every  lump  of  dung,  and 
teazing  out  any  that  may  happen  to  be  ranker  than  the  rest,  trampling 
upon  the  spread  dung  as  she  walks  along  the  bottom,  and  keeping  it  with- 
in the  limits  of  the  drill.  Meanwhile  the  plowman  a  makes  double  drills 
from  h  to  c,  if  they  have  not  been  already  foi-med,  and  proceeds  with  the 
making  of  them  toward  e  and  d.  Immediately  that  a  part  of  3  drills  are 
dunged  and  the  dung  spread,  the  potato  planters,  after  having  plenished 
their  baskets  or  aprons  with  sets  from  the  cart  t  upon  the  head-ridge,  pro- 
ceed to  deposit  the  sets  upon  the  dung  along  the  drills,  at  about  8  or  9 
inches  apart.  Some  women  prefer  to  carry  the  sets  in  coarse  aprons  in- 
stead of  baskets,  because  they  are  more  convenient.  As  setting  requires 
longer  time  than  dung-spreading,  there  should  be  two  sets  of  planters,  as 
at  r  and  .?,  to  one  set  of  spreaders — that  is,  6  planters  to  4  spreaders.  One 
set  of  planters,  as  .y,  go  in  advance  of  the  other,  r,  till  the  latter  comes  up 
to  the  place  where  the  former  began,  and  then  the  set  r  goes  in  advance, 
and  so  one  set  after  another  goes  in  advance  alternately,  each  set  filling 
their  baskets  and  aprons  as  they  become  empty,  but  all  confining  their  la- 
bor to  3  drills  at  a  time.  Whenever  3  drills  are  thus  planted,  the  plow- 
man u  commences  to  split  the  first  and  cover  in  the  dung  and  sets  in  the 
double  way.  The  drills  are  split  in  the  same  way  as  they  were  set  up — 
that  is,  as  the  plowman  a  turns  over  the  first  furrow  of  each  drill  upon  the 
plain  ground,  stretching  from  a  to  e,  so  the  plowman  u,  in  splitting  the 
drills,  turns  over  the  first  furiow  upon  the  dung  toward  the  planters  r  and 
*  ;  because  the^rv^  furrow  being  the  largest,  it  should  have  complete  free- 
dom to  cover  the  dung  and  sets.  If  the  land  had  been  suflBciently  worked 
in  spring,  so  as  to  be  tolerably  clean  and  free  at  the  time  of  planting  the 
potatoes,  the  plowman  a  may  make  up  the  drills  in  the  single  way,  that 
is,  making  one  drill  in  going  away,  as  he  is  represented  in  the  cut,  from  h 
to  c,  and  returning  with  another  drill  in  coming  from  d  to  c,  because  sin- 
gle drills  will  be  sufficiently  deep  to  contain  the  dung  within  them.     Pota- 

(388) 


PLANTING   POTATOES.  197 


toes  always  receive  a  large  dunging,  they  being  in  the  first  place  a  fallow 
crop,  when  the  ground  is  entitled  to  be  dunged,  and,  in  the  next  place, 
they  are  considered  a  scourging  crop  to  the  land,  that  is,  taking  much 
nourishment  out  of  it,  and  returning  little  or  nothing  to  it — yieldino-  no 
straw  but  a  few  dry  haulms,  and  the  greatest  proportion  of  the  entire  crop 
being  sold  and  driven  away  from  the  farm.  A  large  dunging  to  potatoes 
always  seeyns  great,  for  time  is  wanting  to  make  the  dung  short,  and,  of 
course,  to  reduce  its  bulk  in  the  dunghill.  About  20  single-horse  loads,  or 
15  tons,  to  the  imperial  acre,  is  as  small  a  dunging  as  potatoes  usually  re- 
ceive of  farm-yard  dung.  In  the  neighborhood  of  towns,  street-manure, 
to  the  extent  of  30  tons  per  imperial  acre,  is  given  ;  but  there  the  crop  is 
forced  for  an  early  market,  and  the  street-manure  has  not  the  strength  of 
farm-yard  dung,  and  indeed  is  found  to  be  not  nearly  so  good  for  them  as 
for  turnips.  The  spreading  should  be  kept  up  as  close  to  the  cart  as  pos- 
sible. The  plowman  u  should  not  leave  a  single  diill  uncovered  in  the 
evening  when  he  gives  up  work.  If  he  cannot  possibly  split  all  the  drills 
in  the  double  way,  he  should  cover  up  the  dung  and  sets  of  a  few  drills  at 
the  last  in  the  single  way  ;  or  he  should  receive  assistance  from  the  plow- 
man a  to  split  them  all  completely,  if  he  sees  the  weather  showing  symp- 
toms of  rain  or  frost.  And  even  at  the  loosening  from  work  at  mid-day, 
or  forenoon  yoking,  every  drill  should  be  covered  in,  even  though  the 
plowman  should  work  a  while  longer  in  the  field  than  the  rest  of  the  work- 
people ;  for  which  disadvantage  he  should  be  as  long  of  yoking  after  them  ; 
and  he  should  make  it  a  point  to  cover  in  the  drills  at  the  end  of  the  fore- 
noon yoking  in  a  complete  manner,  when  the  weather  is  hot  and  dry  ;  be- 
cause dung  is  soon  scorched  by  the  mid-day  sun,  and  its  dry  state  is  inju- 
rious, not  so  much  on  account  of  the  evaporation  of  any  valuable  material 
from  it,  the  material  being  chiefly  water,  but  because  it  does  not  incorpo- 
rate with  the  soil  so  soon  and  so  well  as  damp  dung  ;  and  when  both  soil 
and  dung  are  rendered  hot  and  dry  by  exposure,  their  incorporation  is 
rendered  very  difficult.  If  all  the  plows  cannot  cover  in  the  drills  within 
a  reasonable  time  after  the  loosening  time  anives,  especially  at  nio-ht, 
much  rather  give  up  the  dunging  of  the  land  and  the  planting  of  the  sets 
a  little  sooner  than  usual,  than  run  the  risk  of  leaving  any  dung  and  sets 
uncovered. 

(1875.)  You  will  observe  that  the  process  of  planting  potatoes,  as  rep- 
resented in  fig.  344,  is  composed  of  a  variety  of  actions,  which,  taken  indi- 
vidually, are  equally  important,  and  none  of  which  can  be  carried  on  with- 
out the  assistance  of  the  rest,  and  all  of  which,  if  not  proportioned  to  one 
another,  would  end   in  confusion.     Thus,  the   plowing   of  the   drills,    the 
dunging  of  the  land,  the  spreading  of  the  dung,  the  setting  of  the   pota- 
toes, and  the  splitting  of  the  drills,  are  all  equally  important  operations  in 
potato  culture.      None   of  them   would   be   of  any  use  without  the  rest. 
There  would  be  no  use  of  making  drills  unless   they  were  to  be  dunged, 
nor  would  the  planting  of  the  sets  avail  unless  the  dung  were  spread,  nor 
would  the  planted  sets  be  safe,  even  on  the  spread  dung,  unless  the  drills 
were  split  to  cover  the  whole  from  the  weather.     But  if  these  component 
operations   are  not  proportioned   to   each   other,  the  whole   operation  is 
thrown  into  confusion.     Suppose,  for  example,  that  the  plowman  a,  while 
making  double  drills,  could   not  keep  out  before  the  party  that  is  spread- 
ing the  dung,  it  is  evident  that  every  other  party  would  be  constrained  by 
his   tardiness,  and  made   to  lose   time  ;   and  the  remedy  for  this  inconve- 
nience obviously  is,  that  the   plowman   should  have  as  many  double  drills 
made  before  the  dunging  commences,  as  that  he  shall  not  be  overtaken  in 
the  drilling  ;  or  that  the  plowman  should  make  single  drills,  when  he  finds  ■ 

(389)  ^  ° 


J 98  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

the  dunging  gaining  ground  upon  him  ;  or  that  another  plowman  should 
be  sent  to  assist  him  in  making  double  drills.  Suppose,  again,  that  more 
carts  are  employed  in  conveying  the  dung  from  the  dunghill  than  the 
steward  h  can  possibly  hawk  out,  or  the  4  women  kno p  possibly  spread ; 
or,  the  same  effect  would  be  produced  by  employing  more  people  than  ne- 
cessary at  the  dunghill  to  fill  the  carts  ;  the  result  would  be  that  the  stew- 
ard and  women  would  be  overworked,  while  the  horses  driving  the  dung, 
and  the  people  at  the  dunghill  would  be  comparatively  idle,  and  of  course 
losing  time.  Suppose  there  are  fewer  planters  at  r  and  *  than  can  keep 
out  before  the  plowman  u,  then  time  would  not  only  be  lost  in  covering 
up  as  many  drills  as  might  be,  but  the  dung  spread  would  lie  exposed  to 
the  desiccating  action  of  the  sun  and  air  between  the  planters  of  the  sets 
and  the  spreaders  of  the  dung.  Were  there,  on  the  other  hand,  too  many 
planters  for  those  who  spread  the  dung  to  keep  out  before  them,  then  the 
planters  would  be  comparatively  idle.  Suppose,  lastly,  that  the  plowman 
u  cannot  keep  up  ^^•ith  the  planters,  who,  nevertheless,  do  not  proceed  on 
their  part  faster  than  the  dung  is  spread,  the  effect  will  be  that  the  spread 
and  planted  dung  will  become  dry  before  it  can  be  covered  up.  The 
remedv  for  this  inconvenience  is  either  to  employ  another  plowman  to 
split  in  drills,  or  to  make  one  plowman  cover  the  dung  with  one  fuiTow, 
and  let  another  finish  the  drills  behind  him  at  his  leisure. 

(1876.)  I  have  dwelt  the  more  fully  on  these  particulars,  because  potato 
planting  is  one  of  those  great  operations  which  are  made  up  of  a  variety 
of  constituent  operations  that  are  performed  simultaneously,  and  unless 
they  form  a  haraionious  whole,  tending  in  all  its  parts  to  a  common  end, 
the  entire  operation  cannot  be  completed  in  the  best  manner  ;  but  wherever 
this  harmony  is  seen  to  exist,  it  is  a  satisfactory  proof  that  the  person  who 
has  so  arranged  the  working  materials  as  to  produce  it,  possesses  the 
knowledge  of  combining  varieties  of  field-labor.  In  effecting  such  an  ar 
rangement  as  the  above,  he  displays  knowledge  of  a  superior  order  to  that 
which  is  usually  displayed  in  conducting  potato  planting.  A  very  com- 
mon mode  of  dunging  potato-land,  for  example,  is  to  hawk  the  dung  out 
of  the  cart  for  5  drills  instead  of  3,  though  3,  or  even  fewer,  women  are 
sent  to  spread  the  dung  over  them.  In  doing  this,  each  woman's  attention 
is  not  confined  to  a  single  drill,  but  must  be  extended  over  the  whole  5, 
when  each  spreads  the  dung  from  the  heap  she  takes  possession  of;  and 
it  stands  to  reason  that  she  cannot  spread  dung  so  equally,  and  of  course 
not  so  iccll,  over  5  drills  as  along  1  ;  and  the  work  is  not  done  better, 
though  faster,  even  though  the  3  women  are  all  employed  to  spread  from 
the  same  heap,  as  each  has  still  the  entire  5  drills  to  attend  to.  Besides, 
when  dung  is  hawked  out  of  the  cart  for  5  drills,  it  is  usually  laid  in  large 
heaps  at  considerable  distances,  at  from  5  to  10  paces  apart,  thereby  in- 
creasing the  difficulty  of  spreading  ;  and  a  large  space  of  the  ground  being 
thus  heaped  over,  before  the  duno^  is  begun  to  be  spread,  by  the  time  it  is 
spread,  and  the  sets  planted,  the  dung  will  have  become  quite  dry.  This 
plan  may  excusably  be  adopted  on  a  small  farm,  where  laborers  are  few, 
and  it  is  desired  to  conduct  operations  with  what  is  considered  economy, 
by  the  employment  of  as  few  hands  as  possible  ;  but  on  a  large  farm  it  has 
the  appearance  of  gieat  slovenliness,  and  it  certainly  encourages  careless- 
ness in  work,  and  evinces  confusion  of  ideas  in  arranging  it.  It  is  no  un- 
common sight,  even  on  large  farms,  to  see  the  dung  carted  out  and  spread 
in  one  yoking,  and  the  sets  planted  and  the  dung  covered  in  another,  by 
the  same  people  and  horses  ;  doing  a  great  deal  of  work,  no  doubt,  in 
each  yoking  and  during  the  entire  day  ;  but  the  result  would  be  much 
more  satisfactory  were  the  entire  work  finished  as  it  proceeded.    A  great 

(390) 


PLANTING   POTATOES.  199 


number  of  dunged  drills  are  usually  begun  to  be  planted  with  sets  at  the 
same  time,  instead  of  confining  the  setting  to  a  few  at  a  time,  to  get  them 
finished  as  soon  as  possible,  to  be  covered  with  the  plow.  In  short,  there 
is  no  end  to  the  many  ways  in  which  field-work  may  be  done  in  a  slovenly 
manner  ;  but  there  is  only  one  hest  way  of  doing  it. 

(1877.)  Drills  of  potatoes  are  recommended  to  be  made  at  30  inches 
apart,  instead  of  27  inches,  which  is  the  usual  width  for  turnips,  because 
the  large  stems  of  the  potato-plant  growing  vigorously  require  plenty  of 
air.  Even  3  feet  apart  is  recommended  by  some  cultivators,  and  in 
deep,  rich  soils  this  width  may  not  be  too  great ;  but  I  observe  that,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  large  towns,  where  the  greatest  extent  of  ground  is  oc- 
cupied by  potatoes,  the  drills  seldom  exceed  24  inches,  owing  partly  to 
the  great  value  of  land  in  that  locality,  and  partly  because  the  earlier  va- 
rieties of  potatoes,  which  have  small  stems,  are  most  profitable  to  cultivate 
there.  The  drills  for  potatoes  are  usually  not  made  so  very  i-egular  in 
width  as  for  turnips,  because  the  seed  is  not  planted  by  a  machine.  It  is 
very  easy  to  ascertain  whether  the  exact  quantity  of  manure  desired  to 
be  given  to  the  potato  crop  is  actually  given.  Knowing  the  length  of  the 
drill  and  its  breadth,  a  simple  calculation  will  inform  you  of  the  number 
of  drills  in  an  acre,  and,  by  apportioning  the  number  of  cart-loads  that 
should  be  applied  on  every  3  drills,  the  requisite  quantity  per  acre  can  at 
once  be  ascertained  with  great  precision  ;  and  this  as  precisely  on  the  very 
first  3  drills  that  are  commenced  to  be  dunged,  as  if  the  calculation  had 
been  made  over  a  large  propoition  of  the  field. 

(1878.)  As  to  the  varieties  of  the  potato  I  would  recommend  for  field- 
culture,  I  find  it  impossible  to  tender  an  advice,  because  it  would  not  be 
generally  applicable.  I  have  seen  a  potato  transferred  from  England, 
where  it  was  a  favorite,  to  Scotland,  another  variety  transfeiTed  from  Scot- 
land to  England,  another  from  Ireland  to  Scotland,  and  in  each  case  pro- 
duce a  very  inferior  crop  in  its  adopted  country  to  what  it  ever  did  in  its 
native  one ;  and  even  in  a  transference  from  one  part  to  another  of  the 
same  country,  I  have  seen  a  material  effect  produced  upon  the  plant,  in- 
creasing it  in  one  case  and  diminishing  it  in  another.  The  general  result 
is  found  to  be  an  increase  of  produce  and  improvement  of  quality  in  trans- 
ferring the  potato  from  inferior  to  better  soil,  and  from  an  elevated  to  a 
lower  situation.  The  tendency  of  the  potato  to  improve  on  being  thus 
transferred,  is  taken  advantage  of  in  its  attainment  as  seed.  When  I  men- 
tion that  there  are  upward  of  100  varieties  o{  field  potatoes  described  by 
Mr.  Lawson,*  and  as  many  experimented  on  by  Mr.  Howden,  Lawhead, 
East-Lothian,t  you  will  not  be  surprised  that  I  cannot  confidently  recom- 
mend any  particular  variety  for  a  particular  locality.  Nevertheless  B,good 
potato  has  certain  characteristics  which  distinguish  it  everywhere  from  an 
inferior  one.  A  desirable  potato  is  neither  large  nor  small,  but  of  medium 
size  ;  of  round  shape,  or  elongated  spheroid  ;  the  skin  of  fine  textui'e,  and 
homogeneous ;  and  the  eyes  neither  numerous  nor  deep-seated.  The 
habit  of  growth  of  its  stem  is  strong  and  slightly  spreading,  and  color 
lightish  green.  I  believe  that  the  intensity  of  the  color  of  the  flower  is  in 
some  degree  an  indication  of  the  depth  of  the  color  of  the  tuber  ;  and  I 
believe,  also,  that  white  potatoes  are  generally  fit  to  be  eaten  when  taken 
out  of  the  ground,  but  that  red  ones  are  the  better  for  being  out  of  the 
gi-ound  for  a  shorter  or  longer  time,  before  being  used,  according  to  the 
fineness  of  their  texture.  But  color  is  by  no  means  a  fixed  characteristic 
of  any  variety  of  potato,  as   it   changes   by  cultivation  and  other  circum- 


*  I.aweon'B  Agricullurist'e  Manual,  and  Supplement. 

t  Prize  Essays  of  the  Hishland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xL 


(391) 


200  THE   BOOK  OF  THE   FARM SPRING. 

Stances.  Mr.  Lawson  relates  a  curious  circumstance  which  gave  rise  to  a 
permanent  difference  in  the  color  of  the  same  variety  of  potato.  "  In  the 
first  report  of  Messrs.  Dickson  and  TurnhuH's  Agricultural  Museum  at 
Perth,"  he  says,  "  a  remarkable  iustauce  is  given  of  a  irhite  variety  of  the 
Perthshire  red  potato,  being  obtained  by  Miss  Bishop,  New-Scone,  from  a 
red  potato  with  a  white  eye,  which  she  carefully  cut  out  and  planted  by 
itself,  the  result  of  which  is  that  the  produce  has  for  several  years  retained 
the  same  color  as  the  original  eye,  without  the  slightest  appearance  of 
change."*  Before  determining  the  properties  of  a  potato  in  a  locality,  it 
is  necessary  that  it  exhibit  the  same  character  for  2  or  3  years  in  the  same 
circumstances  of  soil,  manure  and  culture,  otherwise  enors  may  be  com- 
mitted in  your  estimation  of  varieties.  The  Intrinsic  value  of  a  potato,  as 
an  article  of  commerce,  is  estimated  by  the  quantity  of  starch  which  it 
yields  on  analysis  ;  but  as  an  article  of  domestic  consumption,  the  jiaror 
of  the  starchy  matter  is  of  greater  importance  than  its  quantity.  Almost 
every  person  prefers  a  mealy  potato  to  a  waxy,  and  the  more  mealy  it  is 
usually  the  better  flavored.  The  mealiness  consists  of  a  layer  of  mucilage 
immediately  under  the  skin,  covering  the  starch  or  farina,  which  is  held 
consistent  by  fibrous  matter.  Light  soil  raises  a  potato  more  mealy  than 
a  strong,  and  I  suppose  every  one  is  aware  that  a  light  soil  produces  a 
potato  of  the  same  variety  of  better  flavor  than  clay.  So  that  soil  has  an 
influence  on  the  flavor,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  culture  has — for  potatoes, 
whatever  may  be  the  variety,  raised  from  soil  that  has  been  dunged  for 
some  time,  are  higher  flavored  than  those  erown  in  immediate  contact 
with  dung. 

(1879.)  The  most  common  varieties  of  potatoes  cultivated  in  the  fields 
in  Scotland,  are  the  common  or  Edinburgh  Dons,  very  plentiful  in  the 
Edinburgh  market.  It  is  round,  and  is  an  early  variety  ;  that  is  to  say, 
the  stems  are  entirely  decayed  by  the  time  the  tubers  are  fit  for  use.  It 
produces  about  16-fold  of  the  seed,  and  yields  576  grains  Troy  of  starch 
from  1  lb.  of  tubers.  The  Buff  is  a  mealy  and  superior-flavored  potato, 
yielding  about  15-fold,  and  466  gi-ains  Troy  of  starch  from  1  lb.  of  tubers. 
The  Perthshire  Hed,  an  oblong  flat  potato,  is  largely  cultivated  for  the 
London  market.  It  yields  about  15-fold,  and  affords  as  much  as  777 
grains  Troy  of  starch  from  1  lb.  of  tubers.  Of  the  late  varieties,  that  is, 
those  the  foliage  of  which,  in  ordinary  seasons,  does  not  decay  until 
destroyed  by  frost,  and  the  tubei-s  of  which  generally  require  to  be  kept 
for  some  time  before  being  used  to  the  greatest  advantage,  the  Staft'ald 
Hall,  or  Wellington,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  to  be  preferred.  It  is 
represented  to  yield  22-fold,  and  affords  813  grains  Troy  of  starch  from  1 
lb.  of  tubers.  The  Scotch  Black  potato  has  long  been  cultivated  in  Scot- 
land ;  and  it  seems  to  suit  strong  soil  better  than  light,  where  it  yields  as 
high  as  16-fold  of  increase,  and  affords  522  grains  Troy  of  starch  from  1 
lb.  of  tubers.t  Of  the  late  varieties  for  field-culture  suited  for  cattle,  the 
Irish  Lumpers  and  Cups  appear  prolific.  Tf)e  Lumper  is  a  white,  oblong 
potato  of  very  inferior  flavor,  but  yields  421  bushels,  and  3,118  lbs.  of 
Btai-ch  per  Scotch  acre,  I  presume  ;  and  the  Cups  are  an  oblong  red  potato' 
yielding  479  bushels,  and  3,539  lbs.  of  starch  per  acre.|  On  recommend- 
ing any  variety  of  potato,  however,  it  should  be  understood  that  potatoes 
will  not  permanently  maintain  their  preeminence  at  all  places  ;  on  the 
contrary,  a  few  years  may  witness  their  utter  decline.  The  Leather-coats, 
for  example,  were  a  variety  in  very  great  esteem  and  in  extensive  cultiva- 


*  Lawson'8  Agriculrurisi's  Manual, 
t  Lawson's  Agriculturipl's  Manual. 

X  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  AgricnltarBl  Society  toL  sd. 
(392) 


PLANTING  POTATOES.  201 


tion  some  years  ago,  and  now  are  hardly  known.  The  small  American 
white  potato  was  extensively  cultivated  in  the  midland  districts  of  Scot- 
land about  20  years  ago,  but  has  yielded  some  of  its  ground  to  more  pro- 
lific varieties.  For  the  table,  howevei',  when  raised  in  hazel  loam — the 
true  potato  soil — there  are  few  varieties  cultivated  superior  to  it  in  flavor, 
richness  and  beauty  as  a  dish.  It  is  now,  I  believe,  chiefly  confined  to  the 
garden.  The  finest  flavored  and  most  beautiful  potato  I  ever  saw  on  the 
table  was  a  light  red,  small,  round  variety  raised  a  few  years  ago  in  the 
sandy  soil  of  the  parish  of  Monifieth,  in  Forfarshire.  It  had  quite  the 
nutty  flavor  ol  z.  fresh  Spanish  chestnut — a  state  of  that  fine  fruit  unknown 
in  this  country. 

(1880.)  There  are  other  ways  of  cultivating  the  potato  in  the  field  be- 
sides the  one  I  have  described.  When  light  soil,  in  which  the  potato 
thrives,  is  clean  and  in  good  heart,  it  is  frequently  dunged  on  the  stubble 
in  autumn,  and  plowed  in  with  a  deep,  square  furrow  by  casting  with  or 
without  a  gore-furrow,  fig.  139.  Abundance  of  gaw-cuts  are  made  to  let 
off  superfluous  surface-water  in  winter.  It  is  then  cross-plowed  in  spring, 
and  harrowed  a  double-tine,  when  it  is  ready  to  be  drilled  up  in  the  sin- 
gle form,  the  sets  planted,  and  the  drills  split  in  the  double  form,  to  com- 
plete the  opei'ation.  In  the  neighborhood  of  towns  this  is  an  expeditious 
mode  of  planting  a  large  breadth  of  potatoes  in  spring  on  light  soil,  but  it 
requires  the  land  to  be  in  very  good  heart.  I  have  tried  it  on  good  land 
in  middling  condition,  but  could  not  succeed  in  raising  much  more  than 
half  the  crop  produced  from  dunging  the  same  land  in  spring. 

(1881.)  There  is  a  modification  of  this  plan  which  may  be  practiced  with 
success  in  vex-y  light  soil,  which  is  that  after  the  cross-plowing  and  har- 
rowing rn  spring,  the  land  is  ridged  again  by  casting  without  gore-furrows 
in  the  opposite  way  it  was  cast  in  autumn  when  the  dung  was  plowed  in ; 
and  at  every  third  furrow  two  women  follow  the  plow,  and  plant  the  sets 
in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow.  If  the  furi'ows  are  held  9  inches  wide,  the 
distance  between  the  rows  of  potatoes  will  be  27  inches  ;  and  if  they  are 
10  inches  wide,  the  rows  will,  of  course,  be  30  inches  apart ;  so  that  this 
plan  admits  of  the  rows  being  made  wide  enough. 

(1882.)  There  is  a  sub-modification  of  this  last  method,  which  is,  that 
the  dung  is  spiead  over  the  smooth  harrowed  ground  after  the  land  has 
been  cast  into  ridges  in  spring,  instead  of  being  applied  on  the  stubble  in 
autumn.  The  dung  is  raked  in  and  spread  evenly  along  the  bottom  of 
every  third  furrow  by  a  woman  with  the  small  gi'aip,  fig.  151,  following 
the  plow,  and  immediately  pi'eceding  the  planters,  and  the  plow  which 
follows  the  planters  covei's  up  the  sets.  In  both  these  modes  the  potato 
plants  come  up  in  roios  upon  the  flat  ground  at  the  same  distance  they  do 
in  drills,  and  after  their  stems  have  grown  up  in  summer,  the  earth  is 
plowed  up  toward  them,  so  as  to  convert  the  flat  ground  into  a  drilled  sur- 
face by  the  time  the  culture  is  finished. 

(1883.)  Another  mode  of  the  field-culture  of  the  potato  is  in  lazy-heds, 
a  mode  more  genei'ally  practiced  in  Ireland  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
kingdom.  This  system,  however,  will  likely  become  less  general,  being 
much  condemned  by  the  good  farmers  there.  Nevertheless,  on  lea-ground 
and  on  undrained  bogs  the  small  farmer  cannot,  perhaps,  pursue  a  better 
one.  "  In  bogs  and  mountains,"  says  Martin  Doyle,  "  where  the  plow 
cannot  penetrate  through  strong  soil,  beds  are  the  most  convenient  for  the 
petty  farmer,  who  digs  the  sod  with  his  long  naiTow  spade,  and  either  lays 
the  sets  on  the  inverted  sod — the  manure  being  previously  spread — cover- 
ing them  from  the  furrows  by  the  shovel ;  or,  as  in  parts  of  Connaught 
and  Munster,  he  stabs  the   ground  with  his  loy,  a  long  narrow  spade  pe- 

(393) 


202  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

culiar  to  the  laborers  of  Connaught,  jerks  a  cut  set  into  the  fissure  when 
he  draws  out  the  tool,  and  afterward  closes  the  set  with  the  back  of  the 
same  instrument,  covering  the  surface,  as  in  the  case  of  lazy-beds,  fiom 
the  furrows.  The  general  Irish  mode  of  culture  on  old  lich  arable  lea  (a 
practice  very  common  in  the  county  of  Clare,  and  elsewhere  among  the 
peasantry  wlm  pay  dearly  for  old  grass  land,)  is  to  plow  the  fields  in  ridges, 
to  level  them  perfectly  with  the  spade,  then  to  lay  the  potato  sets  upon  the 
surface,  and  to  cover  them  with  or  without  manure  by  the  inverted  suds 
from  the  furrows.  The  potatoes  are  afterward  earthed  once  or  twice  with 
whatever  mould  can  be  obtained  from  the  furrows  by  means  of  spade  and 
shovel.  And  after  these  earthings,  the  furrows  becoming  deep  trenches, 
form  easy  means  for  water  to  flow  away,  and  leave  the  planted  giound 
on  each  .side  of  them  comparatively  dry."  "  The  practice  in  the  south  of 
Ireland  is  to  grow  potatoes  on  grass  land  from  1  to  3  years  old,  and  tur- 
nips afterward,  manuring  each  time  moderately,  as  the  best  preparation 
for  corn,  and  as  a  prevention  of  the  disease  called  fingers  and  toes  in 
turnips.  In  wet  bog-land,  ridges  and  fuiTows  are  the  safest,  as  the  furrow 
acts  as  a  complete  drain  for  surface  water;  but  wherever  drilling  is  prac- 
ticable, it  is  decidedly  preferable,  the  produce  being  greater  in  drills  than 
in  what  may  be  termed,  comparatively,  a  broadcast  method."*  The 
spade-culture  of  potatoes  seems  an  appropriate  mode  for  small  fanners 
and  cotters,  but  it  is  by  far  too  expensive  a  mode  to  be  introduced  into  a 
farm  where  horse-labor  is  employed. 

(1SS4.)  "While  speaking  of  the  form  of  the  double  drill,  I  have  said  that 
one  of  its  sides  was  larger  or  heavier  than  the  other  ;  that  is,  the  first  fiir- 
row  with  which  it  is  made  is  much  larger  than  the  second,  the  eft'ect  of 
which  relation  of  furrows  is  to  make  the  line  of  their  meeting  at  the  side 
instead  of  at  the  top  of  the  drill,  (1744)  and  fig.  313.  The  germ  of  the 
potato,  and  of  the  bean  too,  in  pushing  upward,  toward  the  top  of  the 
drill,  finding  the  least  resistance  in  the  soil  along  the  line  of  the  meelinsT 
of  the  two  furrows,  finds  its  way  to  the  day  through  the  side  instead  of 
the  top  of  the  drill.  Were  the  plants  allowed  to  grow  out  from  that 
part  of  the  drill,  they  would  not  only  be  bent  at  the  ground,  but  their 
stems  would  interfere  with  the  horse-labor  bestowed  on  the  land  in  the 
hollows  of  the  drills.  To  avoid  this  inconvenient  and  unnatural  position 
of  the  plants,  the  practice  is  to  harrow  down  the  tops  of  the  drills  with 
harrows,  so  that  the  drill  shall  have  the  lightest  part  of  the  earth  upon  its 
crown  ;  and,  of  course,  the  germ  finding  the  least  resistance  directly  up- 
ward, will  push  out  at  the  top  of  the  drill.  The  harrowing  down  of  the 
tops  of  the  drills  is  executed  with  the  common  harrows,  or  with  haiTows 
made  for  the  purpose.  The  common  haiTows  are  passed  either  along  or 
across  the  drills,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil.  Strong  soil  bears  the 
haiTows  being  driven  along  the  drills,  and  in  very  hard  land,  particularly 
in  dry  seasons,  they  may  be  passed  along  a  double  tine,  but  a  single  tine 
will  usually  be  sufllicient.  Harrowing  across,  tritJi  tines  well  uorn  down, 
will  have  the  least  chance  of  disturbing  long  manure  when  used  for  dung- 
ing potatoes,  as  the  drill  which  first  receives  the  fore  part  of  the  hanow 
supports  it  and  keeps  the  tines  from  penetrating  too  deep  at  once  ;  but  the 
walking  across  the  drills  is  irksome  both  for  man  and  beast,  so  that  the 
harrowing  is  most  easily  performed  along  the  drill.  The  common  han"ow, 
however,  is  a  harsh  imj)lemcnt  for  harrowing  drills,  compared  to  a  couple 
of  curved  ones,  figured  below,  which  embrace  two  drills  at  a  time,  and 
which  when  pulled  along  do  their  work  admirably.  A  modification  of 
this  last  method  has  been  recommended  to  "be  adopted  on  strong  land  in 

*  Doyle's  Cyclopedia  of  Practical  Husbandry — art  Potato — second  edition. 
(394; 


PLANTING  POTATOES.  203 


dry  weather,  after  much  rain  has  fallen,  and  when  such  land  has  become 
very  hard  and  cloddy.  A  wooden  roller,  cun^ed  so  as  to  embrace  two 
drills,  is  recommended  to  be  passed  along,  and  by  it  the  clods  at  top  are 
either  crushed  or  displaced  to  the  bottom  of  the  drills.  Two  pairs  of  har- 
rows of  a  triangular  form,  suited  to  work  in  the  hollows  between  the 
drills,  are  then  passed  along,  and  they  either  remove  the  clods  that  were 
too  hard  to  be  broken  by  the  roller,  or  they  divide  the  large  clods  into  a 
number  of  small  ones,  and  bring  them  all,  the  clods  of  every  kind,  into  the 
hollows  of  the  drills.  In  every  one  of  these  modes  of  rolling  and  harrow- 
ing the  drills  of  bean  or  potato  land,  the  bean  and  potato  germs  are  per- 
mitted to  shoot  perpendicularly  up  through  their  tops.  This  hanowino-  is 
given  to  the  drills  8  or  10  days  after  the  potatoes  have  been  planted,  if  the 
land  is  dry,  but,  of  course,  it  must  be  done  before  the  germs  have  had  time 
to  penetrate  the  ground,  although  the  weather  be  not  altogether  favorable  for 
working  heavy  land.  Of  the  two  sorts  of  potato-haiTows  alluded  to — the 
curved  and  triangular — the  latter  is  best  fitted  to  be  used  when  the  germs 
have  appeared  above  ground,  as  its  outmost  tines  work  between  the  top  of 
one  drill  and  another,  and  not  over  the  top  of  the  drill  hke  the  curved  harrows. 
(1885.)  The  potato  is  subject  to  disease  at  a  very  early  period  of  its 
existence,  not  merely  after  it  has  developed  its  stems  and  leaves  but  be- 
fore the  germ  has  risen  from  the  sets.  The  disease  which  affects  the 
plant  is  called  the  curl,  from  the  curled  or  crumpled  appearance  which  the 
leaves  assume  when  under  the  influence  of  the  disease.  What  the  imme- 
diate cause  of  the  disease  is,  it  is  difficult  to  say ;  but  the  puny  stem  and 
stinted  leaves  indicate  weakness  in  the  constitution  of  the  plant,  and,  like 
weak  animals  affected  with  constitutional  disease,  the  small  tubers  pro- 
duced by  curled  potatoes,  when  planted,  propagate  the  disease  in  the  fu 
ture  crop.  The  curl  is  so  well  known  by  its  appearance,  and  the  curled 
plant  so  generally  shunned  as  seed,  that  the  disease  is  never  willingly 
propagated  by  the  cultivator  ;  still  there  are  circumstances  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  tubers  which  induce  the  disease  therein.  The  experiments  of 
Mr.  T.  Dickson  show  that  the  disease  arises  from  the  vegetable  powers 
of  the  sets  planted  having  been  exhausted  by  over-ripening,  so  that  sets 
fi-om  the  waxy  end  of  the  potato  produced  healthy  plants,  whereas  those 
from  the  best  ripened  end  did  not  vegetate  at  all,  or  produced  curled 
plants.*  It  is  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Crichton,  "  that  the  curl  in  the  potato 
may  often  be  occasioned  by  the  way  the  potatoes  are  treated  that  are  in- 
tended for  seed.  I  have  observed,"  he  says,  "  wherever  the  seed-stock  is 
carefully  pitted,  and  not  exposed  to  the  air,  in  the  spring  the  crop  has  sel- 
dom any  curl  ;  but  where  the  seed-stock  is  put  into  barns  and  outhouses 
for  months  together,  such  crop  seldom  escapes  turning  out  in  a  great 
measure  curled  ;  and  if  but  few  curl  the  first  year,  if  they  are  planted 
again,  it  is  more  than  probable  the  half  of  them  will  curl  next  season. "t 

•(1886.)  The  other  disease  alluded  to  affects  the  seed  or  sets,  and  is  call- 
ed the  failure  or  taint,  which  consists  of  the  destruction  of  their  vital  pow- 
ers. Many  conjectures  have  been  hazarded  as  to  the  cause  of  the  failure, 
and  most  of  them  have  ascribed  it  to  the  feiTnented  state  of  the  dung,  to 
the  drouth  of  the  season,  to  the  heating  of  the  sets,  to  the  tuber  being  cut 
into  sets,  and  other  secondary  causes ;  but  all  these  conjectures  leave  un- 
touched the  principal  consideration  in  the  question,  how  these  circum- 
stances should  induce  failure  now,  and  not  in  bygone  years  1  Cut  sets 
have  been  used  for  many  years  without  causing  failure.  Farm-yard  dung, 
in  various  states  of  decomposition,  has  been  used  as  long  for  raising  pota- 
toes^ The  extraordinary  drouth  of  1826  caused  no  failure,  while  in  com- 

*  Memoirs  of  the  Caledonian  Horticultural  Society,  vol.i.  t  Ibid.,  vol.  i. 

(395) 


204  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


paratively  cool  seasons  the  disease  has  made  great  havoc.     Mr.  John 
ShirrefF  takes  a  general  and   philosophical  view  of  the  cause  of  disease 
in  the  potato  crop,  and  though,  no   doubt,  his  observations  are  particular- 
ly applicable  to  the  curl,   still  they  will   apply    equally  well  to  the  taint  ; 
for  the  connection  between   the  two  diseases  is  so  intimate,  that  you  have 
seen   Mr.   Dickson's  obsen'ation   is  that  some   sets  "  did  not  vegetate  at 
all,"  that  is,  failed,  or  produced  curled   plants."     Mr.   Shirreff  adopts  the 
general  doctrine  broached  by  Mr.  Knight.     "  The  maximum  of  the  dura- 
tion of  the  life  of  any  individual  vegetable  and  animal,"  he  says,  "  is  pre- 
determined by  Nature,  under  whatever   circumstances  the  individual  may 
be  placed  ;  the  minimum,   on  the  other  hand,  is  determined  by  these  very 
circumstances.     Admitting,  then,  that  a  potato  might  reproduce  itself  from 
tubers  for  a  gi-eat  number  of  years   in  the  shady  woods  of  Peru,  it  seems 
destined  to  become  abortive  in  the  cultivated  champaign  of  Britain,  inso- 
much that  not  a  single  healthy  plant  of  any  sort  of  potato  that  yields  ber- 
ries, and  which  was  in  culture  20  years  ago,  can  now  be  produced."     Mr. 
Shirreff  concludes,  therefore,   that  the  potato  is  to  be  considered  a  short- 
lived plant,  and  that  though  its  health  or  vigor  may  be  prolonged  by  rear- 
ing it  in  elevated  or  in  shady  situations,  or  by  cropping  the  flowers,  and  thus 
preventing  the  plants  from   exhausting  themselves,   the  only  sure  way  to 
obtain  vigorous  plants,  and  to  insure  productive  crops,  is  to  have  fi-equent 
recourse  to  new  varieties  raised  from  seed.*  The  same  view  had  occuned 
to  Dr.  Hunter.     The   fact  ascertained   by  Mr.   Knight  deserves  to  be  no- 
ticed— that,  by  planting   late   in  the  season,   pethaps  in  June,  or  even  in 
July,  an  exhausted  good   variety   may,   in   a  great  measure,  be  restored  ; 
that  is,  the  tuber  resulting  from   the  late  planting,  when  again  planted   at 
the  ordinary  season,  produces  the  kind  in  its  pristine  vigor,  and  of  its  for- 
mer size.     It  is  obvious  that   all  these  opinions  refer  to  the  possibility  of 
plants  indicating  constituticmal  weakness,  and  why  may  not  the  potato  1  I 
have  all  along  been  of  the  opinion   that  the  failure  has  arisen  from  this 
cause,  nor  does  it  seem  to  me  to  be  refuted  by  the  fact  that  certain  varie- 
ties of  potato  have  been   cultivated  for  many  years  in  the  same  locality 
without  f\iil ;  because  it   is  well  understood  that  every  variety  of  potato 
has  not  indicated  failure,   and  one   locality  may  be  more  favorable  to  re- 
tention of  vigor  of  constitution   than  another;  at  least,  we  may  easily  be- 
lieve this,  and  discrepancies  in  the  case  may  arise,   since  we  do  not  yet 
know  the  circumstances  which   must  of  necessity  produce  constitutional 
weakness.     I  have  no  doubt  in  my  own  mind  that,  were  seed-potatoes  se- 
curely pitted,  until  they   were  about   to  be  planted — not  over-ripened  be- 
fore they  were  taken  out   of  the   ground — the  sets  cut  from   the    crispest 
tubers  and  from  the  waxy  end — the    dung  fermented  by  a  turning  of  the 
dunghill   in   proper  time — led  out  to  the  field,  quickly  spread,  the  sets  as 
quickly  dropped  on  it,  and  the  drills  split  in  the  manner  represented  in  fig. 
344,  and  described  in  (1874),  there  would  be  little  heard  of  the  failure  even 
in  the  driest  season — at  the   same   time,  the  precaution  of  obtaining  seed 
frequently  from  an  elevated  and  late  district  compared  to  where  the  seed 
is  to  be  planted,  should  not  be  neglected.     I  own  it  is  difficult  to  prove  the 
existence  of  constitutional  weakness  in  any  given  tuber,  as  its  existence  is 
only  implied  by  the  fact  of  the  failure  ;  but  the  hypothesis  explains  many 
more  facts  than  any  other,  than  atmospheric  influence — for  example,  pro- 
ducing the  failure  like  epidemic  diseases  in  animals,  for  such  influences 
existed  many  years  ago,  as  well  as  now.     The   longer  the  cultivation  of 

»  Memoirs  of  the  CBledonian  Horticulrurnl  Society,  vol.  i.    See  also  a  well-reasoned  essay  by  Mr.  Aitken. 
Castle-Douglas,  entiiled,  •'  The  potato  rescued  from  destruction,  and  restored  toprestine  vigor;  and  who  takes 
the  same  view  of  the  subject. 
I396J 


PLANTING  POTATOES.  205 


the  tuher  of  the  potato,  which  is  not  its  seed,  is  persevered  in,  the  more  cer- 
tainly may  we  expect  to  see  its  constitutional  vigor  weakened,  in  strict 
analogy  to  other  plants  propagated  by  similar  means  ;  such  as  the  failure 
of  many  varieties  of  the  apple  and  pear,  and  of  the  cider  fruits  of  the  17th 
century.  This  very  season,  1843,  contradicts  the  hypothesis  of  drouth  and 
heat  as  the  primary  cause  of  the  failure,  for  it  has  hitherto  (to  June)  been 
neither  hot  nor  dry,  while  it  strikingly  exemplifies  the  theory  of  constitu- 
tional weakness,  inasmuch  as  the  fine  season  of  1842  had  so  much  over- 
ripened  the  potato — farmers,  still  unaware  of  the  cause  of  the  failure,  per- 
mitting the  potatoes  they  have  used  for  seed  to  become  over-ripened — that 
the  sets  this  spring,  to  repeat  again  the  words  of  Mr.  Dickson,  "  did  not 
vegetate  at  all,"  even  in  the  absence  of  heat  and  drouth,  and  in  the  pres- 
ence of  moist  weather.  Had  the  potatoes  been  a  little  less  over-ripened 
in  1842,  the  sets  from  them  might  have  produced  only  curl  this  season, 
though  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  same  degree  of  over-ripening  may 
cause  entire  failure  now  that  would  only  have  caused  curl  years  ao-o  • 
and  as  over-ripening  was  excessive  last  year,  owing  to  the  very  fine 
weather,  so  the  failure  is  extensive  in  a  coiTesponding  degree  in  this, 
even  in  circumstances  considered  by  most  people  preventive  of  its  recur- 
rence, namely,  in  cold  and  moist  weather.  And  observe  the  results  of  both 
1842  and  1843  as  confirmatory  of  the  same  principle,  illustrated  by  diamet- 
rically opposite  circumstances.  The  «W(?er-ripened  seed  of  the  bad  season 
of  1841  produced  the  good  crop  of  potatoes  of  1842,  in  spite  of  the  great 
heat  and  drouth  existing  at  the  time  of  its  planting  in  1842;  while  the 
o^^er-ripened  seed  of  the  good  season  of  1842  has  produced  extensive  fail- 
ure, in  spite  of  the  coolness  and  moisture  existing  at  the  time  of  plantintr 
in  1843.  How  can  heat,  drouth,  or  fermenting  dung  account  for  these 
results  % 

(1887.)  As  fact,  I  may  mention   the  effects   of  comparatively  diy  and 
moist  soil,  on  cut  sets  and  whole  potatoes,  which  were  brought  to  lio-ht  by 
an  experiment  of  Mr.  Howden,  and  which  results  obtained  no  one  could 
have  anticipated.  "  On  the  28th  June,"  says  Mr.  Howden,  "  I  selected  from 
a  store  which  had  been  repeatedly  turned  and  kept  for  family  use,  70  pota- 
toes of  the   old  rough  black  variety.     I  divided  this  number  into  5  lots, 
sizing  them,  so  as  each  lot  of  14  potatoes  weighed  exactly  4  lbs.     I  made 
on  that  day  one  lot  of  14  into  starch,  and  obtained  9  oz.     On  the  same  day 
I  put  14  potatoes  whole,  and  14  cut  into  56  sets,  into  a  deep  box  filled  with 
d,ry  mould.     The  remaining  14  whole  and  14  cut  I  put  into  another  box 
filled  with  moist  earth,  and  which  was  watered  from  time  to  time.     At  the 
end  of  3  weeks,  with  the  exception  of  5  sets,  all  the  plants  made  their  ap- 
pearance.    All  this  time   the  dry  box  had  been  kept  from  moisture.     On 
the  21st  July,  however,  I  allowed  it  to  be  moistened  with  heavy  rain,  and 
on  the  28th  July  I   took  up  and  extracted  starch  from  the  whole.     Before 
doing   so,  however,   I  weighed  the   several  lots,  and  what  seemed  to  me 
curious  was,  that  each   lot  of  the  icTiole  potatoes  had  gained  8  oz.;  while 
each  lot  of  the  cut  ones  had  lost  6  oz.  of  its  weight,  and  of  their  number  10 
did  not  vegetate.     The  sprouts  from  the  xcliole  potatoes  weighed  4  oz.,  and 
those  from  the  cut  only  2  oz.  ;  yet  the  starch  from  the  28  cut  potatoes  was 
only  2  oz.,  and  that  from  the  28  whole  potatoes  9  oz.,  being  exactly  the  pro- 
duce in  starch  of  half  that  number,  namely,  14,  which  was  made  into  starch 
at  the  commencement  of  the  experiment."* 

(1888.)  The  potato  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Solanaceiz,  which  also  comprehends  those  re- 
markable but  well-known  plants,  the  deadly  nightshade,  the  capsicum,  the  tobacco,  the  henbane, 
the  stramonium,  the  tomato.  &c.  "  The  potato  is  now  considered  the  most  useful  esculent  that  is 
cultivated,  and  who,"  Dr.  Neill  asks,  "could  a  priori  have  expected  to  have  found  the  most  use- 


*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xL 
(397j 


206 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE   FARM SPRING. 


ful  amoD?  the  nattrral  family  of  the  Solanaceic.  most  of  which  are  delelerions,  and  all  of  which 
are  forbidding  in  Uieir  aspect'"  The  eenus  Solanvtn  stands  in  the  order  Pcntnndna  monopy- 
nin.  of  the  LinuH?an  system.  "  The  name  is  given  by  Pliny,  b'lt  the  deri%-atii>n  is  uncer'ain ;  some 
derive  it  from  Sol,  the  sun  ;  others  say  u  is  Snlannm.  from  Snt.  being  serviceable  in  the  disor- 
ders of  swine  :  and  others  from  Solar,  to  comfort  from  its  soothing  narcotic  effects ;  all  these  con- 
jectures are,  however,  improbable.  Solarium  tuberosum,  the  commou  potato,  has  roots  bearing 
tubers;  stems  herbaceous ;  leaves  unequally  pinnate  ;  leaflets  entire ;  pedicel  articulated.  It  is  a 
native  of  South  America,  on  the  west  coast  cverjwhere.  The  cultivated  potato  varies  much  m 
the  leaves,  color  of  the  flowers,  shape  and  color  of  the  tubers,  &c.""  "  Gerard,"  says  Phillips, 
'•  describes  two  kinds  of  potatoes  in  his  Herbal ;  and  as  the  account  is  highly  interesting  I  shall 
copy  it  verbalim.  'This  plant.'  says  he,  ■  which  is  called  »SiSflrMm  Peruviorum.  or  Skyrrits  of 
Peru,  is  generally  of  us  called  potatus  or  potatoes.  ....  The  roots  are  many,  thick  and  knob- 
bed, like  unto  the  roots  of  peonies,  or  rather  of  the  asphodill,  twined  together  at  the  top  into  one 
head,  in  manner  of  the  Skyrrit.  which  being  divided  into  divers  parts  and  planted,  do  make  great 
increase,  especially  if  the  greatest  rootes  be  cut  into  divers  gobbets  and  planted  in  good  fertill 
ground.  .  .  .  Of  these  rootes  may  be  made  conserves,  no  less  toothsome,  wholesome,  and  domestic, 

than  the  flesh  of  quinces These  rootes  may  serve  as  a  ground  or  foundation  whereon  the 

cunning  confectioner  or  sugar-baker  may  worke  and  frame  many  comfortable  delicate  conserves 
and  restorative  sweet  meates.'  ....'•  This  was  evidently  the  sweet-potato,"  continues  Phillips, 
"  which  was  supposed  to  possessan  invigorating  property.  Kissing-corafits  were  made  of  them  in 
Shakspeare's  time.     Falstaff"say8  in  the  Merry  VV  ives  of  Windsor, 

Let  it  rain  potatoes,  and  hail  kissing-comfits.' 

Gerard  commences  his  second  chapter  with  the  description  of  the  common  potato  now  in  use,  and 
says,  '  Bit  fata  Virsriniana  sire  Virs^inianorum,  el  Pappus,  polaxoea  of  Wrginm.'  After  an  ac- 
curate description  of  the  plant  and  flower,  he  adds,  "The  roote  is  thicke,  fat,  and  tuberous;  not 
much  differing  either  in  shape,  color,  or  taste  from  the  common  potatoes,  saving  that  the  rootes 
hereof  are  not  so  great  nor  long,  some  of  them  round  as  a  ball,  some  ovall  or  egge  fashion,  some 
longer,  others  shorter.'  The  potato  was  introduced  into  Spain  in  the  early  part  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury, and  thence  spread  over  the  Continent,  first  to  Italy,  then  to  Flanders,  and  thence  through 
Germany  to  Austria  in  \ri9$.  It  found  its  way  to  England  by  a  different  route,  being  brought 
from  Virginia  by  the  colonists  sent  out  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  1584  and  who  returned  in  1586,  and 
probably,  according  to  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  brought  with  them  the  potato.  This  palladium  against 
famine  was  not  cultivated  in  Scotland  until  1683,  and  was  then  confined  to  the  gardens.  In  1728, 
Thomas  Prentice,  a  day-laborer,  first  planted  potatoes  in  open  fieldsat  Kilsyth,  and  the  success  was 
such  that  every  farmer  and  cottager  followed  his  example.  Potatoes  were  scarcely  known  in  the 
East  Imiies  30  years  ago.  but  they  are  now  produced  in  such  abundance  that  the  natives  in  some 
places  make  con.siderable  use  of  them.  Bombay  is  chiefly  supplied  with  this  excellent  root  from 
Guzerai.  And  though  the  cultivation  of  this  root  is  much  increased  in  France  within  these  last 
few  years,  the  poor  of  that  country  cannot  yet  be  prevailed  on  to  eat  it.''t 

(1889.)  Rooks  are  verj'  destructive  to  the  potato  crop  just  as  the  germs  of  the  plants  are  pene- 
trating the  ground,  and  they  seem  to  possess  an  exquisite  sense  of  smelling  to  find  out  those 
which  are  most  palatable  to  their  taste  They  steal  verj-  quietly  into  potato  fields,  and  are  there 
pretty  well  hidden  among  the  drills;  and  in  this  respect  their  tactics  ditTer  from  what  tliey  pursue 
when  alighting  among  com,  which  tliey  do  in  large  flocks.  There  is  nothing  but  gunpowder  will 
deter  them  from  a  potato-field  ;  they  soon  find  out  the  innocuous  character  of  a  scarecrow,  or  lai- 
fie  doolie,  as  that  sorry  semblance  of  humanity  is  always  misnamed.  One  cannot  always  be  firing 
among  crows  with  the  gun.  but  an  occasional  shot  does  good,  aided  by  that  effectual  check  to 
their  visitation  of  any  field — the  burning  of  gunpowder  matches  here  and  there  and  now  and 
tlien  along  the  windward  side  of  the  field,  the  fumes  of  which  sweeping  along  tlie  surface  of  the 
ground,  being  smelt  by  the  rooks,  put  them  in  constant  trepidation,  and  at  length  to  flight 

(1890.)  It  may  prove  interesting  to  those  of  you  who  may  possess  a  farm  in  the  neighborhood 
of  a  large  town,  to  know  why  it  is  that  the  street  manure  of  towns  is  not  so  suitable  for  raising 
potatoes  as  stable  or  byre  manure.  A  paper  on  the  subject  by  Dr.  Madden  enables  me  to  give 
ytiu  an  idea  of  the  explanation  he  gives  of  the  subject ;  to  enable  you,  in  the  first  place,  to  judge 
of  the  nature  of  street  manure.  I  will  insert  a  part  of  a  Table  of  his  conetruci;un,  showing  the 
chemical  difference  between  it  and  horse  and  cow-dung. 


Water,  cScc 

.MANURES.                     1 

triable. 

Byre. 

i^treet. 

13-5 

11-5 
15-9 
13-33 
4577 

45.7 

90 
12-6 
21-8 
10.9 

26-4 

1-4 
10 

11-2 
600 

Organic  Matter 

Soluble  in  Water 

Soluble  in  Potassa 

De.<troved  by  Heat 

Saline  Matter 

Total 

10000      inn-n 

1000 

The  sum  of  the  chemical  nature  of  these  three  substances  used  in  raising  potatoes  is  that  stable- 
duns'  is  the  most  heating,  but  not  so  durable — that  byre  dung  is  cooler,  and  much  more  lasting 

and  that  */rec/mannre  is  very  inferior  to  the  other  two  in  everv  respect,  and,  in  fact,  would  be 
little  better  than  soil,  were  it  not  for  the  highly  azotizcd  nature  of  its  organic  matter,  and  probably 
also  for  the  presence  of  a  considerable  quantity  of  chalk.  The  effect  of  applying  street-manure  to 
the  soil  is  this:  "  When  any  quantity  of  street-manure,"  says  Dr.  Madden,  "is  plowed  into  good 

*  Don's  General  System  of  Botany  and  Gardening,  voL  iv. — Solancct^t. 
t  Phillips's  History  of  Cultivated  Vegetables,  vol.  ji 
(398) 


r,ookof  the  Farm.      [?3K)L^V©©K1©  a!i51?[3©^S©  ©SMSaaBo         Plate  XXIX 


Fig  412 


PiO'^'k  of  the  Farm 


K3ISC^^7©©D^©  ©"IJDIJDSB. 


Tlate  XXX 


THE    GRUBBER.  207 


soil,  the  following  changes  takes  place  ;  The  ordure  and  carbonate  of  lime,  which  are  evidently 
the  most  powerful  ingredients  of  this  manure,  will  react  upon  the  less  decomposable  organic  mat- 
ter, both  of  the  soil  and  of  the  manure  itself,  and  thus  bring  the  whole  into  a  state  of  fermentation 
the  extent  and  intensity' of  which  will  be  regulated  by  tlie  quality  of  these  active  ingredients,  es- 
pecially the  ordure.     This  action  depends  upon  the  fact  that  when  any  organic  substance  in  a 
state  of  fermentation  is  brought  into  contact,  or  mingled  with  any  organic  matter  capable  of  fer- 
menting, but  not  at  present  in  that  condition,  the  whole  mass,  after  a  time,  undergoes  the  same  series 
of  changes,  which  are  always  accompanied  with  the  escape  of  various  gases,  and  the  formation  of 
certain  soluble  compounds,  which  latter  constitute  the  chief  food  of  plants.     Moreover,  it  has  been 
long  ago  proved  that  substances  rich  in  azote  are  always  the  most  prone  to  decomposition,  and  like- 
wise are  capable  of  exciting  fermentation  to  a  far  greater  extent  in  others  of  a  less  putrescibie 
nature.     Again,  it  is  well  known  to  farmer.s  that  chalk  or  carbonate  of  lime  possesses  the  power 
of  increasing  the  putrescent  tendency  of  many  vegetable  substances,  so  that,  when  applied  to 
soils,  it  renders  them  richer.     But  what  is  curious  enough,  at  the  same  time  that  it  causes  the  pro- 
duction of  suluble  matter  by  promoting  putrefaction,  it  renders  less  soluble  those  portions  already 
in  a  state  of  solution,  by  entering  into  chemical  combination  with  them.  On  these  accounts,  there- 
fore, and  especially  from  the  ordure  being  a  very  highly  azotized  substance,  street  manure  will  be 
capable  of  exciting  putrefaction  to  a  greater  extent,  considering  the   small  quantity  of  organic 
matter  which  it  contains,  than  one  at  first  sight  would  be  led  to  suppose.     It  must,  however,  be 
remembered   that  as  the  putrescent  eflect  will  only  be  produced  in  the  immediate  neighborhood 
of  the-aciive  ingredients  themselves,  and  as,  moreover,  these  are  mixed  with  a  large  quantity  of 
other  comparatively  inert   matters,   their  action  is  very  liable  to  be  confined  to  certain  spots. 
Owing,  likewise,  to  the  presence  of  cinders,  a  certain  portion  of  the  soluble  organic  matter  will 
be  absorbed  bj-them,  and  thus  for  a  time  at  least,  removed  beyond  the  reach  of  plants.  But,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  will  be  observed  that,  from  the  highly  azotized  nature  of  its  organic  contents,  the 
fermentation  will   be  rapid  at  Jirst,  and,  consequently,  the  manure  will  be  hot  in  proportion  to 
the  quantity  of  real  manure  which  it  contains."  In  the  actual  effect  of  this  manure  in  raising  pota- 
toes being  \  inferior  to  stable  and  byre  dung,  the  following  explanation  of  its  inferiority  is  offered 
by  Dr.  Madden.     "  In  the  account  of  the  culture  of  the  potato,  given  in  Professor  Low's  excellent 
work  on  Practical  Agriculture,  we  find  the  following  expressions:  'Dung  will  in  all  cases  act 
most  quickly  upon  young  plants  when  it  is  well  prepared,  but  extreme  preparation  of  the  dung 
is  not  required  in  the  case  of  the  potato.  It  is  enough  that  it  should  be  \nsucka  state  of  fermenta- 
tion an  that  it  may  be  readily  covered  by  the  plow.'     Thus  proving  that  this  plant  does  not  require 
an  instant  supply  of  a  considerable  part  of  soluble  matter.     And,  moreover,  it  is  clear  that  as  the 
useful  part  of  this  plant  is  produced  during  the  later  periods  of  the  giowth  of  the  crop,  the  great- 
est supply  of  food  will  be  necessary  at  that  time.     But  we  have  already  shown  that  street  ma- 
nure, from  the  nature  of  its  constituents,  ferments  very  rapidly  at  first,  and.  consequently,  its 
greatest  effects  will  be  in  the  very  early  periods  of  the  growth  of  the  crop.     The  next  sentence  in 
Professor  Low's  work  commences  thus  :     'The  potato  requires  a /ar^e  s"^/?/y  of  manure.'     But 
we  have  already  .shown  that  street  manure  does  not  contain  ^  as  much  real  manure  as  either  that 
derived  from  dairies  or  stables.     And  a  little  below  the  above  quotation  occurs  the  followifig  sen- 
tence :     '  Lime  does  not  appear  to  act  in  a  beneficial  manner,  and  is  rarely  applied  directly  to 
this  crop.      But  our  analysis  has  proved  that  lime  exists  in  considerable  quantities  in  the  street- 
manure  of  Edinburgh  ;  and  as  it  has  been  exposed  to  great  heat — for  it  is  evidently  derived  from 
the  ashes — it  will,  of  course,  be  in  the  same  state  as  mdd  lime  when  it  is  applied,  and  will,  most 
probably,  therefore,  have  the  same  effect,  which,  according  to  Professor  Low,  is  '  not  benejicial.' 
The  potato  possesses  a  spreading  root,  and,  consequently,  must  require  a  uniform,  manure,  in  or- 
der that  all  its  parts  may  be  equally  supplied  with   soluble  organic  matter.     But  we  have  before 
shown  that  street  manure  h  partial.  The  potato  requires  the  greatest  quantity  of  azote  at  the  Za^er 
periods  of  its  grovpth  ;  because  the  tubers  contain  considerably  more  of  that  substance  than  the 
leaves.     But  .street  manure,  from  the  nature  of  its  organic  constituents,  will  ferment  rapidly,  and 
allow  mo.st  of  its  azote  to  escape  during  the  early  periods  of  the  cultivation  of  the  crop."  "  As  a 
general  rule  for  the  application  of  manure  to  potatoes,  '  We  may  hence  argue,"  as  Dr.  Madden 
remarks,  "  that  a  manure  to  suit  well  for  the  potato  crop,  should  possess  the  following  qualities:  It 
mast  be  spread  equally  through  the  soil,  so  that  the  spongioles,  at  the  termination  of  all  the  .'spread- 
ing fibres  of  its  roots,  may  be  supplied  with  nourishment."  And  surely  there  is  no  way  of  spread- 
ing dang  so  equally  as  along  only  three  drills  at  a  time,  and  by  spreaders  keeping  to  their  own 
drills.     "  It  must  yield  azote  during  the  whole  period  of  the  growth  of  the  plants  :  in  fact,  rather 
more  is  required  during  the  later  periods  than  prior  to  the  development  of  the  tubers  ;  for,  from 
M.  Boussingault's  analysis,  it  appears  that  they  contain  .5-100  per  cent  more  of  this  substance 
than  the  leaves.     In  an  economical  point  of  view,  therefore,  the  best  manure  for  potatoes  would 
be  one  which  contained  plenty  of  azote,  but  still  did  not  decompose  very  rapidly — cow-dung,  for 
example."* 

(1891.)  Finlayson's  Harrmc  or  Grubber. — Fig.  346,  Plate  XXIX.,  is  a  view  in  perspective  of 
Finlayson's  harrow  of  the  improved  form.  The  frame- work  and  the  active  parts  are  precisely  the 
same  as  vvhen  the  implement  was  manufactured  under  the  patent,  the  improvement  1  ,ing  in  the 
parts  which  have  been  introduced  for  raising  tlie  tine-frame  from  the  ground.  The  figure  repre- 
sents the  implements  as  carrying  seven  tines,  and  consists  first  of  the  body-frame,  which  is  formed 
of  two  interior  oblong  fi-ames  a'  d  and  d'  a,  each  4  feet  6  inches  in  length,  and  12  inches  in  width 
over  all.  These  frames  are  welded  solid  at  the  angles,  and  rectangular;  the  sides  a'  and  d'  are  3 
inches  in  depth,  and  \  inch  in  thickness,  and  are  perforated  to  receive  the  tines  at  their  full  strength, 
whether  of  a  square  or  oblong  section  ;  the  bars  a'  and  df  are  therefore  allowed  to  swell  out  on 
both  edges  at  the  perforation,  to  preserve  strength.  The  sides  d  and  a,  together  with  the  ends  of 
these  frames,  are  only  2i  inches  in  depth,  and  |  inch  in  thickness,  and  the  perforations  are  only 
sufficient  to  pass  the  screwed  tail  of  the  tine.     The  sidebars  a  a  and  a!'  a"  are  bolted  upon  tbe 

'  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agi-icultural  Society,  vol  xiii. 
(399) 


208 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


ends  of  the  interior  frames,  as  seen  in  tlie  bar  a''  a",  and  each  is  prolonged  forward  from  a  and  d' 
to  tiie  point  b.  forming  the  triangular  prolongation  a" a"  b,  and  are  connected  by  a  bolt  at  b.  These 
eide-bars  are  3.J  inches  in  depth,  \  inch  in  thickness  in  the  parts  a  a  and  a"  a",  while  in  the  trian- 
gle they  are  reiluccd  to  \  inch  in  thickness,  and  the  distance  from  a',  the  front  of  llie  body  frame, 
to  the  apex  b  of  the  triangle,  is  4  feet  6  inches. 

(189i.)  The  tines  are  always  in  this  machine  made  of  the  ewan-neck  or  self-cleaning  form. 
They  consist  of  the  shank  f,  by  which  they  are  fi.\ed  in  the  interior  frame,  and  of  the  prong  m, 
which  penetrates  the  ground.  A  cross  section  of  the  swan-neck  and  shank  is  either  a  s<juare  o\'  1 J 
inches,  or  it  is  an  oblong  of  2^  inches  by  J  inch,  some  makers  adopting  the  square,  which  was 
Finlayson's  original  form,  while  others  adopt  the  oblong.  The  shank  diminishes  from  the  neck 
toward  the  tail,  which  terminate  in  a  J  inch  screw,  by  means  of  which  and  a  nut  the  tine  is  held 
firmly  in  its  place.  The  prong,  or  forward  end  of  the  tine,  diminishes  gently  in  depth  to  the  ex- 
tremity, which  terminates  in  a  chisel-shaped  point  of  \\  inches  broad,  having  a  slight  inclination 
earthward,  without  which  the  implement  has  a  tendency  to  rise  out  of  the  ground. 

(1893.)  The  body  frame,  with  its  tines,  is  supported  on  the  two  hind-wheels  d  d,  20  inches 
diameter,  which  arc  mounted  on  the  crankedaxle/e/,  and  upon  the  front  castor-wheel  g,  of  12 
inches,  the  former  turning  upon  studs  in  the  cranks  f  and  the  latter  in  the  sheers  h.  The  axle  e 
is  supported  in  brackets,  bolted  upon  the  inside  of  tlie  side-bars  n  a  and  o"  a",  as  seen  in  fig.  345, 
where  a  o  is  the  side  bar,  and  e  the  bracket,  the  eye  of  which,  tor  receiving  the  axle,  stands  3 J 
inches  above  the  upper  edge  of  the  bar,  and  its  thickness  is  j  inch.  Tlie  sheers  /(,  hg.  346.  of  the 
fore-wheel  are  jointed  into  the  bent  lever  at  i.  forming  a  bell  crunk-lever  i  k  I  by  which  the  fore- 
part of  the  machine  is  elevated  or  depressed.  The  hind-part  is  acted  upon  directly  by  the  lever 
n  n,  which  isal-so  bent  at  n  to  nearly  a  right  angle  in  the  arm  it  oe,  tlie  extremity  of  which  passes 
tlirough  the  axle  at  e,  and  is  secured  with  a  screw-nut  This  form  of  the  lever,  n  ii  e  is  rendered, 
in  its  effects  upon  the  hind-wheel  and  axle,  a  simple  straight  lever  ;  but  the  angle  which  it  forms 
&tno  serTes  an  essential  purpose,  as  it  affects  the  fore-wheels.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  ami 
n  o  e  takes  a  position  nearly  parallel  to  the  arm  k  I  oi  the  fore-crank,  and  by  the  introduction  of 
the  connecting  rod  n  p  I,  jointed  to  the  lever  n  n  e,  and  to  tlie  crank  i  k  I,  by  this  arrangement, 
whatever  motion  is  communicated  through  tlie  lever  n  n  e,  to  the  cranked-axle  of  the  hind-wheels, 
a  corresponding  motion  is  simultaneously  given  to  the  fore-crank  and  its  wheel,  whereby  the  tine- 
frame  is  uniformly  raised  or  depressed  at  pleasure.  The  lever  n  n  e  is  about  5^  feet  in  length,  and 
is  under  the  control  of  the  conductor;  its  position  in  the  figure  indicates  the  highest  position  that 
the  tine-frame  can  attain ;  and  to  enable  die  conductor  to  retain  it  in  any  required  position,  the 
quadrant  q  r,  with  its  upright  support  s  r,  is  bolted  upon  the  back  frame  d'  a  ;  the  edge  of  the 
quadrant-bar  is  notched  with  serratures  about  \  inch  deep,  adapted  to  receive  and  retain  the  edge 
of  tiie  lever,  as  seen  in  the  figure,  occupying  the  lowest  notch,  which  brings  the  tines  entirely  out 
of  the  ground.  By  removing  the  lever  from  this  notch  and  putting  the  machine  in  motion  by  the 
horses,  the  tines  immediately  descend  into  tlie  soil,  and  when  tliey  have  attained  the  required 
depth  the  lever  is  laid  into  the  notch  suited  to  that  depth,  and  the  machine  proceeds  thus  until  the 
attendant  sees  it  necessary  to  withdraw  the  tines  from  the  ground,  which  must  be  done  at  every 
lands-end,  or  oftener  if  obstructions  are  met  with. 

(1894.)  Fig.  345  is  a  geometrical  elevation  of  the  grubber  to  showr  more  distinctly  the  relation 
and  action  of  the  elevating  apparatus,  the  solid  lines  exhibiting  the  machine  with  the  tines  m.  and 
m  nearly  at  full  depth  in  the  soil  below  the  surface  line,  and  the  repetition  of  the  figure  in  the  dot- 
ted lines  show  it  when  the  tines  are  fully  raised  out  of  the  ground.  In  the  first  position, 
aab  is  the  tine-frame,  e  the  brackets  that  support  the  crank-axle,  and/ the  crank  carrying  the 
hind-wheel  d.  The  fore-crank,  including  the  sli«ers  of  the  fore-wheel,  takes  the  position  i  k  /,  and 
the  back  lever,  which  is  broken  off  at  n' ,  has  the  position  «'  o  c,  op  I  being  the  connecting-rod.  It 
will  be  ea.sily  seen  that  that  e  o  I  k  approaches  to  a  parallelogram,  and  theoretically  it  ought  to  be 
such,  but  from  matters  of  convenience  to  suit  the  diameter  of  the  wheels,  the  side  o  e  is  usually 
made  shorter  than  the  side  Ik,  and,  to  compensate  for  this  difierence,  the  arms _/'_/' and  i  k  of  the 
cranks  are  made  proportional  to  the  arms  o  e  and  Ik,  and  as  tlie.«e  are  the  members  of  the  machine 
by  which  the  elevations  and  depre.ssions  are  produced,  and  being  connected  hy  the  rod  o  p  I,  the 
arms  o  e  and  /  k  will  move  through  equal  lengths  of  arc,  but  with  unequal  angles,  the  proportion- 
al arms/'e  and  i  k  will  describe  corresponding  arcs  and  angles,  and  so  produce  a  nearly  parallel 
rise  and  fall  of  the  tine-frame  moving  round  the  centers/*  and  h  ol  the  hind  and  fore  wheels,  fig. 
346.  In  this  complicated  combination  of  levers,  it  will  be  observed  that  the  principal  lever  n'  o  e, 
fig.  345,  from  its  combination  with  the  crank  ef,  is  in  eftect  resolved  into  a  simple  lever  of  the 
first  ord.'r,  whose  fulcrum  is /",  its  power  is  in '^t' and  the  point  of  resistance  in  o;  for  though 
kneed  at  o,  and  rekneeded  at  e,  yet  from  its  construction,  the  parts  ;i'  o  ef  form  one  rigid  system, 
and  the  result  is  the  same  as  if  a  rigid  bar  were  extended  from  ?t'  lof,  tind  then  from/'  to  o,  but 
in  which  case  a  jointed  bar  must  fall  from  o  to  c.  to  bear  up  the  tine-frame. 

(1895.)  In  this,  fig.  34.5,  the  dotted  lines  represent  the  changed  position  of  all  the  parts  where  the 
tine-frame  has  been  raised  to  its  utmost  limit;  the  same  letters,  with  an  accent  annexed,  mark  the 
position  of  the  different  points :  and  here  it  will  be  farther  observed  that  the  change  of  position 
takes  place  by  the  parts  turning  about  the  centers  of  the  hind  and  fore  wheels. 

(1891))  Tliis  form  of  Finlayson's  harrow  or  grubber  is  a  very  well  marked  improvement  on  the 
original,  ari.^ing  from  the  facility  now  afforded  of  raising  the  whole  of  the  tines  out  of  the  ground. 
In  the  original  form,  the  only  provision  of  this  kind  that  the  machines  po.«sessed  was  the  elevation 
of  the  apex  b  of  the  triangle  and  witli  it,  a  partial  elevation  of  the  fore  tines  while  those  behind  re- 
mained always  in  the  ground  at  their  working  dcptli.  It  is  true  that  this  depth  could  be  varied, 
but  only  by  shilling  a  bracket  that  carried  the  axles  of  the  hind-wheels,  and  the  adjustment  of 
them  was  a  work  of  considerable  time  ;  a  screw  in  some  cases  was  attached  to  each  bracket,  by 
which  it  could  be  raised,  hut  they  were  at  best  tedious  and  inconvenient  compared  with  the  nev*' 
form  of  the  elevating  apparatus.  The  original  harrow  was,  in  consequenceof  this  defect,  a  much  less 
manageable  machine,  and  having  four  of  its  tines  always  in  the  ground,  it  was  much  more  liable  to 
accident  and  to  fracture.  With  the  improvement  also  of  the  elevating  apparatus,  the  bulk  and 
(400) 


THE    GRUBBER.  209 


weight  of  the  implement  has  beea  reduced,  and  it  is  now  very  frequently  used  witli  five  tines,  in 
place  of  the  original  seventiued  implement  as  here  figured  with   the  improvements. 

(1897.)  Kirkicood's  Grubber. — Though  in  point  of  time,  this  instrument  was  introduced  prior  to 
that  just  described,  it  was  several  years  later  than  tliat  of  Finlay.son's  original  improved  harrow, 
or  about  18:jO.*  In  this  machine  the  ingenious  apparatus  for  elevating  the  tine-frame  was,  I  be- 
lieve, first  brought  out,  and  from  it  has  been  deduced  all  the  various  forms  in  which  this  effect  ia 
now  produced,  though,  as  we  .shall  .see,  some  of  them  are  so  much  changed  from  the  original  as 
hardly  to  be  recognizable;  still  the  elements  of  the  original  are  there,  obtained  in  .some  casea 
at  a  greater,  in  others  at  a  smaller  expen.se.  The  present  form,  as  figured  here,  differs  in  some 
minor  points  from  the  original,  but  not  so  much  as  at  all  to  alter  the  character  of  the  implement, 
which  is  still  es.sentially  Kirk  wood's,  though  the  figure  is  taken  from  those  maimfactured  by  James 
Slight  and  Company.  Edinburgh.  The  chief  points  of  difference  are  in  the  length  of  the  axle  of 
the  hind-wheels;  this,  in  the  original,  was  .so  short  as  to  bring  the  wheels  close  to  the  levers:  iu 
the  figure  the  axle  is  extended  so  far  as  to  place  the  wheels  on  the  outside  of  the  extreme  tines. 
This  extension  of  the  axle  gives  the  machine  a  broader  base,  and  thereby  a  greater  steadiness  of 
liiotion,  and  to  compensate  for,  and  give  support  to,  the  extremities  of  the  axle  thus  extended,  it 
is  supported  by  a  trussed-tie  witli  king-posts. 

■  (1898.)  Fig.  348,  Plate  XXX.,  is  a  view  in  perspective  of  this  grubber;  it  may  be  considered 
as  consisting  of  two  parts,  the  tine  frame,  and  the  carriage  with  its  wheels  and  handles,  the  two 
being  connected  by  means  of  the  apparatus  for  elevating  the  tine-frame,  and  by  a  joint-rod  which 
is  common  to  both,  the  whole  being  constructed  of  malleable  iron,  except  the  wheels.  The  tine- 
frame  is  of  an  irregular  triangular  figure,  composed  of  two  sides  a  a  a,  &c. ;  these  are  forged  to 
the  peculiar  form  represented  in  the  figure,  and  to  the  following  dimensions:  from  extreme  a  to 
//'  in  the  oblique  straight,  the  distance  is  25  inches,  b'  to  (/  21  inches,  and  r.  to  a"  39  inches ;  and 
the  lengths  on  the  opposite  side  correspond  exactly  with  these;  but  the  central  distance  fioni  ex- 
treme a  to  a"  is  6  feet  6  inches.  The  breadths  measuring  from  center  to  center  of  the  tines  are  at 
extreme  a  4  feet  two  inches:  i'  to  a  2  feet  19  inches,  and  c'  to  a  17  inches;  the  fore-part  of  the 
bars  forming  the  neck,  approach  to  within  |  inch  of  each  other,  between  the  points  d'  and  m,  and 
at  a"  they  come  in  contact,  and  are  fi.Ked  by  the  bolt  at  a"  \  the  muzzle  a''  z  is  simply  a  prolonga- 
tion of  the  bars,  and  is  provided  with  several  holes  in  which  the  draught-shackle  and  hook  can  be 
attached  to  regulate  in  some  degree  the  tendency  to  earth.  That  part  of  the  frame  d'  to  m,  form- 
ing the  neck,  is  raised  9  inches  above  the  line  of  the  body,  measuring  from  the  upper  surface  of 
the  one  to  that  of  the  other,  and  lies  parallel  with  the  body  of  the  frame.  The  side-bars  here  de- 
Kcribed  are  2^  inches  in  depth  and  1  inch  in  breadth,  till  they  approach  d',  when  they  are  dimin- 
ished in  breadth  £  inch,  and  go  on  diminishing  to  ].  inch  at  a" ;  the  slot-holes  for  the  tines  are  2\ 
inches  by  I  inch.  Besides  the  connection  at  the  point  a'',  the  sidebars  are  connected  by  the 
joint-rod  f;.  which  is  1^  inches  square  at  the  middle,  tapering  and  rounded  toward  the  end.  where 
it  terminates  in  a  screw  and  nut  of  about  1  inch  diameter :  and  a  light  stretcher  a'  is  al.so  inserted 
as  a  farther  support  to  the  frame.  The  beam  b  b  is  2^  by  1  inch  from  b  to  it,  and  diminishes  from 
■u  to  d'  to  J  inch  ;  it  is  kneed  at  extreme  b,  so  as  to  leave  space  sufficient  to  receive  the  slot  hole 
for  the  middle  tine,  and  it  is  bent  upward  at  u  to  the  hight  of  10  inches  above  the  frame  as  before 
for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the  bridle  u  v' ;  at  the  end  b  of  the  beam  is  notched  into  the  middle 
of  the  joint-rod  ?■  (which  is  here  spread  out  to  2  inches  in  depth,)  and  fixed  by  a  screw-bolt,  tapped 
into  the  end  of  the  beam,  while  its  fore-end  is  secured  between  the  side-bars  by  a  through  bolt  at 
d'.  The  tines,  of  which  this  ibrm  of  the  implement  contains  seven,  h  h,  &c.,  are  at  \{  inches 
by  J  inch,  bent  at  the  point  as  in  the  figure,  with  a  slight  tendency  to  earth,  and  are  fiattened 
oat  at  the  point  to  a  breadth  of  \\  to  1|  inches,  their  length  from  the  level  of  the  point  to 
the  top  is  20  inches,  and  they  are  secured  at  any  required  degree  of  earth  by  one  iron  wedge  to 
each  line. 

(1899. J  The  carriage  consists  of  the  a.xle  d  d,  on  which  are  mounted  the  two  handles  or  levers 
ceo,  the  a.xle  passing  through  these,  and  fixed  with  colterels  on  each  side.  At  the  distance  of 
13^  inches  from  the  center  of  the  axle,  the  levers  are  also  perforated  for  the  joint-rod  (c,  the  posi- 
tion of  which  in  the  tine-frame  is  such  as  just  to  allow  the  extremities  a  to  pass  the  axle  when  the 
frame  is  being  raised  or  depres.sed.  A  third  perforation  is  formed  in  the  fore-end  of  the  lever  at  o, 
2  inches  forward  of  the  joint-rod,  for  the  attachment  of  the  staj's.  The  levers  extend  backward  to 
a  length  of  4^  feet,  and  terminate  in  -sockets,  into  which  wooden  helves  are  inserted  ;  and  thev  are 
farther  supported  by  the  stay-rod  and  bow  c'.  The  carriage  is  now  supported  on  the  hind-wheels 
//,  of  22  inches  diameter  :  and  the  fore-part  of  the  castor-wheel  i,  of  13  inches  diameter,  with  its 
sheers  k  I,  and  crank  lever  /  m  n.  The  connections  between  the  carriage  and  frame,  and  which 
also  form  the  elevating  apparatus,  is  arranged  in  the  following  matter.  The  right  and  left  sta}'- 
rods  o  p  q  and  rp  s  are  bolted  to  the  levers  at  7  o  and  r  s.  The  perpendicular  di.stance  ;?■  77 being 
12  inches,  and  the  like  distance  from  the  center  of  the  axle  d  to  p  18|  inches,  the  two  stays  being 
brought  together  upon  a  stretcher-bolt  at  p,  of  1  inch  in  length,  having  a  .screw  and  nat  at  each 
end.  The  connecting-rod  p  t  n  i»  5  feet  2^  inches  in  length.  J  inch  diameter,  and  is  jointed  to 
the  carriage  by  the  short  stretcher-bolt  at  p,  and  to  the  lever  of  the  front  wheel  at  n.  which  com- 
pletes the  arrangement  by  which  the  tine-frame  is  moved  up  and  down  iu  positions  always  paral- 
lel to  the  horizon. 

(1900.)  Fig.  347,  Plate  XXX..  is  a  geometrical  elevation  of  this  grubber,  showing  i/i  a  more 
distinct  manner  the  relation  and  action  of  the  elevating  apparatus.  In  this  the  solid  lines  repre- 
sent the  machine  as  with  the  tines  in  the  ground,  the  surface  being  represented  by  tlie  line.r'  x" ; 
and  the  repetition  of  the  figure  in  dotted  lines  represents  it  as  when  the  tines  are  elevated,  and  the 
machine  in  a  traveling  condition,  the  same  letters  applying  in  both  po.sitions,  but  in  this  with  an 
accent.  In  the  first  position,  applying  the  same  letters  as  in  the  former  figure,  a  a.  &c.,  is  the 
tine-frame,  b  the  beam,  c  the  handles  or  levers,  d  the  axle  of  the  carriage,  /  the  hind  wheels. 


Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  viii. 
(401) 14  ' 


210 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


g  the  position  of  the  joint-rod  of  the  tine-frame,  and  h  h  are  the  tines.     The  front  wheel  is  shown 
in  the  sheers  k  /,  and  /  to  «  is  the  crank-lever,  g  p  r  '\9  the  stays,  and  t  the  connecting-rod. 

(1901.)  In  the  apparatu.s  of  the  front  wheel,  tne  distance  i'rom  the  sole  of  the  wheel,  where  it 
touches  the  line  x'  x",  to  the  center  at  m,  is  23  inches,  and  from  mXo  n\\\  inches;  and  as  the  car- 
riage lever,  (hoagh  in  a  complicated  form,  is  resolvable  into  a  more  simple  one.  which  has  the 
Bame  proportions  as  the  former,  the  point  where  the  wheel  touches  the  Ime  x'  x"  is  the  fulcrum, 
and  a  line  drawn  from  the  point  if  to  the  joint  at  p  will  be  parallel  with,  and  equal  to  x"  m,  and 
g  p  will  be  equal  to  wi  n ;  and  the  point/?.  «  acting  simultaneously,  by  means  of  the  connecting- 
rod  f,  the  point  p  rises  by  turning  round  the  fulcrum  a/,  while  m  rises  through  the  same  space  by 
the  point  .v"  turning  round  the  point  in  in  ihe  opposite  direction.  By  these  motions  the  tine- 
frame  will  rise  and  fall  through  equal  spaces  before  and  behind,  and  thus  preserve  the  parallelism 
of  the  frame  in  any  position. 

(1902.)  In  working  the  machine,  it  is  requisite  that  the  conductor  have  it  in  his  power  to  regu- 
late and  preserve  a  uniform  depth  for  the  lines,  and  be  able  to  withdraw  the  tines  from  the  earth. 
To  accomplish  this  part,  the  connecting-rod  t.  fig.  :i48,  has  small  mortices  punched  in  it.  to  the 
number  of  6  or  8.  at  very  close  intervals  between  ?/  and  p,  the  rod  being  square  at  this  place.  A  nut 
or  slide-box  y'  is  fitted  to  slide  easily  upon  it,  and  having  al.so  a  mortice  punched  through  it  cor- 
responding to  tho.se  iu  the  rod,  it  can  be  fixed  at  any  point  by  dropping  a  pin  through  this  and 
any  required  mortice.  The  bridle  v  n'  consists  of  two  similar  parts  bolted  one  on  each  side  of  the 
beam;  and  having  the  middle  part.s  of  its  stay  widened  to  admit  the  passage  of  the  nnt,  it  receives 
the  folding  link  v  upon  the  bolt,  on  which  the  link  turns  freely.  Tne  handle  v  x  v  is  made  of 
such  length  as  will  bring  the  eye  rr  within  reach  of  the  conductor :  it  is  furnL^hed  with  a  cross- 
head  X,  and  the  end  v  being  screwed  into  the  link  v,  the  handle  can  be  shortened  or  lengthened 
at  pleasure  ;  and  this  is  done  to  make  the  cross-head  fall  in  behind  the  end  of  the  connecting-rod 
when  the  tines  are  in  the  ground,  which  thus  lock  them  that  they  cannot  ri.se  out  of  the  ground, 
although,  from  anj-  malformation  of  the  tines,  they  miijht  have  a  tendency  to  do  so  were  this  lock 
not  applied;  but  while  the  tines  preserve  their  due  form,  the  lock  is  not  required.  A  prolonged 
Bcrew-nut  at />  is  also  put  upon  the  handle  ;  it  is  forked  in  the  prolonged  part,  and  when  the 
tine  frame  is  raised  out  of  the  ground  for  traveling,  the  nut  is  adjusted  to  fall  in  before  the 
checks  of  the  stays  at  p,  and  thus  keeps  up  the  tine-frame  without  the  continued  aid  of  the 
conductor. 

(1903.)  The  DrillHarroiB  is  another  implement  of  recent  introduction  ;  like  the  other  members 
of  its  tribe,  it  is  of  extremely  simple  construction,  and  from  its  having  been  first  applied  to  potato 
culture,  it  is  frequently  styled  the  po/r/^o  ^ar?-o«'.  Thi.s  harrow  is  always  worked  in  pairs;  and 
to  render  it  applicable  to  its  intended  purpo.se,  it  is  made  of  an  arch  form,  jjartially  embracing  the 
curvature  of  the  ridglet  or  drill.  The  two  leaves  of  the  pair  are  connected  by  two  coupling-rode, 
which  arc  formed  to  expand  or  contract  to  any  required  width  of  drills;  and  each  leaf  is  furnish- 
ed with  a  chain,  to  which  a  draught-bar  or  swing-tree  is  attached,  and  to  which  again  the  horse  is 
yoked:  the  bar  and  chains,  in  this  mode  of  yoking,  serve  by  their  weight  to  produce  such  a  cata- 
narian  curvature  as  to  make  the  vertical  line  of  traction  leave  the  harrows  nearly  in  a  horizontal 
line,  giving  thus  the  full  etlect  on  the  drill.  Simple  though  the  construction  of  this  implement  be, 
I  frequently  see  a  malformation  in  the  placement  of  its  tines;  its  breadth  does  not  exceed  26  inch- 
es, and.  therefore,  the  number  of  its  tines  need  not  exceed  18,  though  a  streak  at  every  ]  J  inches 
should  be  required;  notwithstanding  this,  -we  frequently  see  these  harrows  with  as  many  as  24 
tines,  and  with  such  a  number,  unless  a  very  careful  division  is  made  in  their  placement,  many  of 
them  will  follow  in  the  track  of  others,  and  are  hence  of  no  use.  In  laying  out  this  simple  har- 
row, if  the  rule  laid  down  in  (1789),  as  applicable  to  all  harrows,  is  attended  to,  such  useless  waste 
of  labor  and  materials  might  be  saved,  and  the  work  for  which  the  implement  is  intended  will  be 
equally  well  done. 

(liJ04.)  Fig.  349  is  a  geometrical  plan  of  a  pair  of  the  rectangular  drill-harrcws,  in  which  a  regu- 
lar division  of  the  tines  is  observed,  and  as  the  harrows  are  2G  inches  from  center  to  center  of  the 
outside  bars  or  bulls,  and  the  number  of  tines  15.  they  will  draw  streaks  on  the  surface  at  equal 
distances  of  Ij  inches  nearly:  the  three  bulls  ab  c,  and  the  three  cross-bars  d  ef.  form  the  body 
of  the  harrow  ;  the  breadth  over  all  is  27  inches,  and  the  length  33  inches  ;  the  bulls  and  bars  are 
all  li  by  I  inch.  There  i.s  no  slotting,  as  in  the  common  harrow,  but  the  bulls  and  bars  are  simply 
crossed,  and  secured  by  a  small  bolt  and  nut,  or  they  may  be  riveted  together,  except  where  a  tine 
falls  iu  the  crossing,  when  it  is  secured  by  the  nut  of  the  tine  itself.  The  bulls  and  crossbars 
are  simply  punched  for  the  tines,  which  are  secured  by  a  screw-nut.  The  middle  bull  of  each 
harrow  is  prolonged  a  little  forward  at  £-,  and  punched  for  the  shackle  of  the  draught-chain, 
which  is  afB.xed  thereto  by  a  bolt.  The  bolt  which  joins  it  to  the  crossbar  at  each  end  is  also 
prolonged  upward  4  inches,  having  a  collar  above  arid  nut  below,  forming  a  firm  stud,  on  which 
the  stretcher  is  placed,  and  retained  by  a  nut  above.  The  tines  are  about  4  inches  iu  length 
below  the  bars,  and  are  |  inch  square  at  the  shoulder,  tapering  to  a  blunt  point. 

(1905.)  Fig.  350  is  a  cross  section,  at  the  front-bar,  of  both  the  leaves  of  the  harrow,  showing 
the  arched  form  and  direction  of  the  tines.  The  rise  of  the  arch  is  5  inches,  but  this  maybe  varied, 
and  if  the  arclnng  is  flat,  the  tines  toward  the  apex  should  be  shorter  than  those  toward  the  sides 
of  the  harrow,  to  prevent  injury  to  the  young  plants.  In  the  front  bar  the  rieht-hand  tine  may  be 
left  out,  as  Its  place  may  be  taken  up  by  that  of  the  third  bar,  leaving  5  tines.  In  the  second 
cross-bar  there  are  al.so  5  tines,  and  in  the  third,  5.  The  two  leaves  are  connected  and  kept  at 
due  distance  by  the  coupling-rods  k,  which  are  |  inch  diameter,  and  flattened  at  the  ends  to  the 
extent  of  5  inches,  and  have.  3  perforations  made  at  each  end,  at  1 J  inches  pitch,  or  closer  if 
thought  necessary  ;  this  construction  of  the  coupline  rods  affords  the  means  of  adapting  the  har- 
rows to  any  width  of  drills.  The  draught  chains  i  i,  fig.  350,  are  about  2  feet  long,  and  are  shackled 
to  the  draught-bar.  to  which  the  horse  is  yoked  by  the  eyes  at  h  h.  The  pair  of  harrows  are  d  rawn 
by  one  horse,  walking  between  the  drills:  the  weight  of  the  pair,  with  the  mounting,  is  about  90 
lbs.,  and  the  price  from  308.  to  358.  complete. 

(1906.)   Triangular  Drill-Harrows  are  considered  by  some  agriculturists  as  superior  iu  effect 
(402)  ^ 


THE   DRILL-HARROW. 


211 


to  the  rectangTilar  form :  with  due  attention  to  the  division  and  placement  of  the  tines,  they  may 
no  doul>t  be  rendered  equally  effective,  and  probably  more  so,  but  the  advantages  are  not  perma- 
nently marked. 

(1907.)  On  farms  where  potatoes  are  raised  only  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  people  who  labor 
them,  the  drills  may  be  made  in  the  single  or  double  way,  as  may  suit  the  fancy  of  the  farmer, 

Fie.  349. 


TffE    POTATO   HARROWS. 


but  he  should  bear  in  mind  that  the  more  minutely  the  soil  is  pulverized,  the  better  state  it  will 
be  in  for  the  crop.  But  where  potatoes  are  raised  for  the  London  or  the  markets  of  other  great 
towns,  a  mode  of  culture  should  be  adopted  to  admit  of  much  work  being  done  in  the  limited  pe- 

Fig.  35t). 


SECTION  OF  THE  POTATO  HARROWS. 


nod  in  which  potatoes  should  be  planted.  Bearing  this  necessity  in  view,  the  land  should  be 
drilled  up  in  the  single  mode  in  preparation  for  the  dung,  the  dung  then  spread  in  the  manner 
represented  in  fig.  344,  and  the  drills  split  with  a  double  mould-board  plow ;  but  as  it  is  desirable 
that  the  earth  in  the  drills  should  be  as  lightly  put  over  the  sets  as  possible,  and  as  the  common 
mould-board  plow  presses  very  much  upon  the  lower  part  of  the  sides  of  th"  drills,  the  under  pr* 
(403) 


212  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


of  the  hind-end  of  the  mould  board  should  hn  cut  awav.  and  the  plow  otherwise  formed — that  is, 
of  such  size  and  length  tm  to  be  worked  by  a  pair  of  horses  instead  of  one.  The  double  mould- 
board,  besides  aflbrdiiij?  expedition,  covers  the  dung  equully  with  both  furrows,  puts  less  earth 
over  the  sets,  permits  the  eerms  to  grow  upright  at  once,  and  thereby  allows  the  access  of  more 
air  to  the  sets.  Still  it  will  be  requisite  to  harrow  down  the  drills  before  the  sets  send  up  their 
germs  to  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

(1908.)  Being  desirous  of  a.scertaining  the  true  cause  of  the  failure  in  potatoes,  I  am  ready 
to  recommend  to  your  notice  every  rational  explanation  that  is  offered  on  the  subject.  The  fol- 
lowing explanation  is,  I  believe,  from  the  pen  of  Professor  Lindley  of  London,  and  therefore  de- 
serves attention.  At  the  same  time,  I  must  own  that  the  explanation  is  unsatisfactory  to  me.  in- 
asmuch as  the  tubers  in  the  soil,  in  regard  to  their  liability  of  being  acted  on  by  chemical  agen- 
cies, would  be  the  same  many  years  ago,  when  failure  was  not  so  universal  as  it  has  been  within 
these  few  years.  "  The  potato'  crop,"  he  says,  "has  of  late  years  been  seriously  affected  by  a 
disease  which  consists  in  the  production  of  tubers,  instead  of  stems,  when  growth  hrst  commences 
after  planting,  and  in  the  loss  of  all  farther  power  of  vegetation  consequent  upon  this  malforma- 
tion. We  have  examined  several  specimens  of  the  disease  wilhout  -succeeding  in  discovering  the 
smallest  trace  of  organic  injury,  and  we  feel  satisfied  that  there  is  nothing  in  the  visible  formation 
of  the  potato  whicl)  will  account  for  it.  All  the  tubers,  young  and  old,  seem  perfect.  It  is  therefore 
probable  that  Chemistry  must  be  called  upon  to  explain  the  source  of  tlie  mischief,  and  that  some 
deficiency  or  excess  of  the  proximate  principles  loiiged  in  the  tuber  will  be  found  connected  with 
it.  Although  we  have  nothing  po.sitive  to  state  in  confirmation  of  this  suggestion,  yet  there  are  some 
facts  which  may  possibly  lead  to  the  discovery.  We  know  all  that  the  potato  shoots,  when  first 
produced,  are  fed  by  the  matter  lodged  in  the  tuber  from  whicli  the  shoots  proceed.  Thai  mat- 
ter consists  largely  of  starch — an  insoluble  substance,  which  onlj-  becomes  capable  of  nourishing 
a  young  shoot  by  changing  into  gum  or  sugar.  Chemists  tell  us  that  such  change  is  effected  by  a 
form  of  matter  which  they  name  Diastase,  in  which  nitrogen  is  an  element.  Since  we  know  that 
the  quantity  of  azotized  matter  found  in  a  potato  varies  very  con.siderably,  it  is  probable  that  the 
quantity  of  diastase  also  varies,  and  that  in  some  cases  it  may  be  altogether  insufficient  to  render 
the  starch  soluble,  except  to  a  small  extent.  Jf  that  were  so,  the  bud,  when  it  springs  from  a 
tuber,  would  be  unable  to  grow  into  a  shoot  bearing  leaves,  but  would  develop  itself  in  an  imper- 
fect way,  and  remain  as  a  little  tuber,  wilhout  any  power  of  growing  farther.  This  may  be  the  his- 
tory of  the  disease  in  the  potato  now  under  consideration  ;  and  if  so.  it  would  perhaps  be  removed 
by  adding  azotized  manure  ;  ibr  the  latter,  when  decomposing  in  the  soil,  may  funiish  the  nitrogen 
that  is  required.  It  is  true  that  diastase  is  a  peculiar  compound,  and  that  we  have  no  authority  for 
supposing  diastase  itself  likely  to  be  formed  in  a  potato  by  the  addition  of  azotized  matter  to  soil.  On 
the  other  hand,  we  know  so  little  of  nitrogen  and  its  action  in  vegetation,  except  that  its  influence  is 
most  important,  that  it  is  a  fair  subject  of.  speculation.  Jf  leaves  cannot  decompose  carbonic  acid, 
except  in  tlje  presence  of  nitrogen,  it  may  very  well  be  that  starch  also  cannot  change  into  sugar 
or  gum  except  in  its  i)resence.  and  that  in  any  nascent  state  it  may  act  just  as  well  as  if  produced 
by  the  decomposition  of  diasta.se.  We  would  recommend,  then,  those  whose  potatoes  are  thus 
affected  to  manure  them  at  once  with  water  containing  ammonia.  This  can  do  no  harm,  and  may 
do  good.  Experiment,  too,  is  somewhat  favorable  to  the  trial ;  for  lately,  in  the  garden  of  the 
Horticultural  Societj',  some  potatoes  which  had  not  made  their  appearance  above  ground  at  the 
time  when  others,  planted  at  the  same  period,  were  in  full  vegetation,  were,  at  the  desire  of  Mr. 
Edward  Solly,  watered  with  a  weak  solution  of  muriate  of  ammonia ;  when  in  a  few  days  the 
leaves  and  stems  came  up,  and  are  now  the  most  vigorous  of  all."*  This  last  recommendation,  of 
course,  can  only  be  practiced  in  garden  culture. 


18.  BREAKING  IN  YOUNG  DRAUGHT-HORSES. 

"  Thy  flatterina;  method  with  the  youth  pursue  ; 
Joined  with  his  sobool-l'ellows,  by  two  and  two, 
I'crsHude  'em  tfret  to  lead  an  empty  wheel. 
That  scaree  the  dust  can  raise,  or  they  can  feel ; 
In  length  of  time  produce  the  laboriiip  yoke 
And  Bhining  shares,  that  make  the  furrow  smoke." 

Dryden'8  Virgil. 

(1909.)  Young  (liauglit-horses  are  never  broke  in.  They  are  most  fre- 
quently yoked  with  an  old  steady  horse  at  once  into  the  harrows,  accom- 
panied with  a  few  restrainers  of  reins  and  ropes,  or  an  additional  hand  or 
two  to  assist  the  plowman,  to  prevent  any  attempt  at  a  run  away  ;  and,  no 
doubt,  when  colts  have  been  haltered  and  led  out  from  the  time  they  were 
weaned  by  a  steady,  quiet-tempered  man,  they  will  soon  submit  to  work, 
and  become  harmless  in  the  course  of  a  few  short  yokings.     But,  notwith- 

*  The  Gardeners'  Chronicle  for  June  24,  1843. 
(404) 


BREAKING  IN  YOUNG  DRAUGHT-HORSES.  213 

standing  their  quietness,  they  cannot  be  said  to  be  broke  i/i,  in  the  proper 
sense  of  the  term  ;  that  is,  they  do  not  yield  to  the  guidance  of  the  plow- 
man, because  they  either  know  or  understand  what  he  means,  or  would 
subject  themselves  to  his  control,  but  because  they  feel  they  are  subdued, 
and  are  obliged  to  move  along  with  an  older  and  stronger  horse,  to  which 
they  are  attached,  as  he  may  choose  to  lead  them.  Their  mouth  is  quite 
intractable  to  the  bit  all  the  time  they  are  apparently  subdued  ;  they  seize 
the  bit  with  their  teeth,  and  press  upon  it,  with  their  head  hanging  down, 
their  neck  arched,  and  their  eyes  set  back,  as  if  suspicious  of  harm  over- 
taking them.  In  this  way,  day  after  day,  or  at  least  in  every  yoking  they 
are  worked,  they  look  more  like  objects  of  oppression  and  pity  than  of 
pride  to  the  farmer,  on  seeing  the  young  and  noble  steed  he  has  bred  and 
reared  first  undertake  its  work.  The  rein  may  be  pulled  this  way  and  that 
to  no  purpose ;  and  in  the  end  the  dull,  sulky-looking  colt  is  confirmed  in 
his  natural  temper,  and  the  timid  one  rendered  more  afraid.  No  doubt 
time,  in  this  as  in  every  other  thing,  brings  about  a  change  ;  but  why 
should  the  change,  even  for  the  better,  be  allowed  to  be  effected  by  a 
lapse  of  time,  to  the  discomfort  and  annoyance  of  the  animal  in  the  mean 
time,  when  he  can  be  broke  into  his  work  with  comparative  ease  ]  "  Ay, 
break  him  indeed,  but  remember  the  cost,"  is  the  ready  rejoinder  to  the 
question  just  asked  ;  and  the  answer  to  the  rejoinder  is  as  ready.  What 
although  it  does  cost  some  money  to  break  in  a  colt  to  do  his  work  in  a 
proper  manner,  in  the  most  easy  way  for  himself,  and  in  the  shortest  time 
to  his  master  ]  Is  a  little  cost  to  be  put  in  comparison  to  giving  trouble  to 
people  to  teach  a  colt  how  to  perform  his  work,  who  know  nothing  of  the 
rules  of  tuition,  and  who  therefore  run  the  risk  of  spoiling  the  colt  for  life  I 
Is  one  guinea  such  a  deadly  sum  as  to  induce  any  owner  of  a  fine  colt  to  run 
the  risk  of  spoiling  him — for  no  greater  cost  need  be  incurred  in  breaking 
in  a  draught-colt  to  his  work. 

(1910.)  The  easiest  plan  to  make  a  draught-colt  work  well  soon,  is  to 
employ  a  good  horse-breaker  to  bridle,  and  handle,  and  lunge  him  for  a 
short  time — as  long  as  is  requisite  to  make  his  mouth  yield  to  the  bit — 
and  then  he  will  obey  both  voice  and  rein  ;  and  while  employing  the  rein, 
the  horse-breaker  should  be  instructed  to  use  the  language  that  will  be 
spoken  to  him  while  at  work,  the  terms  of  which  I  have  fully  explained  in 
(901).  The  harness  required  for  this  pui'pose  is  a  breaking  bridle,  a 
cavesson,  and  pad  for  the  back,  all  of  which  the  horse-breaker  will  supply. 
I  must  remark,  however,  that  most  of  the  bits  I  have  seen  used  in  break- 
ing bridles  seem  to  me  inefficient  for  the  purpose.  They  are  very  thick  at 
the  guard,  round,  and  jointed  in  the  middle,  a  construction  which  gives 
the  horse  an  opportunity  of  seizing  the  round  thick  part  with  his  grinders, 
when  folded  back  by  the  force  of  the  rein  acting  on  the  joint,  and  of  rest- 
ing his  head  upon  it.  A  more  efficient  bit  is  represented  in  fig.  351,  which 
I  have  seen  used  many  years  ago  in  Berwickshire,  by  Thomas  Middlemiss 
of  Norham,  who  was  reckoned  in  his  day  one  of  the  best  horse-breakers 
and  grooms  that  had  practiced  in  that  part  of  the  country.  It  consists  of 
two  bits,  one  twisted  and  the  other  square,  both  8^  inches  in  length.  The 
square  bit  c  d\s  \  an  inch  square,  and  so  is  the  diameter  of  the  twisted  one 
a  b,  and  they  both  have  a  play  of  ^  an  inch  between  the  shoulders  of  the 
guards  a  c  and  b  d.  The  guards  ef,  g  h,  are  7  inches  in  length.  The  ring 
i  on  each  side  is  2i  inches  in  diameter  over  all,  and  at  ^  is  a  bunch  of 
links  to  play  upon  the  tongue,  and  make  the  horse  move  his  jaws.  The 
straps  connected  with  the  bit  are,  first,  the  head-stool  ;  the  hand-reins,  4^ 
feet  in  length  ;  the  check-reins  to  keep  the  horse's  head  in  fine,  when  strap- 
ped to  the  pad,  and  which  pass  below  the  neck-strap  of  the  martingale.  All 

(405J 


214 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


these  3  straps  are  buckled  to  tlie  rings  i  i.  There  is,  besides,  a  martin- 
gale to  \>re\enl  the  head  being  thrown  forcibly  up.  The  breadth  of  the 
straps  is   1  inch ;  that  of  the  counter  strap  of  the  martingale  1^  inches. 


Fig.  35L 


THE  BREAKING-BRIDLE  BIT. 


The  bit  can  be  buckled  on  in  the  reverse  order  shown  in  the  cut,  hav- 
ing the  square  bit  c  d  uppeiTnost,  and  the  bunch  k  is  then  screwed  to 
the  twisted  bit  a  b.  The  cavesson  is  well  known,  and  requires  no  par- 
ticular description,  its  figure  and  appointments  being  uniformly  the 
same. 

(1911).  It  is  unnecessary  to  go  through  all  the  discipline  of  breaking  in 
a  draught-colt,  as  is  required  in  the  case  of  a  saddle-horse,  but  a  few  pre- 
liminary steps  are  necessary,  such  as  playing  the  bit  in  the  mouth  for  2  or 
3  hours  in  the  stable,  twice  or  thrice  a  day,  the  colt  standing  in  the  re- 
versed position  in  the  stall,  which  has  the  double  advantage  of  making  the 
mouth  yield  to  the  bit  and  of  keeping  up  the  horse's  head.  The  bit  is 
buckled  on  slack  for  this  pui-pose,  so  as  to  lie  upon  the  gums,  on  the  bare 
space  of  the  lower  jaws  between  the  front  and  back  teeth,  upon  which 
place  either  the  square  or  twisted  bit  is  felt  to  rub  sharply,  while  the  bunch 
of  links  k  makes  the  mouth  and  tongue  play  as  if  desirous  of  getting  quit 
of  the  whole  concern.  When  the  head  is  pressed  forward  to  get  hold  of 
the  bit  with  the  back  teeth,  the  straps  being  too  long,  the  head  finds  noth- 
ing to  rest  upon,  while  the  bunch  k  is  brought  too  far  back  upon  the  tongue 
to  be  agreeable.  After  this  discipline  in  the  stable  for  two  or  three  days, 
according  as  it  is  seen  that  the  colt  yields  to  the  bit,  with  occasional  walks 
out  of  the  stable,  he  should  be  led  out  to  walk  two  or  three  hours  at  a  time 
by  the  nose-rein  of  the  cavesson,  to  learn  to  step  out,  and  to  acquire  a  good 
pace ;  and  this  is  the  most  essential  discipline  for  a  draught-horse.  A 
short  lunge  or  two  backward  and  forward  round  a  circle,  on  red  land,  will 
be  useful,  not  to  teach  him  to  trot ;  but  the  trotting  exercise  will  make 
him  active,  and  sooner  get  the  use  of  his  legs  in  cases  of  difficulty.  He 
should  then  be  backed,  and,  while  guided  by  the  reins,  should  be  spoken 
to  in  the  language  he  will  be  addressed  in  the  yoke.  After  that  he  should 
be  guided  along  a  road  with  long  double-reins,  while  can-ying  the  plow- 
chains  to  accustom  him  to  their  noise  and  feel,  and  addressed  in  the  appro- 
priate language.  Now  all  this  discipline  may  be  gone  through  in  the 
course  of  a  week,  or  8  or  10  days,  according  to  the  disposition  of  the  ani- 
mal, the  handling  he  may  have  received  since  he  was  a  weaned  foal,  and 

(406) 


BREAKING  IN  YOUNG  DRAUGHT-HORSES.  215 


the  genius  of  the  horse-breaker.  The  horse-breaker  should  groom  the  colt 
immediately  after  exercise,  that  the  animal  may  becotrie  familiarized  with 
the  usa"-es  of  the  stable,  and  the  degree  of  exercise  given  should  be  with 
a  discrimination  suited  to  the  condition  and  physical  strength  of  the  anirnal. 
The  colt's  food,  too,  should  be  so  administered  as  to  harden  his  condition 
for  labor  ;  with  the  understanding,  however,  that,  after  the  busy  season  of 
work  is  finished  in  the  early  part  of  summer,  the  young  tyro  shall  be  al- 
lowed to  have  a  run  at  grass  for  a  few  weeks,  and  then  fall  into  his  own 
share  of  regular  work.  .      -,    r 

(1912.)  After  the   treatment   and   discipline  received  from  the  horse- 
breaker,  the  colt  will  be  easily  made  to  understand  work.     The  sort  of 
harness  with  which  he  is  first  invested  is  that  of  the  plow,  consisting  of  a 
bridle,  collar,  fig.  197,  and  back-band   and   chains,  or  theats,    as  these   are 
called'in  some  parts  of  the  country.     It  is  quite  possible  that  the  discipline 
received  from   the  horse-breaker  will  make  the  colt  suffer   at  once  to  be 
yoked  with  an  old  horse   at  the  plow ;   but  in  case  of  accidents,  and  to  err 
on   the  safe  side,  it  is  best  to  use  precaution,  even   though  it  should  be 
proved  to  have  been  unnecessary.     The  principal   precaution   is  to  attach 
the  colt  to  a  strong,  steady  horse,  that  will  neither  bite   nor  kick  him,  and 
be  able  to  withstand  the  plunges  the  colt  may  choose  to  make.     The  at- 
tachment is  made  by  a  cart-rope  being  first  fastened  round  the  girth  of  the 
old  horse,  and  then  passed  round  that  of  the  colt,  leaving  as  little  space 
between  their  bodies  as  is  required  for  plowing  ;  and  to  afford  no  liberty 
to  advance  or  retire  beyond  a  step  or  two  before  or  behind   the  old  horse. 
Besides  the  usual  rein  employed  by  the  plowman,  the  horse-breaker  should 
have  another  in  his  hand  from  the   colt's  head.     Thus  equipped  in  plow- 
harness,  the  first  yoking  of  the  colt  should  be  to  an  old  cart-wheel,  placed 
on  its  dished  face  on  plowed  land,  furnished  with   a  swing-tree,  which  he 
should  be  made  to  draw,  while  the  horse  walks  beside  him ;   and,  in  draw- 
ing this,  the  reins  should  be  used,  and   the  appropriate  language  spoken, 
that  he  may  associate   ihe  changes  of  his  motions  with  the  accompanying 
sounds,  and  which  are  indicated  by  the  reins  while  guiding  him.     I  remark 
in  passing,  how  curious  it  is  for  us  to  have  adopted  the  Roman  method  of 
breakinp-'young  horses  bv  the  employment  of  the  wheel,  as  set  forth  in  the 
motto  selected  from  Virgil.    Should  the  colt  offer  to  wheel  round,  the  gen- 
tlest means  should  be  used  in  putting  him  again  in  his  proper  position,  as 
the  start  may  have  been  made  from  fear,  or  from  the  tickling  of  a  part  of 
the    harness.     When  a  hind-leg   gets  over  a  trace-chain,  the  chain    should 
be  unhooked   from  the  swing-tree,  and  hooked  on  again   after  the  colt  has 
been  put  in  his  right  position.     Should  he  offer  to  rear  or  kick,  from  a  dis- 
position to  break  away,  the  old  horse  should  be  urged  on  to  the  walk,  and 
be  made   to  pull  him  along,  while  a  smart  tip  of  the  whip  will  take  the 
courage  out  of  him.     According  as  he  evinces  a  disposition   to  go  on  qui- 
etly in  the  work,  should  the  length  of  time  be   determined   at  which  he 
should  work  at  the  wheel.     When  submissive,  he  should   be  yoked  to  the 
plow,  for  there  is  no  species  of  work  which   calls   forth  the  sympathy  of 
horses  to  one  another  in  so  short  a  time  as  when  working  with  this  imple- 
ment ;  and,  after  a  few  landings,  it  will  be  seen  that  he  will  work  with  en- 
ergy and  good-will,  and  then  he  should  be  kindly  spoken  to,  encouraged, 
and  even  fondled.     The  probability  is  that  his  desire  for  the  draught  may- 
be evinced  too  keenly,  but  the  pace  of  the  old  horse  should  be  subdued, 
and  the  keenness  mitigated  by  the  rein  and  tyg,  which  the  short  reins  are 
called   that  pass  from  the  head  of  one  horse  to  the  collar  of  the  other,  and 
which,  in  this  particular  instance,  is  fastened  to  the  rope  round  the  girtH 
of  the  old  horse.     It  is  interesting  to  the  farmer  to  see  his  young  horse  put 

(407J 


216  THE   BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

his  shoulder  to  the  first  work  he  has  ever  tried  with  a  spirit  even  beyond 
his  strength  ;  and,  while  he  continues  at  the  work  until  his  nostrils  distend 
and  flanks  heave,  his  owner  cannot  help  having  a  regard  for  him,  hight- 
ened  by  a  feelinij  of  jjity  for  the  unconscious  creature  acquiring  experience 
of  work  at  which  he  is  about  to  be  doomed  to  toil  for  the  remainder  of  his 
life.  It  should  be  mentioned,  as  a  precaution,  that  all  the  harness  em- 
ployed about  the  first  yoking  of  a  young  horse  should  be  fresh  and  strong, 
and  not  likely  to  break,  even  by  violence.  The  colt  should  be  broke  in  to 
the  cart  as  well  as  the  plow.  He  is  yoked  into  a  single  horse-cart,  but 
great  care  should  be  used  on  the  first  yoking,  that  he  get  no  flight,  by  any 
strap  rubbing  against  him,  or  the  shafts  falling  upon  him  when  raised  up 
to  allow  of  his  being  backed  below  them  ;  for,  if  frightened  at  the  first 
yoking  to  a  cart,  a  long  time  will  elapse  ere  he  will  stand  the  yoking  qui- 
etly. The  horse-breaker  should  stand  in  the  cart  using  double  reins  ;  and 
a  rein  should  be  held  by  a  man  walking  first  on  each  side  of  his  head,  and 
then  at  a  little  distance  on  the  sides  of  the  road.  The  chief  danger  is  kick- 
ing, and  thereby  injuring  the  hocks  against  the  fiont-bar  of  the  cart  ;  to 
prevent  which,  a  rope  should  be  placed  across  the  top  of  the  colt's  rump, 
and  fastened  to  the  harness  on  the  rump,  and  on  each  side  to  the  shaft  of 
the  cart.  There  is  little  danger  of  his  running  away  while  all  the  reins 
are  good.  He  will  take  with  the  traces  of  the  cart  more  readily  at  first 
than  with  the  trams,  as  they  are  so  similar  to  the  yoking  he  has  felt  at  the 
plow,  and  he  is  conscious  of  having  his  companion  behind  him. 

(1913.)  On  the  first  use  of  harness  by  a  young  horse,  the  shoulders  and 
back  are  liable  to  become  inflamed,  and  even  the  skin  to  be  broken  by  the 
collar  and  saddle.  It  should  be  ascertained,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  col- 
lar he  is  to  work  in  fits  him  properly  ;  and,  if  it  does  not,  it  should  be  made 
to  do  so  before  he  use  it,  as  the  first  day's  use  may  so  injure  his  skin  as  to 
give  him  pain  for  weeks  thereafter.  The  usual  aflfection  is  heated  swell- 
ings in  the  line  of  the  collar  and  seat  of  the  saddle.  A  good  lotion,  to  be 
applied  to  those  parts  whenever  the  colt  comes  out  of  yoke,  is  a  solution 
of  common  salt  in  warm  water,  and,  when  cold,  applied  as  a  fomentation 
with  a  sponge.  The  water  not  only  cools  the  skin,  and  keeps  down  the 
inflammation,  but  the  salt  hardens  it  for  use  ;  and  in  the  course  of  a  short 
time,  particularly  if  the  weather  be  dry,  the  skin  will  become  inured  to  the 
pressure  of  the  harness,  A  young  horse  may  be  broke  in  for  work  any 
time  in  the  course  of  the  spring,  from  the  beginning  of  workine:  the  turnip- 
land  to  Its  completion.  I  can  affirm  the  efficiency  of  the  plan  I  have  rec- 
ommended by  repeated  experience,  and  it  is  one  unattended  with  the 
slightest  accident  in  practicing  it.  ' 

(1914.^  It  is  the  usual  practice  to  shoe  and  dock  the  young  horse  before 
putting  him  to  the  yoke.  I  think  he  should  first  be  broke  in,  and  then  he 
will  suffer  himself  to  be  shod  the  more  quietly.  At  the  first  shoeing  it  will 
be  useful,  in  making  him  stand  quietly,  and  in  diverting  his  attention,  to 
take  the  old  horse  he  has  been  working  with  to  the  smithy.  By  nailing  a 
mat  against  the  wall,  and  making  him  stand  alongside  the  mat,  it  will  save 
his  skin  being  ruffled  should  he  i-ub  against  the  wall,  while  the  wall  will 
form  a  firm  barrier  against  his  retreating  farther  firom  the  blacksmith. 
After  the  fore  and  hind  feet  of  one  side  have  been  shod,  these  can  next 
be  turned  to  the  wall  to  get  his  other  feet  shod.  Gentle  and  coaxing 
means  should  be  used,  though  a  twitch  on  the  nose  has  a  powerful  com- 
mand over  a  horse.  The  first  shoes  of  a  young  horse  should  be  light,  with 
no  heels,  and  the  hoofs  should  not  be  pared  down  much  at  first.  Rather 
renew  the  shoes,  and  pare  the  hoofs  down  again  in  a  short  time,  than 
incumber  a  colt  at  first  with  heavy  shoes  with  heels,  to  the  risk  of  tram- 

(408) 


sows  FARROWING.  217 


pHng  himself,  as  to  cure  the  effects  of  a  severe  tramp  may  cost  much  more 
than  the  price  of  many  sets  of  new  shoes.  As  to  docking  z.  draught-horse, 
I  think  it  a  necessary  operation,  because  a  long  rump  is  very  apt  to  get 
injured  when  the  horse  is  yoked  in  the  trams,  by  coming  against  the  body 
of  the  cart,  and  in  coup-carts  especially  it  can  scarcely  escape  being  nipped 
when  the  body  of  the  cart  is  brought  down  upon  it  when  lying  on  the 
front-bar,  and  besides  a  draught-horse  has  no  use  for  a  long  tail.  A  neat 
swish  is  all  that  is  requisite  at  any  time,  and  in  winter  even  that  is  apt  to 
be  loaded  with  mud  on  dirty  roads.  Some  writers  affect  to  believe  it  pre- 
sumptuous in  man  to  deprive  any  animal  of  six  of  the  joints  of  the  verte- 
bral column  which  Nature  has  given  him ;  and  no  doubt  were  our  horses 
always  idle,  especially  in  summer,  when  a  long  tail  is  of  essential  service 
in  whisking  off  flies,  the  vertebrae  ought  to  be  kept  entire  ;  but  surely 
there  is  no  greater  absurdity  in  docking  the  tail,  than  in  driving  iron  nails 
into  the  crust  of  the  hoofs  of  a  horse,  and  yet  without  iron  shoes  to  pro- 
tect it,  the  horny  foot  of  the  horse  would  be  beaten  to  pieces  on  hard  I'oads 
at  the  pace  many  kinds  of  horses  are  driven  along  them  ;  and  there  is  no 
necessary  cruelty  in  the  act  of  docking,  for  it  is  an  operation  of  the  sim- 
plest form  when  properly  done,  that  is,  when  effected  in  a  joint  where  the 
wound  is  easily  healed.  As  to  niclcivg  the  tail  and  cropping  the  ears,  such 
operations  are  never  performed  on  draught-horses,  and  at  best  only  serve 
to  disfigure  the  appearance  of  the  animals  subjected  to  such  unnecessary 
torture.* 


19.    sows  FARROWING  OR  LITTERING. 

"Sows  ready  to  fairow  this  time  of  the  year, 
Are  for  to  be  made  of.  and  counted  full  dear , 
For  now  is  the  loss  of  a  fare  of  the  sow 
More  great  than  the  loss  of  two  calves  of  the  cow." 

TCSSEB. 

(1915.)  It  should  be  so  managed,  where  there  are  more  than  one  brood- 
sow  on  a  farm,  as  to  have  one  to  bring  forth  pigs  early  in  spring  ;  but,  at  the 
same  time,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  young  pigs  are  very  susceptible 
of  cold,  and  if  exposed  to  it,  though  they  may  not  actually  die,  their 
gi'owth  will  be  so  stinted  as  to  prevent  them  attaining  to  a  large  size,  how- 
ever fat  they  may  be  made.  Even  the  most  comfortable  housing  will  not 
protect  them  from  the  influence  of  the  external  air,  any  more  than  certain 
constitutional  temperaments  can  be  rendered  comfortable  in  any  circum- 
stance in  spring,  when  under  the  influence  of  the  east  wind.  From 
March  to  September  may,  perhaps,  be  considered  as  the  period  of  the 
year  when  young  pigs  thrive  best. 

[*  The  reasoning  of  the  author  in  this  case  appears  not  to  be  conclusive.  There  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  there  is  any  sensibility  in  the  horn  of  the  hoof,  and  the  nailing  of  the  shoe  is  intended 
to  prevent,  not  to  give,  pain — whereas  docking  gives  much  pain  at  the  time,  requires  care  to  heal 
it  up,  and  deprives  the  horse  of  the  brush  which  Nature  gave  him  to  keep  off  the  flies  from  a  large 
portion  of  his  body. 

The  exposure  of  the  tail  to  be  filled  with  mud,  is  an  inconvenience,  but  when  occasion  re- 
quires it  (which  is  generally  when  there  are  no  flies  about,  in  winter,)  the  hair  may  be  neatly 
plaited  and  tied  up,  as  all  good  teamsters  know  how  to  do.  We  go  against  all  nicking  and  dock- 
ing and  cropping,  and  for  saving  beasts,  as  well  as  our  fellow-creatures,  from  every  moment  of 
painful  sensation  that  can  be  avoided.  \E^-  Farm.  Lib. 

(409) 


218  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

(19 1 6.)  Whenever  a  brood-sow  shows  symptoms  (jf  approaching  paituri- 
tion  ;  that  is,  wlien  the  vulva  is  observed  to  enlarge  and  become  red,  it  is 
time  to  prepare  the  sty  for  her  reception,  for  she  will  keep  her  reckoning 
not  only  to  a  day  but  to  an  hour.  The  period  of  gestation  of  a  sow  is  112 
days,  or  16  weeks.  The  apartments  meant  to  accommodate  brood-sows 
in  the  steading  are  marked  by  the  letter  c  in  figs.  3  and  4,  Plates  III.  and 
IV'.  They  consist  of  an  outer-court  18  feet  long  by  8  feet  broad,  inclosed 
by  a  door,  as  represented  in  fig.  23,  and  described  at  5  in  (CS),  and  an  in- 
ner apartment  S  feet  by  6,  roofed  in.  This  is  the  usual  ft)rm  of  a  sty  for 
sows,  but  others  more  convenient  for  overlooking  the  state  of  the  sow  and 
lier  pitrs  is  when  the  outer  court  and  inner  aj)ai1ment  are  placed  under 
one  roof,  that  is,  in  a  roofed  shed,  or  in  a  house  which  may  be  shut  in  by 
a  door.  The  litter  allowed  to  a  brood-sow  should  be  rather  scanty  and 
of  short  texture,  such  as  chaff,  short  straw,  or  dried  leaves  of  trees,  as 
young  pigs  are  apt  at  first  to  be  smothered  or  squeezed  to  death  amtmg 
long  straw,  when  they  get  under  it.  When  a  sow  has  liberty  before  she 
is  about  to  pig,  she  will  carry  straw  in  her  mouth,  and  collect  it  in  a  heap 
in  some  retired  comer  of  a  shed,  and  bury  herself  among  it,  and  the 
chance  is,  in  such  a  case,  that  some  of  the  pigs  will  be  lain  down  upon 
unseen  and  smothered  by  the  sow  herself;  when  seen  she  will  carefully 
push  them  aside  with  her  snout  before  lying  down.  Some  sows  have  a 
trick  of  wandering  away  to  litter  in  a  quiet  place,  such  as  in  a  field  of 
corn,  in  a  plantation  among  underwood,  or  in  a  dry  ditch  at  the  root  of 
an  old  hedge  or  tree.  I  remember  of  a  sow  being  missing  for  upward  of 
a  fortnight,  not  a  person  having  seen  her  leave  home,  or  being  able  to  dis- 
cover where  she  had  gone  to  ;  but  she  was  suspected  of  having  disappeared 
for  the  purpose  of  littering.  At  length  she  appeared  one  day  craving  for 
food  at  the  kitchen  door,  bearing  evident  signs  of  having  littered,  and  of 
having  suckled  pigs.  She  was  cautiously  tracked  to  her  hiding-place, 
though  jealous  of  being  discovered  ;  and  it  was  found  that  she  had  formed 
a  nest  with  the  straw  gathered  from  the  adjoining  field  of  wheat,  in  a  se- 
cluded part  of  a  dry  ditch  at  the  root  of  an  old  thorn-hedge,  about  300 
yards  from  the  steading.  She  had  subsisted  as  long  as  she  could  upon  the 
corn,  but  hunger  at  length  drove  her  to  the  house  in  search  of  food.  Had 
she  been  allowed,  she  would,  no  doubt,  have  come  to  the  house  every  day 
for  food  ;  but  means,  of  course,  were  used  to  have  the  p'gs  conveyed  to 
the  steading,  and  this  was  a  work  of  some  difficulty,  as  the  sow  herself 
was  perfectly  savage  when  any  one  approached  her  young  ones  ;  and  these 
were  so  wild  in  their  habits  that  they  eluded  capture  for  a  long  time  among 
the  standing  corn.  At  length,  by  the  assistance  of  the  shepherd's  dog, 
which  seemed  to  enjoy  the  affair  as  sport,  they  were  all  caught,  a  large 
litter,  and,  on  being  conveyed  home  in  a  large  basket,  the  sow  naturally 
followed  her  captive  young  ones.  I  remember  of  another  sow  taking  up 
her  abode  in  the  bottom  of  a  pea  stack,  where  a  small  hole  was  only  left 
as  an  entrance,  but  a  large  chamber  was  formed  in  the  interior,  and  it 
was  found  imjiracticable  to  dislodge  her  from  this  stronghold,  she  keeping 
every  man  and  the  shepherd's  dog  at  bay,  and  he  was  too  knowing  to  ven 
lure  to  attack  her  in  sinirle  combat  ;  so  she  was  let  alone,  and  she  pro- 
duced her  young  there,  and  kept  them  until  they  were  able  to  run  about, 
food  having  been  set  down  for  her.  I  mention  these  instances  of  the  pe- 
culiar habits  of  some  domesticated  sows,  merely  to  show  you  the  propriety 
of  securing  the  brood-sow  that  is  about  to  farrow,  and"  particularly  one 
that  is  given  to  wander  abioad  in  search  of  a  nest,  in  a  proper  sty  some 
time  before  the  period  of  her  reckoning. 

(1917.)  Knowing  the  day  of  her  reckoning,  she  should  be  attended  to 

(410) 


sows  FARROWING.  219 


pretty  frequently,  not  that  she  will  probably  require  assistance  in  the  act 
of  parturition,  like  a  cow  or  a  ewe,  but  merely  to  see  that  all  the  pigs  are 
safe,  and  to  remove  any  one  immediately  that  may  be  dead  when  pigged, 
or  may  have  died  in  the  pigging.  I  have  heard,  however,  of  a  sow  in 
high  condition  which  died  because  the  second  pig,  on  coming  by  the  breech 
presentation,  had  a  hind-leg  folded  back,  which  could  not  be  put  right  by 
the  sow  herself  in  pressing,  and  having  been  neglected,  her  parts  very 
much  swelled.  As  an  attempt  to  save  her  life,  the  Cesarian  operation  was 
performed  on  her,  and  the  obstructing  pig  was  removed  ;  the  animal  lived, 
but  the  others  in  her  womb  were  dead,  and  she  herself  did  not  sursive  the 
operation  above  an  hour,  having  been  completely  exhausted  before  it  was 
attempted.  I  do  not  know  whether  it  is  generally  the  case,  but  1  have 
frequently  observed  that  pigs  leave  the  womb  alternately  in  a  reversed 
order;  that  is,  they  are  projected  by  a  head  and  breech  presentation  al- 
ternately, not  uniformly  so,  but  most  frequently.  There  is  no  doubt,  how- 
ever, of  the  fact  that  the  first-born  pigs  are  the  strongest,  and  the  last  the 
smallest  and  weakest,  in  a  large  litter,  such  as  upward  of  12,  though  the 
difference  is  less  or  scarcely  observable  in  smaller  litters  of  6  or  8.  The 
small,  weak  pigs  are  usually  nicknamed  wrigs,  or  pocJc-shaldngs,  and  are 
scarcely  worth  bringing  up  ;  still,  if  there  is  a  teat  for  them  to  lay  hold  of, 
they  ought  not  to  be  destroyed.  Sometimes  there  are  more  pigs  littered 
than  the  sow  has  teats  to  give  to  each.  I  have  seen  as  many  as  19  pigs 
when  there  were  only  12  teats  ;  and  I  remember  of  a  sow  that  never  lit- 
tered fewer  than  17,  when  she  had  14  teats,  which  are  two  more  than  the 
usual  numbex'.  Extra  pigs,  can,  no  doubt,  be  brought  up  by  hand  on 
cow's  milk,  but  the  last  ones  of  a  very  large  litter  are  usually  so  small  and 
weak  that  they  generally  die  off  in  the  course  of  a  day  or  two  to  the  num- 
ber of  the  teats.  A  young  pig  soon  gets  to  its  feet  after  birth,  and  as 
soon  finds  its  way  to  the  teat ;  but  it  can  find  no  sustenance  from  it  until 
the  sow  pleases,  so  that  until  the  entire  parturition  is  accomplished  and 
the  sow  recovered  from  it,  there  is  no  chance  of  the  pigs  getting  a  suck. 
Many  sows  are  very  sick  during  parturition,  and  for  some  time  aftei' — so 
much  so  that  the  skin  of  their  mouth  becomes  bleached  and  parched,  and 
the  breathing  quick.  To  those  unaccustomed  to  see  a  sow  in  that  state, 
it  would  seem  that  she  must  die  ;  but  a  little  rest  recovers  her,  and  she 
betakes  herself  fondly  to  her  young.  It  is  necessary,  as  I  have  said,  to  re- 
move the  pigs  as  they  die,  if  any  die,  as  some  sows  evince  the  abominable 
propensity  of  eating  their  own  pigs  when  they  die,  whether  the  death 
takes  place  at  the  birth,  or  immediately  after,  or  whether  it  happens  on 
their  being  smothered  or  squeezed  to  death  by  being  lain  down  upon  by 
the  sow  herself,  when  nestled  between  her  and  the  wall.  I  remember  of 
a  sow  that  was  never  sick  at  pigging,  and  such  was  her  propensity  to  eat 
every  pig  that  died  or  was  smothered,  that  even  during  parturition  she 
would  get  up  as  every  pig  was  bom,  to  ascertain  whether  it  was  dead  or 
alive,  and,  if  dead,  would  eat  it  instantly,  provided  she  was  not  prevented; 
and  even  after  they  were  a  week  old  she  would  eat  them,  had  they  died 
by  accident.*     There   is   a  peculiarity  exhibited  by  young  pigs,  different 


[*  There  is  much  that  \a  superfluous,  in  this  chapter,  for  American  farmers  generally.  But  al- 
though the  business  of  hog-breeding  is,  perhaps,  of  all  stock-breeding  the  most  simple  and  the  one 
in  which  Nature  may  be  generally  left  unassisted  and  unattended  to,  still  this  inattention  may  be 
and  is  often  carried  to  an  extreme  ;  for  although  generally  the  pigs-.vill  live,  how  much  better 
woald  they  tlirive  if,  at  the  time  of  farrowing,  the  sow  were  treated  with  a  more  liberal  allow- 
ance of  suitable  liquid  and  green  food  for  keeping  the  system  in  a  better  condition,  and  expressly 

for  producing  a  greater  flow  of  milk.     The  growth  and  ultimate  size  of  all  animals  depend  greatly 
(411J 


220  THE  BOOK  OP  THE  FARM SPRING. 


from  the  young  of  other  domesticated  animals,  in  each  choosing  a  teat  for 
itself,  and  ever  after  keeping  possession  of  it ;  and  this  compact,  as  it  were, 
is  faithfully  maintained.  Should  there  be  one  pig  more  than  there  are 
teats,  it  must  take  its  chance  of  obtaining  a  teat  when  the  rest  are  satis- 
fied. It  is  generally  observed  that  the  pigs  which  are  supported  at  the 
foremost  teats  become  the  strongest;  and  the  fact  was  noticed  long  ago 
by  Tusser,  who  recommends  store  i)igs  to  be  those  which  are 

"  Ungelt,  of  the  bejit  keep  a  couple  for  store, 
One  boar  pig  and  sow  pig,  that  sueketh  before." 

Pigs  require  to  use  coaxing  before  the  sow  will  give  them  milk.  They 
make  loud  entreaties,  and  rub  the  udder  with  their  noses  to  induce  her  to 
lie  down  ;  which,  when  she  does,  every  pig  takes  its  own  place  right  earn- 
estly, and  nuzzles  away  at  the  udder  with  the  teat  held  in  the  mouth, 
whether  situate  in  the  upper  or  lower  row.  After  a  good  while  of  this 
sort  of  preparation,  the  milk  begins  to  flow  on  the  sow  emitting  a  fond- 
like  grunting  sound,  during  which  the  milk  is  drawn  steadily  and  quietly 
till  the  pigs  are  all  satisfied,  and  they  not  unfrequently  fall  fast  asleep  with 
the  teat  in  the  mouth.  Young  pigs  are  lively,  happy  creatures,  and  fond 
of  play  as  h>ng  as  they  are  awake,  but  they  are  great  sleepers.  When  a 
week  old,  their  skins  are  clean,  hair  soft  and  silky,  and,  with  plump  bodies 
and  bright  eyes,  there  are  few  more  beautiful  young  animals  to  be  seen 
about  a  farm-yard.  Those  of  a  white  color  look  the  most  delicate  and  fine. 
(1918.)  As  to  the  food  of  the  sow  after  she  has  recovered  from  parturi- 
tion— which  will  be  longer  or  shoiter  according  to  her  constitutional  tem- 
perament— she  should  get  a  warm  drink,  consisting  of  thinnish  gruel  of 
oatmeal  and  lukewarm  water,  and  which  sei-ves  the  double  purpose  of 
meat  and  drink.  If  she  is  thirsty — which  she  is  likely  to  be  on  recovery 
from  sickness — the  gruel  may  be  again  offered  in  a  thinner  state  in  an  hour 
or  two  afterward.  The  ordinary  food  may  consist  of  boiled  potatoes,  with 
a  mixture  of  barley-meal,  among  water,  administered  at  a  stated  hour  at 
morning,  noon,  and  night,  with  such  refuse  as  may  occur  from  the  farm- 
house. This  food  will  be  found  to  support  her  w-ell  while  nursing  ;  and 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that,  as  long  as  she  is  nursing,  she  should  re- 
ceive abundance  of  food,  if  it  is  desired  she  should  rear  good  pigs.  Should 
the  weather  be  frosty,  or  otherwise  cold,  the  water  may  be  given  a  little 
warmed ;  but  in  fresh  weather,  or  in  summer,  cold  water  is  most  accepta- 
ble to  her.  The  mess  should  not  be  made  so  thin  as  to  be  sloppy  and  take 
a  long  time  to  drink  up,  or  so  thick  as  to  be  cloggy  in  the  mouth,  but  in  a 
state  of  gruel — meat  and  drink  at  the  same  time.  Whatever  food  is  given 
to  her  should  be  cooked,  and  not  in  a  raw  state ;  that  is  to  say,  the  pota- 
toes should  be  boiled  and  not  given  raw,  and  the  barley-meal  should  first 
be  mad'3  into  brose  with  warm  water,  and  then  mixed  with  the  potatoes, 
and  the  whole  mess  made  like  gruel  with  cold  water.     The  trough  out  of 

on  their  being  we/l  supplied  in  their  infancy  with  suitable  food.  Yet  to  this  it  must  be  confessed 
that  irj  our  country  generally  too  little  attention  is  paid,  and  in  no  instance  is  this  the  case  more 
than  in  our  neglect  to  provide  properly  for  the  ewe  and  the  soic  during  the  period  of  suckling. 

As  to  the  propensity  o^^omc  sows  to  eat  their  pigs,  when  they  die  young;  it  is  by  no  means  a 
rare  thing — or  rather  it  somcliines  hajjpens,  as  we  know,  that  they  will  at  once  devour  the  whole 
litter,  though  farrowed  alive  and  well !  They  ^ecm  to  be  animated  to  this  horrible  and  disgusting 
act  of  infanticide  by  a  sort  of  furor  which  is  said  to  proceed  from  a  morbid  state  of  the  blood,  and 
to  be  most  apt  to  happen  with  sows  that  are  in  too  high  condition.  To  guard  against  this  mon- 
strous disposition,  it  was  rccommcndeil  by  the  late  Goiuiam  Parsons,  of  Massachusetts,  (whose 
memory  as  a  personal  friend,  and  able  promoter  of  the  cause  of  agricultural  improvement,  we 
shall  ever  cherish  with  grateful  recollection,)  to  give,  for  a  week  or  two  before  farrowing,  a  spoon- 
full  of  sulphur  occasionally  in  their  food,  to  "cool  their  blood,"  as  he  said.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 
(4;-.>i 


sows   FARROWING.  221 


which  she  receives  her  food  should  be  washed  every  two  or  three  days  in 
cold,  and  every  day  in  warm  weather.  I  believe  it  is  the  common  prac- 
tice never  to  give  pigs  salt  among  their  food,  because  it  is  said  to  encour- 
age the  scab.  A  large  quantity  of  salt  may  have  this  effect,  but  I  never 
saw  a  relish  of  salt  produce  such  an  effect.  When  a  sow  leaves  any  of  the 
food  in  the  trough,  it  should  not  be  presented  to  her  again,  but  given  to  the 
young  pigs,  who  will  relish  it. 

(1919.)  Most  pigs  are  usually  gelded,  both  male  and  female — the  few 
that  are  kept  for  breeding  forming  but  a  small  exception.  They  should  be 
gelded  on  the  milk  at  from  10  to  14  days  old.  The  males  are  castrated  on 
being  held  between  the  knees,  and  the  scrotum  incised  down  upon  each 
testicle,  which  is  removed  by  the  pressure  of  the  finger  and  thumb,  and 
the  spermatic  chord  separated  by  the  knife.  The  she-jiigs  are  treated  in  a 
different  manner.  Being  laid  on  a  chair-bottom  or  table,  on  its  far  side, 
the  pig  is  there  held  by  an  assistant ;  the  operator  cuts  an  upright  incision 
into  the  flank,  of  about  2  inches  in  length,  and,  introducing  a  finger,  brings 
out  the  ovaria  of  the  womb,  and  separates  them  by  the  knife.  He  then 
closes  the  incision  by  a  few  stitches  with  a  needle  and  thread,  and  the  op- 
eration is  finished.  There  is  very  little  danger  attending  the  operation  to 
either  sex.  In  the  case  of  rupture  or  hernia  in  the  male — and  some  breeds 
of  pigs  are  very  liable  to  this  disease  when  young — it  is  necessary  to  stitch 
up  the  incision  of  the  scrotum,  and  the  testicle  at  castration  should,  in  such 
a  case,  be  removed  with  care,  in  case  of  producing  inflammation  in  the 
intestines.  The  incisions  in  both  the  male  and  female  generally  heal  by 
the  first  intention.  The  gelder  should  use  the  precaution  of  cleaning  his 
knife  before  every  operation.  The  usual  charge  for  gelding  pigs  is  2s.  6d. 
the  litter,  whatever  number  it  may  contain.  Young  pigs  are  not  gelded 
vrhen  intended  to  be  killed  for  roasting. 

(1920.)  It  is  seldom  that  any  complaint  overtakes  the  sow  on  littering, 
though  she  may  be  earned  off  by  puerperal  fever,  and  I  suspect  there  is 
no  remedy  for  this  disease   in  her  case.     The  pigs  which  she  leaves  may 
be  very  well  brought  up  by  hand  on  cow's  milk,  as  they  will  soon  learn  to 
drink  out  of  a  dish,  in  which  the  milk  should  be  given  them  warm   from 
the  cow,  and  as  often  as  the  cows  are  milked.     It  is  surprising  how  small 
a  quantity  of  milk  a  pig  will  drink   at  a  time ;  and  on  this  account  they 
should  get  it  frequently,  and  the  dish  in  which  it  is  served   should   not  be 
easily  upset,  because  there  will  be  a  struggle  to  get  first  at  the  milk,  and 
one  or  more  will  be  sure  to  jump  into  it.     The  diseases  incidental  to  young 
pigs  are  luckily  few.    Their  tails  sometimes  drop  off  with  a  sort  of  canker, 
and  a  red  eruption  sometimes  takes  place  on  their  skin,  and  sometimes  one 
in  a  litter  may  take  a  wasting  and  die.     I  believe  that  if  the  sow  is  pro- 
vided with  plenty  of  wholesome  food,  the  pigs  kept  clean  and  warm  in  their 
sty  and  litter,  and  their  sire  and  dam  be  not  too  near  a-kin,  that  few  dis- 
eases will  overtake   pigs   as  long  as  they  are  on  their  mother's  milk.     A 
sow  is  not  allowed  to  take  the  boar  until  after  the  pigs  are  weaned,  but  as 
soon  after  as  possible,  in  a  week  or  two  ;  and,  to  bring  her  into  season  the 
sooner,  she  should  be  fed  with  oats  or  oatmeal  until  she  takes  the  boar. — 
The  symptoms  of  season  in  a  sow  are  a  redness  and  enlargement  of  the 
vulva — which,  when   observed,  the  boar  should   have  access  to  her ;  and, 
should  there  be  a  boar  on  the  spot,  the  meeting  will  be  easily  accomplished, 
and  one  embrace,  which  is  usually  a  protracted  one,  is  quite  sufficient  for 
securing  a  litter  of  pigs.     When  there  is  no  boar  on  the  farm,  the  sow  is 
sent  to  him,  and  she  remains  a  few  days  with  him  to  secure  her  impregna- 
tion.    Pigs  are  weaned    at  6  weeks  old,  and  some  keep  them  on  the  sow 
for  2  months  ;  but  there  is  little  thrift  in  such  management,  as  the  suckling 

(413) 


222  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

in  the  last  week  of  a  larg^e  litter  of  large  pigs  brings  a  sow  very  frfst  down 
in  condition,  and  which  must  he  made  up  again  with  extra  feeding  and  a 
longer  time  before  she  fanows  the  next  time.  A  sow  that  can  bring  up  10 
pigs,  and  has  5  such  litters  in  the  course  of  2  years,  is  a  profitable  animal, 
and  deserves  to  be  well  maintained  and  taken  care  of.  Even  at  10s. 
apiece — which  is  the  lowest  sum  a  fanner  should  take  for  a  pig,  for  he 
should  keep  it  until  it  is  worth  that  sum,  rather  than  part  with  it  at  a  lower 
one — such  a  sow  will  return  ^£25  in  the  course  of  2  years. 

(19'21.)  As  it  is  considered  by  farmers  inconvenient  to  keep  beyond  a  certain  number  of  pigs  on 
the  farmstead,  it  is  necessary  to  determine  what  that  number  should  be,  and  as  it  is  difficult  to 
fix  its  amount  for  every  particular  case,  a  few  hints  on  different  modes  of  managing  litters,  after 
they  are  weaned,  may' prove  acceptable  to  you.  Before  investigating  this  point,  a  few  particu- 
lars may  be  stated  which  you  may  regard  in  the  light  of  maxims  on  this  subject.  A  sow  should 
always  be  either  with  young  or  giving  suck,  for  if  allowed  to  run  about  in  season,  or  alrreaminp, 
as  it  is  termed,  she  wilt  lose  flesh  instead  of  gaining  it.  A  sow  should  always  be  kept  in  good 
condition,  whether  with  young  or  supporting  young,  because  a  lean  sow  never  brings  forth  or 
can  nourish  strong  pigs.  Every  breeder  and  feeder  of  pigs  will  find  his  own  advantage  in  never 
allowing  them  to  go  to  bed  with  a  hungry  belly.  A  sow  that  brings  forth  the  greatest  number  of 
pigs  of  the  best  quality,  proves  the  best  nurse,  and  is  most  careful  of  her  young,  should  always 
be  preferred  as  a  brooil-sow.  When  a  sow  gets  old,  she  is  apt  to  become  careless  of  her  pigs,  so 
that  3  or  4  years  may  be  age  enough  for  a  brood-sow.  Pigs,  though  on  grass  during  the  day  in 
summer,  should,  nevertheless,  receive  a  drink  of  water  and  meal,  or  potatoes,  or  of  wbey  at  morn- 
ing and  evening. 

(19i2.)  There  are  just  two  ways  of  rearing  pigs  on  a  farm — one  is  to  have  a  large  number  of 
sow.s,  and  sell  the  pigs  when  they  are  weaned  at  6  weeks  old  ;  the  other  is,  to  have  fewer  sows, 
and  rear  the  pigs  until  they  are  fit  for  the  pork-curers  ;  and  the  adoption  of  either  of  these  plana 
depends  entirely  on  tlie  nature  of  the  market  of  the  locality.  If  there  is  a  demand  for  young 
pigs  immediately  after  being  weaned,  supporting  the  larger  number  of  sows  will  be  the  most 
profitable  plan  for  the  farmer,  because  the  pigs  have  not  to  be  maintained  on  food  independently 
of  their  mothers;  but  it  is  a  plan  attended  with  much  trouble,  inasmuch  as  food  has  to  be  daily 
cooked  for  the  sows  while  supporting  their  young,  and  the  market  for  pigs  is,  moreover,  confined 
to  one  age.  In  the  latter  plan,  on  the  other  hand,  the  sows  are  only  supported  on  special  Ibod  as 
long  as  they  support  the  pigs,  and  there  is  not  only  the  choice  of  the  market  for  newly  weaned 
pigs,  but  for  pigs  of  various  ages,  suited  for  the  tastes  of  porkcurers.  Suppose,  then,  that  2 
egws  are  maintained,  in  pursuance  of  the  latter  plan,  and  that  they  bring  forth  20  pigs  twice  a 
year.  Reiiiining  4  of  these  for  ham,  and  other  two  for  pickled  pork,  for  the  use  of  the  house, 
there  will  be  34  pigs  to  dispose  of  every  year,  and  as  these  meet  with  a  ready  market  when 
4  or  Ty  stones  imperial  each,  at  6s.  a  stone,  will  make  them  worth  each  from  24s.  to  30s..  or  from 
£iO  to  i.'50  a  year  for  pigs.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  34  pigs,  when  running  about 
the  courts  in  winter,  eating  a  few  turnips  or  )  otaloes,  or  grazing  in  the  grass-field  in  summer,  do 
not  cost  much  to  rear  them  to  the  weight  most  desiderated  by  the  curers  of  pork,  and  they  are  in 
that  state  fat  enough  for  the  purpose,  and  make  very  wholesome  meat.  On  a  farm  of  ."iOO  acres, 
2  brood-sows  could  thus  be  easily  maintained  ;  on  a  larger  farm  3  might  be  kept,  and  on  a  smaller 
1  may  suHioe  ;  but  circumstances  must  regulate  the  proper  number.  Where  dairy  husbandrj-  is 
more  attended  to  on  one  farm  than  on  another,  and  when  the  mixed  husbandry  is  practiced  on 
both,  more  sows  may  easily  be  kept  in  summer  than  where  the  dairj-  husbandry  is  less  attended 
to.  There  is  a  remark  of  Mr.  Henderson  on  this  subject  which  is  worthy  of  attention,  in  regard 
to  the  timing  of  sows  in  bearing  their  litters  of  pigs.  "  Whenever,"  he  says,  '•  farmers  have  an 
opportunity  of  selling  pork  at  all  seasons,  they  do  not  think  it  neces.«ary  to  make  the  sows  bring 
their  litters  at  a  particular  season,  as  they  wish  to  have  a  lot  of  a  certain  age  to  go  off"  regularly 
at  least  every  month."  in  autumn,  winter,  and  spring.  ••  They  make  them  ready  for  the  market,'-' 
he  continues,  ■•  wiili  little  expense,  only  giving  them  close  feeding  2  or  3  weeks  previous  to  their 
being  sold."  Pigs  intended  for  pickled  pork  merely,  do  not  require  even  this  feeding,  thougii 
those  sold  for  making  hams  are  the  better  for  a  little  extra  and  hardening  feeding.  '-They  have 
very  little  trouble  in  selling  them,"  concludes  Mr.  Henderson,  "  as  there  are  jobbers  continually 
traveling  dirough  the  country,  purchasing  swine  of  all  descriptions,  who  receive  them  and  pay 
the  money  at  the  farms." 

(1923)  The  omnivorous  disposition  of  swine  is  well  known,  and  it  is  this  disposition  which 
makes  them  so  easily  ninintaini'd  and  .«o  serviceable  on  a  farm.  "  Swine,  though  exceedingly 
voracious,''  remarks  Mr.  Henderson,  "  will  feed  on  almost  anything.  In  miry  and  marshy  ground 
they  devour  worm.«.  frogs,  fern,  rush  and  hedpe-roots.  In  drier  and  woody  countries,  they  feed 
on  haws,  sloes,  crabs,  mast,  chestnuts,  acorns.  iVc,  and  on  this  food  they  will  grow  fleshy  and  fat 
They  are  a  kind  of  natural  scavengers  ;  will  thrive  on  the  trash  of  an  orchard,  the  outcasts  of  the 
kitchen,  the  sweepings  of  barns  and  granaries,  the  ofl"al8  of  a  market,  and  most  rirhlj'  on  the 
refuse  of  a  dairy.  If  near  the  sea,  they  will  search  the  shores  for  shell-fish,  in  the  fields  they  eat 
grass,  and  in  great  towns  they  are  supported  chiefly  by  grains.  It  is  evident  that  the  facility  of 
feeding  them  everywhere  at  a  small  expense  i.s  a  material  benefit,  more  especially  in  a  country 
where  people  are  accustomed  to  eat  flesh  daily,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  where  there  is  so  ready  a 
market  for  bacon  and  pork  as  we  have.  It  is  no  less  observable  that,  notwithstanding  the  fa- 
cility of  feeding,  and  the  multitude  of  swine  niainiained,  they  seldom  fail  of  comina-  to  a  good 
market.  Swine  ought  to  have  hard  feeding  two  or  three  weeks  previous  to  their  being  killed, 
to  give  firmness  to  the  flesh.  This  practice  ought  to  be  particularly  attended  to  by  those  who 
feed  at  distilleries  on  burnt  ale  and  grains,  as  the  fat  of  pies  thus  fed" melts  almost  wholly  away 
in  boiling  or  roasting.  Peas  and  beans  are  excellent  for  the  purpose,  and  acorns  are  still  better. 
(414) 


THE  HATCHING  OF  FOWLS.  223 

Where  oak  plantations  are  near,  they  will  resort  to  tliem  in  autumn,  and  there  remain  until  this 
their  favorite  food  is  exhausted.  The  late  Sir  James  Colquhoun  of  Luss,  I  have  been  told,  was 
in  the  habit  of  sending  his  pigs  to  one  of  the  islands  of  Loch  Lomond,  where  there  is  an  oak 
plantation,  that  they  might  pick  up  the  acorns,  which  is  said  to  have  given  a  surprising  degree 
of  delicacy  to  the  flesh.  Those  who  have  woods  of  this  kind,  and  orchards,  ought  to  allow  their 
pigs  liberty  to  range  among  the  trees,  to  pick  up  shaken  fruit  and  seeds."*  The  hogs  of  Germany 
enjoy  the  droppings  of  the  oak  and  chestnut  forests,  and  it  is  supposed  that  it  is  this  species  of 
food' that  imparts  the  very  superior  flavor  which  the  hams  of  Westphalia  are  known  to  possess. 
That  all  the  haras  sold  in  this  country  for  Westphalian  are  genuine,  I  have  doubts,  after  having 
become  acquainted  with  the  true  flavor  in  their  own  country.  I  remember  of  passing  through  a 
forest  of  sweet  chestnuts  of,  I  dare  say,  3  miles  in  length,  near  Bellinzona,  in  the  canton  of  Ticino, 
in  Switzerland,  in  autumn,  when  the  fruit  was  dropping  from  the  trees;  and  into  this  forest  the 
peasantry,  I  was  informed,  turned  their  pigs  every  year  to  get  fattened  at  the  season  I  allude  lo. 
(1924.)  Swine  should  not  be  allowed  to  enter  a  field  of  any  kind  without  a  ring  in  the  nose. 
Their  propensity  to  dig  for  worms  and  roots  makes  them  turn  up  the  soil  with  their  noses,  and 
when  a  grass-field  is  thus  treated,  it  presents  a  perfect  scene  of  havoc,  in  so  far  as  the  grass  is 
concerned.  The  best  material  for  making  the  nose  jewels  of  swine  is  horse-shoe  nails,  they  being 
both  durable  and  ductile.  As  there  is  no  use  of  retaining  the  heads  of  the  nails,  they  are  hammered 
into  a  point,  and  the  nail  is  then  fit  for  use.  It  is  inserted  into  a  hole,  formed  by  an  awl  or  other 
sharp-pointed  instrument,  through  the  upper  point  of  the  snout,  and  passing,  with  a  good  hold, 
through  the  cartilage  of  the  top  of  the  snout  to  its  front,  where  the  points  of  the  nail  are  twisted 
firmly  together.  A  new  hole  can  be  made  in  the  snout,  and  another  nail  substituted,  when  the 
old  hole  and  nail  have  become  worn. 


20.    THE  HATCHING  OF  FOWLS. 

"       .        .        .        .     The  careful  hen 
Calls  all  her  chirping  family  round, 
Fed  and  defended  by  the  fearless  cock. 
Whose  b^ea^t  with  ardor  tiames,  as  on  he  walks, 
Graceful,  and  crows  detiance.     In  the  pond 
The  finely  chequered  duck  before  her  train 

Rows  garrulous 

The  turkey  nigh, 
Loud  threat'ning,  reddens;  while  the  peacock  spreads 
His  every -colored  glory  to  the  sun. 
And  swims  in  radiant  majesty  along. 
O'er  the  whole  homely  scene,  the  cooing  dove 
Flies  thick  in  am'rous  chase,  and  wanton  rolls 
The  glancing  eye,  and  turns  the  changeful  neck." 

Thomson. 

(1925.)  Spring  is  the  busy  season  of  the  feathered  inhabitants  of  the 
farm.  Thomson  well  describes  the  "  homely  scene,"  which  these  happy 
creatures  present  while  tending  their  young,  and  which  might  be  seen  at 
every  farmstead  in  spring,  were  fowls  cared  for  as  they  should  be.  In- 
stead, however,  of  indulging  in  unavailing  regrets,  I  shall  endeavor,  in  as 
few  words  as  the  clear  elucidation  of  the  subject  will  admit  of,  to  describe 
the  mode  of  hatching  and  rearing  every  sort  of  fowl  usually  domesticated 
on  a  farm,  and  thereby  show  you  that  it  is  not  so  difficult  nor  so  trouble- 
some an  affair  as  the  practice  which  generally  prevails  would  seem  to  in- 
dicate. Observation  of  the  habits  of  domesticated  birds,  and  punctual 
attention  to  their  wants,  are  all  that  are  required  to  produce  and  bring  up 
plenty  of  excellent  poultry  on  a  farm.t 

[t  As  no  fitter  occasion  may  offer,  we  think  it  best  to  preserve  here  the  following,  which  ap- 
peared in  a  late  number  of  the  Gardeners'  Chronicle,  and  which  applies  to  disorders  of  poultry 
of  not  unfrequent  occurrence.  The  prescriptions  appear  to  be  of  a  practical  character  and  to  be 
founded  on  experience  :  \^Ei,  Farm.  Lib. 

Diseases  of  Poultry— Disorders  of  Digestion.— 1.  Indigestion  of,  or  Torpid  (full) 
Crop.  This  IS  a  very  common  ailment,  arising  from  taking  cold,  unsuitable  diet,  and  other  causes. 
The  symptoms  are  moping,  little  or  no  disposition  to  take  food,  and  hardness  of  the  crop  when 
felt.  As  a  remedy,  one  or  two  tea^spoonsfull  of  English  gin,  according  to  the  size  of  the  fowl, 
has  almost  an  immediate  eff"ect.     It  appears  to  act  as  a  solvent,  for  the  crop  soon  becomes  soft, 

*  Henderson's  Treatise  on  the  Brcedine  of  Swine 
(415)  ^ 


224  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

(1926.)  In  my  observations  on  the  manaj^ement  oi  Jicns  in  Avinter,  I  men- 
tioned that  tlie  early-hatrhed  chickens  of  the  former  sprinc^  were  tlie  best 
to  treat  as  laying  hens  during  winter  (1473).  These  same  young  hens 
being  in  fine  condition  in  spring,  will  prove  good  layers  through  the  ensu- 
ing summer,  and  should  therefore  be  kindly  treated  for  that  purpose,  and 
not  encouraged  to  become  sitters  on  eggs,  which  they  will  do,  if  allowed 
to  wander  in  search  of  food,  and  to  find  out  nests  of  their  own  to  lay  in.  I 

and  maceration  soon  goes  on  as  usual.  Possibly  this  may  be  owing  to  the  presence  of  the  es- 
sence of  the  junii)er  bcrrv,  as  no  olher  spirit  has  the  same  effect,  but  is,  on  the  contrarj-,  deleteri- 
ous to  birds.     This  is  infallible. 

2.  Iiidisextion  of  the  Gizzard. — It  would  be  difficult  to  enumerate  all  the  causes  for  this,  as 
for  the  former  fatal  ailment;  but  it  often  ari.«es  from  confinement. locality,  exposure  to  wet,  damp 
and  cold,  and  most  frequently  from  unskillful  treatment  in  the  hands  of  negligent  persons,  or 
those  ignorant  of  the  habits  or  requirements  of  poultry,  such  as  shelter,  wholesome  diet,  sweet 
green  food,  lime,  sand,  &c.,  which  are  quite  as  neces.sarj-  as  grain.  In  the  farm-yard  and  fields, 
the  more  natural  state,  birds  can  procure  most  of  these  ingredients  for  themselves,  which  in  towns, 
pens,  coops,  or  cages,  their  perfectly  artificial  etate,  must  be  administered  artificially.  Hue  and 
fresh  butter,  or  svrup  of  rue  and  barlej-meal,  or  soot  and  fresh  butter  formed  into  pellets  with 
barley-meal,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  pounded  red  brick,  or  pounded  dry  clay,  are  excellent 
remedies :  or  with  the  addition  of  a  small  pinch  of  allspice,  or  a  few  of  the  allspice  conis.  A 
very  few  minute  grains  of  Cayenne  pepper  have  been  recommended,  but  with  great  caution  ;  in- 
deed, I  would  scarcely  advise  anything  so  powerful  and  irritating.  The  best  and  only  efficacious 
remedy,  after  all,,  is  castor-oil,  one  or  two  teaspoonsfuU. 

Mechanical  Aid,  when  the  crop  is  overloaded  and  medicine  fails  to  promote  maceration,  must 
be  resorted  to  and  be  effected  by  discharging  its  contents  by  gentle  preseure,  with  great  care 
and  patience,  through  the  mouth. 

When,  however,  the  contents  swell,  and  are  of  a  nature  impossible  to  remove  in  that  way 
without  violence,  which  must  never  be  used  on  account  of  the  danger  of  lacerating  the  throat, 
an  operation  by  a  skillful  hand  is  necessarj-,  but  requiring  great  trouble  and  attention  durine  the 
healing  process.  A  small  slit  niu,st  be  made  in  the  lower  part  of  the  crop,  through  which  the 
noxious  substances  can  be  extracted.  One  or  two  sutures  should  then  be  neatly  made  w^ith  a 
needle  and  thread  to  hold  the  sides  together,  which  will  soon  heal. 

More  sutures  than  are  absolutely  necessary  would  prevent  healthy  suppuration,  which  is 
requisite,  in  order  to  encourage  the  healing  process.  Care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  wound 
clean,  but  without  damaging  the  sutures.  The  fowl  must  be  kept  within  doors  very  quiet,  and 
upon  soft  diet  until  recovered.  But  this  sort  of  operation  is  often  more  curious  than  useful,  if  not 
cruel,  unless  the  patient  be  one  of  some  value. 

3.  Oon.  or  Lush,  or  Shellens  E^ss. — When  a  hen  lays  this  sort  of  egg.  and  not  habitually,  the 
occurrence  is  generally  accompanied  with  hard  or  full  crop.  In  that  case,  it  is  owing  to  indiges- 
tion, to  be  treated  as  before  with  one  or  two  tea-spoonsfuU  of  English  gin.  One  cause  is  said  to 
be  overfeeding  when  fowls  are  too  fat. 

These  eggs  are  generally  dropped  from  the  roo.st,  and  if  it  is  not  too  high  from  the  floor,  or  if 
they  fall  on  straw,  may  be  saved  entire  and  used  for  puddings.  As  to  symptoms,  experience  will 
make  known  the  indications,  and  the  time  when  a  hen  is  about  to  pass  one  of  these  eggs,  by  ap- 
pearing somewhat  dull,  and  uneasy  when  walking  about ;  when  proper  precautions  should  be 
taken  to  secure  it.  and  prevent  the  other  hens  from  gobbling  it  up.  When  this  occurs  from  indi- 
gestion, the  shapes  of  these  eges  are  often  twofold,  cither  like  a  funnel,  the  protuberance  being 
about  2  inches  long,  ending  with  a  thin  thread  twisted  up  at  the  end,  or  otherwise  twain  (two 
email)  egs-s,  joined  by  a  membrane,  about  an  inch  long;  one  containing  the  yolk,  the  other  the 
Nvhite.  The  cause  for  this  curious  deviation  of  shape  I  have  not  ascertained.  But  when  this 
happens  habitually,  which  is  not  uncommon,  the  shape  is  in  every  respect  as  usual,  and  the  caii.'^e 
is  some  deranscment  or  injun,-  of  the  passages  through  which  the  e^s  has  to  pass,  after  the  yolk 
has  detached  itseir(by  its  own  weight,  as  it  grows  from  the  size  of  a  pin'shead)  from  the  pedicle 
which  attaches  it  to  the  egg  cluster,  before  the  entire  egg  reaches  the  sack,  just  previous  to  being 
laid.  The  writer  has  a  favorite  hen,  which  always  regularly  drops  these  eggs  from  her  roost,  and 
never  la>  s  any  others,  and  has  done  so  for  these  "five  years  past,  although  in  perfect  health. 

This  circumstance  is  attributable  to  the  ignorant  and  cruel  practice  of  •' groping."  which  can- 
not be  too  often  denounced  and  reprobated.  When  these  eggs  break  within,  the  yolk  and  the 
white  will  pa.«s  off",  but  the  skin  will  olten  remain  and  form  a  hard  "extraneous  subistance,"  often 
becoming  iiutri<l.  This  is  the  ca.se  when  the  cau.se  is  indigestion,  of  which  they  often  die,  if  not 
aasLsted  lo  get  rid  of  this  obstruction.  The  surest  remedy  in  this  case  is  a  dose  of  ca.storoil,  which 
seldom  fails  to  cure  the  cause  and  remove  the  obstruction.  But  a  precaution  against  this  occur- 
rence (when  possible)  is  to  assist  in  removing  this  skin  artificially,  before  it  haslime  to  become  a 
fixture,  when  it  is  observed  to  hang  from  the  fowl.  Experience  and  obser\ation  alone  can  leach 
the  extreme  nicety  of  this  operation,  so  as  to  lead  to  success.  It  often  occupies  a  quarter  of  an 
hour  of  time,  and  requires  great  forbearance  and  patience. 

4.  Ess-bonnd. — This  is  a  fatality  which  is  not  of  unfreqnent  occurrence,  arising  from  an  inac- 
tive state  of  the  organs,  when  a  fowl  does  not  as  usual,  in  due  time,  get  rid  of  an  ege,  which  will 
remain  in  tlie  egg-bag  for  some  days,  often  producing  very  ill  consequences.  The  symptoms 
are  moping,  awkward  gait,  enlarged  appearance  and  hanginij  down  of  the  abdomen.  The  causes 
are  various;  but  generally  a  cold,  and  often  indigestion.  The  remedy  is  sometimes  speedv  :  a 
few  grains  of  salt  put  into  the  entrance,  but  without  using  any  violence,  v-iW  excite  an  immediate 
disposition  to  lay,  when  the  fowl  will  run  ofi'instanter  to  the  nest.  If  caused  by  indigestion,  the 
cure  must  be  treated  accordingly  ] 

(416) 


THE  HATCHING  OF  FOWLS.  225 


also  mentioned  that  there  was  no  great  diftlculty  of  bringing  up  chickens 
in  winter,  if  it  were  thought  expedient  to  do  it,  and  should  any  have  been 
nursed  in  winter  (1474)  they  will  now  in  spring  be  in  good  condition,  and 
be  valuable  birds,  fit  to  make  a  handsome  dish  of  roast  or  boil. 

(1927.)  As  soon  as  the  grass  begins  to  grow  in  spring,  so  early  will 
cared-for  hens  delight  to  wander  into  sheltered  portions  of  pasture,  in  the 
sunshine,  in  front  of  a  thorn-hedge,  and  pick  the  tender  blades,  and  devour 
the  tiny  worms  which  the  genial  air  may  have  warmed  into  life  and  activ- 
ity. With  such  morsels  of  spring  food,  and  in  pleasant  temperature,  their 
combs  will  begin  to  redden,  and  their  feathers  assume  a  glossy  hue  ;  and 
even  by  February  their  chant  may  be  heard,  and  which  is  the  sure  harbin- 
ger of  the  commencement  of  the  laying  season.  By  March  a  disposition 
to  sit  will  be  evinced  by  the  early  laying  hens  ;  but  every  hen  should  not 
be  allowed  to  sit ;  nor  can  any  hen  sit  at  her  own  discretion  where  the 
practice  is,  as  it  should  be,  to  gather  the  eggs  every  day  as  they  are  laid. 
It  is  in  your  option,  then,  to  select  the  hens  you  wish  to  sit  to  bring  out 
chickens.  Those  selected  should  be  of  a  quiet,  social  disposition,  not  ea- 
sily frightened,  nor  over  careful  of  their  brood,  nor  disposed  to  wander 
afar  ;  and  they  should  be  large  and  full  feathered,  to  be  able  to  cover 
their  eggs  well  and  brood  their  young  completely.  Those  which  you 
may  have  observed  to  be  good  sitters  and  brooders  should  be  chosen  in 
preference  to  others  ;  but  it  is  proper  to  begin  one  young  hen  or  so  every 
season,  to  sit  for  the  first  time. 

(1928.)  The  eggs  intended  to  be  set  should  be  carefully  selected.  If 
those  of  a  particular  hen  are  desired  to  be  hatched,  they  should,  of  course, 
be  kept  by  themselves,  and  set  after  her  laying  time  is  finished.  In  se- 
lecting eggs,  they  should,  in  the  first  place,  be  quite  fresJi,  that  is,  laid 
within  a  few  days;  they  should  be  large,  well-shaped,  truly  ovoidal  ;  nei- 
ther too  thin  nor  too  thick,  but  smooth  in  the  shell;  and  their  substance 
should  almost  entirely  fill  the  shell,  and  should  be  perfectly  uniform  and 
translucent,  when  looked  through  at  a  candle,  which  is  the  best  light  for 
their  examination.  It  is  said  that  the  position  of  the  cell  that  contains  air 
in  an  egg  determines  the  sex  of  the  chick  that  will  spring  from  the  egg, 
that  is,  if  the  cell  occupies  the  exact  apex  of  the  end,  which  is  always  the 
large  end,  the  chick  will  be  a  male,  and  if  on  one  side  of  the  apex,  it  will 
be  a  female.  I  believe  there  is  truth  in  this  observation,  but  to  what  ex- 
tent, and  what  experiments  have  been  made  to  determine  the  point,  I  have 
not  learned  ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  of  this,  that  the  longer  an  egg  has  been 
kept  with  access  to  the  air,  until  it  becomes  addled  or  dead,  this  cell  in- 
creases in  size,  by  the  absorption  of  air  through  the  shell,  and,  of  course, 
by  absorption  also  of  the  substance  of  the  egg,  which  makes  room  for  the 
air.  The  matter  of  the  sex  of  the  egg  is  of  no  importance  on  a  farm,  as  a 
good  chicken  of  one  sex  is  as  valuable,  as  an  article  of  food,  as  a  good  one 
of  the  other.  Either  11  or  13  eggs  are  placed  under  a  hen  ;  the  former 
number,  11,  is  more  likely  to  be  successful  in  being  entirely  hatched  than 
the  latter,  as  few  hens  can  cover  in  a  sufficient  manner  so  many  as  13  large 
^oS^'  There  is  a  freak,  prevalent  even  at  the  present  day,  of  the  propriety 
of  setting  an  odd  number  of  eggs  under  a  hen.  This  may  have  arisen 
from  the  idea  that,  allowing  1  egg  to  become  rotten,  an  even  number,  or 
so  many  couples  of  chickens,  will  still  be  obtained  in  the.  hatching,  and,  ac- 
cordingly, it  is  considered  a  good  hatching  if  10  chickens  are  brought  out 
of  a  setting  of  11  eggs,  or  a  dozen  of  one  of  13  eggs.  As  essential  a  mat- 
ter as  selecting  the  hens  and  eggs,  is  the  making  a  proper  nest  for  the  sit- 
ting hen.  This  should  consist  of  a  circular  hassock  of  soft  straw-ropes,  or 
it  may  brf  a  box,  or  a  basket.     The  obiect  of  this  foundation  is  to  raise  the 

(417) 15  "^ 


226  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

real  nest  sufficiently  off  the  ground  to  keep  it  dry,  and  to  give  the  nest 
such  a  hollow  as  that  none  of  the  eggs  shall  roll  out  by  any  mischance  that 
may  befall  the  nest.  Either  a  box  or  a  basket  is  a  very  convenient  thing 
for  the  purpose,  but  in  using  either  it  will  be  requisite  to  stuff  the  corners, 
as  well  as  the  bottom,  firmly  with  straw,  that  the  eggs  may  not  drop  into 
the  corners,  or  the  young  chicks,  as  they  are  hatched,  fall  into  them.  The 
nest  itself  should  be  made  of  soft,  short  straw,  sufficiently  large  to  contain 
the  hen,  just  sufficiently  hollow  to  prevent  the  eggs  rolling  out,  and  suffi- 
ciently high  above  the  floor  to  prevent  any  draft  of  air  reaching  the  eggs. 
(1929.)  Places  should  be  chosen  for  placing  the  sitting  hens  in — for  the 
hen-house,  common  to  all  the  laying  hens,  will  not  answ^er,  the  perpetual 
commotion  in  it  disturbing  the  sitting  hens.  A  hatching-house  should  con- 
tain one  hen  at  a  time,  but  as  many  may  be  accommodated  in  it  as  thei-e 
are  partitions  to  separate  the  one  hen  completely  from  the  other,  for  hens 
are  so  jealous  of  each  other,  and  especially  when  sitting,  that  they  will 
sometimes  endeavor  to  take  the  nest  and  eggs  from  one  another.  Other 
places  can  be  selected  for  sitting  in,  such  as  an  outhouse,  a  loft,  a  spare 
room  in  the  farm-house,  or  even  the  back-kitchen.  The  hen  selected  for 
sitting  having  been  accustomed  to  lay  in  the  hen-house,  or  elsewhere,  will 
feel  annoyed  at  first  on  being  transferred  to  her  new  quarters ;  she  will 
have  to  be  coaxed  to  it,  and  even  after  all  may  prove  obstreperous,  though 
exhibiting  strong  symptoms  of  clucking,  in  which  case  she  must  be  dis- 
missed and  another  chosen,  rather  than  the  risk  be  run  of  spoiling  the 
whole  hatching  by  her  capricious  conduct.  A  couple  or  so  of  old  eggs 
should  first  be  put  into  th-e  nest,  upon  which  she  should  be  induced,  by 
meat  and  water  beside  her,  to  sit  for  two  or  three  days,  to  warm  the  nest 
thoroughly,  before  the  eggs  she  is  to  hatch  are  placed  under  her.  After 
she  shows  a  disposition  to  sit,  and  the  nest  has  become  warm,  the  eggs  are 
put  into  the  nest,  11,  as  I  said  before,  being  quite  enough,  and  the  hen 
allowed  to  go  upon  them  in  her  own  way,  and  to  manage  the  eggs  as  she 
chooses,  which  she  will  do  with  her  bill  and  body,  spreading  herself  out 
fully  to  cover  all  the  eggs  completely.  The  time  chosen  for  setting  the 
hen  should  be  in  the  evening,  when  there  is  a  natural  desire  for  roosting 
and  resting,  and  by  next  morning,  by  daybreak  even,  it  will  be  found  that 
she  has  taken  to  the  nest  contentedly.  It  is  not  an  unusual  practice  to 
set  a  hen  at  any  time  of  the  day,  even  in  the  daylight,  when  she  is  almost 
certain  to  come  off  and  desire  to  wander;  and  to  curb  this  disposition,  a  tub, 
or  some  such  vessl,  is  placed  over  her  to  keep  her  in  the  dark,  and  the  con- 
sequence is,  that  the  fright  consequent  upon  such  treatment  prevents  her 
paying  any  attention  to  the  eggs,  and  some  may  even  be  broken  in  her  at- 
tempts to  get  out  of  confinement.  In  such  an  attempt  to  keep  the  crea- 
ture in  the  dark,  it  might  suggest  itself  to  a  considerate  person,  one  bhould 
think,  that  darkness  would  be  most  easily  and  naturally  found  at  night, 
and  that  natural  darkness  was  better  than  any  that  could  be  made  artifi- 
cially. Thus  situate,  the  sitting  hen  should  be  looked  at  occasionally  every 
day,  and  supplied  with  fresh  food,  corn,  and  clean  water.  She  will  not  con- 
sume much  food  during  the  time  of  incubation,  which  is  3  weeks.     Every 

2  or  3  days,  the  dung,  feathers,  &c.,  about  the  nest  or  on  the  floor  should 
be  swept  and  carried   away,  and   the  place  kept  clean  and  dry.     In  about 

3  weeks  a  commotion  among  the  eggs  may  be  expected ;  and  should  the 
hen  have  proved  a  close  sitter,  and  the  weather  mild,  it  is  not  unlikely 
that  2  or  3  chickens  will  be  seen  peeping  out  below  her  feathers  before 
that  period.  The  hen  should  not  be  disturbed  during  the  time  the  chick- 
ens are  leaving  the  eggs,  or  until  thoy  are  all  fairly  out  and  dry.  Any  at- 
tempt to  chip  an  egg  infallibly  kills  the  chick  ;  and  every  attempt  to  re- 

(418) 


THE  HATCHING  OF  FOWLS.  227 

move  pieces  of  a  chipped  egg  causes  the  chick  to  bleed.  A  good  plan  is 
to  give  the  chickens,  when  fairly  out,  a  drink,  by  taking  them  one  by  one 
and  dipping  their  bills  in  water.  Meat  is  then  set  down  to  them  on  a  flat 
plate,  consisting  of  crumbled  bread  and  oatmeal,  and  a  flat  dis^  of  clean 
water.  The  hen's  food  consists  of  corn  or  boiled  potatoes  and  water.  The 
chickens  should  be  visited  every  3  hours,  and  a  variety  of  food  presented, 
so  as  to  induce  them  to  eat  it  the  more  frequently  and  heartily,  such  as 
picks  of  hard  porridge,  crumbled  boiled  potatoes,  rice,  groats,  pearl  barley 
— taking  care  to  have  their  food  always  fresh,  and  their  water  clean,  how- 
ever small  the  quantity  they  may  consume.  The  hassock,  or  box,  or 
basket,  should  now  be  removed,  and  the  true  nest  set  down  on  the  floor, 
with  a  slope  fiom  it,  that  the  chickens  may  have  the  means  of  walking  up 
to  the  nest  to  be  brooded  at  night.  In  the  course  of  24  hours  after  all 
the  chickens  are  on  foot,  the  hen  will  express  a  desire  to  go  out,  which 
she  should  be  indulged  in,  if  the  weather  is  dry,  and  especially  when  the 
sun  is  out ;  but  if  it  rain,  she  had  better  be  kept  within  doors,  unless  there 
is  a  convenient  shed  near,  in  which  she  may  remain  with  her  brood  for  a 
short  time.  Visited  every  3  hours  during  the  day,  and  supplied  with  a 
change  of  food  such  as  I  have  mentioned,  and  clean  water,  for  about  a 
fortnight,  or  until  the  feathers  of  the  tails  and  the  wings  begin  to  sprout, 
chickens  may  then  be  considered  out  of  danger,  and,  of  course,  become 
less  of  a  charge  to  her  who  has  the  care  of  them.  During  the  remainder 
of  the  season  the  chickens  should  receive  food  3  times  a  day,  consisting 
of  potatoes  boiled  as  they  are  used  at  table,  as  long  as  they  last,  and  they 
might  last  the  greater  part  of  the  summer,  provided  means  were  used  to 
presei've  them  for  the  purpose ;  and  the  fact  of  being  able  to  rear  poultry 
cheaper  on  potatoes  than  on  any  other  sort  of  food,  is  a  sufficient  induce- 
ment to  preserve  them  as  long  as  possible  in  a  useable  state.  When  po- 
tatoes fail,  or  even  along  with  them,  hard-made  oatmeal  porridge  is  an 
excellent  food  for  fowls,  when  administered  in  small  bits  at  a  time.  It  is 
not  expedient  to  set  a  number  of  hens  at  one  time,  but  in  succession  every 
3  weeks  or  a  month  ;  for  a  few  chickens,  ready  in  succession,  are  of  great- 
er value  than  a  large  number  of  the  same  age.  As  the  season  advances 
in  summer,  hens,  as  they  become  fat  by  picking  up  plenty  of  food  in  the 
fields,  have  a  predilection  to  select  places  for  nests  in  the  fields,  lay  in 
them,  and  bring  out  chickens  from  their  own  eggs  ;  and  it  must  be  owned 
that  this  is  the  most  natural  way  of  obtaining  chickens  ;  but  no  depend- 
ence can  be  placed  for  a  supply  of  young  fowls  in  this  way,  as  the  weather 
may  not  suit  hens  sitting  in  the  open  air ;  and  hens  may  not  be  in  a  state 
for  laying  a  nestfull  of  eggs  in  the  most  desirable  part  of  the  year,  namely, 
the  early  and  late  periods  of  the  season.  In  short,  it  is  impossible  to  de- 
pend on  a  regular  supply  of  either  eggs  or  chickens,  unless  provision  is 
made  for  collecting  the  one  and  hatching  the  other  in  a  systematic  man- 
ner. Chickens  go  6  weeks  with  their  mother.  A  good  hen  that  has 
brought  out  an  early  brood  will  become  so  fat  while  rearing  them  that 
she  will  in  time  begin  again  to  drop  eggs,  and  of  course  again  become  a 
clucker,  and  may  then  be  employed  to  bring  out  a  late  brood.  Cock- 
chickens,  just  out  of  the  egg,  are  distinguished  from  hen-chickens  by  their 
larger  heads  and  stronger  legs. 

(1930.)  In  regard  to  the  hatching  and  rearing  of  ^wrytcys,  it  is  universally 
said  to  be  a  very  difficult  matter  to  accomplish  ;  an  opinion  I  am  by  no 
means  inclined  to  acquiesce  in,  for  I  am  disposed  to  maintain  that  they  are 
as  easily  reared  as  chickens,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  sequel.  When  a  tur- 
key-hen is  seen  disposed  to  lay,  a  nest  should  be  made  for  her  in  the  hatch- 
ing-house.    It  may  consist  of  the  same  materials  as  the  hen's  nest,  but,   -^ 

(419j 


228  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

course,  of  a  larger  size  to  suit  the  bird.  A  box  or  basket  is  an  excellent 
thing,  with  every  corner  filled  up.  When  once  the  turkey-hen  lays  an  egg, 
and  a  nest-egg  is  placed  in  the  nest,  she  will  use  it  regularly  every  time 
she  requires  it,  which  will  be  once  in  about  30  hours.  As  the  eggs  are  laid, 
they  should  be  removed  and  placed  gently  in  a  basket  in  the  house,  in  a 
dry  place,  and  turned  with  caution  every  day.  When  she  has  done  laying, 
which  may  not  be  till  she  has  laid  12  or  13  or  even  15  eggs,  she  will  be 
disposed  to  sit,  when  the  eggs  should  be  placed  under  her,  to  the  number 
of  11  or  13,  the  former  number  being  the  most  certain  of  succeeding,  as  a 
turkey  cannot  cover  a  greater  number  of  her  own  eggs  than  a  hen  can  of 
hers;  and  a  brood  of  10  poults  is  an  excellent  hatching.  Corn  and  water 
should  be  placed  near  the  nest ;  but  the  turkey  need  not  be  confined  with- 
in the  apartment  she  occupies,  though  she  is  not  disposed  to  wander,  nor 
is  she  jealous  of  another  one  sitting  in  the  same  apartment  with  her.  A 
turkey  sits  4  weeks,  and  is  proverbially  a  close  sitter.  During  the  incu- 
bation her  food  and  water  should  be  supplied  to  her  fresh  and  clean  daily, 
and  all  dung  and  dirt  removed  fiom  her  every  two  or  three  days.  When 
the  poults  are  expected  to  make  their  appearance,  the  turkey  should  be  fre- 
quently looked  at,  but  not  disturbed  until  all  the  creatures  are  fairly  hatch- 
ed. It  is,  I  believe,  a  common  practice  to  put  a  peppercorn  down  the 
throat  of  every  poult  a  very  short  time  after  it  is  hatched.  How  this  prac- 
tice originated  I  cannot  say  ;  but  as  turkeys,  when  at  liberty,  have  a  great 
relish  for  ants,  and  seem  to  possess  an  instinctive  faculty  in  discovering 
their  hills,  it  is  possible  that  the  peppercorn  may  operate  as  a  substitute 
for  the  ant.  It  is  known  that  ants  yield  a  peculiar  acid  c^Wed  formic  acid  ; 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  pungency  of  the  peppercorn  may  act  as 
stimulant  on  the  stomach  in  the  same  manner  as  the  acid  in  ants.  Dr. 
Thomson,  in  speaking  of  the  origin  of  the  formic  acid,  says  that  "  it  is  se- 
creted by  the  Formica  riifa  or  red  ant,  and  is  the  liquid  that  renders  the 
bites  of  these  insects  so  painful.  It  was  first  publicly  noticed  by  Mr,  Ray 
in  the  year  1670.  .  .  .  Mr.  Fisher  had  stated  to  Mr.  Ray  several  years  be- 
fore, that  '  if  you  stir  a  heap  of  ants  so  as  to  rouse  them,  they  will  let  fall  on 
the  instiiiment  you  use  a  liquid  which,  if  you  presently  smell,  will  twinge 
the  nose  like  newly-distilled  oil  of  vitrol.'  Mr.  Fisher  farther  stated  that 
'  when  ants  are  distilled  by  themselves  or  with  water,  they  yield  a  spirit 
like  spirit  of  vinegar,  or  rather  like  spirit  of  viride  ceris.  It  dissolves  iron 
and  lead.  When  you  put  the  animals  into  water,  you  must  stir  them 
lo  make  them  angry,  and  then  they  will  spit  out  their  acid  juice.'  Mar- 
graaf  obtained  this  acid  in  1749,  by  distilling  ants  mixed  with  water  and 
rectifying  the  liquid  that  came  over.  The  acid  obtained  had  a  sour  taste 
and  smell."*  While  considering  this  acid,  I  may  say  a  kw  words  on  the 
constitution  of  pepper.  "  Piper  nigrum  is  the  name  of  the  plant  which 
produces  common  pepper.  It  is  a  shrub  which  grows  in  India.  The  seeds 
are  hemes,  round,  hanl,  having  an  aromatic  smell  and  a  ?iot  acrid  taste. 
These  hemes  constitute  pepper.  The  unripe  berries  are  the  common 
black  pepper ;  while  the  ripe  berries,  deprived  of  their  epidermis,  consti- 
tute white  pepper.  .  .  .  In  1821  M.  Pelletier  published  an  elaborate  ex- 
amination of  pepper.  He  showed  that  it  contained  the  following  constit- 
uents : 

Piperin.  Malic  and  tartaric  acids. 

A  nolid,  very  orriil  oil.  Starch. 

A  bal»ainic  voljitile  oil  Bassorin. 

A  gunimy-colorcd  matter.  Lignin. 

Extract  BJinilar  to  that  obtained  Eartliy  and  alkaline  salts 
from  leguminous  seeds.  in  small  quantities. 


*  Thomson's  Chemistry  of  Animal  Bodies. 
(480) 


THE  HATCHING  OF  FOWLS.  229 

M.  Pelletier  showed  that  piperin  did  not  possess  alkaline  characters,  as 
Oestedt  had  supposed,  but  that  it  was  a  peculiar  principle.  He  found,  too, 
that  pepper  owed  its 'peculiar  ^as^^e  to  a  volatile  oil.  This  I  had  shown  many 
years  before,"  adds  Dr.  Thomson.*  From  this  account  of  it,  it  is  not  im- 
probable that  the  solid  and  very  acrid  oil  in  the  pepper  may  operate  on 
turkeys  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  formic  acid  in  ants ;  and  this  may  form 
an  excuse  for  an  old  practice  for  which  a  sufficient  reason  cannot  be  given 
by  those  who  follow  it.  After  the  peppercorn  is  given,  and  it  may  be 
given  or  not  at  the  person  who  has  charge  may  choose,  the  poults  get  a 
drink  of  water,  and  are  returned  into  the  warm  nest,  where  the  mother  re- 
ceives them  with  characteristic  fondness.  But  before  leaving  the  turkey 
for  that  night,  the  box  or  basket  in  which  the  nest  is  formed  should  be  ta- 
ken away,  and  the  nest  brought  down  upon  the  floor,  with  a  sloping  face 
toward  the  floor  to  enable  the  young  poults  to  gain  the  nest.  For  24  hours 
the  poults  will  eat  nothing,  though  the  turkey  herself  should  be  provided 
with  corn  or  potatoes  and  water.  Next  morning  the  young  creatures  will 
be  quite  astir  and  ready  to  eat  food,  which  should  now  be  given  them.  It 
should  consist  solely  of  hard-boiled  eggs,  yolks  and  white  shredded  doion  very 
small,  and  put  on  a  flat  plate  or  small  square  board.  In  one  respect  turkey- 
poults  differ  in  their  nature  from  chickens,  inasmuch  as  they  are  more  apt 
to  purge  for  about  the  first  fortnight  of  their  existence,  and  when  purging 
does  overtake  them  it  is  difficult  of  cure,  and  indeed  generally  proves  fatal ; 
but  hard-boiled  eggs,  forming  an  astringent  and  nourishing  food,  entirely 
prevent  purging,  and  are  better  for  them  than  some  other  things  I  have 
seen  tried.  For  instance,  for  the  sake  of  experiment,  hard-made  oatmeal- 
porridge  was  given  instead  of  hard-boiled  eggs,  and  in  a  short  time  two 
poults  took  the  flux  and  died,  the  rest  having  been  saved  by  a  return  to 
the  egg.  With  G^g,  not  a  single  death  has  occurred  among  one  to  two 
hatchings  every  year  for  upward  of  20  years,  and  that  is  surely  sufficient 
experience  to  justify  the  recommendation  of  any  practice.  Let  the  poults 
be  visited  every  3  or  4  hours,  supplied  with  hard-boiled  egg  and  clean 
water.  Let  their  food  be  removed  after  the  poults  are  served,  otherwise 
the  turkey -hen  will  devour  it,  for  she  is  a  keen  feeder,  and  not  so  disinter- 
ested a  bird  as  a  hen.  Let  them  remain  2  nights  and  a  day  in  the  house, 
and  after  that  let  them  go  into  the  open  air  and  enjoy  the  sun  and  warmth, 
of  which,  it  is  hoped,  there  will  be  a  plenty  in  the  month  of  May.  In  wet 
weather,  however,  they  should  either  be  confined  to  their  house,  or  allow- 
ed to  go  into  a  shed.  When  the  birds  become  strong  and  active,  in  the 
course  of  a  few  days  let  the  turkey  be  placed  in  a  coop  on  the  green  to 
curb  her  wandering  propensity,  until  the  poults  can  follow  her,  which  they 
will  be  able  to  do  after  they  have  partaken  of  the  hard-boiled  egg  for  a 
fortnight.  Their  meat  can  be  put  down  on  a  plate  on  the  green  beyond 
the  reach  of  the  coop,  and  where  the  poults  can  help  themselves,  while  the 
food  of  the  turkey  is  placed  within  re.ach  of  the  coop,  consisting  of  corn, 
and  potatoes,  and  water.  After  the  feathers  in  the  tails  and  wings  of  the 
poults  are  beginning  to  sprout,  the  egg  may  be  gradually  withdrawn,  and 
hard-boiled  picks  of  porridge,  with  a  little  sweet  milk  in  the  dish,  to  facili- 
tate the  swallowing  of  the  porridge,  should  be  given  them  at  least  4  or  5 
times  a  day  at  stated  hours,  and  will  make  wholesome  food,  until  the  mother 
can  provide  insects  and  other  natural  food  for  them,  which  will  form  a  de- 
sirable variety  with  the  food  given  them,  and  then  they  will  thrive  apace, 
and  grow  amazingly  fast  as  the  weather  becomes  warm.  Should  the  grass 
be  damp,  let  the  coop  be  placed  on  the  gravel  of  the  road  or  walk,  as  damp- 
nesses injurious  to  all  young  birds  of  the  gallinaceous  tribe.    After  the  egg 

*  Thomson's  Chemistry  of  Vegetables 
(421) 


230  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 


the  poults  are  fond  of  a  little  shredded  cress  and  mustard,  and  when  at  full 
liberty,  they  will  pick  the  leaves  of  nettles  with  avidity.  These  predilections 
for  ants,  cress,  and  nettles,  show  that  turkeys  enjoy  stimulating  condiments 
with  their  food. 

(1931.)  Turkeys  are  sometimes  extraordinary  layers.  One  season  a  hen- 
turkey  of  my  own,  after  bringing  up  11  poults  till  they  were  8  weeks  old, 
made  a  nest"  in  the  middle  of  a  large  bush  of  nettles  at  the  edge  of  a  young 
plantation  which  she  visited,  and  contrived  to  slip  away  unnoticed  from 
her  brood  to  lay  an  e<^g  in  evert/  daij.  The  nest  was  soon  discovered,  the 
egg  taken  away  every  day  as  it  was  laid,  and  a  nest-egg  left  in  it,  and  thus 
she  continued  to  visit  it  daily  until  she  had  laid  the  extraordinaiy  number 
of  90  eggs.  The  consequence  of  this  oviparous  fecundity  was,  that  the 
turkey  did  not  moult  till  the  depth  of  winter,  and  the  moulting  was  so  very 
bare  that  she  had  to  be  confined  to  the  house  ;  and  whether  the  catastro- 
phe which  befell  her  before  spring  was  owing  to  the  severity  of  the  late 
moulting  I  do  not  know,  but  an  inflammation  and  a  consequent  swelling 
seized  one  of  her  eyes,  and  she  was  deprived  of  its  sight.  By  spiing,  how- 
ever, she  recovered  from  the  moulting,  was  furnished  with  a  complete  set 
of  new  feathers,  the  wound  on  the  eye  healed,  but  somehow  she  died  in  a 
very  short  time  after.  Turkey-hens  are  most  watchful  protectors  of  their 
young,  and  are  particularly  wary  of  birds  of  prey,  which,  whenever  ob- 
served, even  at  the  greatest  hight  in  the  air,  they  will  utter  a  peculiar 
cry,  and  every  poult  will  instantly  hide  itself  among  the  longest  grass  and 
other  plants  within  reach.  There  is  another  peculiarity  in  regard  to  the 
turkey-hen  ;  one  impregnation  from  the  cock  fecundates  all  the  eggs  of 
the  ovarium  ;  and  on  account  of  this  property,  I  am  told  it  is  not  uncom- 
mon in  spring  in  Ireland  to  see  people  carrying  about  a  turkey-cock  and 
offering  his  services  at  farmsteads  as  those  of  a  stallion  are  proffered.  It 
is  perhaps  owing  to  this  peculiar  constitutional  habit  of  the  turkey  that 
makes  the  cock  so  regardless  of  his  own  progeny  ;  and,  indeed,  the  hen 
voluntarily  shuns  his  attention  when  in  charge  of  her  brood.  The  brood 
goes  with  her  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time. 

(1932.)  In  regard  to  geese,  they  make  early  preparation  for  incubation. 
There  are  couplets  in  existence  indicative  of  the  period  of  commencement 
of  their  laying,  namely, 

"  By  Candlemas  day.  ,    ,  "By  St.  Valenlinc's  day, 

Good  goose  will  lay."  '  Good  and  bad  goose  will  lay." 

Geese,  however,  seldom  lay  in  Scotland  till  the  end  of  February.  The 
goose  and  gander  cannot  embrace  but  in  water,  and  if  the  pond  which 
they  frequent  be  covered  with  ice,  it  should  be  broken  to  allow  them 
to  get  to  the  water,  and  every  egg  requires  a  separate  impregnation.  An 
attentive  observer  will  know  when  a  goose  is  desirous  of  laying,  by  her 
picking  among  straws  and  placing  one  on  this  side  and  one  on  that  of  her, 
as  if  making  a  nest.  ^Vhenever  this  is  noticed,  or  an  embrace  on  the  wa- 
ter, a  nest  should  be  made  for  the  goose  to  lay  in  in  the  hatching-house, 
and  to  which  she  should  have  easy  access,  for  she  cannot  jump  up  with  the 
nimbleness  of  either  a  hen  or  a  turkey,  though  her  nest  may  be  made  in  a 
box  or  basket,  in  the  same  manner  as  that  of  the  hen,  but  of  a  size  to  suit 
the  bird  intended  to  occupy  it.  It  is  not  proper  to  confine  a  goose  a  long 
time  before  laying  her  first  egg  ;  but  when  symptoms  of  being  with  egg 
are  observed,  she  should  be  caught  in  the  morning,  when  let  out,  and  the 
lower  portion  of  the  soft  part  of  the  abdomen  felt,  where  the  c^rg  may  be 
easily  ascertained  to  be  in  a  state  or  not,  for  being  immediately  laid,  and  if 
it  feel  hard,  the  goose  should  be  shown  her  nest  and  confined  to  it  until  she 

(422) 


1 


THE  HATCHING  OF  FOWLS.  231 

lays  in  the  course  of  the  day,  after  which  she  is  of  course  let  out,  the  eo-g 
taken  away  and  kept  dry  in  a  basket,  and  turned  every  day,  until  the  whole 
are  placed  under  her.  Every  other  day  after  this  the  goose  will  visit  her 
nest  and  lay  an  egg,  and  the  number  she  may  lay  will  seldom  exceed  12, 
though  18  have  been  known  to  be  laid ;  so,  by  the  time  she  is  done  laying, 
it  will  be  about  the  end  of  March.  There  is,  however,  considerable  differ- 
ence in  this  respect  with  geese,  on  some  farms  they  being  considerably 
earlier  in  hatching  than  on  others.  This  may  arise  from  the  nature  of  the 
soil,  for  it  is  probable  that  a  dry,  sharp,  early  soil  for  grass  and  grain,  will 
also  early  promote  the  functions  of  the  animals  that  live  upon  it.  After  the 
goose  has  finished  laying  her  eggs  she  will  incline  to  sit,  and  then  is  the 
time  for  her  to  receive  the  eggs ;  and  the  best  time  for  placing  her  upon 
them  in  the  nest,  as  I  have  said  before,  is  in  the  evening,  that,  by  the  arri- 
val of  the  morning,  the  nest  being  warm  and  comfortable,  the  goose  will 
have  no  inducement  to  leave  it.  The  number  of  eggs  given  to  be  hatched 
should  be  11,  which  is  as  many  as  a  goose  can  conveniently  and  easily  cover. 
The  goose  plucks  the  down  off  her  body  to  furnish  her  nest  with  the  means 
of  its  increasing  its  heat ;  and  one  great  use  of  the  down  is,  that  when  she 
leaves  her  nest  at  any  time  it  serves  the  double  purpose  of  retaining  the 
heat  about  the  eggs  and  of  preventing  the  external  cold  affecting  them.  A 
little  clean  water  and  a  few  oats  are  put  beside  a  goose  when  she  is  sit- 
ting ;  but  she  will  eat  very  little  food  all  the  time  of  her  incubation.  A 
feed  of  good  oats,  such  as  is  given  to  a  horse,  will  serve  a  sitting  goose  for 
a  month,  yet  this  little  handful!  is  actually  grudged  the  goose,  and  instead 
of  good  corn,  only  little  better  than  chaff,  the  lightest  corn  that  is  blown 
from  the  fanners,  is  only  allowed  by  many  farmers  who  consider  themselves 
very  good  managers.  Some  hen-wives  will  not  allow  the  goose  to  go 
abroad  as  long  as  she  is  sitting  ;  but  this  is  an  unnecessary  constraint  upon 
her.  Let  her  go  off  whenever  she  pleases,  and  there  is  no  fear  but  that  she 
will  return  to  her  nest  in  time  to  retain  the  heat  of  the  eggs  ;  for  she 
makes  it  a  point  to  cover  every  egg  with  down  before  leaving  the  nest. 
Most  people  will  not  allow  her  to  go  to  the  water  at  all,  alleging  that  if 
she  return  wet  upon  her  eggs  they  will  become  addled,  but  this  is  a  mis- 
take. Let  her  go  to  the  pond  if  she  wills  it,  and  wash  herself  in  it,  and, 
depend  upon  it,  she  will  not  continue  long  there  ;  she  will  be  cooled  and 
much  refreshed  by  it.  The  feathers  will  not  become  wet  ;  it  is  not  their 
nature  to  become  so  ;  and  after  such  a  relaxation,  which  she  much  enjoys, 
she  will  sit  the  closer.  Geese  are  liable  to  become  costive  while  sitting, 
and  to  counteract  this  tendency,  they  should  be  supplied  now  and  then 
with  a  little  boiled  potato  in  a  dry  state,  which  they  will  relish  much,  and 
feel  much  the  better  for ;  and,  indeed,  every  fowl,  while  sitting,  should  re- 
ceive a  little  of  this  useful  succedaneum  at  that  peculiar  juncture.  The 
gander  usually  takes  up  with  one  mate,  but  if  there  are  only  two  geese, 
he  will  pay  attention  to  both  ;  and  his  regard  for  his  mate  is  so  strong  that 
he  will  remain  at  the  door  of  the  hatching-house  like  a  watch-dog,  guard- 
ing her  from  every  danger,  and  ready  to  attack  all  and  sundry  who  ap- 
proach her  sanctuary.  At  the  end  of  a  calendar  month  the  eggs  may  be  ex- 
pected to  be  hatched  ;  and  during  this  process  the  goose  should  be  left 
undisturbed,  but  not  unobserved.  After  the  goslings  are  all  fairly  out  of 
the  shell,  and  before  they  are  even  dry,  they  may  be  taken  in  a  basket  with 
straw  to  a  sheltered  dry  spot  in  a  grass-field,  the  goose  carried  by  the 
wings,  and  the  gander  will  follow  the  goslings'  soft  whistle.  Here  they 
may  remain  for  an  hour  or  two,  provided  the  sun  shines,  for  in  sunshine 
goslings  will  pick  up  more  strength  in  one  hour  than  all  the  brooding  they 
can  receive  even  from  their  mother  for  a  day.     The  goose  \^all  rest  on  the 

(423J 


232  THE    BOOK   OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

grass,  the  goslings  will  endeavor  to  balance  themselves  on  their  feet  to 
pluck  it,  and  the  gander  will  proudly  protect  the  whole.  Water  should 
be  placed  beside  them  to  drink.  Should  the  sky  overcast,  and  rain  likely 
to  fall,  tlie  goslings  should  be  collected,  and  they  and  goose  carried  instant- 
ly to  their  nest ;  for  if  goslings  get  their  backs  wetted  with  rain  or  snow 
in  the  first  two  days  of  their  existence,  they  will  lose  the  use  of  their  legs, 
never  recover  their  strength,  and  inevitably  die.  Should  the  weather  be 
wet,  a  sod  of  good  grass  should  be  cut  and  placed  within  their  house,  with 
a  shallow  plate  of  water.  In  setting  down  a  common  plate  to  goslings,  it 
should  be  prevented  tVom  upsetting,  as  they  are  apt  to  put  their  foot  upon 
its  edge,  and  spill  the  water.  After  two  days'  strength,  and  especially  in 
sunny  weather,  the  goslings  may  venture  to  the  pond  to  swim  ;  but  the 
horse-pond  is  a  rather  dangerous  place  for  them  as  yet,  so  many  creatures 
frequenting  it.  Some  water,  or  a  pond,  in  a  grass-field,  would  be  a  better 
place  for  them.  For  the  first  two  or  three  days  after  goslings  go  about, 
they  should  be  particularly  observed,  for  should  they  in  that  time  happen 
to  fall  upon  their  backs,  or  even  into  a  hardened  hoof-print  of  a  horse,  they 
cannot  recover  their  legs,  will  be  deserted  by  their  dam  and  the  rest  of  the 
flock,  and  will  perish.  After  three  or  fmwwlays,  however,  in  dry  sunny 
weather,  and  on  good  grass,  they  will  beo^ifce  strong,  grow  fast,  and  be 
past  all  danger.  It  is  surprising  how  rapidly  a  young  gosling  gi'ows  in  the 
first  month  of  its  life.  After  that  time  they  begin  to  tire  of  gi-ass,  and  go 
in  search  of  other  food  ;  and  this  is  the  time  to  supply  them  daily  with  a 
few  good  oats,  if  you  wish  to  have  a  flock  of  fine  birds  by  Michaelmas ; 
any  other  grain  will  answer  the  purpose,  as  rice  and  Indian  corn,  let  it  be 
but  com,  though  oats  are  their  favorite  food.  Even  ordinary  light  com  will 
be  better  for  them  than  none  ;  and  if  they  get  corn  only  till  harvest,  they 
will  have  passed  the  most  gi-owing  period  of  their  life,  and  will  then  be 
able  to  shift  for  themselves,  first  in  the  stack-yard  and  afterward  in  the 
stubbles.  The  sex  of  the  gosling  may  easily  be  ascertained  after  the  feath- 
ers begin  to  sprout,  the  ganders  being  white,  and  strong  in  the  leg,  head, 
and  neck  ;  the  geese  are  gray  and  gentler-looking.  Goslings  go  with  their 
parents  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time. 

(1033.)  Geese  are  in  general  close  sitters;  but  sometimes  they  become 
so  capricious  as  to  forsake  some  of  their  eggs  after  a  number  of  them  have 
been  hatched.  An  instance  of  this  sort  of  desertion  I  have  witnessed.  A 
goose  after  hatching  5  goslings,  deserted  her  nest  and  would  no  longer  sit 
on  the  other  6  eggs  to  bring  them  out,  though  one  of  them  was  chipped. 
Fearing  that  the  deserted  eggs  would  perish  from  cold,  my  housekeeper 
— who  took  the  charge  of  all  the  poultry,  cows,  and  calves,  besides  the 
duties  of  the  house — brought  the  eggs  into  the  house,  put  them  in  a  basket 
among  flannel  and  wool,  caused  the  oven  to  be  gently  heated,  placed  the 
basket  with  the  eggs  in  the  oven,  and  continued  the  heat  in  it  night  and 
day  until  all  the  goslings  were  hatched,  which  they  were  one  by  one,  ex- 
cepting one  in  which  the  bird  had  died.  The  young  creatures"  occupied 
some  days  in  leavine:  their  eggs,  and  longer  than  they  would  have  done 
under  the  goose.  They  were  carefully  attended  to  and  were  taken  out  to 
the  grass  in  the  best  part  of  the  day,  kept  warm  in  the  house  at  night,  and, 
when  the  weather  was  such  that  they  could  not  get  out,  a  gi-ass-sod  was 
brought  to  them  into  the  house.  The  goose  refused  to  take  her  ov.n  broken 
brood  when  offered  to  her,  after  they  had  gained  sufficient  strength  to  go 
about;  and  this  being  the  case,  they  were  brought  up  without  her  aid,  and 
became  as  strong  birds  as  those  of  her  own  out-brintrino-.  I  consider  this  a 
remarkable  instance  of  the  resources  of  a  ready  mind,  and  of  disregard  of 
personal  trouble  ;  and  it  is  an  encouraging  example  of  perseverance  in  an 

(424) 


THE  HATCHING  OF  FOWLS.  233 


attempt  to  preserve  the  lives  of  useful  annimals  under  very  inauspicious  and 
even  provoking  circumstances. 

(1934.)  Ducks  begin  to  lay  eggs  early  in  the  season,  as  early  as  Febru- 
ary, so  it  is  possible  to  obtain  an  early  hatching  of  ducklings,  if  desired  ; 
but  early  ducklings  are  not  desii-able,  for,  during  that  unnatural  period  for 
them,  they  do  not  acquire  much  flesh,  even  with  the  utmost  care;  their 
bills  and  bones  grow  disproportionately  large,  and  altogether  the  experi- 
ment does  not  succeed.  It  is  early  enough  to  set  duck-eggs  in  Scotland 
by  May,  and  by  April  in  England.  It  is  customary  to  place  duck-eggs* 
under  hens,  owing  I  believe,  to  the  great  difficulty  of  making  a  duck  take 
to  a  nest  which  she  has  not  herself  made.  Hens  make  pretty  good  foster- 
mothers  to  ducklings,  though  in  becoming  so,  the  task  is  imposed  upon 
them  of  a  week's  longer  sitting  than  is  natural  to  them,  and,  after  all,  the 
natural  plan  is  for  ducks  to  bring  out  their  own  kind  ;  and  there  is  no 
doubt  that  when  a  duck  does  choose  a  nest  for  herself,  lines  it  with  her 
own  down,  and  brings  out  a  brood,  the  ducklings  are  better  than  any 
reared  under  the  auspices  of  a  hen  ;  the  instinct  of  the  duck  being  more 
congenial  to  ducklings  in  leading  them  to  places  in  search  of  food  peculiar 
to  their  tastes,  as  well  upon  land  as  upon  water.  Still  the  entire  production 
of  ducklings  on  a  farm  should  not  be  left  to  the  chance  of  ducks  setting 
themselves  on  eggs,  for  they  are  proverbially  careless  of  whei-e  they  deposit 
their  eggs,  and  on  that  account  hens  must  be  employed  to  hatch  at  least  a 
few  broods. 

(1935.)  As  in  the  case  of  her  own  eggs,  a  hen  can  only  cover  11  duck- 
eggs  with  ease,  and,  of  course,  she  requires  the  same  treatment  when  sit- 
ting on  them  as  she  receives  with  her  own  eggs.  A  calendar  month  is  re- 
quired to  bring  out  ducklings  ;  and  the  hen  should  be  left  undisturbed  un- 
till  all  the  brood  comes  out.  Ducklings  should  be  kept  from  water  for  a 
couple  of  days,  until  their  navel-string  is  healed  ;  and  the  food  which  they 
receive  should  be  of  a  soft  nature,  quite  the  opposite  of  that  given  to  turkey- 
poults,  such  as  bits  of  oatmeal  porridge,  boiled  potatoes,  bread  steeped  in 
water,  barley-meal  brose,  and  clean  water  to  drink  in  a  flat  dish  in  which 
they  cannot  swim.  On  this  treatment,  3  or  4  times  at  least  every  day,  they 
will  thrive  apace,  and  become  soon  fledged  in  the  body,  when  they  are  fit 
for  use  ;  but  their  quill-feathers  do  not  appear  for  some  time  after.  In 
this  state  wild  ducklings,  under  the  name  oi  Jlaffers,  make  good  sport, 
and  are  an  excellent  dish  with  green  peas,  when  stuffed  with  onion  and 
sage  shred  small,  and  a  little  pepper  and  salt  among  them,  and  roast- 
ed, and  served  up  in  a  hot  sauce  of  Port  wine  seasoned  with  pepper  and 
mace. 

(1936.)  A  great  number  of  ducklings  are  bred  and  reared  every  year  at 
Aylesbury  in  Buckinghamshire,  for  the  London  market,  by  people  of  the 
poorer  class.  The  eggs  are  hatched  by  hens,  and  3  or  4  broods  are  put 
together  into  one  division  ;  while  other  divisions  contain  them  in  a  different 
state  of  growth,  some  half  grown,  others  full  fledged,  and  all  are  fed  alike. 
In  this  way  one  person  has  300  or  400  ducklings  feeding  about  his  house, 
and  perhaps  under  the  same  roof  with  his  own  family.  A  great  many  are 
housed  in  little  space,  and  never  allowed  to  go  at  large  ;  but  are  permitted 
to  wash  themselves  every  day  in  a  pond  made  on  purpose  near  the  house. 
They  are  fed  three  times  a  day  on  potatoes,  barley-meal,  bran,  greaves, 
&c.,  and  receive  as  much  as  they  can  eat ;  and  it  is  said  that  they  can  eat 
an  incredible  quantity  of  food  while  thus  forced  for  the  market.  When 
full-feathered  they  are  sent  to  London,  where  they  find  a  ready  sale,  at 
from  6s.  6d.  to  8s.  a  pair.  As  the  season  advances,  prices  fall,  till  they 
reach  3s.  a  pair,  when  the  breeding  is  given  up  for  the  season.  These  pec* 


234  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

pie  allege  that  they  are  not  remunerated  for  their  trouble  even  at  the  high- 
est prices. 

(1937.)  Pea-hens,  in  their  hatching,  cannot  be  subjected  to  control.  The 
hen  selects  a  secluded  spot  for  her  nest,  not  unlikely  in  the  garden, 
where  8he  feels  herself  secure  from  the  attentions  of  the  cock,  whom  she 
seems  to  avoid  at  this  season,  with  marked  assiduity.  She  takes  care  that 
he  shall  not  know,  not  only  where  her  nest  is,  but  when  the  pea-fowls  come 
out,  because,  as  is  alleged,  the  cock  would  destroy  them.  A  pea-hen  in 
this  country  seldom  brings  out  more  than  3  or  4  birds,  though  usually 
laying  5  eggs ;  and  these  she  tends  with  great  care,  taking  them  to  places 
where  wild  food  can  be  found  in  greatest  abundance,  such  as  insects  of 
various  kinds  and  in  diflerent  states,  and  grain,  while  they  are  fed  as  young 
turkeys ;  and  she  continues  her  attentions  to  them  for  the  greater  part  of 
the  year. 

(1938.)  Pigeons,  when  their  dove-cot  is  favorably  situated  for  heat,  be- 
gin to  lay  in  February,  and  will  continue  to  do  so  until  December.  They 
make  their  own  nests,  which  are  of  the  simplest  and  rudest  construction, 
and,  indeed,  the  same  nest  will  be  used  by  the  same  pair  season  after  sea- 
son, eveh  after  it  has  been  much  elevated  with  dung.  A  fine  nest  is  not 
required  by  pigeons,  which  only  laying  2  eggs  at  a  time,  one  of  each  sex, 
the  hen  can  easily  cover  them ;  and  to  secure  them  still  more,  she  pushes 
them  below  her  with  her  bill,  among  the  feathers,  to  keep  them  warm.  A 
supply  of  young  pigeons  might  be  found  at  the  farmer's  table  all  summer. 
To  vai-y  their  cookery,  they  can  be  stewed,  roasted,  broiled,  and  made  in- 
to pies,  one  and  all  of  which,  when  properly  seasoned  with  pepper,  salt, 
onions  shred  small,  and  butter,  makes  a  savory  appendent  to  any  dinner. 
While  touching  on  cookery,  I  may  remark,  in  regard  to  other  poultiy,  that 
a  young  chicken  roasted  or  broiled,  when  in  perfection,  at  14  weeks  old — 
a  young  cock  especially,  or  boiled — a  young  hen  being  the  more  delicate 
— with  a  slice  of  ham,  is  a  standing  delicacy  at  a  farmer's  table.  Duck- 
lings and  green  peas  are  seen  for  a  short  season  in  the  early  part  of  sum- 
mer, but  a  roast  duck  may  be  had  all  autumn  and  the  early  part  of  winter. 
Turkey-poults  are  never  indulged  in  by  the  Scottish  farmer,  probably  from 
the  idea  that  they  have  too  little  flesh  upon  them,  and  are  too  similar  to 
boiled  chickens  ;  and  as  chickens  are  more  plentiful,  and  can  be  used  with 
less  scruple,  the  poults  are  spared  until  they  attain  full  size.  Young  geese 
are  never  seen  at  a  Scottish  farmer's  table,  though  a  stubble-goose  at 
Michaelmas  seems  to  be  prized  in' England.  With  regard  to  the  means  of 
supplying  young  fowls  on  a  farm,  2  turkey-hens  and  2  geese  will  rear  as 
many  turkeys  and  geese  as  will  be  required  by  a  large  family  ;  3  or  4  broods 
of  ducks  will  suffice ;  a  brood  or  broods  of  chickens  may  be  brought  out 
from  March  to  November;  and  as  to  pigeons,  it  is  the  farmer's  own  fault  if 
he  has  not  a  supply  of  them  from  March  to  December.  Those  who  do  not 
care  for  the  flesh  of  fowls  may  send  their  poultry  to  market ;  and  those  who 
breed  for  the  market  should  provide  a  person  well  versed  in  rearing  poultry 
to  undertake  the  duty. 

(1939.)  With  regard  to  the  feeding  of  fowls  in  summer,  boiled  potatoes 
and  hard-made  oatmeal  porridge  should  be  their  staple  food ;  and  so  fond 
are  all  sorts  of  birds  of  potatoes,  that  there  should  some  pains  be  taken  by 
farmers  to  preserve  a  lew  of  the  best  of  them  over  the  summer,  for  the 
express  purpose  of  feeding  poultry.  I  have  described  a  plan  of  keeping 
them  over  a  year  in  a  former  paragraph  (1871).  Food,  when  distributed 
for  poultry,  should  not  be  laid  down  in  a  large  heap  in  one  place,  when 
birds  of  different  natures  partake  of  it,  and  are  therefore  almost  certain  of 
quarreling  and  fignting ;  but  it  should   be   scattered  thinly  along  a  bare 

1426) 


THE  HATCHING  OF  FOWLS.  235 


piece  of  ground,  or,  what  is  better,  upon  grass,  which  keeps  it  clean,  and 
from  which  it  can  easily  be  picked  up,  but  it  should  not  be  laid  among  straw, 
as  it  is  easily  lost  sight  of  among  it.  As  different  sorts  of  birds  have  different 
habits,  and  frequent  different  places,  the  food  should  be  scattered  for  each 
kind  as  near  their  usual  habitats  as  their  natures  indicate,  and  which  the 
person  who  has  charge  of  the  matter  can  devise — scattering  some  near 
water  for  geese  and  ducks,  upon  the  margin  of  grass  on  the  side  of  the  road 
near  the  steading,  for  hens,  and  at  a  more  retired  place,  though  still  upon 
grass,  for  the  turkeys  ;  and  the  food  should  be  thus  be  laid  down  for  the 
different  sorts  of  fowls  at  a  fixed  hour  of  morning  and  afternoon.  Cleanli- 
ness, attention,  regularity,  and  good  food,  constitute  the  grand  secret  of 
reaiing  poultry  to  the  highest  perfection. 

(1940.)  AVhat  I  have  described  of  hatching  the  different  sorts  of  fowls 
usually  reared,  is  suitable  to  every  sort  of  fai'm,  and  may  be  acquired  by 
any  domestic  of  the  farm-house  :  and  that  it  is  a  practicable  scheme  my 
own  experience  has  demonstrated.  Other  schemes  are  recommended  in 
books,  and  large  establishments,  consisting  of  buildings  and  ponds,  and 
spare  ground,  are  erected  in  the  parks  and  farm-courts  of  country  gentle- 
men; but  let  any  other  plan  be  what  it  may,  and  the  erections  and  other 
appliances  of  whatever  magnitude,  there  is  none,  I  feel  confident,  will  af- 
ford poultry  at  all  times  in  a  higher  degree  of  perfection  than  the  simple 
one  1  have  been  describing,  and  recommending  for  your  adoption — and 
experience  is  the  true  test  to  which  every  plan  should  be  subjected.  I  do 
not  hold  it  out  as  a  peculiarly  cheap  plan,  that  is,  that  it  will  supply  good 
poultry  for  the  table  at  little  or  no  cost,  though  that  is  the  idea  of  cheapness 
entertained  by  farmers,  when  they  condescend  to  cast  a  thought  on  the 
poultry  of  their  farms.  I  will  not  say,  because  I  do  not  believe  it,  that  fowls 
can  be  reared  for  nothing,  or  upon  the  refuse  of  the  products  of  a  farm  ; 
because,  when  I  see  that  it  requires  the  best  oats,  the  best  turnips,  and  the 
best  grass  that  a  farm  can  raise,  to  rear  such  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  as 
purchasers  desire  to  have,  I  cannot  believe  that  the  best  poultry  can  be 
reared  but  on  the  best  sort  of  food  suited  for  them  ;  but  this  I  will  say  for 
the  plan  as  a  practicable  one  for  an  ordinary  farm,  that  it  requires  no  costly 
buildings,  and  that  it  will  assuredly  yield  poultry  in  good  condition  at  all 
times  in  return  for  the  food  and  trouble  bestowed  upon  them,  and  what 
more  can  any  reasonable  farmer  desire  1 

(1941.)  Fowls  are  kept  in  towns  in  places  quite  unsuited  to  their  habits  ;  most  frequently  in  a 
small  court,  surrounded  by  a  high  rail,  except  on  the  side  in  which  the  hen-house  is  situated  ; 
and  this  consists  of  a  flattishroofed  outhouse,  pervious  to  rain  and  redolent  of  moisture — a  condi- 
tion the  very  worst  for  fowls.  The  floor  of  the  court  is  generally  covered  with  dirt,  and  the 
small  vessel  which  is  intended  to  contain  water  is  as  often  dry  as  plenished  with  clean  water, 
while  the  food  is  thrown  upon  the  dirty  court-floor.  Add  to  these  sources  of  discomfort,  the  sun, 
probably,  never  shines  upon  the  town  hen-house,  or  only  for  a  few  minutes  in  the  afternoon,  when 
the  fowls  are  about  to  retire  to  roost.  Ducks  are  treated  in  even  a  less  ceremonious  manner  than 
hens ;  having  no  water,  their  feathers  become  begrimed  with  dirt,  and  their  food  is  given  them 
in  a  state  little  else  than  a  puddle.  It  is,  of  course,  impossible  that  fowls  can  thrive  in  such  cir- 
cumstances, and,  indeed,  a  sight  of  the  poor  creatures  excites  nothing  but  commiseration  for  their 
fate.  What  can  induce  people  to  keep  animals  in  such  a  state  of  filth  and  suffering  is  what  I 
cannot  conceive.  One  cause  of  suffering  to  hens  in  such  situations  is  tiie  want  of  sand  or  gravel 
to  assist  the  trituration  of  food  in  the  stomach.  It  is  found  that  gallinaceous  birds  require  a  sup- 
ply of  quartzy  substances,  and  these  they  find  on  any  farm,  as  also  calcareous  matter,  such  as 
lime,  to  assist  in  the  formation  of  the  shell  of  the  egg,  without  which  hens  will  lay  what  are 
called  ivind  eggs,  that  is,  eggs  without  a  hardened  sheW.  In  the  case  of  the  fowls  on  board  a  cer- 
tain East  Indiaman  getting  unwell  in  their  coops,  notwithstanding  the  attention  daily  bestowed, 
and  the  good  food  allowed  them,  it  was  discovered  by  the  surgeon,  on  dissection  of  some  of  the 
birds  which  had  died,  that  the  cause  of  death  was  the  want  of  gravel  to  assist  the  digestion  of 
food.  A  supply  of  stones  to  beat  down  small  was  obtained  at  a  convenient  port,  and  the  fowls 
became  healthy  and  continued  bo  afterward.  Another  source  of  suffering  of  a  similar  nature  to 
hens,  is  the  want  of  dust  to  flutter  among  their  feathers  in  order  to  destroy  the  vermin  that  annoy 
their  skin  ;  and  the  want  of  water  for  the  ducks  to  wash  in  and  clean  themselves. 

(1942.)  With  the  diseases  of  chickens  or  other  young  fowls,  such  as  the  pip  or  chip,  I  am  not 
acquainted,  not  having  seen  any  such  disease  after  an  experience  of  many  years  in  rearing  every  . 
(427) 


236  THE   BOOK  OF  THE   FARM SPRING. 


species  of  fowl  that  is  found  on  a  farm,  and,  of  coarxe,  I  am  inclined  to  maintain  that,  were  others 
to  follow  a  similar  fourse  to  the  one  I  have  so  succcHsfully  pursued,  tliry  would  have  e(|iiu!  suc- 
cess, and  wiii)c'8.s  an  few  diveuKos  among  their  poultry  as  I  have.  1  am  corroborated  by  a  writer 
on  the  rearinir  of  doniosiic  poultry,  whose  experience  I  know  is  considerable — whose  attention 
I  am  sure  ix  unreniitlinx — and  whose  good  sense  is  evident.  "  Of  the  diseases  to  which  poultry 
are  liable  we  are  |)ructicully  ignorant,"  says  the  writer,  a  lady  of  my  acquaintance,  "  having  been 
for  many  years  here  so  fortunate  as  to  experience  few  or  no  instances  of  disease  among  our 
stock  ;  and"  we  attribute  the  health  of  our  various  animals  in  the  farm-yard  entirely  to  strict  at- 
tention to  ciraii/iiit's.i.  diet,  find  rational  treatment.  Those  who  listen  to  advice  of  the  ignorant 
and  the  projudiced.  nay,  tln-v  who  seek  from  books  remedies  for  disorders  which  may  appear 
among  their  live-.stock.'will  have  to  contend  with  monstrous  absurdities,  excessive  ignorance, 
and  barbarous  cruelty,  in  the  quackeries  recommended.  Nature  will  generally  effect  a  cure,  if 
her  efforts  are  secoti'ded  by  simple  means  on  our  own  part.  Calomel,  sulphur,  rue,  pepper,  and 
gin,  are  all  absurdities,  though  all  recomnicnde<l  for  the  ailments  of  poultrj-."  Another  writer 
thus  expresses  himself  on  the  same  subject :  '  With  regard  to  medical  treatment  applied  to  the 
diseases  of  jiouliry,  but  little  regarding  its  efficacy  is  known.  The  no.strums  and  mode  of  treat- 
ment adopted  throughout  the  country,  together  with  the  greater  jjart  that  has  been  written  upon 
the  subject,  is  a  farrago  of  nonsense  and  absurdity.  If  shelter,  irarmth.  food,  and  chdnliiiat, 
conpen'ial  to  their  hal/its.  will  not  preserve  them  in  health,  but  little  reliance  can  be  placed  upon 
medicine.  Most  good  wives,  however  possess  an  insatiable  itching  to  bo  considered  skillful  doc- 
tors. From  among  some  thousand  birds  that  have  come  under  my  observation.  /  never  cnvld 
discm'er  that  common  and  universal  disease  called  the  'pip.'  Yet  show  any  farmer's  wife  a 
sicklv  chicken,  and  she  immediately  opens  its  mouth,  and  with  her  needle  tears  oH' the  cartilage 
from'tlie  under  part  of  the  bird's  tongue,  to  show  it  is  afflicted  with  it !  When  will  the  light  of 
knowledge  banish  these  absurdities?"*  The  former  writer,  however,  alludes  to  an  ailment 
among  chickens  which  I  have  never  seen,  arising,  it  would  appear,  from  their  being  hatched  at  a 
particular  period  of  the  year.  After  adverting  to  the  tender  state  of  chickens  superinduced  by 
both  early  and  late  hatching,  the  writer  particularizes  the  period  of  the  year  when  the  disease 
alluded  to  makes  its  appearance :  "  There  is  yet  another  time,  during  which  it  is  absolutcli/  in- 
dispensable  tluit  hens  bepreventcdfrom  silting,  and  that  is  the  month  of  June.  Close  observation 
(after  having  suffered  at  that  season  numerous  failures  most  unaccountably)  enabled  us  to  dis- 
cover the  cause,  and  thereby  verify  the  truth  of  an  old  saying,  which  we  have  since  met  with — 

'Between  the  sickle  and  the  ecyihe. 
What  you  rear  will  seldom  thrive.' 

We  had  noticed  that  chickens  which  were  hatched  during  the  month  of  July  were  almost  all  at- 
tacked about  the  time  of  their  first  moulting  (a  period  always  attended  with  much  suffering  to 
them)  with  a  fatal  disorder,  the  symptoms  of  which  are  unvarying.  The  chickens  appeared  to 
collapse,  arid  moved  about  with  difficulty,  as  If  their  joints  were  stiffened,  or  rather  as  if  the  skin 
had  become  tight  and  tender ;  their  feathers  became  rough  and  stood  out ;  their  wings  drooped 
and  dragged  on  the  ground  ;  they  refused  sustenance  ;  and  becoming  more  and  more  weak  and 
torpid,  they  in  a  day  or  two,  died  off  in  great  numbers.  Every  rational  means  was  resorted  to 
in  order  to  arrest,  or  even  account  for  the  disorder;  at  length  it  was  discovered  that  they  were 
In  a  high  state  of  fever,  and  that  the  extreme  redness  of  the  skin  was  caused  by  the  irritation  of 
hundreds  of  that  minute  pest  the  harvest  bug.  Some — verj'  few — were  recovered  by  anointing 
them  all  over  with  oil  and  vinegar  (which  is  also  the  best,  nay  the  only  remedy  for  the  annoyance 
which  human  beings  experience  from  the  same  source) ;  but  the  receipt  is  too  rough  for  little 
delicate  creatures  already  enduring  the  pain  attendant  on  the  season  of  moulting.  It  oecame  ob- 
vious that  the  period  during  which  harvest-bugs  are  most  numerous  and  tormenting  must  be  in- 
imical to  the  rearing  of  chickens;  and  that  if  hens  were  not  allowed  to  sit  in  June,  or  rather,  if 
the  chickens  were  either  strong  enough  to  cope  with  the  evil,  or  were  not  hatched  until  the  sea- 
son for  the  pest  had  passed  by,  the  destruction  might  be  prevented,  and  so  it  has  proved."  t 

(1943.)  On  considering  the  hatching  of  fowls,  the  mind  is  naturally  led  to  the  curious  artificial 
system  of  hatching  which  the  ancient  Egj'ptians  practiced,  and  which  afforded  them  an  immense- 
supply  of  poultry  every  year.  It  is  unnecessary  to  detail  the  ancient  mode  of  hatching,  as  it  is 
unsuited  to  this  country,  our  climate  being  much  too  unsteady  for  the  purpose;  but  particular 
accounts  of  it  may  be  Ibund  detailed  by  authors.^  The  modern  Egyptians  still  practice  the  sys- 
tem, and  i'.s  the  results  exhibit  some  extraordinary  facts,  I  am  tempted  to  give  the  following  ac- 
count of  it  from  Mr.  Mowbray.  '•  Sicard,"  he  says,  "  gives  an  idea  of  the  immense  quantities  of 
chickens  hatched  in  his  time  in  Egypt.  The  number  of  ovens  for  hatching  tlie  eggs,  dispersed  in 
the  several  cantons  of  the  country,  was  no  less  than  386.  The  business  seems  to  be  monopolized 
by  the  Agas  or  Government,  and  therefore  cannot  be  varied  in  extent  but  by  their  permission. 
Each  manial  or  oven  has  one  managing  Bermean,  a  native  of  the  village  of  Berme  in  the  Delta, 
by  whom  the  art  of  managing  it  has  been  retained,  and  is  taught  to  his  children.  These  man- 
agers cannot  absent  tliemselves  from  duty  but  with  leave  obtained  from  the  Aga  of  Berme,  never 
obtained  but  at  the  ext)eiisc  of  fi  to  10  crowns.  The  Aga  constantly  keeps  a  register  of  these 
fees,  which  to  him  is  a  sort  of  rent  roll.  The  above  number  of  ovens  is  kept  at  work  in  Egypt 
annually  during  4  to  ti  niouihs.  allowing  more  time  than  is  necessary  to  ha  ch  8  successive  broods 
of  chickens,  ducks,  and  turkeys,  making  in  the  whole,  yearly,  3*088  broods.  The  number  in 
each  hatchine  is  not  always  equal,  from  the  occasional  difhculty  of  obtaining  a  sufficient  number 
of  eggs,  which  may  be  slated  at  a  medium  between  the  two  extremes  of  40,000  and  80,000  to 
each  oven.  The  Bermean  contracts  to  return,  in  a  living  brood  to  his  employer.  §  of  the  num- 
ber of  eggs  set  in  the  oven— all  above  being  his  own  perquisite  in  addition  to  his  salary  for  the 
season,  which  is  30  to  40  crowns,  exclusive  of  his  board.     According  to  report,  the  crop  of  potil- 

*  Bucknelfe  Eccaleobion.  ♦  QuHrterly  Journal  of  .Agriculture,  vol.  viil. 

t  Wilkinson's  Manners  and  Cuitomi  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians,  vol.  i.,  New  Series. 
(428) 


THE  HATCHING  OF  FOWLS.  237 


thus  artificially  raised  in  Egypt  was  seldom  or  never  below  that  ratio,  making  the  enormous 
dual  amount  of  S^.GJO.OOO.     It  is  obvious  that  the  apparent  grand  difficulty  of  obtaining  a  suffi- 


try  1 

annii  _  .  _  .  

cient  number  of  eggs  must  subsist  chiefly  or  entirely  in  the  infancy  of  such' an  undertaking,  and 
that  its  progress  must  infinitely  extend  that  supply,  as  has  been  the  case  in  Egypt,  where  the 
breeding  siock  has  been  so  multiplied,  and  where,  in  consequsnce,  the  commodity  is  so  cheap 
from  its  superabundance,  that  in  the  time  of  Sicard  1,000  eggs  were  sold  for  30  or  40  medims, 
making  3s.  or  4s.  English  money.  Indeed,  the  chickens  were  not  sold  from  the  stores  by  tale 
but  by  measure  ;  according  to  Reaumur,  by  the  bushel !  And  it  appears  from  travelers  of  the 
present  day.  to  be  the  custom  in  Egypt  to  purchase  chickens  by  the  basketfull."  *  M.  Reaumur, 
undor  the  French  Academy,  instituted  experiments  to  prove  that  eggs  could  be  hatched  in 
France  as  well  as  in  Egypt ;  but  it  was  soon  discovered  that  the  two  countries  were  placed  in 
diflercul  circumstances  in  regard  to  climate,  and  the  project  was  abandoned  as  being  impractica- 
ble. Plans  of  artificial  hatching  were  tried  with  better  success  by  M.  Bonnemain,  by  a  system 
of  supplying  heat  from  hot  water  in  pipes;  but  the  French-Revolution  put  an  end  to  the  experi- 
ment. It  is  worth  observing,  in  passing,  how  strange  it  is  to  hear  of  the  circulation  of  hot  water 
in  pipes,  as  a  steady  source  of  heat,  recommended  at  the  present  day  as  a  novelty. \  To  supply 
the  inhabitants  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  with  fowls  as  the  Egyptians  are,  namely,  at  the  rate 
of  4t)  1-5  fowls  to  each  person  every  year,  the  number  that  would  require  to  be  hatched  in  the 
rolaiive  proportions  of  the  two  countries,  would  be  1,109,000,000  of  fowls  ! 

(lf)44.)  A  remarkable  machine,  exhibited  in  London  some  years  ago,  which  I  saw  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1839.  was  said  to  have  attained  the  power  of  supplying  the  requisite  degree  of  tempera- 
ture for  hatching  for  any  length  of  time.  It  was  the  invention  of  Mr.  William  Bucknell,  and 
named  the  Eccaleobion,  derived  from  two  Greek  words  meaning  "  I  give  forth  life."  "  Rationally 
to  hope  for  success  in  the  artificial  hatching  of  eggs,"  says  Mr.  Bucknell,  "it  becomes  nece.ssary 
to  be  in  possession  of  a  power  completely  to  control  temperature,  independent  of  climate,  seasons, 
or  changes  in  the  atmosphere,  and  also  uninfluenced  by  them.  These  invaluable  properties  the 
Eccaleobion  possesses,  in  a  perfect  and  absolute  command  over  temperature,  from  300-^  Fahr.  to 
that  of  cold  water;  so  that  any  substance  submitted  to  its  influence  shall  uniformly  be  acted  upon 
over  its  whole  surface,  at  any  required  intermediate  degree  within  the  above  range,  and  such 
heat  maintained  unaltered,  without  trouble  and  difficulty,  for  any  length  of  time.  By  means, 
then,  of  this  absolute  and  complete  control  over  temperature,  obtained  by  this  machine,  the  im- 
pregnated egg  of  any  bird,  not  stale,  placed  within  its  influence  at  the  proper  degree  of  warmth 
is.  at  the  expiration  of  its  natural  time,  elicited  into  life  without  the  possibility  of  failure,  which  is 
scmclimes  the  case  with  eggs  subjected  to  the  caprice  of  their  natural  parent."  |  Without  at- 
tempting to  describe  the  machine,  I  may  mention  that  it  is  capable  of  containing  2,000  eggs, 
which  are  open  to  the  sight  through  glazed  doors,  in  different  states  of  incubation,  from  the  day 
the  egg  is  inserted  into  it,  until  the  bird  is  seen  to  leave  it  in  the  act  of  being  hatched.  It  may 
be  imcresiing,  however,  to  relate  a  few  of  the  facts  regarding  the  condition  of  eggs  in  different 
slates,  as  to  their  vitality,  observed  by  Mr.  Bucknell  in  his  experience  of  the  machine. 

(1945.)  Few  eggs  are  worth  the  trial  of  hatching  if  more  than  a  month  old;  their  condition, 
however,  is  greatly  influenced  by  the  season  and  the  state  of  the  weather.  An  egg  retains  its 
freshness  longest  in  moderately  cool  weather  ;  very  hot  weather  destroys  vitality  in  a  few  days  ; 
and  an  as.^  having  been  frozen  is  also  worthless.  Failures  in  hatching  arise  from  want  of  im- 
pregnation in  the  g^^ — from  age,  commonly  called  staleness,  whereby  life  has  become  extinct — 
from  weakness  of  the  vital  energy  of  the  eggs,  produced  by  age,  lowness  of  keep,  or  ill  health  of 
the  parent,  in  which  ca.sc8  the  chick  partially  develops  itself,  but  dies  before  the  full  period  of 
incubation.  Eggs  may  be  brought  to  life,  but  unless  the  process  of  incubation  be  properly  exe- 
cuted, the  birds  will  be  weakly,  ill-conditioned,  and  die  in  a  short  time  afterward.  To  prevent 
the  yolk  of  weak  eggs  from  settling  by  its  specific  gravity,  and  adhering  to  the  shell,  it  is  useful 
to  pa.ss  the  hand  over  them,  so  as  to  change  their  position  every  24  hours.  The  q^^  of  a  strong, 
healthy  bird,  at  the  time  of  its  protrusion  from  the  body,  is  completely  filled  with  j'olk  and  albu- 
men. If  examined  a  few  days  after,  by  holding  it  toward  the  light,  a  small  cell  of  air  will  be  dis- 
coverable at  the  larger  end,  which  increases  with  the  age  of  the  egg.  This  waste  of  its  internal 
substance  is  occasioned  by  absorption  of  the  atmosphere,  through  the  pores  of  the  shell,  of  the 
more  volatile  parts  of  its  contents.  When  the  cell  is  large  in  aiiy  egg,  it  is  unfit  for  incubation  ; 
nevertheless,  in  a  good  c^s,,  as  incubation  proceeds,  this  cell  becomes  considerable,  produced 
probably  both  from  evaporation  by  heat  and  the  vital  action  going  on  within  the  shell.  It  also 
serves  an  important  purpose  in  the  economy  of  this  mysterious  process.  An  ess,  will  not  hatch  in 
vacuo. 

(1940.)  The  progressive  series  of  phenomena  daily  ob.servable  during  the  process  of  incubation, 
in  the  egg  of  a  common  fowl,  are  curious  and  instructive.  In  an. impregnated  egg,  previous  to 
the  commencement  of  incubation,  a  small  spot  is  discernible  upon  the  yolk,  composed  of  a  mem- 
braneous sack  containing  fluid  matter  in  which  the  embryo  of  the  future  chick  swims.  1st  Day  : 
At  the  expiration  of  12  or  14  hours  after  incubation  has  commenced,  the  matter  within  the  em- 
bryo evidently  bears  a  resemblance  to  a  head— vesicles  assume  the  shape  of  the  vertebral  bones 
or  the  back.  2d  Day  :  In  39  hours  the  eyes  make  their  appearance — vessels  joined  together  indi- 
cate the  navel— the  brain,  spinal  marrow,  rudiments  of  the  wings,  and  principal  muscles— the 
heart  is  evidently  proceeding.  3d  Day  :  At  its  commencement  the  beating  of  the  heart  is  visible 
—some  hours  after,  two  vesicles  containing  blood  appear,  one  forming  the  left  ventricle  and  the 
other  the  great  artery— the  auricle  of  the  heart  is  next  seen,  and  pulsation  is  evident.  4th  Day  : 
\V  ings  a.s.sume  a  defined  form— the  brain,  the  beak,  the  front  and  hind  parts  of  the  head  visible. 
5th  Day:  Liver  seen — circulation  of  the  blood  evident.     6th  Day:  Lungs  and  stomach  distin- 


'  Mowbray'9  Practical  Treatise  on  Domestic  Poultry. 
\  \'!^'\  I^'Pfi on»ry  of  the  Arts  and  Manufactures,  art.  Incuhatinn,  Artifieial. 
I  Bucknell  a  LccHleobion. 
(429) 


23S  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SPRING. 

griishable — full  gush  of  blood  from  the  heart  distinct.  7th  Day  :  IntestineH,  veins,  and  upper  man- 
dible visible — braiu  becomes  coiiHiHlent.  8th  Day  :  Beak  opens — formation  of  flesh  on  the  breast 
9th  Day  :  Ribs  formed— gallbladder  perceptible.  lOih  Day:  Bill  funned— first  voluntary  mo- 
tion of  the  chick  seen.  11th  Day  :  Skull  becomes  cartilaginous — protrusion  of  feathers  evident. 
12th  Day  :  Orbits  of  sight  appear — ribs  perfected.  13ili  Day  :  Spleen  in  its  pro[<cr  jiosition  in 
the  abdomen.  HlhDay:  Lungs  inclo.sed  within  the  breast.  15;h,  I'jth,  and  17tli  Days  :  Mature 
state  approached — yolk  of  the  egg  still  outside  of  the  body.  18th  Day  :  Audible  sign  of  life  out- 
side the  shell— piping  of  the  chick  heard.  19th.  20th  and  2l8t  Days  :  Increase  of  she  and  strength 
— yolk  inclosed  within  the  body— chick  liberates  itself  by  repeated  eflbrts  made  by  the  bill,  sec- 
onded by  muscular  exertion  of  the  limbs. 

(1947.)  The  embryo  of  the  chick  is  not  in  everj-  egg  placed  precisely  in  the  same  situation,  bat 
varies  considerably.  Generally  it  develops  itself  within  the  circumference  of  the  broadest  part 
of  the  egg:  sometimes  it  is  found  higher,  sometimes  lower;  and  when  held  before  a  strong  light 
has  an  appearance,  when  a  few  dajs  old,  somewhat  resembling  the  meshes  of  a  spider's  web, 
■with  the  spider  in  the  center.  As  it  increases  in  size,  the  bulk  of  the  contents  of  the  egg  de- 
creases, so  that  when  the  bird  is  completely  matured,  it  has  ample  space  to  move,  and  to  use  its 
limbs  with  sufficient  eflect  to  insure  its  liberation.  The  position  of  the  chick  in  the  shell  is  snch 
ti8  to  occupy  the  least  space.  The  head,  which  is  large  and  heavy  in  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the 
body,  is  placed  in  front  of  the  belly,  with  its  beak  under  tlic  right  wing  ;  the  feet  are  gathered  up 
likea  bird  dressed  for  the  spit,  yet,  in  this  singular  manner  and  apparently  uncomfortable  position, 
the  bird  is  by  no  means  cramped  or  confined,  but  performs  all  the  necessary  motions  and  efforts 
required  forits  liberation  with  the  most  perfect  ease,  and  with  that  consummate  skill  which  in- 
stinct renders  almost  infallible.  The  chicken,  when  it  breaks  the  shell,  is  heavier  than  the  whole 
egg  was  at  first. 

(1948.)  "  If  chickens  about  2  months  old  and  upward,"  says  Mr.  Buckncll,  "  are  turned  in  among 
a  brood  of  young  birds  that  have  no  mother,  they  will  sometimes  take  to  brooding  and  tending 
them  with  the  delight  of  natural  parents.  The  gratification  being  quite  mutual,  the  young  chicks 
run  after  and  strive  with  each  other  for  their  favors  with  the  most  untiring  perseverance.  Al- 
though, probably,  it  is  simply  the  pleasurable  sensation  derived  from  the  genial  warmth  commu- 
nicated by  the  young  birds  nestling  under  them  which  induces  them  to  do  it,  it  is  nevertheless  a 
striking  and  highly  interesting  picture  to  witness  these  mimic  mothers  acting  the  part  of  foster 
parents  with  so  much  apparent  satisfaction,  yet  with  the  awkwardness  with  which  a  girl,  in 
similar  circumstances,  fondles  her  doll."  I  never  witnessed  such  an  instance  of  affectionate  re- 
gard, possibly  because  I  never  saw  a  brood  of  chickens  deprived  of  their  mother,  but  the  senti- 
ments conveyed  in  the  following  sentence  I  have  frequently  seen  realized,  and  can  testify  to  the 
accuracy  of  observation  and  the  correctness  of  the  conclusions  of  Mr.  Bucknell :  ••  There  is  no 
difficulty,"  he  says,  "  in  teaching  the  young  of  the  various  tribes  of  gallinaceous  fowl  to  eat  and  to 
drink ;  they  perform  these  operations  spontaneously,  or  from  observation,  as  appetite  prompts 
them.  Are  not  the  facts  of  the  extraordinarj'  fecundity  of  these  tribes,  their  requiring  no  assist- 
ance in  hatching,  and  their  being  self-instructed  in  the  manner  of  taking  their  food,  abundant  evi- 
dence that  an  All-wise  Providence  ordained  these  peculiarities  expressly  for  man's  advantage  :  as 
in  all  those  families  of  birds  not  so  fitted  for  his  use,  they  do  not  exist,  and  consequently  cannot 
be  rendered  by  artificial  means  available  for  his  benefit?  Food  is  not  necessary  for  the  chick 
until  12  or  24  hours  after  leaving  the  shell.  Sickly  and  badly  hatched  birds  seldom  can  be  in- 
duced to  cat,  and  die  from  inanition.  Birds  but  a  few  hours  old  recognize  the  person  who  feeds 
them,  and  in  a  few  days  evince  so  many  and  such  pleasing  traits  of  confidence  in  her  as  their 
protector  and  friend,  following  her  steps,  and  clamorously  repining  at  her  absence,  as  must  induce 
m  the  most  callous  brea.st  a  delightful  sensation  of  regard  for  their  welfare." 

(1949.)  It  is  of  some  importance  to  farmers  to  have  the  question  answered  in  a  practical  sense. 
Whether  the  hatching  and  rearing  of  chickens  is  profitable  ?  Hear  Mr.  Bucknell's  answer  to  this 
question,  as  it  affects  artificial  hatching:  "  Mr.  Mowbray,  in  his  standard  work,"  says  Mr.  Buck- 
nell, '•  gives  the  con.sumption  of  food  by  birds  in  the  highest  state  of  condition  as  follows  :  '  By  an 
experiment  made  in  July,  1806,  a  measured  peck  of  good  barley  kept  in  a  high  style  of  condition 
the  following  stock,  confined,  and  having  no  other  provision  :  1  cock,  3  hens,  3  March  chickens,  6 
April  and  6  May  chickens,  during  8  clear  days,  and  one  feed  left.'  Here,  then,  arc  19  birds,  va- 
rying in  age  from  2  months  to  their  full  size,  consuming  1  peck  of  corn  in  8  days,  which,  at  Is. 
per  peck,  gives  a  cost  of  1|  halfpenny  per  head,  which,  however,  is  considerably  above  the  cost 
of  chickens  for  the  first  8  weeks  of  their  existence.  But  taking  it  at  this  high  average,  it  gives  an 
expense  of  each  bird  of  9il.  all  but  a  fraction,  for  14  weeks'  keep,  at  which  age  they  are  in  the 
hichest  perfection,  being  the  most  delicate  and  easy  to  digest  of  all  other  animal  food.  Where 
they  can  enjoy  the  advantage  of  a  good  run,  the  expense  would  still  be  lessened  perhaps  J. 
Now,  what  IS  the  price  at  a  poulterer's,  or  in  the  London  markets,  of  a  fine  fat  chicken  14  weeks 
old,  or  nearly  its  full  size  ?  Never  less  than  28.,  and  for  6  months  in  the  year,  or  during  the  dear 
season.  4s.  or  Cm. — which,  adding  to  9d.  an  additional  3d.  for  the  value  of  tJte  egg  and  extras,  gives 
the  enormous  profit  of  from  100  to  .SOO  per  cent,  dividend  between  the  trader,  the  middleman  and 
the  retailer.  It  need  not  be  wondered  at  that  such  is  the  case,  nor  can  it  be  otherwise  while  tht 
present  system  coniinnos.  A  poulterer  whose  sale  is  not  more  than  10  dozen  per  week,  must 
kec()  a  man  and  a  horse  and  cart,  and  attend  the  difTeront  markets  for  his  purchases.  All  these 
things,  with  incidental  expenses,  will  amount  at  least  to  2  guineas  per  week,  which  2  guineas 
must  be  spread  over  the  10  dozen  birds  before  he  derives  any  profit  for  himself.  Upon  any  artifi- 
cial system,  these  expenses  would  be  saved,  and  the  2  guineas  thus  thrown  away  would  keep 
1.000  birds,  averaging  all  ages,'  1  whole  week.  Buildings  and  machinery,  and  other  necessary 
apparatus  being  provided,  no  objection  exists  as  to  the  expenses  of  hatching.  An  Eccaleobion 
machine  might  be  constructed,  only  requiring  regulation  once  in  24  hours,  capable  of  hatching 
throughout  the  year  10.000  eggs  per  month,  (a  week  beini;  allowed  for  removing  and  re-fitlingT) 
while  the  co.-t  ibr  hatching  during  the  month  would  probably  be  }  caldron  of  "coke  at  £\  per 
caldron,  which  would  be  the  1  20  part  of  1  fanhing  per  bird.  The  expense  for  artificial  warmth 
1430) 


THE   HATCHING   OF  FOWLS.  239 

daring  the  time  the  birds  might  require  it,  would  be  somewhat  more — perhaps  1  farthing  per 
bird."  * 


"  there  are  a  few,  however,  which  I  could  not  with  propriety  introduce  here,  as  they  do  not  take 
np  their  abode  and  breed  in  us.  which  nevertheless  annoy  us  considerably.  One  of  these  is  a 
hexapod  so  minute  that,  were  it  not  for  the  uncommon  brilliancy  of  its  color,  which  is  the  most 
vivid  crimson  that  can  be  conceived,  it  would  be  quite  invisible.  It  is  known  by  the  name  of  the 
harvest-bug  (Acarus  antumnaHs,  Shaw),  and  is  so  called,  1  imagine,  from  its  attacking  the  legs 
of  laborers  employed  in  the  harvest,  in  the  flesh  of  which  it  buries  itself  at  the  roots  of  "the  hairs, 
producing  intolerable  itching,  attended  by  inflammation  and  considerable  tumors,  and  sometimes 
even  occasioning  fevers."  t 

(1951.)  In  regard  to  the  original  formation  of  feathers  in  the  chick  of  a  bird,  M.  Raspail  has  the 
following  observations :  "  If  we  examine,"  he  says,  "the  epidermis  of  a  sparrotr,  a.s  it  comes 
from  the  egg,  we  shall  find  that  we  can  isolate  each  of  the  small  bottles,  which  the  vesicles  that 
form  the  rudiments  of  hairs  assume  the  shape  of,  as  well  as  the  nerve  of  which  it  seems  to  be  the 
terminal  development.  It  might  almost  be  supposed  that  the  object  viewed  was  the  eye  of  a 
mollusca,  with  its  long  optic  nerve.  The  summit  of  this  vesicle  is  open,  even  at  its  early  period, 
to  afford  a  passage  for  a  cylindrical  bundle  of  small  fibres,  which  are  also  cylindrical,  and  which 
are  nothing  else  than  the  barbs,  as  yet  single,  of  the  feather.  If,  afterward,  "we  examine  a  feather 
at  a  more  advanced  period,  we  may,  by  a  little  address,  satisfy  ourselves  that  its  tube  is  formed 
and  grows  by  means  of  spathae,  one  within  another,  of  which  the  external  ones  project  over  the 
inner  ones,  so  that  the  tube  seems  as  if  divided  by  so  many  diaphragms.  The  interstices  of  these 
diaphragms  are  filled  with  a  fatty  liquid,  which  condenses  in  them  gradually,  as  the  summits  of 
the  spathffi  approximate  and  adhere  to  each  other."  | 

(1952.)  Capons  of  the  common  fowl  are  formed  both  of  the  cock  and  hen  chickens,  when  they 
are  fit  to  leave  the  hen,  at  about  6  weeks  old.  Chickens  are  transmuted  into  capons  by  destroy- 
ing the  testicles  of  the  male  and  the  ovaries  of  the  female.  The  testicles  are  attached  by  a  mem- 
brane to  what  is  called  the  hack  bone  'of  the  carved  fowl.  They  are  destroyed  by  laying-  the 
bird  on  its  near  side,  keeping  it  down,  removing  a  few  feathers,  and  making  an  incision'throu^h 
the  skin  of  the  abdomen,  and,  on  introducing  the  fore-finger  through  the  incision,  first  the  one 
and  then  the  other  testicle  is  obliterated  or  removed  altogether  by  it.  In  the  case  of  the  hen,  the 
ovary  is  nipped  off  by  the  thumb-nail,  or  cut  off  by  a  knite.  The  incision  is  stitched  up  with 
thread,  and  little  danger  is  apprehended  of  the  result.  The  effect  of  castration  is  enlargement  of 
the  body  of  the  fowl,  an  increased  delicacy  of  its  flesh,  but  its  flavor  is  in  no  way  improved,  at 
least  in  none  of  the  capons  I  have  tasted.  Time  was  when  capons  were  more  plentiful  at  the 
table  than  chickens,  so  that  even  kain-rent  was  paid  in  them  ;  but  the  conversion  of  fowls  into 
capons  is  now  abandoned  as  an  unnecessary  and  troublesome  operation,  and  will  not  probably  be 
resumed  as  long  as  a  well-fed  delicate  chicken  can  be  procured  with  little  trouble.  || 

[11  Our  poulterers  seem  to  make  verj-  slow  progress  in  the  art  and  mystery  of  caponizing.  We 
are  not  aware  that  it  is  now  practiced  or  understood  in  Maryland  at  all,  although  50  years  ago 
capons  were  made  by  a  few  old  women  in  Calvert  County  for  carrj-ing  chickens.  It  bet'ins  to 
be  done  for  improving  fowls  for  the  table  in  the  neighborhood  of  Philadelphia,  and  in  New- York 
it  is  so  little  practiced  that  the  hotel  keepers  have  "  capon  chickens  "  announced  in  larg-e  let- 
ters on  their  bills  of  fare,  and  some  of  these  probably  never  felt  the  knife  until  it  was  appHed  to 
their  throats.  It  is  to  be  lamented  that  the  practice  of  caponizing  were  not  more  general— surely 
he  who  pleases,  ought  to  be  able  to  command  what  a  benevolent  monarch  said  he  would  have  all 
his  subjects  enjoy,  a  fat  capon.  [^'^.  Farm.  Lii>. 

•  Bucknell's  Eccaleobion.  t  Kirby  and  Spence's  Introduction  to  Entomoloey,  vol  L 

J  Raspail's  Organic  Chemistrr. 


(401J 


240  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


SUMINIER. 


"  TTic  sea<on  now  is  all  delight,  "  How  sweet  the  fanning  breeze  is  felt 

Sweet  smile  ihc  passing  hours,  Breathed  through  the  dancing  boughs  , 

And  Summer's  plcusures.  at  their  bight,  How  sweet  the  rural  voices  molt 

Are  sweet  as  are  htr  flowers  ;  From  distant  sheep  and  cows. 

The  purple  mominc  wakened  soon,  The  lovely  green  if  wood  and  hill, 

The  mid-da>'8  ijleaminK  din,  The  hummings  in  the  air, 

Gray  Evening  with  her  silver  moon.  Serenely  in  my  brea-t  insii.l, 

Are  sweet  to  miuglu  in.  The  rapture  reigning  there." 

Clabe. 

I  H.WE  represented  Winter,  in  the  agricultural  sense,  as  the  season  of 
dormancy,  in  which  everything  remains  in  a  state  of  quiescence.  In  the 
same  sense  I  have  said  that  Spring  is  the  season  of  restoration  to  life, 
in  which  everything  again  stirs  and  becomes  active.  Summer,  on  the  same 
principle,  is  the  season  of  progress,  in  which  nothing  is  begun  or  ended — 
none  of  the  greater  operations  of  the  field  are  either  commenced  or  termi- 
nated, but  only  advanced  a  step  toward  the  consummation  of  all  things  in 
Autumn  ;  and,  therefore,  the  mere  advancement  of  the  greater  operations 
involves  no  change  of  principle,  while  the  smaller  ones  present  so  varied 
an  aspect  as  to  excite  considerable  interest. 

The  astronomical  cause  of  Summer,  as  one  of  the  seasons,  and  the  safety 
in  which  every  living  thing — whether  animal  or  vegetable — progresses  or 
grows  under  its  influence,  are  thus  succinctly  and  well  described  by  Mr. 
Mudie.  "  Summer  is  the  bloom  of  the  year — the  period  during  which  all 
the  growing  and  living  children  of  Nature,  which  wax  and  wane  with  the 
revolving  seasons,  are  in  the  spring-tide  of  their  activity,  and  when  all  those 
general  agencies  by  which  they  are  stimulated  are  working  to  the  very  lop 
of  their  bent.  Summer  is,  both  in  the  literal  and  the  meta])horical  sense,  the 
season  of  blossoms  ;  and  as  the  blossoms  make  the  fruit,  the  time  of  them 
is  really  the  most  important  of  the  whole.  In  our  middle  latitudes,  there 
is  a  very  beautiful  instance  of  design  and  adaptation  in  this.  The  grand 
stimulating  agent  in  all  is  terrestrial  action,  at  least  in  a  natural  view  of  it  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  the  intensity  of  this  action  is  made  up  of  two 
elements — the  position  of  the  twenty-four  hours  during  which  the  sun  is 
above  tlie  horizon,  and  the  altitude  of  the  sun  above  that  horizon.  Both 
of  them,  in  either  hemisphere,  increase  as  the  suu  declines  toward  that 
hemisphere,  or  rather  as  the  hemisphere  inclines  to  the  sun  ;  though,  as 
the  fir-^t  of  these  is  the  apparent  result  of  the  second  as  a  reality,  our  using 
an  expression  on  the  other  does  not  aflect  the  result.  The  increase  or  de- 
crease of  altitude  is  the  same,  with  the  same  change  of  declination,  in  all 
latitudes;  but  the  variation  in  time  above  the  horizon  increases  with  the 
latitude  :  consecpiently  the  higher  the  latitude  the  greater  the  change  of 
solar  action  with  the  same  change  of  declination.  The  change  in  declina- 
tion increases  from  the  solstice  to  the  equinox,  and  diminishes  from  the 
equinox  to  the  solstice.  Thus  the  increase  of  solar  action  begins  to  slacken 
at  the  vernal  equinox  in  March,  and  gradually  diminishes  till  it  becomes  0 
at  midsummer  ;  after  this  the  decrease  commences.  This,  however,  only 
in  so  far  as  depends  on  the  altitude  of  the  sun ;  for  the  other  element,  the 

(432) 


SUMMER.  241 

time  which  the  sun  is  above  the  horizon,  goes  on  increasing  till  the  lono-est 
day,  or  day  of  the  solstice.  Thus,  in  the  advanced  part  of  the  summer, 
there  is  a  diminished  increase  of  the  momentaiy  intensity  of  the  solar  ac- 
tion, and  a  lengthening  of  its  daily  duration.  What  is  given  to  the  presence 
of  the  sun  above  the  horizon  is  taken  from  its  absence  below  it ;  and  thus, 
as  the  summer  advances  toward  the  longest  day,  all  that  works  by  the  action 
of  the  sun  works  with  his  increase  of  intensity  and  for  a  longer  time.  Af- 
ter the  longest  day  is  past,  both  elements  of  the  s*)lar  action  diminish, 
slowly  at  first,  and  more  rapidly  afterward,  until  the  summer  merges  in  the 
autumn.  Near  the  Equator  the  changes  are  comparatively  small,  and  they 
increase  with  the  latitude  ;  and  the  ditferences  in  this  respect  are  what  may 
be  called  the  celestial  differences  of  the  character  of  summer  in  diflerent 
latitudes ;  but  teirestrial  causes  modify  them  so  much,  that  the  practical 
results  as  observed  are  very  different  from  what  the  celestial  theory  would 
give.  Still,  any  one  who  thinks  but  for  a  moment  will  not  fail  to  discover 
how  beautifully  the  season  of  bloom  is  secured  from  violent  action  either 
in  the  one  way.  or  the  other.  This  is  enough  to  convince  us  that  the  action 
which  goes  on  in  the  production  of  Nature  during  the  summer  is  really  the 
most  important  of  the  whole  year  ;  for  it  is  performed  with  the  maximum 
of  power  in  the  agents,  and  the  minimum  of  disturbance  in  their  operation. 
That  resistance  of  winter,  which  but  too  often  shrivels  the  young  leaf  and 
blights  the  early  blossom  in  the  spring,  is  vanquished  and  completely  stayed 
from  making  any  inroad  till  the  seasonal  purposes  of  Nature  are  accom- 
plished ;  and  the  ardor  of  the  stimulating  causes  which  have  vanquished 
the  desti-uctive  one,  are  slackened,  so  that  they  may  not  injure  that  which 
during  the  struggle  of  the  early  part  of  the  year  they  have  preserved.  All 
this,  too,  is  accomplished  by  means  so  very  simple  that  their  simplicity 
proves  the  most  wonderful  part  of  the  whole,  for  it  is  nothing  more  than 
the  planes  of  the  annual  and  daily  motions  of  the  earth  intersecting  each 
other  at  an  angle  of  about  23^  28' ;  and  the  line  of  intersection  passino- 
through  the  equinoctial  points  of  the  diurnal  orbit."* 

The  atmospherical  phenomena  of  summer  are  of  the  most  varied  and 
complicated  nature.  At  one  time  the  air  is  highly  elastic,  and  feels  balmv 
and  bracing,  indicated  by  the  high  position  of  the  mercury  in  the  barome- 
ter;  at  another  the  mercury  descends,  and  almost  always  suddenly,  to  the 
lowest  point,  accompanied  Avith  gusts  of  wind  and  a  deluge  of  rain,  form- 
ing what  is  callled  a  tornado  in  the  ti-opics.  The  heat  of  the  air  at  one 
time  is  so  scorching  as  to  cause  us  to  seek  the  shade,  and  the  theiTnometer 
marks  its  intensity  ;  at  another,  a  chilling  gust,  accompanied  with  a  heavv 
shower  of  hail,  suddenly  brings  down  the  thermometer  many  degrees.  The 
air  to-day  is  so  calm  and  breathless  that  not  a  ripple  is  visible  even  on  the 
bosom  of  the  great  ocean  ;  to-morrow  a  hurricane  raises  the  waves  of  the  sea 
to  a  state  of  agitation  dangerous  to  the  safety  of  the  mariner.  Not  a  cloud 
is  seen  at  times  to  stain  the  purity  of  the  blue  vault  of  Heaven  ;  at  others 
the  thunder-cloud  hovers  over  the  earth,  and  blackens  its  surface  with  a 
portentous  shadow.  These  changes,  in  summer,  are  usually  sudden  and 
of  short  duration,  and  they  are  requisite  to  preseiye  the  healthy  state  of 
the  air.  Did  rain  not  fall  in  quantities,  the  vapor  absorbed  by  the  great 
capacity  of  heated  air  for  moisture  would  accumulate  beyond  due  bonds. 
Were  there  no  colder  strata  of  air  moving  about  to  condense  the 
Avarraer,  the  wanner  portion  containing  a  large  quantity  of  vapor  in  solu- 
tion would  always  be  elevated  beyond  the  reach  of  the  earth,  and  there 
waste  its  latent  heat.  The  thunder-storm  of  sheet-lightning  passing  from 
cloud  to  cloud,  the  most  common  display  of  electric  action  in  summer,  re- 

'  Mudie"s  Summer. 
(481} 16 


242  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FAR3f SUMMER. 


stores  the  electric  equilibrium  of  the  air,  and  the  forked  lig^htning  relieves 
both  earth  and  air.  Did  not  tlie  hurricane  at  times  force  its  way  through 
the  calm  and  im-rt  air,  the  same  portion  of  the  atmosphere  would  always 
remain  over  the  same  locality,  and  become  vitiated  by  the  breath  of  ani- 
mals and  the  exhalations  of  vej^etables.  If  the  dews  failed  to  descend  upon 
the  grass,  the  pasture  would  soon  become  parched  by  the  meridian  fervor 
of  the  summer  sun.  Thus,  all  the  agencies  of  Nature  are  required  to  keep 
the  air  in  a  healthy  state  for  animals  and  vegetables,  and  these  operate  in 
the  most  beneficial  manner  in  summer — the  season  of  the  intensest  action  of 
the  solar  rays. 

As  I  have  already  entered  very  fully  into  the  state  of  the  weather  in  win- 
ter, in  Section  18,  p.  1G3  to  197  of  the  1st  volume,  I  have  less  occasion  to  re- 
vert to  the  subject  here  ;  but  the  consideration  of  a  few  of  the  atmospheri- 
cal phenomena  which  only  occur  in  summer  was  pui-posely  reserved  until 
the  arrival  at  that  season  ;  and  these  phenomena  were,  thunder  and  light- 
ning, dew,  hail,  and  easterly  winds.  The  origin  of  the  electricity  of  the 
air  was  indicated  at  sufficient  length  from  (299)  to  (312)..  The  piesence 
of  electric  matter  being  accounted  for,  the  rationale  of  a  thunder-storm  is 
simple,  and  it  is  this  :  The  electric  fluid,  as  the  agency  of  electricity  is  call- 
ed, for  want  of  a  better  name,  derived  from  sources  enumerated  in  the 
above  paragraphs,  accumulates  in  the  clouds  of  vapor.  When  two  clouds, 
thus  provided  with  electric  matter  beyond  their  usual  state,  are  not  far 
from  each  other,  the  electricity  of  the  one  becomes  positive,  that  is,  in  an 
active  state ;  and  that  of  the  other,  as  a  necessary  consequence,  becomes 
negative,  that  is,  in  a  passive  state.  Why  these  opposite  states  of  electri- 
city always  coexist  when  near  each  other,  it  is  impossible  to  say ;  but  the 
fact  is  established  as  an  unvarying  law  of  electric  matter.  When  two  clouds 
thus  in  these  opposite  states  are  near  each  other,  they  attract  and  approach, 
and  when  the  approach  comes  within  the  distance  in  which  the  force  of  the 
positive  electricity  is  able  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  air  between 
the  positive  and  negative  clouds,  the  fluid  leaves  the  positive  and  enters  in- 
to the  negative  cloud  in  such  quantity  as  to  restore  the  equilibrium  of  both. 
The  forcible  passage  of  the  electric  fluid  causes  a  concussion  in  the  air 
between  the  two  clouds,  and  the  vibrations  occasioned  by  the  concussion 
striking  against  the  earth  and  mountains,  cause  the  noise  which  is  heard 
in  thunder.  The  time  taken  by  the  electric  fluid  in  passing  from  one  cloud 
to  another  is  inappreciable,  but  the  velocity  of  sound  is  calculable.  For 
every  4^  sectmds  of  time  which  elapse  after  seeing  the  lightning  to  hear- 
ing the  thunder,  the  clouds  are  situate  as  many  miles  from  the  auditor. — 
Far  at  sea,  where  there  are  no  objects  for  sound  to  be  reflected  from,  thun- 
der is  never  heard  ;  whereas,  in  a  mountainous  country,  it  inspires  terror, 
though  it  is  obvious  that  thunder,  a  mere  sound,  can  do  no  harm,  and  light- 
ning, which  can  do  harm,  does  all  the  mischief  it  can  do  before  we  are  made 
aware  of  its  danger. 

The  phenomenon  of  dew  is  familiar  to  every  person  who  lives  in  the  coun- 
try. In  the  hottest  day  of  summer  the  shoes  become  wet  in  walking  over 
a  grass-field  at  sunset,  and  they  may  then  become  as  effectually  wetted  asin 
wading  through  water.  The  late  Dr.  Wells  investigated  the  phenomena  of 
dew  more  closely  than  any  other  pei-son ;  and  his  experiments,  as  detailed 
in  his  insti-uctive  essay  on  that  subject,  appear  to  have  been  very  satisfactori- 
ly conducted  ;  and  the  theory  wliich  he  established  on  these  experiments 
is  the  one  now  embraced  by  philosophers.  From  that  essay  I  shall  first 
relate  a  few  of  the  circumstances  which  influence  the  production  of  dew  ; 
and  then  give  Dr.  Wells's  theory  of  its  formation,  in  contradistinction  to 
those  of  other  philosophers.     "  Aristotle   and  many  otTier  writers,"  says 

(482) 


SUMMER.  243 


Dr.  Wells,   "  have  remarked   that  dew  appears   only  in  calm  and  serene 
nights.     This  remark   of  Aristotle,  however,  is    not  to  be  received  in  its 
strictest  sense,  as    I   have   frequently  found  a   small   quantity  of  dew  on 
grass,  both   in  windy  nights,  if  the  sky  was   clear   or  nearly  so,  and   in 
cloudy  nights,  if  there  was  no  wind.     If,  indeed,  the  clouds  were  high  and 
the  weather  calm,  I  have  sometimes   seen   on  grass,  though  the  sky  was 
entirely  hidden,  no  very  inconsiderable  quantity  of  dew.     Again,  according 
to  my  observation,  entire  stillness  of  the  atmosphere  is  so  far  from  beino- 
necessary  for  the  formation  of  this  fluid,  that  its  quantity  has  seemed  to 
me  to  be  increased  by  a  very  gentle  motion   of  the    air.     Dew,  however, 
has  never  been  seen  by  me  on  nights  both  cloudy  and  windy.     If,  in  the 
course  of  the  night,  the  weather,  frorn  being  calm  and  serene,  should  be- 
come windy  and  cloudy,  not   only  will  dew  cease  to  form,  but  that  which 
was  formed  will   either   disappear    or  diminish    considerably.      In  calm 
weather,  if  tlie  sky  be  partially  covered  with  clouds,  more  dew  will  ap- 
pear than  if  it  were    entirely  covered,  but  less  than   if  it  were   entirely 
clear.     Dew  probably  begins   in   the   country  to   appear  upon   grass,  in 
places  shaded  from  the  sun  during  calm  and  clear  weather,  soon  after  the 
heat  of  the  atmosphere  has  declined  ;   and  I   have  frequently  felt  grass 
moist  in  dry  weather  several  hours   before  sunset.     On  the  other  hand,  I 
have  scarcely  ever  known  dew  to  be  present  in  such  quantity  upon  o-rass 
as  to  exhibit  visible  drops  before  the  sun  was  very  near  the  horizon,  or  to 
be  very  copious  till   some  time  after  sunset.     It  also  continues  to  form  in 
shaded  places  after  sunrise  ;  and  if  the  weather  be   favorable,  more  dew 
forms  a  little   before,  and,  in  shaded  places,  a  little   after  sunrise,  than  at 
any  other  time.     The  formation  of  dew,  after  it  has  once  commenced,  con- 
tinues during  the  whole  night,  if  the    weather  remain   still   and   serene. 
During  nights  that  are  equally  clear  and  calm,  dew  often  appears  in  very 
unequal  quantities,  even  after  allowance  has  been  made  for  any  difference 
in  their  lengths.     One  great  source  of  their  difference  is  very  obvious,  for, 
it  being   manifest,  whatever  theory  be  adopted  concerning  the  immediate 
cause  of  dew,  that  the  more  replete  the  atmosphere  is  with  moisture,  pre- 
viously to  the  operation   of  that  cause,  the   more  copious  will  be  the  pre- 
cipitation of  moisture  in   the   atmosphere,  must  likewise  tend  to  increase 
the  production   of  dew.     Thus  dew,  in  equally  calm   and   clear  nights,  is 
more  abundant  shortly  after  rain  than  during  a  long  tract  of  dry  weather. 
It  is   more   abundant  during   S.  and  W.  winds,  than   during  those  which 
blow  from  the  N.  and  the  E.     Dew  is  commonly  more  plentiful  in  spring 
and  autumn  than  in  summer ;  the   reason  is  that   a  greater  difference  is 
generally  found  between  the  temperature  of  the  day  and  the  ni^ht  in  the 
former  seasons  of  the  year  than  in  the  latter.     Dew  is  always  very  copi- 
ous on  those  clear  and  calm  nights  which   are  followed  by  misty  or  foggv 
mornings  ;   the  turbidness  of  the   air  in  the  morning  showing  that  it  must 
have   contained,  during   the  preceding  night,  a  considerable   quantity  of 
moisture.     I  have  observed  dew  to  be  unusually  plentiful  on  a  clear  morn- 
ing which  had    succeeded   a   cloudy  night.     For  the   air  having,  in   the 
course  of  the  night,  lost  little  or  no  moisture,  was  in  the  morning  charged 
with  more  watery  vapor  than  it  would  have  been  if  the  night  had  also  been 
clear.      Heat  of  the  atmosphere,  if  other  circumstances    are    favorable, 
\yhich,  according  to  my  experience,  they  seldom  are  in  this  country,  occa- 
sions a  great  formation   of  dew.     For,  as   the  power  of  the   air  to  retain 
watery  vapor  in  a  pellucid  state   increases  considerably  faster  while  its 
temperature  is  rising  than  in  proportion  to  the  heat  acquired,  a  decrease 
of  its  heat  in  any  small  given  quantity  during  the  night  must  bring  it,  if 
the  temperature  be  high,  much  nearer  to  the  point   of  repletion  before  it 

(483] 


244  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


be  acted  upon  by  the  immediate  ct^use  of  dew,  than  if  the  temperature 
were  low.  I  always  found  when  the  clearness  and  stillness  of  the  atmo- 
sphere were  the  same,  that  more  dew  was  found  between  midnight  and 
suniise,  than  between  sunset  and  midnight,  though  the  ])()sitive  quantity 
of  moisture  in  the  air  must  have  been  less  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter 
time,  in  consequence  of  a  previous  ])recipitation  of  part  of  it.  The  reason, 
no  doubt,  is  the  cold  of  the  atmosphere  being  greater  in  the  latter  than  in 
the  prior  part  of  the  niglit." 

Theories  of  the  formation  of  dew  have  been  proffered  by  many  philoso- 
phers, from  the  days  of  Aristotle  to  the  time  of  Dr.  Wells.  ■"  Dew,  ac- 
cordin"-  to  Aristotle,"  remarks  Dr.  Wells,  is  "  a  species  of  rain  fomied  in  the 
lower  atmosphere,  in  consequence  of  its  moisture  being  condensed  by  the 
cold  of  the  night  into  minute  drops.  Opinions  of  this  kind,  respecting  the 
cause  of  dew,  are  still  entertained  by  many  persons,  among  whom  is  the 
very  ingenious  Mr.  Leslie,  of  Edinburgh."  This  view  is  erroneous,  be- 
cause "  bodies  a  little  elevated  in  the  air  become  moist  with  dew,  while 
similar  bodies,  lying  on  the  ground,  remain  dry,  though  necessarily  from 
their  position  as  liable  to  be  wetted  by  whatever  falls  from  the  heavens,  as 
the  former."  Dufay  concluded  that  dew  is  an  electric  phenomenon,  but 
it  leaves  untouched  bodies  which  conduct  electricity,  while  it  appears 
upon  those  which  cannot  transmit  that  influence.  All  the  theoiies  on 
dew,  to  the  time  of  Dr.  Wells,  omitted  the  important  part  that  the  pro- 
duction of  dew  is  attended  with  cold,  and  this  is  a  very  important  omis- 
sion, since  no  explanation  of  a  natural  phenomenon  can  be  well  founded 
which  has  been  built  without  a  knowledge  of  one  of  its  principal  circum- 
stances. "  It  may  seem  strange  to  many,"  continues  Dr.  Wells,  "  that 
neither  Mr.  Wilson  nor  Mr.  Six  applied  the  fact  of  the  existence  of  cold 
to  its  production,  to  the  improvement  of  the  theory  of  dew.  But,  accord- 
ing to  their  view  of  the  subject,  no  such  use  could  have  been  made  of  it 
by  them,  as  they  held  the  formation  of  that  fluid  to  be  the  cause  of  the  cold 
observed  with  it.  I  had  many  years  held  the  same  opinion,  but  I  began 
to  see  reason,  not  long  after  the  regular  course  of  my  experiments  com- 
menced, to  doubt  its  truth,  as  I  found  that  bodies  would  sometimes  become 
colder  than  the  air  without  being  dewed ;  and  that  when  dew  was  found, 
if  different  times  were  compared,  its  quantity  and  the  degree  of  cold 
which  appeared  with  it  were  very  far  from  being  always  in  the 'same  pro- 
portion to  each  other.  The  frequent  recui'rence  of  such  observation  at 
length  corrected  the  doubt  of  the  justness  of  my  ancient  opinion  into  a 
conviction  of  its  error,  and  at  the  same  time  occasioned  me  to  conclude 
that  dew  is  the  production  o{  a  preceding  cold  in  the  sitbstance  upon  which 
it  appears."  Dr.  Wells's  theory,  therefore,  is  "  that  the  cold  observed 
with  dew  is  the  previoiis  occurrence,  and,  consequently,  that  the  forma- 
tion of  this  fluid  has  precisely  the  same  immediate  cause  as  the  presence 
of  moisture  u])on  the  outside  of  a  glass  or  metallic  vessel,  where  a  liquid 
considerably  colder  than  the  air  has  been  poured  into  it  shortly  befoi'e." 
As  an  obvious  application  of  this  theory,  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Wells, 
which  led  to  its  establishment,  evince  that  of  all  natural  substances  grass 
is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  exhibition  of  dew,  inasmuch  as  it  becomes, 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  colder  than  the  air  above  it,  by  the  radia- 
tion of  more  heat  toward  the  heavens  than  it  receives  in  any  way,  and, 
accordingly,  whenever  the  air  is  calm  and  serene,  dew  may  be  seen  on 
grass,  when  it  may  not  be  observed  on  other  substances. 

But  it  has  been  alleged  by  Dufay  that  dew  is  the  condensation  of  vapor 
rising  out  of  the  earth  upon  the  grass  on  it,  because  objects  removed  higher 
from  the  sm^face  of  the  earth,  as  trees,  are  exempt  frem  dew;  and  this  is 

(484) 


SUMMER.  245 


a  very  popular  opinion ;  but  it  is  an  erroneous  one,  and  the  phenomemn 
can  be  explained  on  other  principles,  because  the  lower  air  in  a  clear  and 
calm  evening  is  colder  than  the  upper,  and  it  contains  more  moisture 
than  the  upper;  and  hence,  on  all  these  considerations,  it  will  sooner  de- 
jiosit  a  part  of  its  moisture.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  true  that  vapor  does 
rise  from  the  earth,  and  it  may  be  condensed  as  dew  ;  for  we  find  the 
grass  first  becoming  moist  with  dew,  then  the  substances  raised  above  it, 
while  both  indicate  an  equal  degree  of  cold ;  but  all  the  quantity  of  dew 
from  this  cause  can  never  be  great,  because  until  the  air  be  cooled  by  the 
substances  attractive  of  dew  with  which  it  comes  in  contact  below  its 
point  of  repletion  with  moisture,  it  will  always  be  in  a  condition  to  take 
up  that  which  has  been  deposited  upon  grass,  or  other  low  bodies,  by 
warm  vapor  emitted  by  the  earth,  just  as  the  moisture  formed  on  a  miri-or 
by  our  breath  is,  in  temperate  weather,  almost  immediately  carried  away 
by  the  surrounding  air.  Agreeably  to  another  opinion,  the  dew  found  on 
growing  vegetables  is  the  condensed  vapor  of  the  very  plants  on  which  it 
appears ;  but  this  also  is  erroneous,  because  dew  forms  as  copiously  upon 
dead  as  upon  living  vegetable  substances ;  and  "  if  a  plant,"  as  Dr.  Wells 
observes,  "has  become,  by  radiating  its  heat  to  the  heavens,  so  cold  as  to 
be  enabled  to  bring  the  air  in  contact  with  it  below  the  point  of  repletion 
with  moisture,  that  which  forms  upon  it  from  its  own  transpiration  will  not 
then  indeed  evaporate.  But  although  moisture  will  at  the  same  time  be 
communicated  to  it  by  the  atmosphere,  and  when  the  difference  in  the 
copiousness  of  these  two  sources  is  considered,  it  may,  I  think,  be  safely 
concluded  that  almost  the  whole  of  the  dew  which  will  afterward  form 
upon  the  plant  must  be  derived  from  the  air;  more  especially  when  the 
coldness  of  a  clear  night,  and  the  general  inactivity  of  plants  in  the  ab-  ' 
sence  of  light,  both  lessening  their  transpiration,  are  taken  into  account." 
Hoarfrost  is  just  frozen  dew,  but  as  it  only  appears  when  the  surface  of 
the  earth  is  sealed  with  frost,  the  vapor  of  which  it  is  formed  cannot,  of 
course,  at  the  time,  perspire  from  the  earth.* 

Another  remarkable  phenomenon  in  summer  is  hail.  "The  difficulty 
for  accounting  for  the  retention  of  masses  of  ice  in  the  free  atmosphere," 
observes  Professor  Forbes,  "  is  certainly  very  gi-eat.  Perhaps  no  hy- 
pothesis more  satisfactory,  certainly  none  more  ingenious,  has  followed 
that  of  Volta,  who  conceived,  from  the  highly  electric  condition  of  the 
atmosphere,  almost  universally  attending  the  production  of  hail,  that  the 
frozen  masses  were  kept  in  a  state  of  reciprocating  motion  between  two 
clouds  oppositely  charged  with  electricity,  until  the  increase  of  the  mass 
rendered  the  force  of  gravity  predominant,  or  the  electric  tension  of  the 
clouds  was  exhausted  by  mutual  reaction."+  As  hail  is  a  very  curious 
and  highly  interesting  phenomenon,  a  few  facts  regarding  its  occurrence 
and  the  forms  of  hailstones  may  prove  instructive.  "  Hail  generally  falls 
in  the  hottest  hours  of  the  day  in  Spain,  Italy  and  France.  It  falls  in  Eu 
rope  generally  in  the  day,  and  seldom  in  the  night.  It  seldom  falls  in 
winter,  though  at  Plymouth,  according  to  Mi'.  Giddy,  there  seems  to  be 
an  exception.  Thus,  in  the  course  of  21  years,  the  recurrence  in  each 
month  was,  in 

January 23  times  May 7  times  September 5  times 

February 05     „  j^j.g 5     __  October 17     .. 

^/arc'i 25     ..  July 1      ..  November 22     .. 

^P"' 27     ..  AugQst 0     ..  December 43     .. 

In  August  is  absolute  zero,  and  in  December  is  the  maximum.     Rain  falls 
in  all  seasons,  snow  in  winter,  hail  principally  in  summer.     The  appear- 

*  ^"^/io-?  °^'^'  ^^'^""^  edition,  1815.  t  Forbes's  Report  on  Meteorology,  vol.  i. 


246  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


ance  of  hail-clouds  seems  to  be  distinguished  from  other  stormy  clouds  by 
a  remarkable  sliading;  their  edges  present  a  multitude  of  indentations, 
and  their  surfaces  disclose  here  and  there  immense  irregular  protuber- 
ances. Hail  seldom  falls  on  mountains,  which  indicates  lowness  of  clouds, 
which  Arago  has  seen  cover  the  valley  with  fog,  while  the  mountains  were 
clear  above.  The  form  of  hailstones  varies.  They  are  nearly  uniform 
when  they  fall  on  the  same  level  ;  and  in  the  same  storm  they  have  fallen 
smaller  on  the  tops  of  mountains  than  on  the  plains.  Change  of  temper- 
ature or  wind  changes  the  form  of  hail.  On  7lh  July,  1769,  M.  Adanson 
observed  6-sided  pyramids  fall,  but  the  wind  changing  to  N.E.,  changed 
them  to  convex  lenses,  and  so  transparent  as  to  transfer  objects  without 
distortion.  Hail  is  sometimes  attended  with  spongy  snow,  which  may 
have  formed  the  interior  of  the  hailstone,  while  its  exterior  was  transpar- 
ent ice.  It  has  been  supposed  fiom  this,  that  the  different  portions  have 
been  formed  under  different  circumstances.  Leslie  imagines  the  spimgy 
texture  to  result  from  an  atom  of  water  having  been  suddenly  frozen,  and 
particles  of  perhaps  rarefied  air  suddenly  driven  into  the  center.  The 
pyramidal  form  fell  at  Aberdeen  on  29th  November,  1823.  The  usual 
form  of  hail  is  a  concentnc  lamellar  structure,  with  a  stellular  fibrous  ar- 
rangement. There  is  great  difficulty  in  accounting  for  large  masses  of 
ice  in  the  atmosphere,  as  hail  cannot  take  above  1  minute  in  falling  from 
low  clouds."* 

The  forms  of  the  clouds  in  summer  are  very  distinctly  marked.  When 
a  deposition  of  vapor  is  taking  place  in  the  highest  part  of  the  atmosphere, 
the  cirrus,  or  curl-cloud,  appears  (283),  and  it  sometimes  soon  disappears, 
which  is  a  sign  of  fine  weather ;  but  instead  of  disappearing,  it  may  de- 
scend a  little  lower,  and  be  converted  into  the  cirro-cumulus  (287),  which  is 
the  form  of  that  elegant,  light,  flocculent  cloud  so  often  seen  in  a  fine  sum- 
mer day.  A  farther  deposition  changes  the  small  cloud  into  the  larger 
cumulus,  called  the  day-cloud  in  summer,  because  it  disappears  into  an- 
other form  in  the  evening.  The  cumulus  or  heap  may  may  be  seen  dis- 
tinctly represented  in  the  plate  of  the  Liecester  tup,  both  above  the  animal 
and  above  the  horizon,  where  it  frequently  takes  up  its  position  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  day,  resting  on  the  vapor  plane.  When  a  large  cumu- 
lus rises  from  the  horizon  in  the  daytime,  and  shows  white  towering 
heads,  it  is  a  sign  of  a  storm  or  a  fall  of  rain  from  that  quarter  ;  and  the 
wind  will  change  to  that  direction  in  the  course  of  the  next  24  hours.  This 
threatejiing  cloud,  is  called  cumulo-stratus.  In  calm,  serene  even- 
ings in  summer,  the  day-cloud  or  cumulus  descends  and  spreads  itself 
along  the  bottom  of  valleys,  or  in  hollows  of  the  open  country,  covering 
the  ground  like  a  lake  as  seen  in  moonlight,  or  with  a  partial  sheet  of 
snow.  This  is  the  true  stratus  cloud.  Tall  objects,  such  as  trees,  steeples, 
and  even  elevated  ground,  jut  through  it  like  rocks  and  islands  in  a  lake. 
The  air  is  then  perfectly  calm,  the  temperature  is  delightfully  warm,  and 
the  intenseness  of  the  silence  is  broken  only  by  the  snipe  drumming  in 
its  curious  somersets  in  the  air — by  the  harsh  ventriloquous  cry  of  the 
corn-craik  among  the  grass — or  by  the  occasional  barking  of  the  watch- 
dog at  some  distant  homestead.  The  morning  after  such  a  night  is 
sure  to  usher  in  a  bright  and  peerless  sun,  whose  steady  heat  will  soon 
evaporate  the  sheet-like  stratus-cloud  from  the  valley  and  hollows,  and  ele- 
vate it,  in  the  form  of  the  beautiful  day-cloud,  above  the  mountain-top  or 
the  horizon. 

The   direction  of  the  wind  forms  an  important  item  in  the  consideration 

•  Encyclopedia  MetropoUUma,  art.  MtttorologTi  ■ 
(486) 


SUMMER.  247 


of  the  weather  in  summer;  for  in  no  other  season  does  the  slightest  varia- 
tion of  the  wind  make  so  decided  changes  on  the  weather.  If  we  assent 
to  the  general  conclusion  in  regard  to  the  cause  of  winds,  chat  it  is  the  par- 
tial changes  of  temperature  which  are  their  chief  general  cause,  we  may- 
expect  the  winds  to  be  most  variable  in  summer,  since  changes  of  tempera- 
ture ai'e  most  likely  to  occur  at  that  season  ;  and  the  change  of  the  wind  is 
the  most  ready  indication  of  the  change  of  temperature,  especially  in  the 
upper  portion  of  the  atmosphere.  In  the  torrid  zone,  while  the  barometer 
seldom  varies  but  in  a  trifling  degree,  in  the  temperate  zone  it  is  not 
less  fickle  than  the  wind.  This  indication  of  a  loss  of  weight  in  the  at- 
mosphere can  arise  only  from  a  local  diminution  of  its  elasticity,  most  like- 
ly from  changes  of  temperature.  But  the  most  remarkable  effect  in  rela- 
tion to  the  wind  in  summer,  is  the  constancy  with  which  it  blows  from  the 
east  in  the  early  part  of  that  season  ;  and  so  invariable  is  this  phenomenon, 
that  every  person  who  dwells  on  the  east  coast  of  Great  Britain  is  quite 
familiar  with  it,  as  every  one  feels  the  keenness  of  the  east  wind,  and  eve- 
ry one  knows  the  aptitude  with  which  catarrhal  affections  are  produced  by 
it.  An  explanation  of  this  remarkable  phenomenon  cannot  fail  to  prove 
interesting  ;  and  as  a  very  rational  solution  of  its  recuirence  has  been  giv- 
en by  Mr.  Samuel  Marshall,  I  shall  copy  his  succinct  but  satisfactory  ac- 
count of  it.  After  stating  that  the  east  winds  in  early  summer  usually 
prevail  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  7th  or  8th  of  May,  or  even  to  the 
18th  of  May,  and  I  may  add  that  it  continued  all  June  in  1843,  Mr.  Mar- 
shall then  proceeds  to  account  for  the  cause  of  the  phenomenon.  "  In 
Sweden  and  Norway,  the  face  of  the  country  is  covered  with  snow  to  the 
middle  of  May  or  longer.  This  frozen  covering,  which  has  been*'  fcji-med 
during  winter,  grows  gradually  shallower  to  the  loth  or  16th  of  May,  or 
until  the  sun  has  acquired  17°  or  18°  N.  declination  ;  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  valleys  and  mountains  of  England  have  received  an  accession  of 
24°  or  25°.  On  this  account,  when  the  temperature  of  Sweden  and  Nor- 
way is  cooled  down  by  snow  to  32°,  that  of  Britain  is  24°  or  25°  hio-her 
than  that  of  the  preceding  countries.  Because,  while  the  gi'ound  is  cov- 
ered with  snow,  the  rays  of  the  sun  ai'e  incapable  of  heating  the  air  above 
32°,  the  freezing  point.  For  this  reason,  the  air  of  England  is  24°  or  25° 
more  heated  than  that  of  the  before-mentioned  countries.  The  air  of  Swe- 
den and  Norway  will  then,  of  course,  by  the  laws  of  comparative  specific 
gravity,  displace  that  of  England,  and,  from  the  relative  situation  of  those 
countries  with  this  country,  will  produce  a  N.E.  wind.  The  current  is  in 
common  stronger  by  day  than  by  night,  because  the  variation  of  tempera- 
ture is  at  that  time  the  greatest,  being  frequently  from  50°  to  60°  about 
noon,  and  sinking  to  32°  in  the  night."*  Some  of  the  most  obvious  prog- 
nostics of  the  wind  in  summer  are,  when  the  wind  is  variable,  rain  is  not 
far  distant ;  when  it  blows  low,  and  raises  the  dust  much,  it  has  the  same 
effect ;  but  when  there  are  small  whirlwinds  raising  the  dust  along  the 
road  or  corn-fields,  it  is  a  sign  of  dry  weather.  I  remember  of  seeing  a 
beautiful  whirlwind,  in  a  calm  hot  day,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Berlin, 
raise  the  sand  of  a  field,  the  soil  being  mostly  composed  of  that  substance, 
in  a  perpendicular  direction  to  a  great  bight  in  the  air.  When  currents  of 
air  are  seen  to  move  in  different  directions,  that  which  the  upper  current 
takes  \vill  ultimately  prevail.  At  times  in  summer,  and  particularly  in  the 
evening,  it  is  hard  to  say  from  which  quarter  the  current  comes,  when  a  wet- 
ted finger  held  up  will  tell  the  quarter,  from  the  cold  produced  on  it  by  con- 
sequent evaporation  of  the  moisture.      The  pleasant  phenomena  of  the 

*  BrewBter'e  Journal  of  Science,  vol.  viii. 
(487) 


248  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

land  and  sea  breezes  are  distinctly  marked  in  fine  warm  weather  in 
summer.  When  winds  blow  strongly  from  any  quarter,  even  from  the 
warm  west,  for  two  or  three  tlays  in  succession,  the  temperature  of 
the  air  is  much  diminished,  sometimes  as  much  as  20^,  and  seldom  less 
than  10^. 

So  much  for  the  aerial  speculations  of  summer.  Let  us  now  notice  the 
humbler  toils  of  the  field.  These,  as  I  have  already  observed,  require  to 
be  advanced  a  stage  toward  their  completion  in  autumn.  The  first  opera- 
tion which  calls  for  the  plowman's  attention  in  summer  is  the  turnip-land, 
which  is  now  drilled  up,  dunged,  and  sown.  The  culture  of  the  turnip  is  a 
most  important  and  stimng  operation,  affording  much  interesting  work  in 
singling  and  hoeing  the  plants  for  the  greater  part  of  the  season.  In  the 
bight  of  summer,  young  stock  luxuriate  on  the  riches  of  the  pasture-field, 
while  forage  plants,  consisting  of  vetches,  rape,  or  broad  clover,  are  allow- 
ed to  grow  until  the  general  season  of  want,  between  the  failure  of  pas- 
ture and  the  premature  consumption  of  turnip.  Before  stock  take  pos- 
session of  the  pasture-fields,  the  hedger  makes  it  a  point  to  put  the  fences 
in  a  complete  state  of  repair,  and  to  second  his  exertions,  the  carpenter 
and  smith  make  the  field-gates  secure  for  the  season.  Fattened  stock  are 
seldom  allowed  to  taste  the  pasture,  they  being  disposed  of  ofi"  the  tur- 
nips to  the  butcher  or  dealer.  The  fat  cattle  are  almost  always  then  sold. 
Young  cattle  and  cows  are  sent  to  the  grazing  field  of  the  farm,  though 
turnip  sheep  are  not  unfrequently  retained  on  grass  until  the  fleece  is  clip- 
ped from  their  backs  (the  season  being  nigh  at  hand,)  and  after  that  they 
also  are  disposed  of.  The  separation  of  ewe  and  lamb  is  now  effected  ; 
and  the  respective  marks  of  age,  sex,  and  ownership,  are  put  on  each. 
Horses  now  live  entirely  another  sort  of  life,  being  transferred  from  the 
confinement  of  the  collar  in  the  stable  to  the  pei-fect  liberty  of  the  field, 
and  heartily  do  they  enjoy  themselves  there.  The  brood  mare  now  brings 
forth  her  foal,  and  receives  immunity  from  labor  for  a  time.  Hay-making 
is  represented  by  poets  as  a  scene  of  unalloyed  pleasure.  No  doubt  lads 
and  lasses  are  then  as  meny  and  chirping  as  grasshoppers,  but,  neverthe- 
less, in  spite  of  buoyant  spirits,  hay-making,  in  sober  truth,  is  a  labor  of 
much  heat  and  great  toil — the  constant  use  of  the  hay-rake  and  pitch-fork, 
in  hot  weather,  being  no  sinecure.  Early  as  the  season  is,  preparations  are 
made  ift  summer  for  the  next  year's  crop.  The  bare  fallow  is  worked  and 
dunged,  and  it  may  be  limed  too,  in  readiness  for  the  seed  in  autumn. — 
Summer  is  of  all  others  the  season  in  which  the  farmer  most  seriously 
makes  his  attacks  on  those  spoilers  of  his  clean  fields,  and  contaminators 
of  the  samples  of  his  gi-ain — the  weeds.  Whether  in  stocked  pastures, 
upon  tilled  ground,  along  drills  of  green  crops,  among  growing  com,  or  in 
hedges,  young  and  old,  weeds  are  daily  exterminated,  and  the  extermination 
is  most  effectually  accomplished  by  the  minute  and  pains-taking  exertions  of 
female  field- workers.  For  these  purposes  they  are  provided  witli  appro- 
priate cleaning  instruments.  This  is  the  season,  too,  in  which  his  stock 
and  crops  arc  sometimes  seriously  affected  by  the  attacks  of  insects.  Where 
building-stones  are  plentiful,  and  the  risk  great  from  the  overflowings  of 
rivulets  in  wijiter,  summer  is  also  the  season  for  the  erection  of  stone  dykes 
as  fences  between  fields,  and  of  embankments  along  the  margins  of  rivers. 
The  former  afford  a  substantial  fence  at  once,  the  latter  form  insuperable 
barriers  against  an  element  powerful  alike  whether  exerted  for  or  against 
Man's  operations. 

Every  operation  requires  constant  attention  in  summer,  for,  the  season 
being  active  in  its  influences,  farmers  must  then  put  forth  their  enero-ies  to 
meet  its  rapid  effects,  whether  these  tend  to  forward  or  retard  his  efforts 

(488) 


SUMMER.  249 


The  long  hours  of  a  summer  day,  of  which  at  least  ten  are  spent  in  the 
fields — the  ordinary  high  temperature  of  the  air,  which  suffuses  the  body 
of  the  working  man  in  constant  perspiration — and  the  fatiguing  nature  of 
all  field-work  in  summer,  bear  hard  as  well  on  the  mental  as  the  physical 
energies  of  the  laborer,  and  cause  him  to  seek  for  rest  at  a  comparatively 
early  hour  of  the  evening.  None  but  those  who  have  experienced  the 
fatigue  of  working  in  the  fields  in  hot  weather,  and  for  long  hours,  can 
truly  appreciate  the  luxury  of  rest — a  feeling  truly  described  in  these  sim- 
ple lines  : 

"  Night  is  the  time  for  rest. 

How  sweet  when  labors  close 
To  gather  round  the  aching  breast 

The  curtain  of  repose — 
Stretch  the  tired  limbs,  and  lay  the  head 
Upon  one's  own  delightful  bed  !" 

MONTGOMEBY. 

The  hours  devoted  to  field-work  vary  in  summer  in  different  parts  of 
the  country.  On  the  borders  it  is  the  practice  to  go  very  early  to  the 
morning  yoke,  as  early  as  4  o'clock,  that  the  forenoon's  work  may  be  over 
by  9,  and  that  there  may  be  time  to  rest  in  the  heat  of  the  day ;  the  after- 
noon's yoking  commences  at  1  o'clock,  and  continues  till  6  o'clock.  There 
are  thus  10  hours  spent  in  the  fields.  But  in  most  parts  of  the  country, 
the  morning  yoking  does  not  commence  till  6  o'clock,  and,  on  terminating 
at  11,  there  are  only  2  hours  for  rest  and  dinner  till  1  o'clock,  when  the 
afternoon's  yoking  begins.  In  other  parts,  only  4  hours  are  spent  in  the 
moi'ning  yoking,  when  the  horses  loose  at  10  o'clock,  and  yoking  again 
from  2  to  6  in  the  afternoon,  only  eight  hours  are  spent  in  the  fields, 
,  and  the  men  are  employed  elsewhere  by  themselves  for  2  hours. 
This  is  practiced  where  the  plowmen  are  made  to  do  the  work  of  field- 
workers,  and  where  a  large  numbers  of  diaughts  are  kept.  Perhaps  the 
best  division  of  time  is  to  begin  the  yoking  at  5  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
loose  at  10,  yoke  again  at  1,  and  loose  at  6  in  the  evening,  affording  3 
hours  for  rest  to  man  and  horse  at  the  hight  of  the  day,  and  10  hours  in 
the  field.  Day-laboi'ers,  when  not  dependent  on  the  hoi'ses,  as  well  as 
field- workers,  usually  work  from  7  to  12,  and  from  1  to  6  o'clock  in  the 
evening,  having  1  hour  for  rest  and  dinner.  When  laborers  take  their  din- 
ner with  them  to  the  field  of  their  operations,  this  may  be  a  good  enough 
division  of  time ;  but  when  they  have  to  go  home  to  dinner,  1  hour  is  too 
little  for  the  pui'pose,  and  affords  no  time  for  rest  between  yokings,  which 
is  to  be  deprecated,  as  neither  men  nor  women  are  able  to  work  10  hours 
without  an  interval  of  quiet  rest.  It  would,  therefore,  be  a  better  aiTange- 
ment  for  field- workers  to  go  to  work  at  6  instead  of  7,  and  loose  at  11  instead 
of  12,  when  they  have  to  go  home  to  dumer  ;  but  if  they  took  their  dinners 
with  them  to  the  field,  then  1  hour  is  sufficient  for  rest  and  dinner  at  the 
same  time. 

Summer  is  the  only  season  in  which  the  farmer  has  liberty  to  leave 
home  without  incurring  the  blame  of  neglecting  his  business,  and  even 
then  the  time  which  he  has  to  spare  is  very  limited.  There  is  only  about 
a  fortnight  between  finishing  the  fallow,  the  turnip  and  potato  culture, 
and  haymaking,  and  the  commencement  of  harvest,  in  which  the  farmer 
has  leisure  to  travel.  This  limitation  of  time  is  to  be  regretted,  because  it 
is  proper  that  he  should  take  a  journey  every  year,  and  see  how  farm 
operations  are  conducted  in  other  parts  of  the  kingdom.  An  excursion 
of  this  nature  is  seldom  undertaken  by  a  farmer,  who  is  generally  a 
man  capable  of  observation,  without  acquiring  some  hints  which  may 
induce  the  adoption  of  a  pratice  that  seems  good,  or  the  rejection  of 
one  which  is  bad.  Such  a  iournev  exhibits  mankind  in  various  aspects, 
(489)  -^  ^ 


250  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


and  elevates  the  mind  above  local  prejudices ;  and  as  husbandry  is 
a  pror^ressive  art,  a  rami)le  of  a  week  or  two,  through  different  parts 
of  the  countiy,  cannot  fail  to  enlighten  the  mind  of  the  most  expeii- 
enced  farmer  much  beyond  anything  he  can  observe  by  always  remaining 
at  home. 


21.    THE   SOWING   OF   TURNIPS,  MANGEL-WURZEL,  RAPE,  CARROTS 

AND   PARSNIPS. 

"They  require  the  land  to  be  well  broken  by  frequent  plowings  and  harrowiugg, 
and  also  to  be  well  dunged  ;  this  is  of  great  imjiortance,  not  only  as  the  crop  of  these 
Touu  is  thereby  rendered  larger,  but  as  the  land  is  thereby  prtpared  for  carrj-ing  good 
crops  of  com."  Coh;meli-a« 

(1953.)  The  first  great  field  operation  in  summer  is  the  completion  of 
the  preparation  of  the  soil  for  the  sowing  of  the  turnip  crop.  This  crop 
commences  the  rotation  of  crops,  is  a  substitute  of  bare-fallowing,  and  is 
of  the  same  nature,  as  regards  the  amelioration  and  working  of  the  soil, 
fis  the  potato  crop,  and  therefore  admits  of  the  soil  being  manured  ;  and, 
indeed,  on  account  of  all  these  properties,  it  is  regarded  and  denominated 
a  falloic  crop.  Being  thus  a  renovator  of  the  condition  of  the  soil,  the 
turnip  crop  necessarily  succeeds  the  crop  which  terminates  the  rotation, 
and  beyond  which  the  exhaustion  of  the  soil  is  not  peiTnitted  ;  and,  being 
a  fallow  crop,  the  preparation  of  the  soil  for  it  requires  much  labor,  and 
should  therefore  be  begun  as  early  as  the  breaking  up  of  the  stubble  in 
the  beginning  of  winter.  This  fact  is  indicated  in  (916)  ;  and  the  differ- 
ent modes  of  plowing  stubble  for  fallow,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
soil,  aie  mentioned  in  (917),  and  the  due  precautions  to  be  used  to  keep 
the  soil  in  a  dry  state  all  winter  are  stated  in  (9 IS).  These  constitute 
the  winter  preparations  for  the  turnip  crop ;  and  those  in  spring  are  be- 
gun by  cross-plowing,  fig.  312.  Should  potatoes  have  been  planted  in  the 
same  field  intended  for  turnips,  the  cross-plowing  for  the  potato  land 
should  be  extended  across  the  turnip  land,  if  there  is  time  for  it  ;  but 
should  the  time  required  for  this  extended  cross-plowing  encroach  upon 
that  wliich  is  devoted  to  potato-planting,  the  turnip  land  should  be  let 
alone,  until  there  is  leisure.  From  the  cross-plowing  to  the  drilling  of  the 
land  for  the  reception  of  the  dung,  the  turnip  culture  is  exactly  the  same 
as  for  potatoes,  with  perhaps  the  exception  that  as  there  is  more  time  for 
working  and  cleaning  turnip-land,  it  receives  one  or  more  plowings  or  stir- 
rings with  the  grubber  than  the  potato  land  ;  and  in  this  cleansing  process 
the  grubber  will  be  found  a  most  efficient  implement,  and  will  save  a 
plowing,  while  it  keeps  the  upper  soil  uppermost  and  in  a  fine  loose  state. 
When  turnip  laud  is  maimred  with  farm-yard  dung,  the  drilling  is  best  and 
most  expeditiously  done  in  the  single  mode,  fig.  313;  but  as  the  drills 
have  to  be  kept  in  exact  proportions,  for  the  sake  of  the  better  operation 
of  the  sowing-machine  that  is  to  follow,  the  best  plowman  should  be  de- 
sired to  make  them.  The  position  of  the  plow  which  makes  the  single 
drills  is  shown  at  a,  fig.  344  ;  the  ground  occupied  by  one  feering  in  drill- 
ing is  shown  from  a  to  e  ;  and  the  process  of  dunging,  both  in  carting  out 
and  spreading  the  dung,  and  in  splitting  the  drills  in  the  double  way, 
are  conducted  in  the  manner  desciiln  d  for  that  figure,  with  the  exception 
of  the  potato  planters  at  r  and  *.     So  far,  then,  the  culture  of  potatoes  and 

(490) 


THE  SOWING  OF   TURNIPS.  251 


turnips  correspond,  but  after  this  point  a  considerable  difference  ensues, 
which  arises  from  the  difference  in  the  nature  of  the  seed.  After  the  soil 
on  the  top  of  the  drills  has  become  a  little  browned  with  the  sun,  or  riz- 
zared,  as  it  is  technically  phrased  in  some,  or  with  a  proper  tid  in  other 
places,  the  turnip  sowing-machine,  which  sows  2  rows  at  a  time,  such  as 
the  one  described  below  by  Mr.  Slight,  is  then  used,  with  one  horse,  for 
sowing  the  seed.  The  soil  should  be  dry  at  the  top  of  the  drills  before 
the  seed  is  sown,  because  damp  soil  clings  to  the  rollers  of  the  machine, 
and  causes  them  to  make  bad  work.  One  of  these  machines  could  sow  a 
great  breadth  of  land  in  a  day,  but  it  is  seldom  that  it  can  be  employed 
throughout  a  whole  day,  for  two  reasons  :  One  is,  that  the  soil  is  seldom 
in  a  dry  enough  state  in  the  morning  to  be  thus  sown  ;  and  the  other  rea- 
son is,  that  a  sufficient  quantity  of  land  will  not  be  dunged  and  split  in 
the  course  of  a  day  to  keep  a  machine  going  constantly,  because  one  plow 
can  only  split  ^  more  land  in  a  day  than  it  can  plow,  so  that  3  plows  will 
only  split  5  acres  at  most  of  drills  over  dung  in  a  day,  and  thus  1  machine 
could  hold  4  plows  splitting  drills ;  and  as  the  dunging  is  carried  on  at  the 
same  time,  there  are  few  farms  so  large  as  to  employ  4  plows  splitting 
drills. 

(1954.)  The  quantity  of  seed  sown  need  not  exceed  3  lbs.  to  the  Eno^- 
lish  acre,  nor  should  the  quantity  be  much  less,  as  thick  sowing  insures  a 
quick  braird  of  the  turaip  plant,  and  the  seed  is  not  a  costly  article,  beino- 
usually  from  9d.  to  Is.  per  lb.  Fortunately,  that  the  land  may  receive  its 
due  labor,  the  different  kinds  of  turnips  cultivated  require  to  be  sown  at 
different  times.  Swedes,  for  instance,  should  be  sown  by  the  15th  of  May 
at  latest,  and  if  the  land  is  ready  to  receive  the  seed  by  the  10th,  so  much 
the  better.  Swedes  will  grow  on  any  kind  of  soil,  except,  perhaps,  what 
is  in  a  state  of  pure  peat  ;  but  they  grow  best  in  rich  alluvial  sandy  loam 
— best,  because  largest,  and  in  that  state  this  particular  turnip  is  firmest 
too.  The  yellow  turnip  follows  the  Swedes,  and  then  the  white,  which 
may  be  sawn  any  time  in  June.  In  England,  white  turnips  are  sown  as 
late  as  July,  because,  if  sown  earlier,  they  would  come  too  soon  to  matu- 
rity. The  seeds  of  Swedish  turnips  are  much  larger  than  those  of  yellow 
or  white,  and  require  to  be  sown  through  a  larger  hole  in  the  canister  of 
the  machine.  They  will  retain  their  freshness  for  several  years,  and  may 
be  confidently  sown  though  kept  for  3  years  ;  but  it  would  be  hazardous 
to  sow  yellow  or  white  turnip-seed  after  the  first  year  ;  they  somehow 
lose  their  vitality  after  that  time.  The  reason  why  I  give  the  preference 
to  the  purple-top  Swedish,  the  Aberdeenshire  yellow  bullock,  and  the 
white  globe  turnips,  will  be  found  in  paragraphs  from  (1022)  to  (1031)  in- 
clusive, and  these  turnips  are  figured  in  fig.  214,  at  the  same  place.  At 
the  same  time,  you  should  partly  be  guided  by  the  practice  of  the  district 
in  which  your  farm  is  situate,  what  sorts  you  should  sow  on  your  first 
coming  into  the  district ;  but  you  should  hear  very  satisfactory  reasons 
why  those  kinds  will  not  thrive  in  that  particular  district,  and  should  even 
experience  their  failure  before  you  determine  on  preferring  the  culture  of 
other  kinds.  When  I  began  to  farm  in  Forfarshire,  I  was  told  that  the 
Swedish  turnip  would  not  thrive  on  such  soil  as  my  farm,  a  light  turnip 
soil,  and  that  I  would  find  the  red-topped  wliite  the  best  ;  but  a  very  short 
trial  showed  every  one  that  Swedes  and  the  white  or  green-topped  globe 
throve  much  better  than  the  favorite  red-topped,  which  is  an  early  turnip, 
no  doubt,  but  a  very  spongy  one  on  that  soil.  For  my  part,  I  would  have 
no  fears  of  raising  a  good  crop  of  Swedes  on  any  ordinary  soil  by  proper 
culture,  that  is  by  giving  them  plenty  of  old  well-made  dung,  and  sowing 
them  early.     Give  Swedes  15  tons,  or  20  good  cart-loads,  of  dung  in  that 

(491J 


252  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

State  to  the  imperial  acre,  and  sow  them  before  the  15th  of  May,  and  little 
fear  need  be  entertained  of  the  crop  on  the  most  ordinary  soil  ;  12  tons  of 
well-ma<le  dung  will  suffice  for  yellow  turnips,  and  10  tons  of  the  same 
for  white  globes  ;  but,  of  course,  the  more  dung  each  of  the  kinds  receive, 
the  larger  crop  may  be  expected. 

(1955.)  It  is  not  an  unusual  practice  in  England  to  sow  turnips  broad- 
cast on  the  fiat  ground,  instead  of  in  rows,  and  on  ridglets  or  drills,  as  in 
Scotland  ;  and  the  reason  I  have  heard  stated  in  vindication  of  the  broad- 
cast method  is,  that  it  resisted  the  bad  effects  of  drouth  on  the  land  in 
summer.  No  doubt  e.vcessive  drouth  in  summer  is  inimical  to  the  full  de- 
velopment of  the  turnip,  and  it  is  on  this  account  that  the  turnip  crop  fails 
so  firequently  in  Germany  ;  but,  for  my  part,  I  cannot  see  how  a  broad- 
cast crop  can  escape  drouth  more  certainly  than  one  in  rows,  since  the 
plants  have  to  giow  and  be  thinned  out  to  proper  distances  in  both  cases ; 
and  should  the  ground  be  foul  with  weeds  it  must  be  stined  to  get  rid  of 
them  in  both  cases;  and  as  the  work  of  weeding  is  done  by  hand  instru- 
ments in  the  case  of  the  broadcast  crop,  it  is,  of  course,  not  so  effectually 
done  as  with  horse-hoes,  in  the  case  with  the  crop  in  rows  ;  while  I  can 
see,  that  as  the  dung  must  be  spread  broadcast  for  a  broadcast  crop,  it  will 
not  have  the  same  opportunity  of  pi'omoting  the  growth  of  the  crop  at  it^ 
early  stage  as  when  it  is  deposited  in  rows,  so  that  the  means  employed 
defeat  its  own  purpose  ;  because  I  think  it  cannot  admit  of  doubt  that  the 
same  quantity  of  manure  placed  in  bulk  immediately  under  the  seed  should 
promote  the  growth  of  the  plant  more  rapidly  than  when  it  is  spread  over 
a  larger-  surface  of  ground,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt,  also,  in  regard  to 
the  turnip  plant  itself,  that  the  more  rapidly  it  grows  in  its  early  stage,  the 
more  certainly  it  will  be  free  of  danger  from  drouth  and  from  some  insects, 
at  least;  for  it  is  well  known,  in  regard  to  the  habits  of  some  of  those 
which  attack  the  turnip,  that  they  become  innocuous  to  its  leaves  after  the 
development  of  the  rough  ones.  I  do  not  aver  that  the  sowing  of  turnips 
in  drills  will  render  them  invulnerable  to  the  attacks  of  insects  or  to  the 
effects  of  drouth,  but  these  evils  being  merely  seasonal,  the  drill  system 
places  the  crop  more  immediately  under  the  management  of  the  cultivator, 
inasmuch  as  it  enables  him  to  apply  the  whole  powers  of  the  manure  at 
once,  and  of  cleaning  the  soil  quickly  with  the  assistance  of  horse-pcjwer. 
Besides  all  this,  the  period  of  sowing  the  crop  should  be  suited  to  the 
climate  of  the  locality.  If  drouth  is  too  great  in  July,  or  the  insects  too 
powerful,  the  crop  should  be  so\\ti  earlier,  and  though  it  should  reach  ma- 
turity sooner  than  desired,  it  can  be  drawn  and  stored  until  the  season  of 
its  consumption  arrives;  or  it  should  be  sown  later,  such  as  in  August, 
when  the  genial  climate  of  the  South  of  England — where  the  nights  are 
warm  as  well  as  the  day,  thereby  affording  every  day  the  gi-owth  of  two 
ordinary  days  in  Scotland,  where  the  nights  are  always  cold — is  sufficient 
to  mature  the  crop  before  the  end  of  October,  which  is  as  early  as  the  tur- 
nip crop  is  required  for  consumption  in  that  part  of  the  country,  and  where 
till  then  the  grass  continues  good.  And  were  the  soil  })roperly  cleaned 
before  the  crop  is  sown,  comparatively  little  labor  would  be  required  to 
keep  it  so  in  the  hight  of  summer,  and  of  course  the  drouth  would  not 
then  much  affect  it.  Or,  a  part  of  the  turnip  crop  could  be  taken  after 
winter  vetches,  which,  on  being  cleared  off  the  ground  in  time  by  feeding 
sheep,  or  by  cutting,  would  enable  the  land  to  receive  a  short  fallowing 
for  turnips  before  the  end  of  July. 

(1956.)  Nor  is  a  much  earlier  fallowing  and  cleaning  of  the  turnip  land 
an  impracticable  thing  in  England,  since  the  com  crop  is  frequently  cleared 
from  the  fields  by  the  end  of  August,  when  the  stubble  could  be  broken 

(.492) 


THE  SOWING  OF  TURNIPS.  253 

up,  harrowed,  cross-plowed,  cleaned,  drilled,  and  even  dunged,  before  the 
arrival  of  winter,  as  has  been  proved  in  Scotland,  by  the  practice  of  Mr. 
James  Scougall,  at  Balgone,  East-Lothian,  the  seat  of  Sir  George  Grant 
Stittie,  Bart.,  in  the  autumn  of  1841,  when  he  drilled  and  dunged  good 
turnip  land,  at  32  inches  apart  in  the  diill,  and  otherwise  finished  its  till- 
age. Purple-top  Swedes  were  sown  on  the  10th  of  May,  1842,  the  plants 
thinned  to  15  inches  apart,  and  the  matured  crop  was  dravioi  and  stored 
by  the  middle  of  September  following,  when  the  ground  was  sown  with 
wheat.  On  comparing  the  produce  of  this  mode  of  culture  with  the  usual 
one  of  laboring  the  turnip  land  in  spring,  and  at  the  usual  distance  of  28 
inches  between  the  drills  and  12  inches  between  the  plants,  the  ground 
prepared  in  autumn  yielded,  in  429  links  measured  along  one  drill,  82 
stones  of  turnips,  whereas  that  worked  in  spring  yielded  only  58  stones, 
though  the  number  of  turnips  in  the  former  weight  was  only  238,  while 
that  in  the  latter  was  276,  thus  giving  to  each  turnip  a  weight  of  4  lbs.  13 
oz.  in  the  former,  and  of  only  2  lbs.  15  oz.  in  the  latter  case.  A  single 
horse-load  of  turnips  selected  from  the  ground  prepared  in  autumn  only 
numbered  141  roots,  and  weighed  as  much  as  109  stones,  showing  the 
weight  of  each  root  to  be  10  lbs.  13  oz.*  This  instance  proves  that  land 
for  Swedish  turnips  may  be  prepared  in  autumn,  and  a  heavy  crop  ob- 
tained on  drills  as  wide  as  32  inches,  and  from  plants  15  inches  apart.  A 
somewhat  similar  success  attended  the  trial  of  raising  turnips  on  strong 
clay  land,  at  ordinary  distances,  by  Mr.  Peter  Thomson,  Peffennill,  near 
Edinburgh.  So  soon  as  the  ground  was  cleared  of  tares,  he  cross-plowed 
it  with  a  deep  furrow,  well  woi-ked  it  with  harrows  and  gi-ubber  early  in 
October,  drilled  it  in  the  single  way  at  28  inches  asunder,  but,  owing  to 
the  unfavorable  state  of  the  weather,  was  prevented  applying  the  dung 
until  December  and  January,  which  consisted  of  32  single  horse-loads  of 
street-manure  per  imperial  acre,  and  which  was  covered  in  with  the  com- 
mon plow.  In  March  the  soil  was  found  in  a  fine  state,  but  as  it  was 
rather  foul  with  weeds,  the  drills  were  harrowed  a  double  tine,  the  ground 
stirred  between  them  with  the  single-horse  grubber,  and  set  up  with  the 
double  mould-board  plow,  and  again  set  up  just  before  sowing  the  seed 
of  the  green-top  yellow  turnip  on  the  15th,  and  of  the  white  globe  on  the 
25th  and  26th  of  May.  The  yield  was  32  tons  of  turnips  per  imperial 
acre,  including  tops,  and  quite  free  of  mildew.  The  field  had  been  dunged 
5  years  before,  and  twice  since  top-dressed  with  8  bags  of  4  bushels  each 
of  soot  to  the  imperial  acre.t  Were  such  modes  of  culture  adopted  in 
the  South  of  England,  I  have  no  doubt  certain  and  abundant  crops  of  tur- 
nips would  be  raised  in  spite  of  drouth  and  insects,  and  the  slovenly  prac- 
tice of  broadcast  culture  would  then  give  way  to  the  more  scientific  mode 
of  the  drill  system. 

(1957.)  Besides  farm-yard  dung,  a  great  breadth  of  turnips  is  raised 
eveiy  year  with  bone-dust.  This  manure  is  not  only  cheap,  but  insures  a 
good  crop  of  turnips  in  ordinary  circumstances,  and  its  use  expedites  field- 
labor  very  much.  When  the  land  is  ready  to  be  drilled  up  from  the  flat, 
the  drills  are  made  in  the  double  way  (1741)  ;  and  that  is  all  the  prepara- 
tion the  land  requires  for  bone-dust,  which  is  then  applied  by  the  bone- 
dust  sowing-machine,  represented  in  Plate  XXXI.,  and  described  below 
by  Mr.  Slight.  This  machine  deposits  the  bone-dust  and  turnip-seed  a1 
the  same  time,  and  finishes  the  sowing  of  the  turnip  crop.  The  quantity 
of  bone-dust  used  is  commonly  16  bushels  or  2  quarters  to  the  imperial  acre. 
There  is  something  in  the  action  of  bone-dust  on  the  soil,  and  its  conse- 
quent power  to  produce  a  turnip  crop,  which  I   do  not  understand,  the 

*  Mark-Lane  Express,  17th  October,  1842.  t  Ibid.,  21st  NoTsmber,  1842. 

(493) 


254  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

means  being  apparently  so  inadequate  to  produce  the  results  obtained. 
What  I  mean  is,  that  up  to  a  certain  quantity  used,  this  manure  has  evi- 
dently a  beneficial  effect,  but,  lieyond  that  quantity,  there  is  derived  from 
its  use  no  apparent  benefit,  in  as  far,  at  least,  as  the  crop  is  concerned.  I 
have  tried  to  raise  turnips  with  different  quantities  of  bone-dust,  varying 
from  12,  IG,  20,  and  24  bushels  to  the  imperial  acre,  and  have  found  the 
crop  improved  up  to  IG  bushels,  but  any  quantity  beyond  that,  even  to  24 
bushels,  produced  no  greater  effect  o"n  the  turnips  in  the  same  field,  and 
on  the  same  sort  of  soil,  than  16  bushels.  .  Nay,  more. than  this,  my  late 
agricultural  preceptor,  Mr.  George  Brown,  when  he  farmed  Hetton  Steads, 
in  Northumberland,  raised  as  good  crops  of  turnips  as  IG  bushels  of  bone- 
dust,  with  only  8  bushels  of  bone-dust,  combined  with  an  indefinite  quan- 
tity of  sifted  dry  coal-ashes  ;  and  yet  8  bushels  of  bone-dust,  or  an  indef- 
inite quantity  of  coal-ashes  applied  separately,  produced  a  very  poor  crop 
of  turnips.  It  is,  therefore,  unnecessary,  in  so  far  as  the  crop  of  tuniips  is 
concerned,  to  sow  more  than  IG  bushels  of  bone-dust  alone,  or  8  bushels 
with  coal-ashes,  or  perhaps  street-manure.  Both  coal-ashes  and  street- 
manure,  when  proposed  to  be  used  with  bone-dust,  should  be  kept  dry 
under  cover  and  sifted  free  of  large  lumps.  It  is  truly  surprising  what  an 
effect  on  the  soil  so  small  a  quantity  of  bone-dust  produces.  I  have  raised 
a  portion  of  the  manured  soil  of  a  drill  with  my  hand  before  the  turnip- 
seed  had  germinated,  and  found  it  agglutinated  together  in  a  lump  with  a 
greasy  matter,  and  the  lump  interspersed  partly  with  white  mouldiness, 
and  partly  with  minute  fibres  of  plants.  When  the  turnip-seed  germitiates, 
which  it  will  do  in  8  or  10  days,  according  to  the  state  of  the  weather,  its 
radicle  strikes  into  the  greasy  mass  of  earth,  and  sends  out  an  immense 
number  of  white  fibres  around  and  through  it.  Its  cotyledons  then  expand 
upward  into  two  rudimentary,  smooth  leaves,  and  immediately  thereafter 
two  true  or  rough  leaves  appear,  and  these  last  are  called  rough  leaves, 
because  they  feel  rough  by  reason  of  the  small  spiculae  which  may  be  ob- 
served to  occupy  the  surface  of  every  leaf  of  the  common  turnip.  The 
rudimentary  leaves  of  the  Swedish  turnip  are  not  lough  but  smooth,  be- 
cause the  plant  is  not  a  true  turnip,  but  a  species  of  cabbage,  which  are 
all  smooth-leaved.  The  smaller  bone-dust  is  ground  the  more  effective  it 
is  as  a  manure,  because  it  then  mixes  more  intimately  with  the  soil,  though 
its  action  upon  it  continues  for  a  shorter  time  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
large  or  drilled,  or  inch-hones,  as  they  are  called,  remain  longer  in  the  soil 
undecomposed,  but  produce  less  immediate  effect.  On  these  accounts, 
bone-dust  is  the  more  valuable  manure  for  turnips,  and  inch-bones  for 
wheat.  But  even  hone-dust  has  effect  beyond  the  turnip  crop  ;  it  extends 
its  influence  over  all  the  crops  of  the  rotation.  I  pulled  03^4  acres  of  tur- 
nips raised  with  bone-dust,  and  4  acres  adjoining  these  in  the  same  field 
that  had  been  raised  with  15  loads  of  farm-yard  dung  ;  and  the  crop  of 
turnips  was  not  only  better  after  the  bone-dust  than  after  the  dung,  but  all 
the  crops  that  followed  in  the  rotation,  namely,  barley,  hay,  pasture,  and 
oats,  were  also  better  in  their  respective  years.  Bone-dust,  when  pur- 
chased in  that  state  on  shipboard,  is  almost  always  adulterated  with  old 
plaster,  brick-dust,  ashes,  &:c.,  and  should  therefore  be  purchased  direct 
from  the  giinder,  one  who  is  on  the  spot.  There  are  now  many  bone- 
mills  scattered  over  the  country.  To  avoid  adulteration,  an  association  of 
farmers  was  formed  a  few  years  ago  in  Perthshire  to  import  bones,  rape- 
cake,  &c.,  and  giind  them  at  their  own  mills  under  the  superintendence  of  a 
manager  in  whom  they  have  confidence,  and  in  this  way  they  continue  to 
supply  themselves  with  genuine  manures.  Bone-dust  is  best  conveyed  in 
sacks,  and  40  bushels  will  fill  a  double-horse  cart  and  sow  2^  acres  impe- 

(494) 


THE  SOWING  OF  TURNIPS.  255 

rial.  It  weighs  47  lbs.  pei-  bushel.  It  should  be  immediately  emptied  out 
of  the  sacks  and  kept  in  small  heaps  in  a  cool  shed  until  it  is  used,  as  it  is 
very  apt  to  heat,  and  one  consequence  of  recent  heating  is  to  become 
lumpy  and  troublesome  to  sow  by  the  machine,  though  otherwise  it  is  not 
injured,  but  rather  improved  by  it.  In  some  parts  of  the  country,  par- 
ticularly on  the  Borders,  bone-dust  is  sown  by  hand  either  along  drills 
made  up  in  the  single  way,  which  are  then  split  in  the  double  way,  while 
this  plan  imposes  the  trouble  of  a  second  drilling,  or  it  is  sown  on  the  flat 
ground  and  covered  by  drilling  in  the  double  way.  In  both  cases,  the 
seed  is  sown  afterward  by  itself  with  the  common  turnip-sowing  machine. 
The  only  reason  I  have  heard  in  favor  of  sowing  bone-dust  by  hand  in- 
stead of  machinery  is  saving  the  cost  of  the  machine  ;  but  whatever  ad- 
vantao-e  is  gained  by  this  saving,  it  is,  I  think,  evident  that  the  machine 
must  deposit  the  bone-dust  much  more  regularly  than  the  hand  ;  and  as 
to  the  cost  of  a  machine  the  saving  must  be  trifling,  as  hoppers  for  contain- 
ing bone-dust  can  be  attached  and  made  to  remove  at  pleasure  from  an 
ordinary  sowing-machine.  I  always  used  a  machine  of  this  form  myself. 
But  in  a  case  of  this  kind  accuracy  of  work  is  a  more  potent  considera- 
tion than  the  cost  of  a  small  machine,  even  though  it  should  be  used  but 
for  a  few  weeks  every  year.  There  is  another  consideration,  too,  of  even 
greater  import,  that  the  nearer  bone-dust  is  placed  to  the  turnip-seed  the 
quicker  will  the  seed  vegetate,  and  experience  has  proved  that  turaip-seed 
may  safely  be  placed  among  bone-dust.  In  sowing  by  hand,  the  manure 
is  not  placed  near  the  seed  in  as  far  as  the  sower  knows,  and  when  the 
seed  is  sown  by  itself  after  the  bone-dust  has  been  covered  up  by  the 
drill,  the  sowing-machine  is  as  likely  to  deposit  it  away  from,  as  near  to, 
the  manure,  and  hence  a  regular  braird  cannot  be  insured  by  the  practice. 
The  oi'dinary  bone-dust  sowing-machine,  as  well  as  sowing  by  the  hand, 
deposits  the  bone-dust  in  a  continuous  line  along  the  drill ;  but  a  sowing- 
machine  has  been  lately  invented,  and  is  partially  in  use  in  Perthshire, 
which  deposits  the  bone-dust  in  small  portions  at  regular  intervals.  The 
argument  in  favor  of  this  mode  of  depositing  manure  is  the  comparatively 
small  quantity  required  by  it  to  pi'oduce  a  full  crop  ;  and  certainly  when 
bone-dust  is  either  very  scarce  or  very  dear,  this  is  a  fair  argument  to  use 
in  its  favor.  If  by  depositing  as  much  bone-dust  at  given  distances  of  12 
inches  as  would  be  deposited  at  those  distances  were  16  bushels  per  acre 
sown  in  a  continuous  line,  and  if  the  quantities  so  deposited  at  intervals 
of  12  inches  are  found  to  produce  as  well-gi'own  turnips  as  a  continuous 
sowing,  then  the  saving  of  manure  must  be  as  great  as  from  \  to  |^,  be- 
cause the  intervals  between  the  distances  are  not  manured  at  all ;  and 
even  if  a  greater  quantity  than  usual  were  sown  on  the  spots  at  intervals, 
still  a  saving  would  be  effected  upon  the  whole  ;  and  if  these  greater 
quantities  are  found  to  produce  a  greater  crop  than  the  usual  mode,  then 
the  plumping  mode,  as  this  method  of  sowing  by  intervals  is  termed,  may 
be  regai'ded  as  a  valuable  discovery.  Still  more  experience  of  its  results 
is  required  before  implicit  faith  can  be  placed  in  it  as  a  practice  fit  for 
general  adoption  ;  although  it  must  be  owned  that  the  anomalous  circum- 
stance regarding  the  action  of  bone-dust  already  noticed,  namely,  of  its 
maximum  effect  being  produced  by  a  given  quantity,  and  not  by  indefinite 
quantities — favors  the  pretensions  of  the  plumping  mode,  and  renders  it 
deserving  of  experiment.  The  very  best  method  of  using  bone-dust  in 
small  quantity,  both  for  increasing  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  rearing  a 
good  crop,  is  to  sow  the  seed  along  with  it  in  drills  already  manured  with 
farm-yard  dung.  The  bone-dust  secures  a  good  and  quick  braird  of  the 
plant,  and  the  dung  supports  it  powerfully  afterward.     This  plan  I  would 

(495) 


256  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

recommend  to  be  pursued,  particularly  in  England,  on  the  land  prepared 
for  turnips  in  aulumn,  and  were  it  practiced  we  need  not  despair  of  raising 
heavy  crops  of  turnips,  especially  Swedes,  on  the  strongest  soils,  and  most 
ceilainly  tliey  would  be  ol)tained  after  thorough-draining.  On  using  lx)ne- 
dust,  it  should  be  measured  from  the  heaps  in  the  shed  in  bushels,  and  put 
into  the  bodies  of  close  carts,  which  should  be  left  at  stated  distances  upon 
the  head-ridge  ;  it  being  exceedingly  inconvenient  to  take  bone-dust  out 
of  sacks.  A  field-worker  should  take  the  charge  of  replenishing  the  hop- 
pers of  the  machine  as  the  steward  returns  with  it  to  the  head-ridge  at 
every  bout,  with  a  rusky,  fig.  315,  filled  by  the  frying-pan  shovel,  fig.  176. 
As  bone-dust  is  apt  to  heat  in  heap,  and  although  it  is  improbable  that 
you  will  keep  bone-dust  over  the  year,  it  being  more  profitable  to  put  it 
into  the  gi-ound,  yet  in  case  you  should  have  any  left  over,  or  in  case  you 
should  purchase  a  lot  cheap  out  of  season,  it  may  be  proper  to  let  you 
know  how  to  keep  it  in  the  best  state  until  it  is  used  for  turnips  or  for 
any  other  purpose.  The  mode  of  keeping  it  is  this  :  Whenever  you  get 
it  you  should  put  it  on  a  dry  pavement  floor,  as  a  damp  one  rots  it  fast 
away.  It  will  heat  again,  but  not  so  violently  as  at  first  after  being  made, 
and  would  heat  again  every  time  it  is  turned,  which  it  should  not  be.  It 
should  not  be  kept  in  bags,  as  it  will  soon  rot  them,  as  I  have  experienced, 
nor  should  it  be  kept  upon  or  under  a  wooden  floor,  as  it  will  rot  them 
both  ;  nor  should  it  be  kept  near  horses  and  cattle,  as  they  evince  a  strong 
dislike  to  its  smell,  on  feeling  which,  horses  actually  become  restive  and 
troublesome.  If  new  bone-dust  obtained  from  the  mill  is  desired  to  be 
heated  at  once,  which  it  should  be  when  it  is  to  be  kept,  the  process  is 
much  accelerated  by  the  addition  of  a  little  sifted  coal-ashes  or  earth,  and 
as  much  water  as  will  make  the  whole  mass  only  damp,  and  turning  it 
over  several  times  until  the  entire  mass  is  incorporated  ;  and  in  48  hours 
the  heat  will  be  so  great  as  that  you  cannot  hold  your  hand  in  it.  The 
heat  will  giadually  subside,  the  mass  become  dry  and  in  a  good  state  for 
passing  through  the  sowing-machine.  Heating  has  the  effect  of  increasing 
the  weight  of  bone-dust  from  47  lbs.  to  49  lbs.  per  bushel,  and  this  increase 
is  no  doubt  effected  by  the  heating  having  taken  off*  the  angles  of  the  par- 
ticles, and  allowing  them  to  come  closer  together  in  the  bushel.  The  color 
is  also  changed  to  blue  and  yellow,  and  on  examination  by  the  microscope; 
the  mass  will  be  found  full  of  mites.* 

(1958.)  The  established  manures  for  raising  tuniips  are  farm-yard 
dung,  street-manure  in  the  neighborhood  of  towns,  and  bone-dust.  There 
are  many  other  substances  which  have  been  recommended  for  the  same 
purpose,  such  as  guano,  animalized  carbon,  &c. ;  but  as  they  are  only  of 
comparatively  recent  introduction,  and  cannot  be  said  to  have  yet  estab' 
lished  their  characters,  I  shall  decline  entertaining  their  pretensions  here, 
and  shall  rather  notice  what  promise  they  hold  out  when  I  come  to  men- 
tion the  subject  of  making  experiments  in  Agriculture. 
Bone-dust . — The  specific  gravity  of  bone,  as  determined  by  Dr.  Thomson,  is  as  follows : 

Osfcmorisof  a  sheep 20345  Ilium  of  an  ox 1S353 

Tibia  of  a  sheep 20329  Human  os  humeri 1-7479 

Vertebraj  of  haddock 1.6350 

The  nature  of  this  remarkable  substance,  as  a  manure,  demands  attention.  Bone  consists  of  or- 
ganic and  inorganic  matter,  and  these  are  found  in  the  following  proportion  in  the  bones  of  those 
animals  which  supply  the  largest  quantity  for  manure,  namely,  the  ox  and  sheep : 


*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  xiii 


(496) 


BONE-DUST  AS    MANURE. 


257 


Iliura  of  a 
Sheep. 

Ilium  of 
an  O::. 

Tibia  of  a 
Sheep. 

Vertebrffl  of 
Haddock. 

Snout  of  f^ aw! 

tish.deprived 

of  Teeth. 

46-310 
42-550 
2-638 
0-101 
0-141 

Organic  matter  or  cartilage 

C Phosphate  of  lime.. 
Carbonate  of  lime.. 

43'30 
50-58 
4-49 
0-86 
0-31 
0-19 

48  05 
45-02 
6-10 
0-24 
0-20 
0-11 

51-97 

40-42 

7-03 

0-22 

0-19 

trace. 

39-49 

56-08 

3-57 

0-79 

0-79 

1  Soda  

(^Potash 

99-73 

100-35 

99-83 

100-72 

gs-ee"! 

In  an  analysis  made  by  Dr.  Henry  R.  Madden,  to  ascertain  the  relative  component  parts  of  bones 
and  farmyard  dung,  the  following  results  -were  obtained,  the  bone  being  used  in  the  state  it  is  ap- 
plied to  the  soil,  and  the  dung  consisting  of  a  proportion  of  both  stable  and  byre  manure  : 

FARM-YARD   DUNG. 

Water 45-535 

"a  aj  f  Soluble  in  water 10-750 

gjS  ^       ..        ..potass 14-250 

^^  g  (.Destroyed  by  heat 18-565 

Salts  of  potass j 

■-     of«°'^'^ I    7-900 

of  lime 

Silica J 

Earthy  phosphates 3-000 

100-00 


•s  g 

"  <- 


11 


BONE-DUST. 

Water 11-5 

Solahle  in  cold  water 47 

..  hot  water 5-5 

..  weak  potass 260 

..  in  strong  potass 15-5 

Destroyed  by  heat 60 

Phosphate  of  lime 28-0 

Carbonate  of  lime 2-8 


100-0 

Another  analysis  gave  of  azote  in  bone-dust  1-77  per  cent.,  in  farm-yard  dung  -45  ;  so  that  in  this 
respect  these  substances  stand  comparatively  thus  : 

Bone-duat.    Farm-ysrd  dung.  Bone-dust.    Fami-yard  dung 

Soluble  matter 10-20  10-750    Azote 1-77  .450 

Easily  rendered  soluble  ...41-50  14-250     Total  organic  matter 38-50  33-565 

Saline  matter 55-00  10-900 

Hence  1  ton  bone-dust  equals,  as  regards  organic  matter 1  ton  farm-yard  dung. 

soluble  matter 1     .. 

easily  dissolved  matter    2-9  .. 

azote 3-9  .. 

saline  matter 5     .. 

earthy  phosphates 18-3.. 

If  all  the  various  degrees  in  which  bone-dust  is  superior  to  farm-yard  dung  be  added  together,  1 
ton  of  it  equals  30  tons  of  dung,  but  as  only  16  bushels  of  bone-dust  are  applied  to  the  acre,  which 
at  47  lbs.  per  bushel,  weighs  7  cwt.,  this  quantity  is  equal  to  10^  tons  of  dung.*  It  is  still  a  ques- 
tior.  whether  the  organic  or  the  inorganic  portion  of  bone-manure  bestows  the  greatest  benefit  on 
the  land,  and  from  its  effects  extending  over  more  than  one  crop,  some  are  of  opinion,  among 
whom  are  Liebig  and  Sprenge),  that  its  principal  efficacy  is  in  all  cases  to  be  ascribed  to  the 
earthy  ingredients,  and  especially  to  the  phosphate  of  lime  ;  but  it  has  been  brought  to  light  that 
bones  do  not  lose  their  organic  matter  entirely,  though  they  should  have  been  buried  for  years  un- 
der ground.  Thus  the  bones  of  a  bear  and  a  stag,  after  being  long  buried,  were  found  by  Marchand 
to  consist  of 


Animal  matter 

Phosphate  of  lime 

Carbonate  of  lime ; 

Sulphate  of  lime 

Phosphate  of  magnesia 

Fluoride  of  calcium 

Oxides  of  iron  and  manganese. 

Soda 

Silica 


Bones  of  the  bear  buried. 


Deep. 


16-2 
56-0 
13-1 
7-1 
0-3 
20 
20 
11 
2-2 


100- 


4-2 

62-1 

13-3 

12-3 

0-5 

2-1 

2-1 

1-3 

2-1 


100- 


Femur  of 
a  Stag. 


7-3 
54-1 
19-3 
12-2 
21 
21 
2-9 


100- 


"The  most  striking  change,"  as  Professor  Johnston  observes,  "  undergone  by  these  bones,  was 
the  large  loss  of  organic  or  animal  matter  they  had  suffered.  The  relative  proportions  of  the  phos- 
phate and  carbonate  of  lime  had  been  comparatively  little  altered.  The  main  effect,  therefore, 
produced  by  bones,  when  buried  at  the  roots  of  trees,  and  their  first  effect,  in  all  cases,  must  be 
owing  to  the  animal  matter  they  contain— the  elements  of  the  animal  matter,  as  it  decomposes, 
being  absorbed  by  the  roots  with  which  the  bones  are  in  contact."  Still,  it  is  found  that  bones,  after 


Thomson's  Animal  Chemiatry. 

(497). ir 


t  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xiv. 


258 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


having  been  boiled,  and  of  course  deprived  of  the  greater  part  of  their  animal  matter,  make  excellent 
manure  ;  but  as  they  at  the  same  lime  take  uji  a  considerable  quantity  of  water,  which  will  cause 
them  to  decompose  more  rapidly  when  -nixed  with  the  soil,  they  will  appear  to  act  as  beneficial- 
ly, Professor  Johnston  conjectures,  as  unboiled  bones.  "  He  who  candidly  weighs  the  considera- 
tions above  presented,  will,  I  think,  conclude."  says  the  Professor,  "  that  the  whole  eflect  of  bones 
cannot  in  any  case  be  ascribed  exclusively  either  to  the  one  or  the  otlier  of  the  principal  constit- 
uents. He  will  believe,  indeed,  that  in  the  turnip  liushandrj-.  the  organic  part  performs  the  most 
permanent  and  most  immediately  useful  office,  but  that  the  earthy  part,  nevertheless,  affords  a  ready 
eapply  of  certain  inorganic  kinds  of  food,  which  in  many  soils  the  plants  could  not  otherwise  easi- 
ly obtain.  He  will  assign  to  each  constituent  its  separate  and  important  function,  being  constrain- 
ed at  the  same  time  to  confess  that,  while  in  very  many  cases  the  earthy  part  of  lonet  applied 
alone  would  fail  to  benefit  the  land,  there  are  few  cultivated  fields  in  which  the  organic  part  ap- 
plied alone  would  not  materially  promote  the  growtli  of  most  of  our  artificial  crops."*  When 
Dones  are  heated  to  reduesa  in  the  open  air,  the  ortranic  part  bums  away,  and  leaves  the  white 
earthy  matter,  in  the  form  and  nearly  of  tlie  bulk  of  the  original  bone.  It  is  verj-  brittle,  and  con- 
sists chielly  of  phosphate  of  lime,  and  is  sold  at  the  chemical  works  at  9s.  per  cwl.  Bones  of  cat- 
tle and  otlier  animals,  and  of  fish,  except  whale-fins,  whether  burnt  or  not  or  as  animal  charcoai, 
pay  a  duty  by  the  new  Tariff  of  6d.  per  ton.  The  declared  value  of  bones  imported  into  this  coun- 
try in  1832  was  Jt91,755  5s.  5d.;  and  the  duty  paid  thereon  was  £'JiO  58.  9d.t  I  should  suppose 
there  has  been  a  considerable  increase  in  the  import  since  that  period.  The  price  of  bones  at  Hall, 
the  great  mart  of  their  import,  in  1843,  was  from  i3  15s.  to  £4  per  ton. 

(1960.)  Turnip-drills,  like  the  other  members  of  the  class  of  implements  employed  under  the 
drill-system  of  cultivation,  mark  an  improved  state  of  the  art.  for  in  the  early  history  of  the  turnip 
culture,  we  find  the  broadcast  method  of  sowing  generally  adopted,  and  in  some  parts  of  England 
at  tlie  present  day,  where  farming  is  otherwise  well  understood,  we  yet  see  the  broadcast  system 
of  sowing  turnips  not  only  practiced,  but  advocated  as  the  most  productive.  That  great  aggregate 
■weight  of  turnip  may  be  produced  in  broadcast  in  particular  soils  and  seasons,  may  be  true,  hot 
doablless  a  greater  certainty  of  success  is  to  be  obtained  from  the  drill  practice  ;  and  it  appears 
now,  from  the  latest  English  authorities,?  that  the  former  practice  will  soon  be  rooted  out  by  the 
unflinching  hand  of  experience.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  drill  practice  of  turnip  culture,  the 
breadth  of  land  sown  being  but  small,  a  single  row  hand-drill  or  barrow  seems  to  have  been  gen- 
erally used,  but  a  simpler  implement  than  even  this  has  been  employed — the  hand-flask  sower. 
As  the  practice  extended,  machines  of  two  rows  were  introduced,  drawn  by  one  horse,  and  this 
in  various  forms  continues  to  be  the  chief  instrument  employed  iu  sowing  the  seed  of  this  im- 
portant root 

(1961.)  The  varieties  of  the  turnip-drill  are  too  numerous  to  be  detailed  here  in  full,  nor  would 
it  be  profitable  to  follow  all  the  fancies  of  machine  makers,  some  of  which  have  produced  but  cum- 
brous and  inconvenient  vehicles,  which,  when  their  purpose  is  considered,  are  cumbrous  not  only  in 
their  bulk,  but  in  the  multiplicity  of  their  parts,  and  hence  are  complicated  and  lender,  liable  to  de- 
rangement and  failure,  and  are  marked  by  an  absence  of  that  simplicity  of  construction  so  desira- 
ble in  agricultural  mechanics.  In  many  of  our  more  modem  turnip. drills,  however,  there  is  to  be 
seen  a  marked  simplicity  of  construction,  tliat  accords  well  with  the  objects  in  view,  and  this 
holds  especiall}'  with  those  machines  which  are  employed  for  sowing  the  seed  alone  ;  and  in  none 
more  so  than  the  machine  now  very  geiieraliy  known  as  the  East  Lothian  drill,  which  I  shall  have 
occasion  more  particularly  to  notice.  The  recent  introduction  of  numerous  granulated  manures 
has  called  forth  a  new  classof  machines,  whose  object  is  to  deposit  the  manure  along  with  the  seed 
either  in  immediate  contact,  or  in  close  contiguity,  and  these  compound  machines  have  again  in- 
volved a  dcL'ree  of  complexity  of  construction;  for  whenever  a  machine  is  required  to  perform 
compound  functions,  a  necessarily  increased  complication  of  structure  is  entailed  upon  it  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  proportionate,  perhaps,  to  ihe  mechanicai  talents  of  the  fabricator.  An  ad- 
ditional cause  of  complication  iu  the  compound  drills  has  arisen  within  the  last  few  yeai's,  from  a 
desire  to  economize  the  distribution  of  the  modern  expensive  manures,  by  depositing  small  por- 
tions of  it  at  the  points  only  where  the  future  root  is  intended  to  grow,  leavijg  the  intervals  desti- 
tute of  manure.  The  propriety  of  thus  dealing  so  niggardly  with  the  soil  iu  withholding  those 
substances  in  abundance  by  which  it  is  enabled  to  continue  its  fertilitj-,  is  at  least  questionable  ; 
but  the  experiment  has  effected  what  I  am  at  present  endeavoring  to  establish — the  farther  com- 
plication of  structure  in  tlie  machines  emploj-ed.  The  drill-sowing  machines  adapted  to  this  pur- 
pose are  designated  in  Scotland  plumpers,  from  their  dropping  their  gifts  on  one  point  In  Eng- 
land they  are  better  known  by  tlie  name  of  dibbling-machines,  or  drop-drills. 

[Of  turnip  and  otherdriUs  and  complicated  machinery'  used  in  England,  they  have  either  been 
excluded  from  use  in  this  country  on  account  of  their  cost  and  complexity,  or  they  have  been  great- 
ly simplified  if  not  improved.  The  agricultural  warehouses  everywhere  abound  in  drills  of  vari- 
ous forms  adapted  to  various  purposes. 

Although  the  cheapness  of  Indian  com  and  the  dryness  of  our  climate  will  prevent  the  general 
introduction  of  turnip  husbandry  on  a  large  scale  in  this  countrj-,  the  dearaess  of  labor  adding  an- 
other objection,  we  are  strongly  persuaded  that  through  all  the  mountainous  ranges  of  the  Southern 
States,  where  morning  fogs  prevails  through  the  summer  so  favorable  to  the  grasses,  they  might 
profitably  cultivate  the  Swedisli  turnip,  to  be  employed  in  feeding  their  cattle,  intended  to  be  fat- 
ted on  grass  the  next  summer.    Turnip  crops  and  sheds  for  sheltering  and  feeding  tlieir  cattle  in 


*  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Aericultural  Chemiotry. 

t  McCulloch's  Dictionary  of  Commerce,  art.  Bona. 

X  Journal  of  the  Royal  English  Agricultural  Society,  voL  it. 

(498j 


REPAIRING  THE  FENCES  OF    GRASS-FIELDS.  259 

winter,  would,  we  think,  ou  trial  be  found  a  great  improvement  on  their  present  system.  The  ex- 
tent of  the  country  refen-ed  to,  the  value  of  its  industry,  and  our  partiality  for  that  branch  of  hus- 
bandry, and  some  of  those  who  pursue  it,  induce  us  to  give  what  otherwise  might  have  been 
omitted  with  prejudice  to  the  mass  of  American  fanners.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 


22.    REPAIRING  THE   FENCES   OF    GRASS-FIELDS,  AND  THE 
PROPER  CONSTRUCTION  OF  FIELD-GATES. 

"  At  neglected  gaps 
Burst  scrambling  through,  and  widen  every  breach. 
A  stake  put  timely  in,  or  whinny  bush. 
Until  the  season  come  when  living  plants 
May  till  the  vacant  space,  much  hai-m  prevents." 

Gkaham. 

(1962.)  The  season  being  alraost  an-ived  when  the  grass  is  able  to  sup- 
port stock,  and  of  course,  when  the  cattle  are  permitted  to  leave  their  win- 
ter quarters  in  the  steading,  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain,  in  the  first  place, 
whether  the  fences  of  the  grass-fields  are  in  such  a  state  of  repair  as  will 
offer  no  temptation  to  stock  to  scramble  through  neglected  gaps,  much  to 
the  injury  not  only  of  the  fence,  but  perhaps  of  themselves,  or  at  least  much 
to  their  disquietude ;  and  in  the  next  place,  to  watch  the  period  when  the 
grass  is  in  a  fit  state  to  receive  them.  Sometimes  a  good  deal  of  work  isje- 
quired  to  put  grass-fields  in  a  proper  state  for  the  reception  of  stock, 
owing  principally  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  partly  to  the  state  of  the 
weather.  On  every  kind  of  land  the  small  stones  lying  on  its  surface 
should  be  gathered  by  the  field- workers  and  carted  off  for  the  use  of  drains, 
or  be  broken  into  metal  for  roads.  It  may  happen  that  the  throno^  of  other 
work  may  prevent  the  assistance  of  horses  and  carts  beino-  o-iven  for 
this  purpose,  in  which  case  the  stones  should  be  gathered  together  in  small 
heaps  on  the  fuiTow-brow  of  every  other  single  ridge  ;  but  in  doing  this, 
it  should  be  remembered  that  these  heaps  occupy  so  much  of  the  ground, 
and,  of  course,  prevent  the  growth  of  so  much  grass,  that,  on  this  account, 
it  is  a  much  better  practice  to  cart  them  away  at  once  if  practicable.  When 
carts  are  used  the  stones  are  thrown  directly  into  them  ;  whereas  in  makino- 
heaps,  the  stones  require  some  care  to  be  put  together,  and,  of  course, 
waste  time,  and  they  have  to  be  removed  after  all.  Some  farmers  are  re- 
gardless of  gathering  the  stones  from  any  of  their  fields,  even  from  grass- 
fields  which  are  to  be  in  pasture  ;  while  all  acknowledge  that  fields  of 
grass  which  are  to  be  made  into  hay  ought  to  be  cleared  of  stones  to  save 
the  scythes  at  hay-time.  On  clay  soils  there  are  very  few,  or  perhaps  no 
stones  to  clear  off,  and  in  wet  weather  no  cart  should  be  allowed  to  go  on 
new  gi-ass.  As  every  field,  whether  of  new  or  of  bid  grass,  should  be  roll- 
ed some  time  before  the  stock  enter  them,  it  is  clear  that  the  ground  can- 
not receive  all  the  benefits  of  rolling  as  long  as  stones  are  allowed  to  re- 
main on  its  surface.  The  best  time  for  rolling  is  when  the  surface  is  dry 
— mark  you,  not  when  hard  and  dry — for  when  grass,  especially  young 
grass,  is  rolled  in  a  wet  state,  it  is  very  apt  to  become  bruised  and  black- 
ened. When  dry,  grass  is  elastic  and  able  to  bear  the  pressure  of  the  roll- 
er without  injury.  Light  land  will  bear  rolling  at  any  time  when  the  sur- 
face is  dry  ;  but  plants  are  very  liable  to  be  bruised  by  the  roller  against 
the  hard  clods  of  clay  land,  and  in  a  soft  state,  on  the  other  hand,  clay  k  .d 

[499) 


260  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

is  apt  to  become  hanloned  or  encrusted  by  rolling.  The  rolling  of  heavy 
land  is  thus  a  ticklish  matter;  but  a  good  criterion  to  judge  of  its  being  in 
a  fit  state  for  the  roller,  is  when  clods  crumble  dtjwn  easily  with  the  pres- 
sure of  the  foot,  and  not  press  flat,  or  enter  whole  into  the  soil.  The  roll- 
ing is  uhvays  given  across  the  r'it\ge».  The  stones  should  be  gathered,  and 
the  land  rolled  at  least  a  fortnight  before  the  stock  are  put  on  gniss,  to  al- 
low the  grass  time  to  grow  after  these  operations,  when  it  will  be  found  to 
grow  rapidly,  if  the  weather  is  at  all  favorable. 

(1963.)  Besides  the  fences,  the  gates  o(  grass-fields  require  inspection 
and  repairs,  so  as  they  ni;iy  be  put  in  a  useable  state  for  the  season. 
When  any  of  the  timbers,  posts,  or  bars,  are  broken  or  wanting,  or  the 
fastenings  loose,  the  carpenter  or  smith  should  be  made  to  repair  them  ; 
and  the  posts  on  which  the  gates  hang  should  lie  made  firm  in  the  ground 
when  loose,  or  renewed  when  decayed.  In  putting  up  new  gate-posts,  the 
firmest  mode  I  have  found,  is  to  dig  as  narrow  a  hole  as  practicable  3  feet 
deep  for  the  hanging-post,  and  then  to  ram  the  earth,  by  little  and  little, 
firmly  around  the  post  without  any  stones.  Charring  or  pitching  the  part 
under  ground  is  a  pretty  good  prevention  from  rot  for  some  time.  The 
simplest  mode  I  have  seen  of  fastening  field-gates  is  with  a  small  chain  at- 
tached to  the  fore  stile  of  the  gate,  to  link  on  to  a  hook  on  the  receiving- 
post.  The  most  convenient  position  for  field -gates  is  at  the  ends  of  head- 
ridges,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  roads  of  fields.  Field-gates  should 
be  made  to  fold  back  upon  a  fence  ;  to  open  beyond  the  square  ;  and  not 
to  shut  of  themselves.  When  they  shut  of  themselves,  and  are  not  properly 
set  when  opened,  and  which  requii'es  gi-eater  care  than  is  usually  bestowed 
on  these  matters,  they  are  apt  to  catch  a  wheel  of  the  cart  which  is  passing, 
and,  of  course,  to  be  shivered  to  atoms,  or  the  post  to  be  snapped  asunder ; 
and  more  than  this,  self-shutting  gates  are  apt  to  be  left  unfastened  by  most 
people  who  pass  through  them,  and  are  therefore  unavailing  as  a  fence  to 
stock,  especially  to  horses  when  idle,  which  seem  to  take  delight  to  loiter 
about  gates,  and  they  not  unfrequently  find  out  the  mode  of  opening  them. 
One  reason,  perha])s,  for  horses  loitering  about  the  gates  is  to  rub  them- 
selves, to  prevent  which,  thorns  are  wattled  into  the  bars  :  but  independent 
of  this  casual  safety,  every  pasture-field  should  be  provided  with  one  good 
ruhhivg-post  at  least,  standing  6  feet  in  hight.  The  proper  construction  of 
field-gates  is  generally  very  little  attended  to,  if  one  may  judge  by  those 
usually  to  be  seen  in  the  country.  Some  judicious  lemarks  by  Mr.  Slight, 
vrith  appropriate  figures,  in  reference  to  this  much  neglected  subject,  will 
be  found  below,  and  which  I  hope  will  tend  to  the  diffusion  of  an  improved 
form  in  this  necessary  portion  of  farm  furniture. 

(19()4.)  The  importance  of  field-pates,  whether  viewed  as  the  means  of  pecurity  to  rrops  and 
live  stock,  or  as  a  portion  of  the  peri  liable  stock  in  trade  of  the  farm,  is  an  object  di,'s<>rvinfj  of 
grave  consideration.  Hitherto,  it  may  safely  be  averred  that  verj-  little  attention  has  been  paid  to 
principle  in  the  construction  of  field-gates ;  and  for  tlie  truth  of  this,  we  have  only  to  look  around 
us,  where  the  eye  of  the  constructive  student  will  detect  probably  not  more  than  one  in  a  hun- 
dred of  our  field  u'ates  that  are  not  plarint^ly  defective  as  pieces  of  extremely  simple  constructive 
carpentry.  Defects  in  point  of  ("onstruction  are  not  even  confined  to  the  field  gale  :  we  find  them 
in  many  of  those  ^aies  of  much  higher  pretensions,  and  where  the  hand  of  a  master  having  been 
at  work,  we  might  be  led  to  exp».-ct  something  like  an  approach  to  the  true  and  simple  principle  : 
yet  how  s*!ldom  does  the  eye.  experienced  in  diicciing  those  geometrical  and  dynamia!  principles, 
on  vrlrich  alone  a  just  and  permanent  system  of  construction  depends,  light  ujjon  a  form  that  satis- 
fies its  discriminating  glance.  We  do.  indeed,  occasionally  meet  with  examples  wherein  is 
evinced  a  correct  knowledge  of  those  arranRcments  of  the  parts,  in  a  rectangular  frame,  whether 
of  wood  or  iron,  that  at  once  secures  permanency  of  form,  and  stability  in  the  entire  structure.  In 
Buch  cases  we  are  sure  to  fiiul  that  tlie  jjroprii'tor  possesses  not  only  an  educated  mind,  but  one 
that  has  not  disiluined  to  stoop  lo  the  drudgery  of  acc|uiring  a  competent  knowledge  of  practical 
mechanics,  leading  him  also  to  sty  the  advantage  of  securing  the  assistance  of  mechanics  whose 
education  qualifies  them  to  perform  their  duties  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  that  science.  It 
may  seem  trivial  to  api)ly  remarks  of  this  kind  to  such  a  simple  matter  as  the  construction  of  a 
field-gate  ;  but  assuredly  there  is  no  part  of  oar  agricultural  economy  that  points  out  so  broadly  the 


THE   CONSTRUCTION  OF  FIELD-GATES.  261 

ignorance  of  our  artisans  in  those  important  branches  of  their  education,  the  elementary  truths  of 
Greometry  and  Mechanics. 

(19d5.)  A  gate,  generally  speaking,  may  be  described  as  a  rectangular  frame  ;  there  are  excep- 
tions to  this  definition  applicable  to  gates  as  a  whole,  but  to  Jields-af^c>:  there  are  none.  A  gate,  to 
be  permanent,  should  Lie  immutable  or  unchangeable  in  its  form  ;  a  simple  rectangular  frame  with- 
out uptillings,  if  they  are  placed  at  right  angles  to  each  oiher.  is  the  most  liable  to  change  of  any 
connected  structure  of  fiame-work.  The  triangle,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  most  immutable  or 
lea.*!  liable  to  change  ;  it  is.  in  short,  so  long  as  the  materials  remain  unchanged,  perfectlj-  immu- 
table, but  a  gate  in  a  form  of  a  triangle  would,  in  most  cases,  be  very  unserviceable,  though  a  com- 
bination of  triangles  may  produce  the  requisite  figure  for  a  serviceable  gate.  If  tlieu  we  take  the 
rectangular  frame  so  essential  to  a  field-gate,  and  apply  a  bar  in  the  position  of  the  diagonal  of  the 
parallelogram,  we  immediately  convert  tlie  original  rectangular  figure  into  two  triangles,  applied 
to  each  other  by  their  hypothenuse,  and  this  gives  us  the  true  elements  of  a  properly  constructed 
gate,  all  the  other  parts  being  subordinate  to  these,  and  adapted  solely  to  the  practical  purposes  of 
the  gate  as  a  defence  or  for  ornament.  In  many  cases  depending  upon  the  material  employed,  an 
opposite  diagonal  may  be  applied,  dividing  the  gate  into  tour  triangles  ;  but,  in  general,  this  is  only 
necessary  where  flexible  rods  of  iron  are  applied  as  the  diagonals. 

(1966.)  In  looking  at  the  construction  generally  of  field-gates,  \vc  observe  traces  of  an  incipient 
knowledge  of  the  usefulness  of  a  diagonal  bar,  but  in  very  many  cases  it  is  applied  with  that  un- 
certainty of  purpose  that  marks  a  doubtful  and  hesitating  knowledge  of  the  subject;  we  see  it,  in 
short,  applied  in  all  the  possible  positions  that  may  be  conceived  to  deviate  from  the  one,  true,  and 
simple  position — extending  from  an  angle  to  its  opposite — which  is  the  simple  and  universal  rule 
applicable  to  gates.  Let  it,  then,  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  essentials  of  a  field-gate,  whether  of 
wood  or  iron,  are  a  rectangular  frame. consisting  of  the  heel  and  head-posts,  and  a  top  and  bottom  bar 
or  rail,  which  four  pans,  properly  connected  at  the  angles,  are  rendered  of  an  unchangeable  figure, 
by  the  application  of  one  or  more  diagonal  bars,  and  these  diagonals  should  in  no  ca<:e  be  applied 
short  of  the  whole  length  between  anj-  two  of  the  opposite  angles.  The  upfiUing,  whether  of  rails 
or  otherwise,  as  may  be  desired  to  attain  any  particular  object,  are  mere  accessories,  and  not  in  any 
way  tending  to  the  stability  or  durability  of  the  tabric. 

(1967.)  The  choice  of  the  material  for  tlie  diagonal  is  of  some  importance,  and  here  the  maxim 
of  universal  application  in  mechanical  construction  :  •■  Tie  with  iron,  and  strut  with  wood,"  is  es- 
pecially applicable.  The  field-gates  constructed  entirely  of  wood,  the  diagonal  should  invariably 
be  applied  as  a  stmt ;  that  is  to  say,  it  should  rise  from  the  foot  of  the  heel-post,  and  terminate  at 
the  <!?/;  of  the  head-post.  Placed  in  this  position,  the  diagonal  supports  the  head  or  swinging 
end  of  the  gate,  by  its  resistance  to  compression,  a  duty  which,  from  the  area  of  its  cross  section 
being  considerable,  and  hence  capable  of  resisting  lateral  flexure,  it  is  well  adapted  to  perform  ; 
while,  at  the  same  time,  the  above  sectional  property  gives  it  a  broad  terminal  resistance,  where 
it  abuts  upon  the  angles  of  the  external  frame.  The  same  diagonal  bar,  if  applied  in  the  opposite 
position,  and  performing  a  duty  of  a  tie  or  stay,  its  great  sectional  area  would  avail  but  little,  for, 
though  woody  fibre  is  capable  of  resisting  very  considerable  tension,  larch-wood  having,  with 
equal  sectional  areas,  a  power  of  resistance  to  tension  equal  to  about  |  that  of  malleable  iron  of 
medium  quality:  and  though  this  wooden  tie  might  be  found  to  pos.sess  in  its  aggregate  section  a 
cohesive  force  greatly  bejond  that  of  an  iron  bar  applied  in  the  same  position,  for  the  wooden  bar 
would  have  a  sectional  area  at  least  twelve  times  greater  than  could  be  requisite  for  an  iron  tie, 
thus  yielding  an  aggregate  force  double  of  the  iron  ;  yet  as  the  wooden  tie  must  depend  for  its 
connection  in  the  structure,  upon  nails  or  bolts  onlj-.  its  ultimate  power  of  resistance  to  tensioH 
depends  not  on  its  own  sectional  area,  but  on  that  of  the  nails  or  bolts  by  which  it  is  fastened, 
and  diese  again,  may  be  very  greatly  reduced  by  the  rending  of  the  extremities  of  the  wooden  tie. 

(196S.)  The  advantages  of  iron  as  a  tie,  and  its  disadvantages  as  a  strut,  are  just  the  converse 
of  the  foregoing.  From  the  smallness  of  sectional  area  requisite  in  an  iron  bar  applied  in  this 
construction,  as  compared  with  its  length,  it  is  not  capable  of  withstanding  compression  even  to 
the  smallest  extent  without  suffering  lateral  flexure,  end  this  defect  unfits  it  entirelj-  for  the  pur- 
pose of  a  strut.  Applied  as  a  tie  the  iron  bar  is  perfect ;  the  cohesion  is  such  that  a  very  small 
sectional  area  is  sufficient  for  the  purpose  under  consideration  ;  thus,  a  rod  of  ^  inch  square  even 
of  inferior  iron  will  bear  a  tension,  with  safety,  of  two  or  three  tons,  \\hile  the  best  quality  will 
bear  six  tons  ;  a  rod  of  half  this  sectional  area  may,  therefore,  be  held  as  sufficient  for  the  diag- 
onal tic  of  a  gate,  and  as  it  can  be  fixed  by  bolts  without  risk  of  fracturing  its  ends,  as  in  the  case 
of  wood,  its  application  in  principle  becomes  as  perfect  as  it  is  possible  to  approach.  But  though 
this  construction  is  in  principle  completely  supported  by  the  tie  from  any  force  tending  to  de- 
press the  head-post  of  the  gate,  there  is  yet  a  defect  in  practice :  for  a  gate  is  liable,  from  various 
causes,  to  be  forced  upward  at  the  head-post.  We  have  seen  that  a  slender  and  flexible  iron  rod  can- 
not resist  compression  without  flexure,  and,  therefore,  a  gate  with  only  one  iron  diagonal  tie  will 
still  be  practically  imperfect,  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  apply  an  antagonist  placed  in  the 
position  of  a  strut,  but  virtually  performing  the  duties  of  a  tie  ari.sing  from  the  antagonist  eftects 
of  tlie  two,  the  tendency  of  the  one  being  to  hold  the  head  of  the  gate  up,  while  the  other 
exerts  an  equal  force  to  keep  it  down,  whereby  a  perfect  equilibrium  is  preserved  within  the 
structure. 

(1969.)  In  treating  of  the  practical  construction  of  field-gates,  it  is,  perhaps,  unnecessary  to 
dwell  upon  the  strains  that  occur  in  the  individual  horizontal  bars,  because,  if  the  principles  incul- 
cated above  are  attended  to.  all  cross  strains  in  the  principal  joinings  are  avoided  ;  and,  except 
when  any  extraneous  force  is  applied,  the  strains  are  resolved  by  construction  into  those  of  direct 
compression  or  of  tension.  Thus,  in  fig.  SoS,  which  may  represent  the  elements  of  a  fly-gate,  ap- 
plicable to  a  drive  or  thoroughfare,  and  openinar  either  way  ;  if  we  take  the  heel-post  a  b  and  the 
bar  a  c  alone,  and  hinged  in  any  manner  at  a  and  b  ;  and  if  the  bar  a  c  is  10  feet  long,  the  breadth 
of  the  heel-post  at  a  .5  inches,  and  the  parts  being  joined  by  mortise  and  tenon  :  suppose,  then,  a 
load  applied  to  the  bar  at  c,  the  mechanical  effect  of  the  load  would  be  a  cross  strain  at  k.  tending 
to  break  the  bar  directly  across  with  a  force  equal  to  24  times  the  load,  exclusive  of  the  eflect  of 
(501) 


20:2 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


the  bar  itself,  the  bar  a  c  forming  here  a  lever  of  the  first  order,  whose  arm  /i  c  is  to  the  arm  h  a, 
or  the  breadth  of  the  beelpost,  aa  24  to  1.    By  increasiiig  the  number  of  bars  we  do  not  alter  the 


Fig.  352. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  TRUSS  IN  A  WOODEN  FIELn-OATE. 

total  effect  of  the  load,  but  simply  divide  it  equally  over  the  superinduced  bars,  supposing  them 
to  be  connected  with  a  head-post  at  i.  But  reverting  again  to  the  single  bar  a  c.  and  applying  to 
it  the  diagonal  b  c,  we  have  now  the  triangular  figure  a  b  c,  the  parts  of  which  being  firmly 
connected  at  their  points  of  junction,  the  form  becomes  unchangeable,  and  the  effect  of  the  loai 
at  c  is  instantly  altered.  The  effect  of  the  load  at  c  is  now  resolvable  by  the  parallelogram  of 
forces  into  two  others,  the  one  of  tension  on  the  bar  a  c,  the  other  of  compression  on  the  diagonal 
b  c,  and  taking  the  length  <z  />  as  a  representative  of  the  gravitating  or  direct  efiect  of  that  load, 
then  the  tension  on  a  c  will  be  to  the  absolute  load  as  the  length  of  a  i  is  to  that  of  a  c,  and  the 
compression  on  the  diagonal  will  be  as  6  c  to  i  a.  In  this  example  the  hinges  of  the  gate  are  not 
shown,  but  in  actual  practice  the  tails  of  the  upper  hinge  stretch  along  part  of  the  top  bar,  binding 
it  securely  to  the  heel-post,  while  the  bottom  hinge  may  be  made  to  form  an  abutment  to  the  foot 
of  the  diagonal. 

(1970.)  The  practical  insertion  of  the  diagonal  is  also  of  some  importance.  Fig.  353  exhibits 
one  mode  of  performing  this,  where  a  b  \s  the  strut  half  lapped  upon  the  heel-post  at  bottom  and 
upon  the  head-post  at  top  ;  it  is  not  an  elegant  mode  of  insertion,  but  it  is  efficient,  in  so  far  that 
while  it  acts  as  a  strut,  it  binds  the  top  of  the  head-post  to  the  top-bar,  and  prevents  it  from  flying 
off  by  the  thrust  of  the  diagonal. 

(1971.)  Fig.  354  exhibits  another  mode  of  insertion  of  the  diagonal,  which  is  perhaps  preferable 
to  the  former ;  here  the  head  of  the  diagonal 

is  attached  to  the  top  bar,  half  lapped  upon  it  Fig.  35.3. 

at  h,  and  notched  into  the  lovver  edge  as  an  r^ 

abutment,  forming  a  very  efficient  strut,  the 
tension  strain  being  brought  entirely  upon 
the  top-rail,  which  is  always  securely  tied  to 
the  hecl-posl  by  the  tails  of  the  hinges  at  c. 
These  examples  are  applicable  to  field-gates 
where  the  bars  are  always  much  thinner  than 
the  heel  and  head-posts,  the  latter  being  gen- 
erally about  2J  to  3  inches  thick,  and  the  for- 
mer only  \\  inches.  In  such  cases  the  diag- 
onal is  slightly  notched  upon  all  the  bars,  and 
deeper  upon  the  heel  and  head-posts,  where 
the  method  fig.  353,  is  adopted ;  but  in  no 
case  should  the  bars  be  notched  except  in 
the  edge  of  the  top  bar,  where  it  receives 
the  head  of  the  diagonal. 

(1972.)  I  have  hitherto  alluded  only  to  the 
simplest  efficient  form  of  wooden  field-gates, 
in  the  cont-troctiou  of  which  cheapness  is  al- 
ways an  object,  and  I  have,  in  order  to  avoid 
confusion  of  ideas,  rcsti-irted  the  description 
to  the  essential  parts,  the  number  of  bars,  or 
other  means  of  rendering  the  gate  a  sufficient 
fence,  is  left  to  be  filled  up  at  discretion.  In 
making  these  upfillings  the  maker  should 
studiously  keep  in  mind  that  no  curv'ed  bars 
or  timbers,  of  any  description,  should  enter  into  die  construction,  either  for  ornament  or  ostensi- 
bly for  use. 

(1973.)  In  the  construction  of  wooden  gates  for  drives  or  approaches,  where  utility  is  still  the 
chief  object,  strict  attention  shoulil  siill  be  paid  to  the  principles  of  construction,  but  a  little  more  lati- 
tude may  be  admissible  in  point  of  lini.sli  and  expense.  For  such  purposes,  the  rails  and  posts 
of  the  gate  should  be  all  of  one  thickness,  or  at  most,  the  only  difference  should  be  a  gradual 
diminution  in  thickness  toward  the  head,  to  lessen  the  effect  of  gravity  on  the  hingi>s  and  gate- 
post ;  and  for  pleasant  effect,  there  should  not  be  more  than  three  horizontal  rails,  with  two  diag- 
(502) 


EXAMPLES  OF  THE  APPLICATION  OF  THE  DIAGONAL 


263 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  FIELD-GATES. 

onals ;  and  if  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  closer  upfilling-,  it  shonld  be  of  an  upright  light  balustrade 
form.    Fig.  355  is  an  example  of  this  form  of  gate,  which  I  adopted  26  years  ago,  and  the  ori- 

Fig.  355. 


WOODEN  GATE  SUITED  FOR  THE  APPROACH  TO  A  VILLA. 

ginals  then  constructed  are  still  good  and  serviceable,  but  it  is  considerably  more  expensive  than 
the  common  field-gate.  The  heel-post  a  b  is  5  inches  broad  and  3  inches  thick,  while  the  head- 
post  c  d  may  be  reduced  to  2  J  inches  if  thought  advisable.  The  top  and  bottom  bars  are  formed 
with  abutment  pieces  at  both  ends,  which  are  5  inches  broad,  the  intermediate  parts  being  re- 
duced to  3J  inches ;  the  middle  bar  has  the  same  breadth,  but  is  made  up  in  the  middle  with  cor- 
responding abutments,  and  the  two  diagonals,  of  2  inches  in  breadth,  are  inserted  in  four  pieces, 
exactly  fitted  between  the  abutments  of  the  bars.  The  hinges  are  of  the  common  double-tailed 
form,  binding  the  top  and  bottom  rails  firmly  to  the  heel-post,  and  the  gate  may  be  hung  upon 
pillars  of  stone,  or  of  wood  well  secured.  The  best  balustrade  for  a  gate  of  this  kind  is  rods  of 
iron  ^  inch  diameter,  as  in  the  figure,  passed  up  through  the  bottom  and  middle  bars  and 
the  diagonals,  the  holes  for  these  being  easily  bored  with  an  auger  after  the  gate  is  formed ; 
but  a  simple  and  cheaper  balustrade  is  formed  of  light  wooden  spars  sunk  into  the  bars  and 
diagonals. 

(1974.)  For  all  wooden  gates,  the  method  of  bracing  with  light  iron  diagonals  is  to  be  preferred 
to  wooden  struts,  but  to  be  effective  two  diagonals  must  always  be  applied.  In  some  cases,  they 
may  pass  from  one  angle  to  its  opposite  in  one  length,  but  in  others  it  is  necessary  to  apply  them 
in  four  pieces,  the  connection  at  the  center  of  the  gate  being  effected  either  by  a  ring  of  iron,  in 
which  the  four  ends  are  screwed,  or  by  bolting  the  palmated  ends  of  the  four  parts,  two  and  two 
together,  through  the  middle  bar,  as  applied  at  a;  x  fig.  355,  one  bolt  securing  the  four  ends,  and 
in  either  case  the  rods  pass  through  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  heel  and  head-po.sts  of  the  gate,  and 
are  there  secured  by  screw-nuts.  It  is  obvious  that  iron  diagonals  would  apply  in  this  manner 
to  the  gate,  fig.  355,  instead  of  wooden  braces. 

(1975.)  Field-gates  of  wood,  from  the  cheapness  with  which  they  may  be  furnished  when  im- 
perfectly constructed,  have  been  long  in  use,  and  in  many  localities  continue  to  be  more  exten- 
Bively  used  than  any  other ;  but  malleable  iron  is  gradually  taking  the  place  of  wood,  and,  from 
its  greater  durability,  may  be  expected  to  supersede  wood  entirely.  In  the  construction  of  mal- 
leable iron  gates,  we  as  frequently  find  malformations  as  in  those  of  wood,  such  as  placing  all  the 
bars  on  edge  except  the  heel  and  head-post,  misplacing  the  diagonal,  if  single,  and  not  unfre- 
quentlj'  applying  bars  variously  formed  in  curves  and  fanciful  figures,  to  serve  the  purpose  of  the 
diagonals.  The  field-gate  maker  should  be  instructed  to  hold  steadily  in  view  that  there  is  but 
one  position  and  form  for  that  member  of  the  structure  that  can  be  fully  efficient,  and  these  are, 
the  straight  bar  extending  from  the  upper  angle  at  the  heel  to  its  opposite  angle  at  the  head-post, 
and,  if  the  materials  of  the  gate  are  light,  to  apply  an  antagonist  diagonal  crossing  the  first.  In 
framing  the  gate,  also,  the  top  and  bottom  bars  should  be  set  flat-ways,  to  enable  the  structure  to 
resist  lateral  strain  from  animals  rubbing  or  pushing  against  it. 

(1976.)  One  of  the  latest  improvements  in  iron  field-gates  is  the  introduction  of  angle-iron,  now 
60  extensively  u.sed  in  boiler-making,  ship-building  and  other  purposes.  In  the  application  of 
the  angle-iron  to  the  construction  of  gates,  the  fabric  acquires  the  rigidity  of  a  massive  wooden 
gate,  with  all  the  tenacity  and  strength  of  the  iron,  while  its  weight  is  little  more  than  that  of 
wood.  Fig.  356  is  a  form  of  gate  of  this  construction,  which  I  have  lately  adopted,  with  some 
alteration,  from  a  design  of  Mr.  William  Dunlop,  Edinburgh,  and  is  manufactured  by  James 
Slight  &  Co.,  Edinburgh.  The  external  form  is  composed  of  four  bars  of  angle-iron,  measuring 
IJ  inches  on  each  side,  and  to  give  security  to  the  joinings  at  the  four  angles  of  the  truss,  the  ends 
of  the  bars  are  riveted  upon  cast-iron  corner-plates,  those  of  the  heel-post  a  b  being  formed  with 
strong  projecting  pivots,  by  which  the  gate  is  hinged.  Any  number  of  interior  bars  may  be  ap- 
plied to  suit  the  objects  of  the  gate.  The  figure  exliibits  the  arrangement  adapted  to  retain  sheep 
and  lambs.  The  diagonal  b  d  is  contrary  to  the  general  rule,  for  it  is  apparently  a  strut,  but  being 
a  bar  of  angle-iron,  of  the  same  breadth  as  before,  it  possesses  the  stiffuess  jf  wood,  to  resist  lat- 
eral strains — and  is  hence  properly  adapted  for  a  strut ;  to  render  the  bracing  complete,  the  an- 
tagonist diagonal  a  c  is  applied,  and  thi.s  acting  as  a  tie,  is  only  a  flat  bar  1  inch  by  i  inch.  The 
external  frame  is  thus  rendered  unchangeable  in  figure  by  any  force  that  may  be  applied  to  the 
(503) 


264 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


head-post  in  a  vertical  direction,  cither  opwnr.i  or  downward,  short  of  what  will  fracture  the 
gate  ;  and  the  point  f.  whore  the  diaifonals  cross  each  oilier  at  the  center  of  the  gate,  becomes 
alao  immovable  in  the  plane  of  the  truss;  hence  the  perpendicular  bar/e  g,  being  riveted  to  the 


V'l"ln|"j. 


THE  FIELD-GATK  WITH   ANGLF.-IRON  FRAME-WORK. 

diagonal  at  e,  acquires  the  same  property,  and  by  attachiner  all  the  horizontal  bars  Xofe  e  at  their 
several  crossings,  each  of  them  is  rendered  permanent  in  its  position  at  that  point,  and  no  force 
short  of  breaking  down  the  gate  can  bend  any  of  the  parts  upward  or  downward  in  the  direction 
of  the  bar/e  ^,  so  long  as  this  last  remains  attached  to  the  crossing  of  the  diagonals  at  e.  In  or- 
der to  give  farther  support  to  the  horizontal  bars  by  the  principle  of  construction,  we  have  only 
to  take  a  point  where  a  diagonal  crosses  a  bar,  as  at  h.  forming  the  opposite  triangles  e  k  i  and 
ah  k,  which,  when  the  bar  and  diagonal  have  been  connected,  become  also  immutable,  and  the 
perpendicular  bar  /  h  m  being  secured  to  the  point  h,  and  again  to  the  different  bars  at  their  in- 
tersection with  /  h  m,  the  whole  are  again  rendered  immovable  as  in  the  middle.  The  support 
given  to  the  horizontal  bars  in  the  line  /  h  m.  would  have  been  still  more  complete  if  there  had 
been  only  one  intermediate  bar  below  the  middle  one,  as  the  three  parts  would  then  have  met  in 
one  point,  as  they  do  at  /(,  but  two  bars  arc  introduced  to  render  the  gate  fencible  for  sheep  of  all 
ages.  The  perpendicular  bar  n  o  p  \s  applied  on  the  same  principle  as  laid  down  for  I  h  m,  the 
point  of  support  in  this  case  being  o. 

(1977.)  Ill  this  construction  of  gates,  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  mutual  support  among  the 
parts  is  obtained  with  a  given  quantity  of  materials  ;  hence  gates  of  this  construction  may  be  made 
lighter  than  any  other  form  where  iron  is  the  material  employed,  and  yet  have  a  greater  amount 
of  strength.  In  this  example,  the  dimensions  of  the  angle-iron  are  \\  inches  each  way,  and  about 
i  inch  thick  -,  all  the  other  parts  are  ^\  inches  broad  by  |  inch  thick,  the  ca.st  iron  corner  plates 
being,  of  couree,  stouter,  and  the  entire  weight  of  the  gate  is  112  lbs.  It  may  be  of  use  to  those 
who  make  iron  gales,  but  who  have  not  taken  time  to  study  the  first  principles  of  their  construc- 
tion, to  notice  this  farther  remark.  Any  number  whatever  of  additional  upright  bars  to  those 
shown  in  fig.  S.'ie  would  add  strength  orsnpport  to  the  horizontal  bars  only  on  the  principle  of 
superposition,  or  adding  bar  to  bar,  without  the  advantages  which  arise  from  the  principle  ofun- 
changeablencss  in  the  triangle  when  applied  in  the  construction  of  framework,  whether  in  a  pim- 
ple field-gate,  or  in  the  highosi  branches  of  constructive  carpentry  in  wood  or  in  iron.  In  the  one 
case,  the  stress  on  the  parts  continue  to  act  at  right  angles  to  the  bars,  tl)e  direction  in  which  they 
are  weakest,  while  in  the  other — the  principle  of  throwing  the  frame  into  triangles— the  whole 
stress  is  llirown  ujion  one  or  more  parts  in  the  direction  of  their  length,  in  which  jxisition  all  bars 
and  beams  are  stmngest. 

(1978.)  An  example  of  an  ingenious  construction  of  iron  gale  is  given  in  Parnell's  work  on  Road- 
Making,  which  has  been  improved  upon  by  Mr.  Buist,  now  of  Bombay,  and  described  in  the 
Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society.  These  gates  consist  of  a  wrought  iron 
external  frame,  which  is  supported  by  a  very  perfect  system  of  bracing,  with  diagonal  ties  of 
iron  wire,  and  filled  up  in  a  vnricty  lif  forms  with  the  same  material.  Fig.  :3.'i7  represents  Mr. 
Buist's  gate  with  the  fundamental  lirares  and  ties,  which  he  thus  describes  :  "  The  framing  a  led 
is  fashioned  like  that  of  an  ordinar>-  gate  ;  e  f,  cr  h.  and  k  I  are  three  light  slips  of  iron  parallel  to 
the  ends  of  the  gate,  and  riveloil  to  the  upper  and  lower  rails  ;  o/j  i  is  a  wire  about  the  thickness 
of  a  goose-quiU,  fastened  by  a  rivet  at  one  end,  and  a  screw  and  nut  at  the  other  ;  it  passes  tlirough 
boles  in  the  slips  e  f.  p  h,  luid  k  /,  and  si-rves  as  a  brace  to  support  the  bar  a  h.  In  the  same 
manner  d  p  c  serves  as  a  brace  to  d  r,  while  the  two  sides  of  the  gate  being  coupled  together  by 
the  slips  cf,  g  h,  and  k  I,  the  lower  and  unper  mils  have  severallv  the  benefit  of  both  braces.  The 
diagonals  a  c  and  d  h  keep  the  frame  in  shape,  while  a  t  d  and  6  /  r  are  braces  to  a  d  and  b  c,  by 
means  of  the  light  bar  m  n.  It  will  bo  seen  that  all  the  wires  and  straps  which  act  as  fills-op, 
are  either  braces  or  supports,  so  that  nothing  can  be  more  stifl"  than  the  gate  thus  completed.  It 
weighs  about  80  lbs.,  and  costs  XI  8s.  Its  dimensions  are  0  fi  ot  by  ,TJ  feet,  but  may  be  made  of 
any  size,  the  price  varj'ing  in  proportion.  It  may  be  observed  that  a  gate  with  one  bolt,  when 
shut  suddenly,  vibrates  for  some  time  at  the  fore-foot ;  tliis  is  obviated  by  two  bolts  coupled  to- 
gether, as  intlio  figure,  near  b  and  r,  and  acting  simultaneously.  It  is  also  convenient  for  gates 
opening  into  policy  grounds,  getting  bolted  when  thrown  back  by  means  of  a  short  stamp  driven 
into  the  ground,  with  a  catcli  at  the  bight  of  the  lower  bolt  c." 
(504) 


THE   CONSTRUCTION  OF  FIELD-GATES. 


265 


(1979.)  Fig.  358  represents  a  gate  of  this  construction  filled  up  with  wires  in  the  form  of  rays 
from  a  center.  "  The  horizontal  bar  m  n,  and  the  braces  a  $  d,  and  b  t  c.  oi  fig.  y.57  are  here  omit- 
ted as  superHuous.     The  rays  consist  of  wires  of  the  same  thickness  as  before,  and  about  9  inches 


^  /i  I 

THE  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  BRACING  OF  A  WIRE  FIELD-GATE. 

from  each  other.  Their  lower  extremities  are  up.set  as  nail-heads  or  rivets,  and  their  upper  ends 
are  fastened  with  a  nut  and  screw.  For  the  admission  of  the  screws  a  strong  iron  arch  is  placed 
in  the  corner  of  the  gate,  and  fastened  at  each  end  with  screw-nuts ;  its  range  down  the  heel-post 

Fig.  358. 


THE  WIRE  FIELD-GATE  WITH  RAYED  UPFILLINGS. 

as  compared  with  that  along  the  upper  rail,  should  be  as  the  length  of  the  gate  is  to  its  hight,  which 
in  this  example,  is  18  inches  down  the  heel-post,  and  6  inches  along  the  upper  rail.  A  gate  of  this 
form,  and  9  feet  bj'  3^  feet,  costs  £1  15s."* 

(1980.)  The  wire-gates  above  described  are  admirable  examples  of  the  principles  of  trussed 
frames,  and  for  gates.  So  far  as  that  principle  gives  them  firmness  and  support,  they  can  hardly 
be  excelled  ;  but  there  is  one  defect  attendant  upon  the  wire  upfilling.  its  too  great  tenuity,  which 
renders  the  wires  liable  to  derangement  on  being  loaded  with  any  cross-strain,  such  a.s  a  person 
attempting  to  climb  over  the  gate,  and  setting  foot  oli  the  wires.  A  diagonal  wire  undergoing 
such  treatment  will  be  liable  to  stretch,  and  thereby  lose  its  effect.  Could  such  accidents  be  effec- 
tually guarded  against,  these  gates  might  be  regarded  as  almost  perfect.  In  regard  to  the  expense 
of  the  gates  first  described,  the  common  wooden  field-gates  may  be  considered  to  range  from  15s. 
to  25s.  The  gate,  fig.  355,  about  £\  ISs. ;  and  the  selling  price  of  the  angle-iron-gate,  fig.  356,  is 
about  Xl  5s. 

(1981.)  Gate-pillars  and  fastenings. — For  field-gates  where  hedges  form  the  inclo.sures,  the 
simplest  kind  of  gate-posts  are  those  of  larch  or  common  Scots  fir.  They  may  be  set  in  their 
natural  state,  or  peeled  or  dressed  in  any  form  to  the  taste  and  means  of  the  farmer;  but  in  what- 
ever form  the  body  of  the  post  may  be,  the  top  should  be  cut  off  either  in  form  of  a  cone  or  pyra- 
mid, or  a  hemisphere,  to  prevent  the  lodgment  of  water  on  it.  The  simplest  means  of  fastening 
wooden  gate-posts  is  by  beating  or  pinning  in  the  earth  around  them  as  described  (1963),  but  the 
most  effectual  and  permanent  mode  is  to  form  a  pit  of  at  least  2^  feet  square,  and  of  the  same 
depth,  and  the  post  being  set  in  it,  the  pit  is  filled  up  with  rubble  masonryln  mortar  packed  firm- 
ly, and  grouted  round  the  post.  This  an  expensive  mode,  but  is  more  permanent,  and  a  greater 
durability  of  the  timber  is  effected  by  contact  with  the  lime. 

(1982.)  In  the  Isle  of  Man,  though  its  agriculturists  cannot  boast  more  than  ourselves  of  the  per- 
fection of  their  gates,  Nature  has  supplied  them  with  an  admirable  material  for  gate-posts.  The 
transition-slate  with  which  the  island  abounds  is  found  in  one  locality,  Spanish-head,  of  a  nature 
that  serves  all  the  purposes  of  beams  and  planks  of  wood,  and  of  this  many,  indeed,  most  of  the 
gate-posts  are  formed.  In  Scotland  we  have  now  in  abundance  a  material  equally  suitable  for 
the  same  purpose,  in  the  Caithness  pavement,  which  is  now  applied  for  gate-pillars,  and  for  which 
no  material  can  surpass  it.  They  are  built  into  the  ground  in  the  same  manner  as  wooden  posts, 
and  look  very  much  like  a  plank  of  wood,  but  po.s.sessing  strength,  and  especially  durability,  far 
beyond  wood.  The  crook-hinges  are  either  fixed  into  them  by  passing  through  them  as  bolts 
through  a  jumper-hole,  or  they  may  be  put  in  the  form  of  a  hoop,  and  secured  with  wedges.  For 


Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xiv. 
(505) 


266  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

Geld-?ate<i  bailt  pillars  of  stone  are  seldom  nsed,  and  only  when  the  inclosores  are  formed  of  stone- 
dykes,  and  these  tnrrns  are  =o  var!ou«.  thnt  it  is  c-it  of  pla^e  to  describe  them  here. 

'(19S3.)  The  ia   .  "verted  to  :  the  crook  and  band  hinges 

are  those  chiefly  ■  '  say  that  the  hinc-e  should  be  always 

doable-tailed.   Ti  •  -   and  many  of  them  so  simple  and  effi- 

cient that  it  were  ililticuil  lo  (Mini  uut  wliicL  is  tlie  >iuperior. — J.  S.] 

(1964.)  While  treatiDL'  offences  and  iron  gates.  I  may  mention  a  simple  plan  by  which  grass- 
lawns,  or  the  small  plats  asnally  formed  in  front  <if  farmhouses,  may  be  kept  short  witljont  the  use 
of  scvtlics,  or  incnrrine  much  trouble  and  expense.  Let  a  bught  be  made  of  wire  hurdles  of  the 
form'of  the  sate  fis.  3-57;  and.  that  it  may  be  movable,  let  the  hurdles  be  fixed  together.  If  the 
plat  is  very  small,  one  inclosure  composed  of  4  hurdles,  forming  a  square  of  9  feet,  will  suffice :  if 
11  is  larser.  anv  number  of  such  buL'ht?  may  be  be  employed.  The  use  of  these  inclosures  is  to 
fence  1  or  2  .«heep  within  each,  so  that  when  they  have  eaten  down  the  inclosed  grass,  the  bughts 
OUT  be  moved  forward,  or  backward,  or  sideways  to  a  fresh  division  of  grass,  until  the  whole 
er&BS-plat  is  eaten  bare.  The  sheep  may  then  be  removed  for  a  time  till  the  grass  grows,  and  again 
broushi  back.  Or,  since  such  bughts  would  be  rather  ornamental  as  otherwise,  only  as  many  sheep 
may  be  inclosed  within  them  as  will  just  suffice  to  keep  the  grass  in  good  order,  and  where  they 
may  constantly  grace  the  lawn.  A  few  Leicester  tups  or  tup  lambs  may  thus  be  kept  separate  all 
the'summer  from  the  rest  of  the  flock,  and  be  prettj-  objects  on  the  lawn,  while,  at  the  same  time, 
thev  may  be  doing  good  in  keeping  the  grass  in  order,  and  top-dressing  it 


23.    THE  WEANING   OF  CALVES,   OF  BULLS.    AND   THE   GRAZING 
OF  CATTLE  TILL  WINTER. 

"Dissolved  in  pleasure,  crowned  with  buds  of  May, 
They,  for  a  time,  in  their  fat  pastures  play." 

(19S5.)  The  cattle  which  were  accommodated  in  their  respective  places 
in  the  steading:  at  the  besfinning  of  winter,  continue  to  be  treated  through 
the  spring:  months  in  the  same  manner  as  is  pointed  out  in  the  32d  section, 
p.  495  of  the  first  volume.  In  fact,  their  treatment  is  throughout  the  same 
until  turned  out  to  grass,  which  is  usually  some  time  in  May  ;  unless  varie- 
ty of  food  may  be  regarded  as  difference  of  treatment.  It  is  found  that 
cattle  in  a  state  of  confinement  in  a  steading,  thrive  better  on  a  variety 
than  on  the  same  food  ;  and  yet  when  on  grass  they  require  no  variety  of 
food,  and  thrive  the  better  the  longer  they  are  kept  upon  it,  except  that  a 
change  of  pasture  is  desirable  when  it  becomes  bare.  Grass  is  thus  evi- 
dently the  natural  food  of  the  ox,  and  his  anatomical  structure  is  peculiarly 
suited  for  it.  "Whatever  kind  of  food  he  is  supplied  %\nth  in  \nnter  pailakes 
of  an  artificial  character,  and  that  being  only  a  succedaneum  for  grass  when 
it  cannot  be  obtained,  the  food  be  receives  should  be  made  as  palatable 
to  him  as  circumstances  will  allow,  whether  by  variety  or  in  in  supeiior 
quality. 

(19S6.)  The  grass  should  be  ready  to  afford  a  bite  for  cattle  whenever 
the  turnips  are  all  exhausted  ;  at  which  time  the  cattle  ■will  be  found  to 
be  in  this  state  :  The  2-year-olds,  now  3-year-olds,  will  be  full  fat,  and 
ready  to  be  di9|K>sed  of  to  the  butcher  or  dealer.  The  1-year-olds  and 
calves  will  have  gro^vn  much  to  bone,  and  their  condition  \vi]\  have  im- 
proved in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  nourishing  food  they  have  received 
durinor  the  feeding  season.  The  cows  will  all  have  calved,  or  should  all 
have  calved,  for  a  May  calf  is  too  late  to  bring  up  and  form  a  part  of  the 
herd ;  they  \vill  be  in  milk,  and  in  fresh  condition  to  put  to  gi-ass.  The 
early  calves  will  have  just  been  weaned,  and  in  excellent  order  to  put  on 
grass ;  and  the  remainder  -will  be  in  rapid  progress  toward  weaning.  These 
cattle,  in  their  respective  states,  are  treated  in  summer  in  a  different  man- 
ner from  each  other,  and  different  from  the  way  they  were  treated  in  win- 
.  ter,  and  they  are  treated  thus. 

(506) 


GRAZING  CATTLE   TILL  WINTER.  267 

(1987.)  The  fat  cattle  are  seldom  put  on  grass,  being  disposed  of  to  the 
butcher  or  dealer,  either  at  home  or  in  markets  held  for  the  purpose. 
Breeders  of  their  own  stock  seldom  dispose  of  their  fat  cattle  until  the  tur- 
nips are  nearly  consumed,  being  anxious  to  keep  them  as  long  as  possible 
for  the  sake  of  the  excellent  manure  which  the  turnips  afford.  Those  who 
purchase  oxen  to  fatten  usually  buy  a  larger  lot  than  can  be  maintained 
on  full  turnips  till  the  grass  is  ready,  in  order  to  dispose  of  them  before 
the  season  arrives  when  fat  oxen  are  usually  sold.  Such  fatteners  of  cat- 
tle dispose  of  their  lots  in  whole,  or  in  part,  from  the  end  of  the  year  to 
April,  whenever  the  market  offers  them  the  most  profit.  As  you  are  sup- 
posed to  breed  and  feed  your  own  stock,  you  are  supposed  to  retain  your 
fat  oxen  to  the  end  of  ~  May,  when  Swedish  turnips  are  still  fresh,  sweet 
and  nutritious,  though  perhaps  a  little  shriveled  and  even  sprouted.  There 
are  then  plenty  of  opportunities  to  dispose  of  them,  such  as  the  weekly 
markets  of  large  towns,  fairs  for  fat  stock,  butchers  from  the  neighboring 
towns,  dealers  from  a  distance,  and  shipment  by  sea  to  London,  under  con- 
signment to  a  respectable  salesman.  Before  disposing  of  your  oxen,  how- 
ever, you  should  be  acquainted  with  their  weight ;  otherwise  you  will  not 
know  what  to  ask  for  them  at  the  current  market  prices.  Experience  will 
teach  you  to  estimate  the  weight  of  an  ox  by  the  eye,  not  the  actual  live- 
weight  of  the  animal,  but  the  weight  of  beef  it  will  yield  after  deducting 
fehe  weight  of  what  is  called  the  ojal,  that  is,  the  weight  of  every  part  but 
the  beef  and  bones,  such  as  the  skin,  head,  entrails,  and  loose  tallow.  It 
is  understood  that  the  farmer  is  entitled  to  the  value  of  the  entire  weight 
of  the  beef  at  the  current  pi-ices,  and  these  are  always  understood  to  re- 
late to  the  prices  of  the  meat  alone  ;  and  that  the  profit  of  the  purchaser 
consists  of  the  value  of  the  offal,  subject  to  the  deduction  of  incidental  ex- 
penses before  the  animals  are  slaughtered.  The  available  parts  of  the  of- 
fals are  supposed  to  be  equal  to  the  value  of  l  of  that  of  the  animal,  so 
that  an  ox  of  d£20  value  should  leave  the  purchaser  =£4  profit,  subject  to 
incidental  expenses.  But  if  the  buyer  is  a  good  judge  of  cattle,  and  knows 
their  exact  available  weight  of  beef,  which  he  will  know  to  within  a  very 
small  fraction,  he  may  make  such  a  bargain  with  the  farmer  as  will  not 
only  cover  his  expenses,  but  leave  a  profit  on  the  carcass  over  and  above 
the  value  of  the  offals  ;  and  as  dealers  are  constantly  in  practice,  they  gen- 
erally contrive  to  make  pretty  good  bargains  for  themselves,  in  as  far  as 
their  judgment  is  concerned,  at  the  time  the  bargain  is  made,  but  their 
purchases  are  subject  to  fluctuation  of  price,  which  may  fall  without  an 
adequate  cause,  and  occasion  them  serious  loss  ;  or  they  may  rise  and 
leave  them  a  handsomer  profit  than  was  anticipated,  so  that  the  profession 
of  dealers  resolves  itself  into  a  speculation,  which,  if  prolonged  in  its 
issue,  is  involved  in  uncertainty.  Dealers  formerly  made  large  fortunes 
when  breeders  and  feeders  of  stock  could  estimate  the  value  of  even 
their  own  stock  but  indifferently ;  but  nowadays  I  believe  few  dealers 
make  fortunes,  owing  partly  to  competition,  and  partly  to  greater  skill 
on  the  part  of  the  farmer,  and  partly  to  the  great  expense  incurred  on  driving 
their  purchases  to  suitable  markets,  and  in  leading  a  roving  sort  of  life. 

(1988.)  But  assistance  may  be  afforded  you  in  ascertaining  the  weight 
of  your  cattle  until  you  are  better  taught  by  experience,  and  this  consists 
in  measuring  their  hulk,  or  in  weisrJdns;  their  live-wei^Jit.  The  live-weight 
of  cattle  is  easily  ascertained  by  placing  the  animals  upon  a  steel-yard,  oi 
which  convenient  forms  have  been  recommended  for  fhe  special  purpose  ; 
but  I  am  not  aware  that  any  of  those  which  have  been  specially  recom- 
mended are  as  accurate  or  convenient  as  might  be.  The  rule  to  determine 
the  quantity  of  beef  by  the  live-weight  is  to  multiply  the  gi'oss  weight  by 

(507) 


268 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


•605  of  a  decimal,  if  the  ox  is  ripe  fat,  but  if  not  so,  by  '5  of  a  decimal ; 
that  is  to  say,  that  the  dfTals  of  an  ox  in  ordinary  condition  weighs  abont 
as  much  as  its  beef  and  bones.  An  (tx  should  not  be  weighed  innnediately 
after  it  has  fed,  as  it  will  weigh  too  ht-avy,  but  after  it  has  chewed  the  cud, 
and  is  ready  again  to  feed.  Ascertaining  the  weight  by  measurement  is  a 
more  convenient  method  than  by  weighing  ;  and  when  the  measurement 
is  properly  taken,  and  the  ox  of  an  ordinary  size,  it  is  about  as  accurate, 
though  every  person  cannot  measure  an  ox,  that  process  requiring  judg- 
ment to  do  it  properly  and  accurately.  Suppose  fig.  358  to  represent  an 
ox  whose  weight,  sinking  oflals,  is  de- 
sired to  be  ascertained  by  measurement. 
The  mode  is,  measure  with  a  tape-line 
from  the  top  of  the  shoulder  a  to  the 
tail-head  c,  and  mark  this  for  the  length, 
then  mea;<ure  rftnnd  the  body  Vitf,  im- 
mediately behind  the  shoulder,  and  mark 
this  for  the  girth,  and  on  consulting  the 
tables  calculated  for  the  purpose  of  af- 


Fig.  358. 


fording  the  results,  the  weight  of  beef 


will  be  found.  Upon  what  principle  this 
rule  for  measurement  is  founded  I  can- 
not say,  and  suspect  that  it  is  entirely 
empirical. 


HOW  TO  MEASURE  A  FAT  OX  IN  ORDER  TO 
ASCERTAIN  HIS  WEIGHT,  SINKING  THE 
OFFALS. 

The  rules  by  which  the  tables  are  calculated  seem  to  be  these 
two,  namely :  multiply  the  square  of  the  girth  in  inches  by  the  length  in 
inches,  and  divide  the  product  by  7344,  and  the  quotient  is  the  weight  in 
imperial  stones.  Or,  square  the  girth  mfeet  and  multiply  it  by  the  length 
infeet,  and  multiply  again  by  the  decimal  '238,  and  the  sum  is  the  weight 
in  imperial  stones.  For  example  :  Suppose  the  girth  is  7  feet,  or  84  in- 
ches, and  the  length  5  feet,  or  60  inches,  the  weight  of  beef  in  imperial 
stones,  according  to  Strachan's  Tables,  which  are  the  most  recent,  is  57  sts. 
10  lbs.  by  the  former  rule,  and  by  the  latter  it  is  56  sts.  4  lbs.  These  results 
show  that  there  is  no  fixed  principle  upon  which  either  rule  is  founded. 
(1989.)  This  seems  a  very  simple  process,  and  so  it  would  always  be, 
were  the  form  of  the  ox  always  perfect,  which  is  very  seldom  the  case,  the 
fore  and  hind-quarters,  instead  of  being  equal,  being  more  frequently 
otherwise  ;  and  were  the  condition  always  the  same.  Therefore,  the  judg- 
ment is  called  into  exercise  to  make  allowance  for  those  differences.  When 
the  fore-quarter  seems  heavier  of  the  two,  the  line  should  be  stretched 
nearer  the  head  than  a,  the  exact  top  of  the  shoulder ;  and  so  in  like  man- 
ner, when  the  hind-quarter  seems  heavier  than  the  fore,  the  line  should  be 
stretched  beyond  c.  In  regard  to  the  girth,  it  is  no  uncommon  fault  in  an 
ox  to  have  the  carcass  gripped  small  behind  the  shoulder,  so  that  the  ex- 
act girth  of  such  a  shoulder  would  be  below  the  truth.  It  is  very  rare  to 
find  the  girth  too  much  filled  out.  You  thus  see  that  judgment  is  required 
to  apply  the  tape-line  to  an  ox  ;  and  as  an  illustration  of  the  practical  ef- 
fects of  misapplying  the  tajie-line,  I  may  state  that  1  inch  only  added  to 
the  girth  and  length  given  in  the  above  example,  makes  a  difl'erence  in  the 
above  weight  of  upward  of  2  sts.  The  addition  of  1  inch  in  the  length  is  a 
mistake  which  may  easily  be  made  by  the  ox  merely  standing  with  his  head 
down  and  back  uj)  ;  and  a  similar  position  may  may  as  easily  cause  an  error 
in  the  girth.  Experience  alone  can  make  you  ]>roficient  in  measuring.  I 
knew  a  steward  in  Berwickshire  who  had  so  much  practice  in  measuring 
and  so  frequent  op])ortunities  of  verifying  his  measurements,  that  he  meas- 
ured any  ordinary  sized  ox,  whether  fat  or  half  lean,  from  1  st.  to  ^  st.  of  itg 
true  weight. 


GRAZING  CATTLE  TILL  WINTER.  269 

(1990.)  To  an  ox  from  40  to  70  stones  the  rule  of  measurement  applies 
pretty  near,  if  it  is  applied  with  judgment,  and  it  is  but  fair  to  the  princi- 
ple that  it  should  be  so  applied ;  but  in  weights  both  below  and  above 
these  figures  the  rule  is  usually  at  fault.  I  have  no  instances  of  error  in 
very  small  weights  to  adduce,  but  many  of  large  ones,  and  shall  adduce 
only  two.  A  Short-Horn  white  ox  belonging  to  Mr.  Boswell  of  Kingcausie 
was  exhibited  at  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society's  Show  at  Aber- 
deen in  October,  1834.  Its  measurement  was  9  feet  3  inches  in  girth,  and 
6  feet  2  inches  in  length.  According  to  Renton's  Tables,  the  farmer  of 
Dykeo-atehead,  in  Bervdckshire,  the  weight  should  be  126  sts.  9  lbs. ; 
Strachan's  Tables,  124  sts.  2  lbs. ;  Ainslie's  Tables,  122  sts. ;  and  Stewart's 
Tables,  117  sts.  The  actual  weight  of  beef  yielded  by  it  was  136  sts.  10 
lbs.,  after  being  slaughtered  by  Deacon  Sparks  of  Aberdeen,  being  10  sts. 
1  lb.  more  than  the  heaviest  weight  indicated  by  all  these  tables.  This 
difference  of  weight,  at  6s.  per  stone,  would  make  a  loss  to  the  feeder  of 
c£3  upon  a  single  animal!  A  2-year-old  light-red  ox,  also  belonging  to 
Mr.  Boswell,  and  exhibited  at  the  same  time,  measured  7  feet  10  inches  in 
girth,  and  5  feet  in  length.  Stewart's  Tables  give  a  weight  of  80  sts.  3 
lbs.  •  Renton's,  73  sts.  8  lbs. ;  Ainslie's,  73  sts. ;  and  Strachan's,  72  sts. 
The  actual  weight  obtained  by  Deacon  Sparks  was  89  sts.  10  lbs.,  showing 
the  enormous  difference  of  17  sts.  10  lbs.  between  the  real  weight  obtain- 
ed and  the  lowest  weight  indicated  by  Strachan's  Tables,  and  which,  esti- 
mated at  6s.  per  stone,  would  cause  a  loss  to  the  feeder  of  c£5  6s.  3d.  The 
rule  derived  from  live  weight  is  also  liable  to  err,  or  when  applied  to  oxen 
of  inordinate  weights.  Thus,  Lord  Kintore's  black  ox,  7  years  off,  exhibited 
on  the  above  occasion  at  Aberdeen,  weighed  28  cwt.,  or  224  stones.  By  the 
rule  of  multiplying  the  live  weight  by  the  decimal  '605,  the  dead  weight 
should  have  been  135  sts.  7  lbs. ;  but  when  the  ox  was  slaughtered  by  Mr. 
Roo-er,  Crown  Street,  Aberdeen,  his  4  quarters  weighed  173  sts.  4  lbs.,  or 
37  sts.  11  lbs.  more  than  anticipated,  which,  at  6s.  per  stone,  made  him 
worth  more  by  c£ll  6s.  8d.  !  On  the  other  hand,  a  small  spayed  heifer, 
belonging  to  Mr.  Boswell,  weighed  88  sts.  live  weight,  and  should  have 
yielded  53  sts.  3  lbs.,  but  her  4  quarters  only  weighed  49  stones.*  In  con- 
sequence of  such  discrepancies,  it  would  certainly  be  desirable  were 
means  used  to  render  the  rules  of  measurement,  as  well  as  of  weight,  more 
con-ect  than  they  are  ;  and  I  see  no  way  of  effecting  this  desirable  end 
except  by  collecting  data,  by  instituting  a  set  of  experiments  in  different 
parts  of  the  country,  to  measure  and  weigh  every  animal  before  slaughter- 
ino",  be  it  ox,  sheep,  or  pig,  be  it  large  orsmall,  for  a  given  period,  say  12 
months,  and  see  how  far  the  results  coincide  or  differ  from  the  actual 
weight  of  meat  afforded  by  the  4  quarters. 

(1991.)  The  fat  cattle  being  disposed  of,  the  pasture  should  be  judi- 
ciously distributed  among  the  remaining  stock ;  and  first,  as  to  the  cows, 
they  should  be  supplied  with  the  best  pasture,  the  object  of  keeping  them 
being  to  breed  calves  and  to  afford  plenty  of  milk  to  bring  them  up  ;  the 
moi'e  milk  they  yield  the  better  will  the  calves  prove,  and  the  more  prof- 
itable they  will  themselves  prove  after  the  calves  are  weaned.  Cows  in 
summer  are  treated  in  a  diffeient  manner  by  different  people,  some  taking 
them  into  the  byre  at  night,  and  even  at  all  times  of  milking,  whereas 
others  allow  them  to  lie  out  all  night,  and  milk  them  in  the  field.  Which- 
soever mode  is  adopted,  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  cows  are  peculiarly 
susceptible  of  sudden  changes  of  temperature,  especially  from  heat  to  cold 
and  from  drouth  to  rain,  so  that  whenever  cold  or  rain,  or  both  together, 
which  is  the  most  common   circumstance,  occur,  they  should  be  brought 

*  See  paper  by  me  on  tliis  subject  in  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  v. 
(509) 


270  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


into  the  byre.  For  some  time  after  they  are  put  out  to  grass  they  should 
be  brought  into  the  byre  at  night,  where  they  are  milked,  and  again  in  the 
morning  before  they  are  let  out  to  the  field,  and  milked  in  the  field  at 
mid-day.  After  the  nights  become  warm  I  have  found  it  conducive  to 
health,  and  it  is  both  a  rational  and  a  natural  plan  to  allow  them  to  lie  out 
in  the  field  all  night,  and  to  milk  them  there  at  stated  hours,  three  times 
every  day,  the  shepherd  or  cattle-man  taking  it  as  a  part  of  his  duty  to 
bring  them  to  a  certain  spot  of  the  field  to  be  milked,  and  which  is  usually 
named  the  milking  loan.  This  mode  of  allowing  them  to  lie  out  always 
in  a  sheltered  field,  no  doubt  imposes  a  good  deal  of  labor  on  the  daiiy- 
maid  and  her  assistant  in  carrying  the  milk  to  the  dairy  after  the  calves 
have  been  weaned ;  but  I  am  persuaded  it  is  an  excellent  system  for  the 
health  of  the  cows.  Under  it  cows  rise  from  their  lair  at  daybreak  and 
feed  while  the  dew  is  still  on  the  grass,  and  by  the  time  of  milking  ar- 
rives, say  6  o'clock,  they  are  already  partially  filled  with  food,  and  stand 
contented,  chewing  the  cud,  while  the  milking  proceeds.  They  then  roam 
and  fill  themselves,  and  by  9  o'clock  lie  down  in  a  shady  part  of  the  field 
and  chew  their  cud  until  milking  time  an-ivcs  at  mid-day,  when  they  are 
ao-ain  brought  to  the  loan  and  milked.  Again  they  roam  fin-  food,  and, 
when  the  afi;emoon  is  hot,  will  stand  in  the  coolest  part  of  the  field  whisk- 
ing away  the  flies  with  their  tail  and  ears.  The  evening  milking  takes 
place  about  7,  after  Avhich  they  feed  industriously,  and  take  up  their  lair 
about  sunset,  and  from  which  they  rouse  themselves  in  the  moniing  before 
beinfT  milked.  Some  people  are  apprehensive  that  cows  must  injure 
themselves  by  eating  grass  which  is  wet  with  dew  in  the  moniing ;  but  it 
is  a  fact,  which  I  believe  is  not  so  sufficiently  known  as  it  should  be,  that 
bedewed  grass  before  sunrise,  and  gi-ass  after  it  is  dried  by  the  sun,  are 
alike  uninjurious  to  animals,  and  it  is  only  when  the  dew  is  in  the  act  of  be- 
ing evaporated,  immediately  after  sunrise,  that  grass  proves  injurious  to 
animals.  Why  it  should  be  injurious  at  that  particular  state  I  do  not  pre- 
cisely know,  but  imagine  it  to  be  so,  because  the  giass  then  becomes  sud- 
denly cold  i)y  evaporation  of  the  dew.  When  cows  lie  out,  they  have 
nearly  filled  themselves  by  the  time  the  dew  is  evaporated,  and  therefore 
feel  less  impelled  to  eat  much  of  the  grass  in  the  dangerous  state  ;  where- 
as, cows  that  are  housed  in  fhe  byre  all  night  are  usually  milked  about  sun- 
rise, and  put  out  to  grass  just  at  the  very  time  the  dew  on  it  is  being 
evaporated,  and  is,  of  course,  in  the  most  dangerous  state  ;  and  it  is,  more- 
over, just  then  that  cows  feel  the  greatest  hunger,  and  eat  most  grass. 
The  eflect  of  this  state  of  grass  is  to  produce  hovcn  (1294),  and  especially 
on  aftermath  in  autumn.  Be  the  cause  of  injury  what  it  may,  it  is  certain 
that  cows  let  out  to  grass  from  the  byre  are  far  more  liable  to  be  affected 
with  hoven  on  wet  grass  than  those  which  lie  out  all  night,  and  especially 
on  new  grass.  The  lying  out  at  night,  too,  saves  the  trouble  of  providing 
supper  for  the  cows,  which  they  must  have  when  housed  in  the  byre.  But 
whenever  the  weather  becomes  cold  and  wet,  cows  should  be  brought  into 
the  byre  at  night,  and  supplied  with  supper,  such  as  cut  aftermath  or 
tares. 

(1992.)  The  ireaning  of  calves  should  uot  exceed  one  month  after  the 
cows  have  been  on  grass,  that  is,  by  the  end  of  June,  for  a  calf  later 
weaned  than  that  period  has  been  too  late  brought  into  the  world  to  be 
worthy  of  belonging  to  the  standing  stock  of  a  faiTn.  As  cows  increase  in 
oift  of  milk  after  the  grass  has  fairly  passed  through  them,  the  late  calves 
should  have  as  large  an  allowance  of  new  milk,  three  times  a  day,  as  the 
quantity  obtained  will  allow,  rcserA-ing  a  little  for  the  use  of  the  house. 
The  elder  calves  are  off  sweet  milk  by  the  time  the  cows  go  to  grass,  and 

(510) 


GRAZING  CATTLE  TILL  WINTER.  271 

have  received  lythax  (1685)  with  a  little  skimmed  milk  amono-  it,  cut 
Swedish  turnips  and  hay,  until  the  grass  is  ready.  These  calves  having 
been  in  the  court  k,  fig.  3,  Plate  III.  of  the  steading,  for  some  time,  may 
be  put  on  grass  when  the  cows  are  let  out.  The  most  convenient  first 
gi-ass  field  for  calves  is  a  contiguous  paddock,  from  which  they  should  be 
brought  into  the  couit  for  a  few  nights  and  receive  turnips  and  hay,  until 
the  grass  has  safely  passed  through  them,  and  the  weather  prove  mild  and 
dry  for  them  to  lie  out  all  night  in  the  paddock.  The  youngest  calves 
should  now  leave  their  cribs  R,  and  pass  a  few  days  in  the  court  k  until 
they  become  accustomed  to  the  air  and  sun,  when  they  also  may  be  put 
into  the  paddock  duiing  the  day,  and  there  supplied  with  their  diets  of 
milk,  and  brought  into  the  same  court  at  night  until  they  are  able  to  lie 
out  all  night.  In  weaning  the  youngest  calves,  the  milk  should  be  gradu- 
ally taken  from  them  until  they  "take  with  the  grass,  upon  which  thev 
must  then  entirely  depend.  A  little  after  all  this  has  happened,  say  by 
the  middle  of  July,  the  pasture  in  the  paddock  will  become  rather  bare, 
and  the  whole  lot  of  calves  should  then  be  taken  to  good  pasture,  where 
they  will  have  a  full  bite,  for  nothing  can  be  more  injurious  for  calves  than 
to  place  them  on  bare  pasture  to  fall  away  in  condition  immediately  after 
weaning,  and  which  they  will  assuredly  rapidly  do,  and  from  which  it  will 
be  very  difficult  to  recover  them  all  summer.  Calves  may  be  gi'azed 
among  cows,  or  in  a  field  by  themselves.  In  their  peregi'inations  through 
the  field,  it  will  be  found  that  those  which  have  been  brought  up  and 
weaned  together  will  keep  together  for  the  gi-eater  part  of  the  season. 
The  older  calves  maybe  4  months  old  before  they  are  weaned  ;  but  as  the 
season  of  grass  approaches,  the  younger  ones  may  be  weaned  at  an  ear- 
lier age,  being  seldom  indulged  with  milk  for  more  than  13  weeks,  but  it 
should  never  be  forgotten  that  the  first  month's  nouiishment  to  a  calf  is  of 
much  gi'eater  importance  to  its  future  gi'owth  and  health,  than  any  pe- 
riod beyond  13  weeks,  supported  on  a  stinted  allowance  of  inferior  milk. 
There  are  parts  of  Ireland  where  calves  are  brought  up  on  buttermilk  and 
gruel,  after  the  first  8  days  they  have  received  sweet  milk,  and  it  is  boast- 
ed that  they  thrive  well  on  that  beverage.  This  is  possible,  but  they  will 
thrive  far  better  on  sweet  milk. 

(1993.)  Bull-ca\\es  should  have  good  milk  every  day  until  the  grass  is 
able  to  support  them,  in  order  to  strengthen  their  bone,  and  maintain 
their  condition.  When  a  number  are  brought  up  together,  they  should 
be  gi-azed  by  themselves  on  the  best  grass  the  farm  affords,  or  they  may 
go  along  uath  the  cows,  or  they  may  go  along  with  the  ox-calves  while 
the  quey-calves  are  with  the  cows.  Under  any  arrangement,  they  should 
not  be  allowed  to  accompany  the  quey-calves.  I  knew  an  instance  of  a 
quey-calf  being  stinted  at  so  early  an  age  as  to  bear  a  calf  at  15  months 
old  ;  and  I  knew  another  quey-calf,  one  of  my  own,  that  was  so  injured 
by  a  young  bull-calf,  that  she  was  thereafter  rendered  incapable  of  im- 
pregnation, though  her  season  recurred  periodically.  To  avoid  every  such 
vexatious  casualty,  it  is  far  better  to  keep  apart  young  animals  of  different 
sexes  that  are  capable  of  breeding.  When  there  is  only  a  single  bull-call 
he  may  go  with  the  cows,  or  with  the  young  oxen. 

(1994.)  The  young  1-year-old  bulls  should  now  be  furnished  with  a 
ring  in  their  nose.*  This  instrument  is  useful  not  only  in  leading  the 
animal,  but  being  constantly  in  use,  in  keeping  his  temper  in  subjection. 
I  have  no  doubt  whatever  that  such  a  ring  affords  the  most  complete  com- 
mand over  the  most  furious  bull.  In  case  of  a  bull  becoming  more  irri- 
tative   and  ti-oublesome   as   he  advances   in  years,  which  many  bulls  are 

•*  The  form  of  this  ring  will  hereafter  be  given  by  an  engraving. 
(511)  -  /  =  = 


272  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


inclined  to  be,  the  ring  furnishes  the  means  of  curbing  him  at  once,  when 
it  would  otherwise  be  impossible  to  get  hold  of  his  nose.  It  affords  also 
an  easy  meriiiH  of  suspending  a  light  chain  from  the  nose  to  the  ground, 
upon  which  the  fore-feet  are  ready  to  catch  the  chain  in  walking,  when  the 
nose  receives  so  sudden  a  check  that  wlieiiever  the  bull  attemj)t3  to  i-un 
at  anyone  in  the  field  he  pains  himself  Even  a  young  bull  in  a  field  may 
follow  you  at  first  in  sjjort,  and  run  at  you  afterward  in  earnest.  The 
ring  is  put  into  a  bull's  nose  in  this  way  :  Let  a  ring  of  iron  be  j)rovided 
of  perhaps  2^  inches  in  diameter  over  all,  and  ~  inch  diameter  in  the  rod, 
when  finished.  It  should  have  a  joint  in  it,  to  let  the  ring  open  wide 
enough  to  ])as8  one  end  through  the  nose,  and  the  two  sides  of  the  ring, 
on  being  closed  again  after  the  operation,  are  kept  together  with  two  coun- 
tersunk screws.  An  iron  rod  tapering  to  the  point,  and  stouter  than  the 
rod  of  the  ring,  should  l)e  provided.  Let  a  cart-rope  have  a  noose  cast 
firm  at  its  middle,  and  put  the  noose  over  the  bull's  head,  and  slip  it  down 
his  neck,  with  the  knot  undermost,  till  it  rests  upon  the  breast.  Any  mor- 
tared wall  sufficiently  low  to  allow  the  bull's  head  to  reach  over  it  will 
answer  to  put  him  against ;  or  what  is  safer  for  his  knees,  any  gateway 
with  a  stout  bar  of  wood  placed  across  it  as  high  as  his  breast.  Place  the 
bull's  breast  against  the  wall  or  bar,  and  pass  the  rope  from  the  lowest 
part  of  the  neck  along  each  side  round  the  buttock  like  a  breeching,  and 
bring  one  end  of  the  rope  over  the  wall  or  bar  on  each  side  of  the  bull's 
head,  where  a  stout  man  holds  on  at  each  end,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  both 
these  men  to  prevent  the  bull  from  retreating  backward  from  the  wall  oi 
bar.  A  man  also  stands  on  each  side  of  the  bull's  buttock  to  prevent  him 
shifting  his  position.  The  operator  having  the  iron  rod  given  him  heated 
in  the  fire,  just  red  enough  to  see  the  heated  part  in  daylight,  he  takes  the 
bull  by  the  nose  with  his  left  hand  and  feeling  inward  with  his  fingers, 
past  all  the  soft  part  of  the  nostrils,  until  he  reaches  the  cartilage  or  sep- 
tum of  the  nose,  he  keeps  open  the  nostiils,  so  as  on  passing  the  hot  iron 
through  the  septum  it  may  pass  clear  through  without  touching  the  outer 
skin  of  the  nostrils,  taking  care  to  pass  the  iron  parallel  to  the  front  skin 
of  the  nose,  otherwise  the  hole  will  be  oblique.  Immediately  after  the 
rod  has  been  passed  so  far  as  to  make  the  hole  sufficiently  large,  and  the 
wound  has  been  sufficiently  seared,  the  operator  takes  the  ring,  opened, 
and  still  keeping  hold  of  the  bull's  nose  with  the  left  hand,  passes  it 
through  the  hole,  and  on  biinging  the  two  ends  together,  puts  in  the 
screws,  and  secures  them  firmly  with  a  screw-driver.  On  being  satisfied 
that  the  ring  turns  easily  round  in  the  hole,  and  hangs  or  projects  evenly, 
the  bull  is  then  released.  The  ring,  as  it  should  appear  in  the  nose,  is 
represented  in  the  portrait  of  the  Short-Horn  bull.  It  cannot  be  too  highly 
finished  or  polished,  and  its  cost  in  this  state  may  be  2s.  The  ring  should 
not  be  used  until  the  wound  of  the  nose  is  completely  healed,  though  it  is 
not  uncommon  to  see  the  poor  animal  tormented,  in  the  attempt  of  being 
led  about  by  the  ring  immediately  after  the  operation,  when  every  part  of 
the  nose  is  still  tender  and  sensitive.  So  alarmed  do  some  bulls  become 
from  the  operation,  that  they  hang  back  from  the  leading  rope  of  the  ring 
with  such  force  as  to  pull  the  ring  through  the  nose  ;  but  such  a  use  is  an 
abuse  of  the  rope,  and  rather  than  such  a  result  shall  occur  the  rope  should 
be  slackened,  and  the  animal  relieved  from  pain  as  often  and  until  he 
learns  to  yield  to  the  rope.  The  readiest  and  neatest  way  to  attach  a  rope 
to  a  bull's  ring  is  with  a  swiveled  hook,  retained  in  its  place  by  a  spring, 
and  a  rope  should  be  kept  for  the  purpose.  On  first  ti-ying  to  lead  a 
bull  by  the  ring,  the  drover  should  not  endeavor  to  j)ull  the  animal  along 
after  himself,  but  allow  him  to  step  on  while  he  walks  by  his  side,  or  even 

(512) 


GRAZING  CATTLE  TILL  WINTER.  273 

behind  him,  with  the  rope  in  his  hand.  While  so  following,  to  relieve  the 
animal  as  much  as  practicable  of  the  weight  of  the  rope  upon  the  nose, 
the  drover  should  throw  tlie  middle  of  the  rope  upon  the  bull's  back,  and 
retain  a  hold  of  its  end.  Should  he  offer  to  step  backward,  a  tap  on  the 
shank  with  a  stick  will  prevent  him ;  and  should  he  attempt  to  run  for- 
ward, a  momentary  check  of  the  rope  will  slacken  his  pace.  On  no  account 
should  the  drover  attempt  to  struggle  with  the  bull  on  the  first  occasion  ; 
on  the  contrary,  he  should  soothe  and  pacify  him,  and  endeavor  to  inspire 
him  with  confidence  in  himself  and  the  rope,  and  to  show  him  that  he  will 
receive  no  hurt  if  he  will  but  walk  quietly  along.  The  animal,  in  the  cir- 
cumstances, will  soon  learn  the  nature  of  the  tuition  he  is  undergoing  if 
he  is  properly  dealt  with,  but  if  tormented  merely  that  the  drover  may 
show  his  power  over  a  powerful  animal,  it  may  be  a  long  time,  if  ever,  be- 
fore he  will  learn  to  behave  quietly  when  led.  A  useful  instrument  for 
leading  a  bull  by  occasionally,  when  he  has  not  been  ringed,  or  for  leading 
a  cow  to  the  bull  at  some  distance;  or  for  taking  away  any  single  beast, 
and  at  the  same  time  retaining  a  power  over  it,  is  what  is  named  the 
bullock-holder.  It  consists  of  iron  in  two  parts  jointed,  which  are  brought 
together  or  se2:)arated  by  a  thumb-screw  passing  through  them.  The  ends 
farthest  from  the  joint  terminate  in  a  ring  having  an  opening  at  its  ex- 
treme side,  each  end  of  which  opening  is  protected  by  a  small  ball.  The 
arms  of  this  ring  embrace  the  septum  of  the  nose  gently  between  th-em  ; 
and  the  shank  of  the  instrument  being  screwed  close  together,  the  balls 
approach  no  closer  than  just  to  embrace  the  septum,  and  the  nose  of  the 
animal  prevents  them  slipping  out.  The  leading  rope  is  attached  to  the 
jointed  end  of  the  instrument,  which  is  formed  for  the  purpose  into  a  small 
ring. 

(1995.)  A  bull  that  is  serving  cows  is  never  in  a  better  position  than 
when  attending  them  in  the  field.  He  knows  much  better  than  either  the 
shepherd  or  the  cattle-man  when  a  cow  is  coming  into  heat,  and  he  will 
attend  her  faithfully  until  the  proper  time  of  service  ;  and  I  believe  it  is 
a  fact,  that  a  bull  which  is  constantly  among  cows  in  a  field  never  teases 
or  abuses  them  so  much  as  one  that  is  taken  to  them  for  the  occasion  out 
of  his  own  house.  At  any  rate,  I  have  seen  very  striking  instances  of  what 
I  have  now  stated.  But  a  bull  can  only  be  left  in  the  field  where  he  is  in- 
tended to  serve  all  the  cows.  It  may  be  necessary,  however,  in  the  course 
adopted  by  you  for  the  improvement  of  your  stock,  that  different  bulls  shall 
serve  the  cows,  in  which  case  no  single  bull  can  have  access  to  all  of  them 
alike,  and  therefore  cannot  be  grazed  in  the  same  field  with  them.  When 
a  bull  goes  among  cows  he  is  usually  quite  safe  to  approach,  and  is  quiet 
within  the  fence  ;  but  a  bull  is  always  troublesome  by  himself  in  a  paddock 
or  field,  or  even  among  oxen.  He  is  restless,  often  bellows,  and  few  fences 
will  retain  him  when  he  is  resolved  on  breaking  through,  especially  where 
he  can  snuff  the  cows  at  a  distance.  In  such  circumstances,  it  is  much  bet- 
ter to  confine  him  in  his  hammel  or  byre,  and  support  him  on  cut  forage 
of  some  kind,  such  as  clover,  lucerne,  tares,  and  the  like.  When  so  con- 
fined, bulls,  like  watch-dogs  always  kept  on  the  chain,  dislike  the  approach 
of  any  one  but  their  keeper,  and  even  a  keeper  has  been  known  to  fall  a 
victim  to  resentment.  Some  bulls  become  so  prone  to  mischief  when  con- 
stantly confined,  that  they  will  attempt  to  run  on  any  one,  when  bi-ought 
out  of  the  house  to  serve  a  cow,  the  presence  or  smell  of  the  cow  in  heat 
having  so  maddening  an  effect  upon  them  as  to  render  them  reckless.  The 
air  and  daylight  together  have  an  intoxicating  effect  upon  them.  Besides 
the  rope  or  chain  in  the  ring,  a  safe  precaution  for  the  keeper,  in  such  a 
case,  is  to  to  have  a  stout  stick  about  6  feet  loner,   with  a  ewiveled   hook 

(613) 18  ° 


* 

274  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER 

on  its  end  to  fasten  into  the  ring,  and  with  this  he  will  not  only  have  a 
better  command  over  the  ring  than  by  the  rope,  but  it  will  enable  him  to 
keep  the  bull  ((iVto  a  certain  distance,  the  animal  not  being  able  to  iijn  at 
him  without  first  giving  a  warning  of  his  intention  by  pushing  the  stick.  Bulls 
display  a  natural  fondness  for  calves.  Bulls  that  have  served  cows  should 
never  be  alhnved  to  herd  together,  as  they  will  inevitably  fight,  and  a  serious 
bull-fight  is  a  terrific  thing,  seldom  terminating  before  the  infliction  of  serious 
injury  to  both  parties. 

(1996.)  The  young  cattle — the  1-year-old  and  2-years-old — may  be  put 
on  the  inferior  pasture,  that  is,  on  the  second  and  third  year's  grass  ;  in- 
ferior, not  because  it  is  insufficient  to  maintain  the  stock  in  full  condition, 
but  because  new  grass  is  usually  considered  the  most  nourishing  on  a  farm 
for  the  youngest  stock,  and  most  profitable  for  cows  when  bringing  up 
calves.  Certainly  it  is  the  most  succulent  grass,  and  stock  are  fondest  of 
it,  and  it  springs  the  earliest  of  any  on  a  farm  ;  but  then  all  the  stock  can- 
not have  new  grass  at  the  same  time,  and  that  part  of  the  stock  which  are 
not  employed  in  reproduction,  should  receive  the  least  valuable  grazing  in 
summer,  though  the  entire  pasture  may  be  very  good. 

(1997.)  Grass  land  requires  peculiar  management  to  render  it  the  most 
available  as  pastui'e  in  every  variety  of  season.  The  circumstances  which 
most  injure  grass  are  ovcrstockivg  and  continual  stocking.  The  most  ob- 
vious plan,  of  course,  of  avoiding  overstocking  is  to  have  no  more  stock 
upon  the  farm  than  its  grass  will  in  summer  maintain  in  good  condition, 
and  to  avoid  continual  stocking,  the  stock  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain 
too  long  on  the  same  field.  I  believe  the  safest  principle  upon  which  each 
grazing  field  can  be  treated,  is  to  stock  it  at  once  as  fully  as  that  it  shall 
be  eaten  bare  enough  in  a  short  time,  say  in  a  few  weeks,  and  then  it 
should  be  left  unstocked  altogether,  haincd,  as  it  is  technically  called,  for 
perhaps  a  fortnight,  in  order  to  allow  the  grass  to  grow  sufficiently  to  af- 
ford a  bite  for  cattle.  One  obvious  advantage  of  this  plan  is,  that 
the  stock  at  periodic  times  during  the  grazing  season  will  enjoy  fresh 
grown  grass;  and  another  is,  that  the  same  growth  of  grass  will  not  be  so 
long  depastured  as  either  to  cloy  the  appetite  of  the  animals,  or  become 
foul  by  being  constantly  trodden  upon.  That  this  is  a  rational  and  natural 
mode  of  managing  grass  land  is  evinced  by  the  fact  that  all  stock  delight 
in  consuming  fresh  grown  grass,  and  all  loathe  grass  which  has  been  long 
trampled  and  dunged  upon,  and  the  breath  passed  over  it  times  out  of  num- 
ber. There  is  another  important  consideration  to  be  borne  in  mind  in 
conducting  the  grazing  of  grass  land,  which  is,  the  modes  in  which  differ- 
ent kinds  of  stock  crop  the  grass,  one  kind  biting  it  close  to  the  ground, 
while  another  bites  it  high.  The  ox  gathers  each  mouthfuU  of  grass  with 
his  tongue  before  he  cuts  it  with  his  teeth,  and  therefore  requires  the  grass 
to  be  some  inches  in  length  before  he  can  obtain  a  full  bite.  Grass  which 
is  not  sufficiently  long  for  this  purpose,  either  before  it  is  grown,  or  after 
it  has  been  eaten  down,  is  in  an  unfit  state  for  cattle ;  they  may  live,  but 
cannot  gain  condition  upon  it,  and  as  long  as  they  are  confined  upon  it  will 
lose  so  much  time.  Horses  and  sheep,  on  the  other  hand,  crop  grass  in 
quite  a  different  way ;  their  lijis  being  very  mobile  and  muscular,  seize 
the  grass  firmly,  while  the  teeth  cut  it  over,  and  in  doing  this  they  bite 
very  near  the  gro\ind.  This  is  a  remarkable  peculiarity  in  regard  to  the 
sheep,  inasmuch  as  the  arrangement  of  their  teeth  being  the  same  as  that 
of  the  ox,  but  wanting  them  in  the  upper  jaw,  one  would  have  expected 
them  to  employ  a  similar  mode  of  cropping ;  but  the  difference  in  the  form 
of  their  lips  explains  the  peculiarity,  those  of  sheep  being  decidedly  pre- 
hensile, like  those  of  the  horse,  while  those  of  the  ox  are  thick  and  inac- 

(514) 


GRAZING   CATTLE   TILL  WINTER.  275 

live,  but  the  ox's  tongue  is  prehensile,  and  thus  we  see  that  it  is  the  pre- 
hensile organs  which  are  the  active  agents  in  the  collection  of  food.  And 
this  is  a  wise  distinction  in  the  formation  of  these  two  classes  of  ruminants 
in  as  far  as  it  is  suited  to  their  respective  natures — sheep  being  suited  to 
mountainous  regions,  where  pasture  is  always  short,  and  where  they  are 
able  to  crop  it  with  the  assistance  of  their  prehensile  lips,  notwithstanding 
the  want  of  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw;  whereas  the  ox  is  better  suited  to  the 
plains  and  valleys,  where  grass  grows  long,  and  is  therefore  better  suited 
to  be  cropped  by  the  scythe-like  operation  of  the  ox's  tongue  and  teeth. 
The  practical  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  these  different  distinctions  in 
the  formatiou  of  these  animals  is,  that  the  hoi'se  or  sheep  should  follow  the 
ox  in  grazing,  or  graze  in  company  with  him,  but  not  precede  him.  When 
they  follow,  the  pasture  will  be  eaten  barer  by  the  horse  or  sheejj  than 
when  the  ox  left  it ;  and,  when  in  company,  it  will  be  eaten  barer  by  the 
horse  or  sheep  where  the  ox  has  eaten  before,  and  it  may  first  be  topjied 
by  them  before  the  ox  has  touched  it.  Of  the  two  modes  of  treating  the 
horse  or  sheep,  the  latter  is  the  preferable,  because  choice  is  offered  them 
to  take  the  long  grass  as  well  as  the  short.  The  same  reason,  however, 
that  should  graze  the  ox  loith  the  horse  or  sheep  should  cause  the  separa- 
tion of  the  horse  from  the  sheep,  and  especially  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
pasture  season  ;  both  kinds  of  animals  biting  close,  will  render  the  grass  too 
bare  for  the  maintenance  of  both.  Horses  too,  work-horses  especially,  seem 
to  have  a  greater  dislike  to  sheep  than  to  cattle. 

(1998.)  There  is  a  difficulty  attending  the  grazing  of  all  kinds  of  stock 
on  a  farm  of  mixed  husbandry  which  I  must  mention,  that  as  there  is  every 
summer  the  same  number  of  stock,  there  may  not  be  the  same  quantity  of 
grass  to  support  them  ;  for  the  same  number  of  acres  of  grass,  secured  by 
following  a  regular  I'otation  of  crops,  may  produce  different  quantities  in 
different  seasons — one  year  being  scanty,  another  superabundant.  The 
number  of  stock,  therefore,  should  correspond  with  the  produce  of  an 
average  year.  In  such  a  case,  a  bad  year  very  much  stints  the  condition, 
while  a  good  year  supplies  perhaps  even  more  than  the  same  stock  can 
consume.  The  stinted  condition  cannot  be  alleviated  by  the  sale  of  any 
of  the  stock,  as  it  is  impolitic  to  disturb  the  equilibrium  of  the  stock  of  sev- 
eral years'  produce  which  exist  on  the  farm  at  the  same  time  ;  and  if  the 
stock  suffer  hunger,  as  it  did  in  the  severe  drouth  of  the  summer  of  1826, 
there  is  no  alternative  but  to  make  up  the  deficiency  by  hay,  even  though  it 
should  be  purchased  for  the  occasion.  On  the  other  hand,  superabundance 
of  pasture  does  no  harm,  for,  independent  of  its  maintaining  the  entire 
stock  in  high  condition,  the  rough  aftermath  will  be  of  essential  use  to 
sheep  in  winter.  Of  farms  whose  stock  are  purchased  every  year,  the  num- 
ber can  be  regulated  by  the  likelihood  of  the  crop  of  grass,  but  even  in 
this  case  the  season  may  turn  out  worse  than  was  expected.  Seeing,  there- 
fore, that  no  one  can  foretell  the  future  state  of  any  crop,  the  prudent  plan 
is,  in  evei-y  case,  to  keep  the  number  of  stock  under  the  mark  which  a  farm 
can  support. 

(1999.)  One  essential  requisite  in  all  pasture-fields  is  an  abundant  sup- 
ply oi  tvater  for  stock  to  drink.  Both  cattle  and  horses  drink  largely,  and 
sheep,  grazing  early  on  the  dewy  grass,  do  not  require  so  much  water  to 
keep  them  in  a  healthy  condition ;  still,  when  there  is  no  dew,  they  do  drink 
water.  The  proper  construction  of  a  watering-pool  is  sadly  misunderstood 
in  this  country.  The  entrance  to  it  generally  consists  of  poached  mud  of 
at  least  half  a  foot  in  depth,  and  to  avoid  this,  the  animals  go  into  the  wa- 
ter before  they  drink,  when,  of  course,  it  is  at  once  rendered  muddy.  Not 
unfrequently  there  is  scarcity  of  water,  and  if  there  is  just  sufficient  sup- 

(515)  •' 


276  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

ply  to  prevent  the  pool  being  evaporated  to  dryness,  the  water  is  rendered 
almost  stagnant.  So  obvious  are  the  objections  to  this  mode  of  adminis- 
tering so  necessary  and  wholesome  a  beverage  to  the  brute  creation  as 
water,  that  all  that  seems  necessary  to  an  amendment  of  the  system  is  to 
point  out  its  inconveniences.  True,  in  some  cases,  tanks  of  wood  or  stone 
are  provided  in  fields,  which  are  supplied  from  some  adjoining  spring,  or 
even  pump-well,  and,  as  far  as  the  quality  of  the  water  is  concerned,  this 
is  a  much  better  mode  of  supplying  it  than  in  pools;  but  this  mode,  good 
as  it  is  as  far  as  it  goes,  docs  not  provide  all  the  requisites  of  a  good  wa- 
tering-pool. In  hot  days,  a  walk  though  a  pool  is  very  wholesome  to  the 
feet  of  cattle,  and  in  dry  weather,  a  stand  for  some  time  among  water  is  an 
excellent  preventive  of  that  troublesome  complaint,  the  foot-sore.  The  ex- 
ternal application  of  water  in  this  manner  allays  inflammation,  and  pre- 
vents irritation,  and  permits  animals  to  take  their  food  in  peace  even  in 
scorching  drouth.  Besides  the  tank  of  a  pump-well  is  not  unfrequently 
neglected  to  be  filled — because  in  cold  and  rainy  weather  it  is  scarcely 
visited  by  the  cattle,  in  hot  weathei*it  is  supposed  to  be  viewed  with  the 
same  indifference  ;  and,  even  where  tanks  are  duly  attended  to  for  cattle, 
there  are  none  set  down  at  a  lower  level  for  sheep.  A  watering-pool 
should  be  securely  fenced,  as  cattle  are  very  apt  to  push  one  another  about 
while  in  it,  and  for  that  reason  it  should  also  be  roomy.  It  should  be  of 
considerable  length  and  narrow,  to  allow  access  to  a  number  of  animals  at 
the  same  time,  if  they  choose  to  avail  themselves  of  it ;  and  I  have  often 
observed  cattle  delight  to  go  to  the  water  in  company.  Pools  are  usually 
made  too  small  and  too  confined.  The  access  to  them  should  be  made 
firm  with  broken  stones  in  lieu  of  earth,  and  gravel  placed  on  its  bottom 
keeps  the  water  clean  and  sweet,  while  the  water  should  flow  gently 
through  the  pool. 

(2000.)  The  want  of  shade  in  pasture-fields  is  also  a  sad  reflection  on 
our  farmers.  Observe,  in  summer,  where  the  shade  of  a  tree  cast  itself 
Qver  the  grass,  how  gratefully  cattle  resort  to  it,  and  where  a  spreading 
tree  grows  in  a  pasture-field,  its  stem  is  sure  to  be  surrounded  by  cattle. 
The  stirring  breeze  under  such  a  tree  is  highly  grateful  to  these  creatures  ; 
and  such  a  place  affords  them  an  excellent  refuge  from  the  attacks  of  flies. 
In  cold  weather,  also,  observe  how  much  shelter  is  afforded  to  cattle  by  a 
single  tree,  and  how  they  will  crowd  to  the  most  wooded  corner  of  a  field 
in  a  rainy  day,  even  in  summer.  Ought  not  such  indications  of  animals 
teach  us  to  afford  them  the  treatment  most  congenial  to  their  feelings  1  1 
am  no  advocate  for  hedge-row  trees,  even  though  they  should  cast  a  grate- 
ful shade  into  a  pasture-field,  and  still  less  do  I  admire  an  umbrageous  plane 
in  the  middle  of  a  field  that  is  occupied  in  cotirse  with  a  crop  of  grain  or  tur- 
nips ;  but  similar  effects  as  good  as  theirs  may  be  obtained  from  different 
agencies.  A  shed  erected  at  a  suitable  part  in  the  line  of  the  fence  of  a 
field,  would  not  only  aff"ord  shade  in  the  brightest  day  in  summer,  but  com- 
fortable shelter  in  a  rainy  day,  or  in  a  cold  night  in  autumn.  Such  an 
erection  would  cost  little  where  stone  and  wood  are  plenty  on  an  estate, 
and  they  could  be  erected  in  places  to  answer  the  purpose  of  a  field  on 
either  side  of  the  fence  when  it  was  in  grass.  But  no  matter  what  it  may 
may  cost,  when  the  health  and  comfort  of  stock  are  to  be  maintained  un- 
impaired by  its  means.  The  cost  of  a  shed  may,  perhaps,  in  this  way  be 
repaid  in  the  first  year  of  its  existence,  and  it  would  stand,  with  slight  oc- 
casional repairs,  during  the  currency  of  a  long  lease.  When  such  an  erec- 
tion is  properly  constructed  at  first,  it  is  surprising  how  many  years  it  will 
continue  to  be  useful  with  a  little  care.  Let  it  be  roomy,  and  its  structure 
light,  as  it  may  be  roofed  at  a  moderate  cost  with  zinc,  or  composition  of 

(516) 


GRAZING    CATTLE    TILL  WINTER.  277 

some  sort,  or  tiles,  when  they  are  manufactured  in  the  neighborhood.  It 
may  be  troublesome  to  carry  straw  for  litter  from  the  steading  to  a  shed 
situate  at  a  distance,  but  there  is  no  occasion  for  straw  for  litter  in  summer ; 
the  rough  grass  from  an  adjoining  plantation  or  ditch  will  supply  litter, 
and  the  dung  at  any  rate  should  be  shoveled  up  and  can-ied  away  before 
it  becomes  uncomfortable  to  the  animals.  I  should  like  to  see  a  farm  with 
such  a  shed  erected  in  it  for  every  two  fields. 

(200t.)  The  teats  and  udder  of  cows  are  at  times  subject  to  certain  complaints  in  summer  ;  and 
these  are  chapped  tcaf.x,  sore  teats,  tcarly  teats,  and  cow-pox.  Chapped  teats  consist  of  cracks  occur- 
ring across  tlie  teats,  which  when  drawn  downward,  the  cracks  are  forciblj'  opened,  and,  of  course, 
inflict  pain  on  the  animal ;  and  the  cows  then  become  troublesome  to  milk.  The  easiest  mode  of 
milking  tliem  while  under  this  complaint,  is  that  described  by  uievling  in  (1667),  while  stripping 
aggravates  the  complaint.  I  do  not  know  the  certain  cause  of  this  complaint,  laut  suppose  it  to 
arise  fi-om  leaving  the  teats  in  a  wet  state  after  milking ;  and  perhaps  cows  lying  upon  wet 
ground  may  have  the  same  effect.  Sore  teats  are,  when  blotches  of  skin  come  off  the  teats,  and 
their  ileshy  substance  becomes  sores  by  exposure  to  the  air.  This  complaint  may  arise  from  the 
milker  who  strips  seizing  a  particular  part  of  the  teat  too  hard,  where  an  inflammation  being  set 
up,  terminates  in  the  sloughing  of  the  skin,  and  consequent  exposure  of  the  fleshy  substance  to 
the  air.  AVarty  teats,  I  conceive,  may  originate  in  the  skin  of  the  teats  being  ruftied  b'y  too  much 
force  in  stripping,  or  by  too  long  a  nail  upon  tlie  thumbs  ;  and  the  warts  produced  in  consequence 
may  be  exuberances  of  tlie  skin  in  covering  the  Injured  parts.  I  am  not  sure  that  these  conjec- 
tures, for  they  are  nothing  more,  will  explain  the  cau.ses  of  these  complaints,  but  I  believe  when 
care  is  used  not  to  abrade  the  skin  or  pinch  the  substance  of  the  teat,  but  to  keep  it  clean  and  dry, 
these  complaints  seldom  or  never  occur.  As  to  the  cow-pox,  it  is  a  constitutional  disease,  and  can- 
not be  either  induced  or  retarded.  The  pock  makes  its  appearance  both  on  the  udder  and  the 
teats  of  the  cow  ;  and  as  milking  must  be  performed  frequently  by  all  the  teats,  the  operation 
feels  very  painful  to  the  cow  and  she  of  course,  becomes  verj'  troublesome  to  milk.  Ven,'  soon 
the  pustules  are  rubbed  otfby  the  operation,  and  their  sites  become  skinless  sores.  Nothing  but 
the  utmost  gentleness  will  prevent  the  cow  becoming  distracted  under  the  torture.  After  having 
ran  its  course,  the  disease  declines,  the  sores  become  less  acute,  and  heal  up  by  degrees.  The 
disease  fortunately  is  not  of  frequent  occurrence;  I  have  only  seen  it  once  in  tlie  course  of  a 
fifteen  years'  experience,  and  it  affected  all  tlie  cows  I  had  at  one  time — 9  in  number.  I  acquaint- 
ed several  of  my  medical  friends  of  the  existence  of  a  disease,  imagining  that  they  would  have 
been  glad  of  so  favorable  an  opportunity  of  obtaining  fresh  vaccinating  matter,  but  they  treated  the 
offer  with  indifference.  There  was  an  ointment  I  found  very  efficacious  in  affording  relief  to 
the  cows  when  afliicted  with  the  cow-pox,  sore  teats,  or  hacked  teats.  It  consisted  of  fresh 
butter  melted  and  burnt  in  a  frying-pan,  and  mixed  with  half  its  quantity  of  tar.  While  hot  it 
was  poured  into  a  gallipot,  and*  applied  cold  to  the  affected  parts.  The  tar  had  the  effect  of  keep- 
ing off  ilie  flies,  while  the  burnt  butter  never  became  drj-.  The  ointment  was  washed  off  with 
warm  water  before  milking  commenced,  and  the  udder  and  teats  dried  with  a  soft  linen  cloth  ;  they 
were  again  bathed  \yith  warm  water  after  milking,  again  dried  with  the  soft  linen  cloth,  and  the 
ointment  again  applied.  Calves,  after  being  weaned,  are  subject,  toward  the  end  of  summer,  to 
a  disease  commonly  called  the _;V/^«^/t'Z/o«,  which,  when  oxen  take  it  upon  the  loins,  is  named 
\he  chhie-feUoH.  It  is  notliing  else  than  acute  rheumatism,  ending  in  a  resolution  to  low  fever, 
and  .so  severe  is  it  at  times  upon  calves,  that  they  cannot  bear  to  be  moved  when  lying  stretched 
out  all  their  length  upon  the  ground.  Had  cattle  sheds  to  retire  to  whenever  a  cold  dash  of  rain 
came  in  the  evening  of  a  cold  daj-,  even  in  summer,  this  disease  would  perhaps  never  occur.  Its 
treatment  is  removal  to  tlie  courts  and  -sheds  of  the  steading  among  straw,  bleeding,  moderate 
purging,  with  fomentation,  and  embrocations  of  liquid  blister,  forciblj-  and  long  nibbed  in,  of  the 
swelled  joints.  Another  effectof  the  samefrebile  affection  on  calves  in  autumn  is  the  quarter  ill  or 
evil.  •'  Its  characteristic  .sj-mptoms  are  general  disturbance  of  the  circulation,  and  feeble,  rapid 
piilse,  weakness,  prostration  of  strength,  determination  of  blood  to  particular,  but  in  different  in- 
stances and  epidemics,  very  different  parts,  producing  pain,  and  manifesting  a  tendencj'  to  in- 
flammation, but  of  a  degenerate  kind,  so  that  the  verj'  texture  of  the  tissue  becomes  disorganized. 
The  progress  of  the  disease  is  often  rapid,  and  the  result  very  fatal.  In  some  cases  the  tungs  or 
heart  are  attacked,  and  in  others  the  liver,  bowels,  or  even  some  external  part  of  the  body.""  Its 
immediate  cause  is  plethora,  or  fullness  of  blood  in  the  system,  which  shows  its  effects  in  this  man- 
ner: "  When  the  supply  of  food  is  greater  than  tlie  exigencies  of  the  system  requires,"  as  Pro- 
fessor Dick  observes,  "  an  animal  usually  becomes  fat,  but  still  may  be  tolerably  healthy.  When, 
however,  a  sudden  change  is  made  from  poor  to  rich  feeding,  not  "fatness  but  plethora  maj'  be  the 
consequence  ;  more  blood  is  formed  than  the  system  can  ea.sily  dispose  of,  and  it  becomes  oppress- 
ed. The  effect  is  often  witnessed  in  cattle  and  sheep,  which,  after  indulging  for  a  time  in  luxu- 
riant pasture,  take  what  is  called  a  .'ihot  of  blood.  All  at  once  they  become  verj'  ill ;  some  part  of 
the  body  swells,  becomes  puffy,  as  if  containing  air,  and  in  two  or  three  liours'the  animal  is  dead, 
from  the  quarter  evil  already  described.  Upon  dissection  a  large  quantity  of  black  and  decom- 
posed blood  is  found  in  the  cellular  membrane,  which  during  life'was  distended."*  This  disease 
is  of  frequent  occurrence  on  farms  where  fine  stock  are  bred,  and  fi-om  the  above  description  of 
its  nature,  there  is  no  wonder  that  the  best  calves  first  fall  victims  to  it.  As  its  name  implies,  the 
disease  attacks  the  hind  quarter,  and  its  effects  are  as  sudden  as  described.  Since  its  cause  is 
known,  calves  should  not  be  put  at  once  on  strong  foggage  from  a  comparatively  bare  pasture, 
nor,  for  the  same  reason,  should  calves  in  low  condition  be  put  on  rank  foggage  ;  the  transition, 
both  as  regards  the  pasture  and  the  state  of  the  calves,  should  be  gradual.    As  a  preventive,  Bone 

'  Dick's  Manual  of  Veterinary  Science. 

(517) 


'Zi6  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

farmers  iDtrodnce  a  eeton  into  the  dewlap  of  all  their  calves  before  patting  them  od  foggage  in  an- 
tamn.  The  ase  of  the  aeton  is  to  prodace  counter-irritation.  The  seton  consiiits  of  a  piece  of  tape 
or  soft  cord  pas^ei)  under  a  portion  of  the  skin  by  a  seton-needle  ;  the  ends  may  be  tied  together, 
and  the  cord  may  be  moved  every  oiiicr  day  (rum  side  to  side,  being  previously  lubricated  with 
oil  of  turpentine  or  blister-plaster,  and  in  this  way  tht  amount  of  irritation  may  be  regulated.  As 
to  the  cure,  I  believe  everj-  one  is  unavailing  after  the  disease  kax  been  obserrcd  to  exi*t ;  but  as  a 
remedial  measure  applied  by  anticipatiun,  large  bloodletting  with  purging  of  repeated  doses  will 
reduce  the  pletlioric  tendency  of  the  animal  system.  Perhaps  a  cribfuU  of  hay.  with  some  salt, 
placed  in  a  fogpage  field,  would  not  be  a  bad  alternative  for  calves  to  resort  to  at  times,  in  order  to 
modify  the  etiects  of  the  succulence  of  rank  aftermath. 


24.  MARES  FOALI.NG,  OF  STALLIONS,  AND  OF  HORSES  AT  GRASS. 

"  Yet  when  from  plow  or  lumbering  cart  get  fipee, 
They  taste  awhile  the  sweets  of  liberty: 
fen  sober  Dobbin  lifts  his  clumsy  heel 
And  kicks,  disdainful  of  the  diny  wheel " 

Bloomfield. 

(2002.)  Whenever  field-labor  commences  in  spring,  whether  with  bean 
or  oat-seed,  draught-horses  are  indulged  with  hay  instead  of  straw,  and 
their  allowance  of  com  is  increased.  The  hay  is  supplied  to  them  at 
will,  and  a  strong  work-horse  is  supposed  to  eat  about  1^  stones,  or  33 
lbs.  a-day,  and  some  will  eat  even  more.  The  oats  are  increased  to  3 
feeds  a-day,  which  at  40  lbs.  the  bushel,  will  weigh  71  lbs.,  but  if  the 
measure  is  heaped,  which  some  farmers  will  allow  to  be  done  with  horse- 
corn,  the  feeds  will  weigh  S  lbs.  The  quantities  of  hay  and  com  here  speci- 
fied are  supposed  to  be  given  in  their  ordinary  state,  but  when  given  in  a 
cooked  state,  I  have  already  described  their  treatment  in  (1351)  to 
(1353)  inclusive. 

(2003.)  The  hay-stack  is  seldom  broken  upon  until  the  horses  get  hay 
in  spring.  Its  site  in  the  stack-yard  is  marked  by  an  n  in  Plate  IV.,  fig.  4, 
of  the  steading,  and  the  hay-house  is  contiguous  to  it  at  H,  the  apartment 
which  also  contains  the  corn-chest  y,  and  the  whole  adjoins  the  work-hoi-se 
stable  O.  When  the  hay  is  to  be  used,  as  much  of  the  stack  is  brought  in  as 
will  fill  the  hay-house,  and  thence  distiibuted  to  the  horses. 
Every  portion  cut  off  the  length  of  the  stack  should  be  4  '^' 

or  5  feet,  and  they  are  cut  off*  \vith  a  hay-hnife,  fig.  360, 
which  represents  the  usual  form  of  that  instmment.  It 
will  be  obser\-ed  in  the  figure,  that  the  line  of  the  back 
of  the  blade  is  not  so  much  as  at  right  angles  to  the  han- 
dle, a  position  which  gives  the  cutting  edge  of  the  knife 
an  inclination  to  the  line  of  section,  which,  when  the  knife 
is  used  alternately  up  and  down  in  a  pei-pendicular  mo- 
tion with  both  hands,  causes  it  to  cut  a  longer  space  than 
the  breadth  of  the  blade.  The  person  who  uses  the  knife, 
usually  the  steward,  while  it  is  the  field-workers  who  car- 
ry the  hay  and  fill  the  hay-house,  sets  himself  on  his  knees  "^  hat-kvife. 
upon  the  part  he  is  cutting  off,  with  his  face  to  the  body  of  the  stack.  This 
form  of  knife  requires  considerable  strength  in  its  use,  and  unless  the  edge 
is  kept  remarkably  keen  \\\\\\  a  whet-stone,  and  the  hay  is  firm,  it  does  not 
make  good  work.  The  hay-knife  I  prefer  is  of  the  form  of  the  dung- 
spade  in  fig.  308,  which,  being  used  when  standing,  can  be  wielded  with 
more  force  and  make  a  deeper  cut ;  and  it  cuts  equally  well  in  both  direc- 
tions, whereas  the  common  knife  cuts  only  in  one  direction — to  the  right. 

(518) 


MARES   FOALING.  279 


(2004.)  There  is  considerable  waste  of  hay  as  it  is  commonly  used  in 
hay-racks  *,  fig.  7.  The  plowmen  stuff  the  rack  not  only  full,  but  squeeze 
the  hay  firm,  from  a  mistaken  notion  that  they  cannot  give  too  much  at  a 
time  to  their  horses  ;  but  when  horses  find  it  in  this  compressed  state,  and 
are  unable  to  select  the  morsels  they  want,  they  toss  out  a  considerable 
quantity  among  the  litter,  with  which,  after  being  trampled  upon,  and  re- 
fused to  be  eaten,  it  is  thrown  into  the  dung-yard.  True,  the  cattle  there 
will  eat  it,  and  prefer  it  much  to  straw,  because  of  its  being  hay  and  hav- 
ing a  saline  taste,  so  that  it  cannot  be  said  to  be  entirely  lost,  yet  the  ob- 
ject of  supplying  the  horses  only  upon  hay  is  frustrated.  If  it  is  desired 
to  give  hay  to  cattle  also,  it  should  be  given  them  in  a  dii-ect  manner.  To 
avoid  waste,  therefore,  small  quantities  should  be  put  into  the  racks  at  a 
time,  and  these  frequently ;  but  the  best  way  to  prevent  waste  is  to  chop 
the  hay  and  bruise  the  corn,  and  the  mixture  will  also  go  a  greater  length 
in  feeding  the  horses.  Young  horses  should  also  receive  hay  after  the  stack 
has  been  broken  up,  straw  becoming  too  hard  and  dry  after  March ;  and 
hay,  besides,  serves  to  improve  their  condition,  and  prepare  them  for  grass. 
They  should  also  get  a  little  corn  every  day,  until  grass  time,  as  nothing 
tends  so  much  to  enlarge  and  strengthen  the  bone,  and  confirm  the  spirit 
of  young  horses  as  corn.  So  much  am  I  convinced  of  the  truth  of  such  a 
result,  that  I  entirely  agree  with  the  observation  of  the  late  celebrated 
Nimrod  (Mr.  Apperley),  that  the  belly  of  the  young  horse  should  be  the 
measure  of  his  corn.  It  is  to  the  niggardly  disposition,  in  regard  to  corn, 
which  farmers  eviuce  toward  their  young  horses,  that  is  to  be  ascribed  the 
number  of  weak  horses  that  are  met  with  on  farms  ;  for  the  greatest 
abundance  of  corn  administered  to  the  adult  state,  will  never  compensate 
for  its  want  when  the  animal  was  in  the  state  of  adolescence. 

(2005.)  May  is  the  particular  month  in  which  drauglit-viares  usually 
drop  their  foals.  They  continue  to  work  until  the  immediate  symptoms 
of  foaling  are  observed.  These  are  great  loosening  of  the  ligatures  on 
each  side  of  the  root  of  the  tail,  and  the  appearance  of  a  waxy-like  matter 
projecting  from  the  point  of  the  teats.  As  it  is  impossible  to  predict  a 
mare's  foaling  within  a  few  hours,  it  is  proper  to  put  her  into  a  loose- 
house  or  a  box  by  herself,  and  to  watch  her  every  night.  Too  many  fai'm- 
ers  contemn  such  precautions,  and  allow  their  mares  to  foal  in  their  stall 
in  the  stable,  to  the  risk  of  having  both  them  and  their  foals  kicked  by  the 
other  horses.  That  watching  is  necessary  at  night,  even  in  a  loose  house, 
is  evinced  by  a  fact  mentioned  to  me  by  the  late  Mr.  Airth,  Mains  of  Dun, 
Forfarshire,  of  a  mare  of  his  which,  having  been  neglected  to  be  watched 
at  night,  or  even  removed  from  the  stable,  was  found  in  the  morning  lying 
on  the  floor  with  her  womb  protruded  and  the  foal  smothered  in  it.  The 
mai-e  shortly  after  died  in  great  agony.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  few 
people  have  observed  mares  to  foal,  even  though  watching  for  the  purpose, 
for  somehow  they  contrive  to  foal  when  left  by  themselves  for  even  a  few 
moments.  I  have  endeavored  for  successive  years  to  witness  the  foaling 
both  of  blood  and  draught-mai;es,  and  was  always  disappointed.  A  mare 
will  eat  with  heartiness  until  the  pams  of  labor  seize  her,  when  she  sud- 
denly lies  down,  foals  easily,  quickly,  forcibly,  requiring  no  assistance,  and 
starts  to  her  feet  almost  immediately  after  parturition,  takes  up  with, 
though  licks  but  little  at  her  foal,  and  soon  begins  to  eat  again.  The  foal 
is  not  long  of  gaining  its  feet  after  a  few  staggering  attempts  on  its  long 
legs,  but  some  time  elapses  before  it  can  steady  itself,  so  as  to  lay  hold  of 
the  teat.  It  should  be  assisted  in  this  its  first  attempt,  in  order  to  get 
filled  with  milk,  after  which  it  may  lie  and  sleep  among  straw  until  it  be- 
comes dry.     The  placenta  soon  drops  from  the  mare,  and  should  be  imme- 

(519) 


280  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

diately  removed.  The  thin  pellicle  which  covers  the  foal  is,  when  dried, 
very  like  the  finest  gut-skin  used  by  gold-l)eaters,  and  it  forms  a  very  good 
protection  from  the  air  when  applied  as  a  plaster  over  the  surface  of  a 
green  wound.  The  mare  should  have  a  drink  of  lukewarm  water  and  oat- 
meal, and  a  few  handsfnll  of  corn,  after  partuiition,  and,  on  partaking  of 
which,  she  may  be  left  with  the  foal.  For  the  sake  of  increasing  her  milk 
she  should  be  put  to  gi-ass  immediately  after  foaling,  if  she  is  not  on  grass, 
and  should  remain  there  without  being  put  to  work  for  a  month  ;  by  which 
time  she  will  have  recovered  her  tone  of  body  sufficiently  to  bear  again 
the  fatigue  of  labor.  The  sort  of  work  for  a  mare  having  a  foal  should 
be  of  a  nature  to  interfere  but  slightly  with  the  more  important  operations 
of  the  farm ;  because  having  to  suckle  the  foal  every  half  yoking,  she 
should  be  employed  singly,  such  as  at  sowing  and  scuffling  turnips,  scuf- 
fling potatoes,  and  leading  grass  or  other  forage.  When  the  mare  is  again 
made  to  work,  the  foal  should  be  left  by  itself  to  rest  in  a  well-littered 
apartment  of  the  steading  until  it  become  accustomed  to  be  alone,  rather 
than  in  a  court  or  hammel,  out  of  which  it  may  attempt  to  escape  and  in- 
jure itself  Should  there  be  two  mares  with  foals,  both  should  be  worked 
tof^ether ;  the  treatment  of  both  being  alike,  little  inconvenience  will  arise 
to  work,  from  being  taken  to  their  foals  out  of  yoke  together  (3141).  A 
stout  mare  wU  be  able  to  perform  her  own  share  of  summer  work,  and 
bring  up  a  foal  at  the  same  time ;  but  should  she  be  in  a  weakly  state, 
which  she  will  be  when  becoming  old,  or  is  overworked,  she  should  be  put 
either  to  very  gentle  work,  or  to  work  only  in  half  yokings,  or  one  yoking 
a  day,  or  be  idle  altogether  and  constantly  with  her  foal.  She  should  not 
be  neglected  of  com,  however,  though  idle  at  grass  with  her  foal.  It  is 
seldom  that  any  illness  attacks  a  draught-mare  while  bringing  up  a  foal, 
and  it  is  as  seldom  that  anything  is  the  matter  with  a  foal.  I  had  one 
work-foal,  however,  which,  though  safely  and  easily  foaled,  and  seemed 
lively  enough,  could  never  stand  upon  its  feet,  or  lay  hold  of  a  teat,  and  it 
died  in  the  course  of  a  day  after  it  was  foaled,  though  fed  on  cow's  milk. 
A  mare  when  thus  deprived  of  her  foal,  should  be  occasionally  milked, 
and  kept  on  dry  food  for  a  few  days,  until  the  tendency  of  the  milk  to  se- 
crete subsides.  The  mare  will  be  ready  to  receive  the  horse  in  3  weeks, 
or  a  month  at  farthest,  after  parturition,  and  the  first  symptom  of  heat  is 
fiequent  twitching  of  the  vulva,  and  emission  of  a  clear  fluid.  When  a 
mare  is  touched  in  this  state,  she  immediately  presses  toward  the  object 
that  touches  her. 

(2006.)  In  presenting  a  mare  to  the  stallion,  caution  should  be  used  to 
prevent  her  striking  him  with  her  heels  when  she  refuses  his  attentions; 
and  this  consists  simply  in  holding  her  by  the  head  with  a  bridle  across 
the  outside  of  the  stable  door,  while  the  stallion  is  kept  within,  and  allowed 
to  snuff"  and  pinch  her  flank.  If  she  takes  the  teasing  kindly,  presses 
closer  toward  him,  twitches  the  vulva,  and  emits,  she  is  in  proper  heat,  but 
if  she  squeal  and  kick  whenever  he  touches  her,  she  is  in  an  unfit  state  for 
him;  but  the  tickling  of  the  horse  for  a  time  not  unfrequently  confirms 
the  season  of  the  mare  when  it  at  first  evinces  a  doubtful  issue.  If  in  sea- 
son, she  should  be  taken  to  an  open  piece  of  level  ground,  and  held  by 
the  head  as  long  as  the  horse  covers  her,  and  the  time  occupied  by  a 
stallion  in  covering  is  much  longer  than  by  the  bull  or  tup,  which  is  in- 
stantaneous. A  horse  which  is  safe  to  use  requires  no  encouragement 
from  his  leader,  but  many  need  some  assistance  from  him.  Making  a 
mare  stand  to  the  horse  by  a  twitch  on  her  nose  is  an  unnecessary  act  of 
cruelty  ;  for  if  she  will  not  voluntarily  receive  him  she  will  not  become 
impregnated  by  a.ny  force  that  can  be  used  against  her.     One  cover  is  quite 

(520) 


HORSES  AT   GRASS.  281 


sufficient  at  a  time.  In  about  3  weeks  it  will  be  seen  whether  the  mare 
has  held  to  the  horse  ;  and  should  she  again  exhibit  symptoms  of  season, 
simple  and  safe  expedients  may  be  used  to  secure  her  holding,  such  as 
throwing  a  bucket  of  cold  water  upon  her  rump  the  moment  the  horse 
leaves  her,  or  drawing  blood  from  her  neck  vein  while  the  horse  is  cover- 
ing, or,  what  is  better  than  all,  unless  the  season  is  going  rapidly  off  her, 
retaining  the  horse  all  night  and  offering  her  a  fresh  cover  in  the  morning, 
or,  to  adopt  a  different  plan  altogether,  covering  her  with  another  horse, 
or  another  kind  of  hoi'se — one  or  other  of  which  expedients  generally  se- 
cures the  holding,  unless  the  mare  is  past  bearing,  which  casualty  befalls 
mares  at  very  different  ages.  I  was  told  by  a  man  who  led  stallions  for 
many  years,  that  the  expression  of  a  sigh,  from  both  horse  and  mare,  im- 
mediately after  an  embrace,  is  an  infallible  sign  of  the  mare  proving  in 
foal.  The  circumstances  which  militate  against  a  mare's  holding  in  foal  is 
too  high  and  too  low  condition.  Whenever  a  mare  is  seen  to  eject  semen 
as  soon  as  the  horse  has  left  her,  she  will  certainly  not  hold.  Sometimes 
the  fault  is  as  much  that  of  the  horse  as  the  mare,  for  when  subjected  to 
much  traveling,  and  is,  moreover,  not  a  good  traveler,  and  has  undertaken 
more  sei^vice  than  he  can  easily  overtake,  he  is  often  so  much  fatigued 
when  brought  to  a  mare,  especially  toward  evening,  as  to  be  quite  unfit 
for  effective  service.  When  a  horse  is  observed  to  be  in  a  state  of  lassi- 
tude, the  very  best  policy  for  the  farmer  is  to  give  the  horse  and  his  leader 
a  night's  quarters,  and  let  him  cover  the  mare  in  the  morning  when  he  is 
comparatively  fresh.  Many  farmers  grudge  maintaining  a  horse  and  man 
all  night,  but  much  better  incur  that  small  expense  than  run  the  risk  of  a 
mare  proving  barren.  When  a  mare  has  been  covered  3  separate  periods 
without  success,  it  is  needless  to  persevere  with  her,  as  the  foal  will  come 
too  late  next  season,  and  a  late  foal  is  as  objectionable  stock  to  bring  up 
as  a  late  calf. 

(2007.)  The  usual  treatment  of  dranght-Jiorses  in  summer  is  to  allow 
them  to  lie  out  in  the  pasture-field  all  night,  and  give  them  cut  grass  be- 
tween the  yokings  in  the  stable.  Forage  is  supplied  them,  because  the 
time  between  the  yokings  is  too  short  to  fill  themselves  with  grass  on  pas- 
ture ;  but  on  the  Borders,  where  the  first  yoking  is  over  by  9  or  10  o'clock 
in  the  forenoon,  the  horses  are  put  into  the  pasture-field  until  the  afternoon 
yoking  at  1  o'clock ;  and  this  plan  saves  all  the  trouble  of  cutting  gi-ass 
for  the  horses.  The  piece  of  grass  allotted  to  horses  is  cut  by  the  plow- 
men, wlio  each  take  the  duty  for  a  week  by  turns,  and  he  quits  the  yoking 
in  time  to  allow  him  to  cut  the  requisite  quantity  and  cart  it  to  the  stable. 
It  is  not  his  duty  to  supply  the  racks  in  the  stable,  except  his  own  horse's, 
but  to  empty  the  load  of  grass  on  some  convenient  spot  near  the  stable 
door — a  dirty  and  slovenly  practice.  No  doubt  it  is  better  to  keep  the 
fi'esh  cut  grass  in  the  open  air  than  to  put  it  into  a  house ;  but  still  a  crib 
or  inclosure  could  be  made  in  a  shady  place  conveniently  near  the  stable, 
to  keep  the  grass  fresh,  and  place  it  off  the  dirty  ground. 

(2008.)  Grass  is  cut  with  the  common  scythe,  which  is  so  well  known 
an  implement  that  a  particular  description  of  it  seems  unnecessary.  A 
few  words,  however,  on  the  choice  of  scythes  and  of  the  maimer  of  mount- 
ing them,  may  be  useful  to  you.  The  handle,  or  snead  or  sneath,  fig.  361, 
a  b,  is  made  either  curved  to  suit  the  sweep  of  the  instrument  by  the  hands 
round  the  body,  as  in  the  figure,  or  straight,  and  the  suitableness  of  both 
for  work  you  shall  learn  when  we  come  to  consider  harvest-work.  The 
curved  snead  is  usually  made  of  willow,  which,  being  shaped  in  hot  water, 
and  restrained,  on  being  released  when  the  wood  becomes  cold,  retains 
the  shape.     Of  scythes  there  are  various  kinds  :  the  common  kind  keeps 

(521) 


282 


THE   BOOK  OF  THE   FARM SUMMETt. 


Fig.  361. 


its  edge  but  a  short  time,  and  in  the  long  run  is,  I  believe,  more  expen- 
sive than  the  jmtint  kind,  which  consists  of  a  steel  plate  ri-veted  between 
2  small  rods  of  iron,  and  wliich   plate  will  continue  to  cut  keenly  until  it 
is  worn  to  the  back-bone.     The  length  of  the  blade  of  scythes  varies  from 
28  inches  to  46  inches,  and  the  price  of  the 
common  kind  varies  between  these  lengths 
from  2s.  4d.  to  3s.  3d.  each,  and  the  patent 
from  3s.  2d,  to  4s.  8d.  each.     There  are  be- 
sides these,  other  kinds  termed  crown,  la- 
beled, and  extra-warranted  scythes.     Bent 
sneads    cost    from    Is.  3d.  to  Is.  6d.  each, 
straight  ones  Is.  each.       The  straight  are 
made  of  any  sort  of  wood  ;  I  have   seen 
good  ones  of  larch.     Scythes  are  shai-pened 
with  strickles  and  stones.     The  strickles  are 
made  of  fine  sand  imbedded  in  an  adhesive 
medium  laid  over  the  surface  of  a  piece  of 
wood    of  square    or   flat  shape,    and    cost 
6d.  each.     They  are  used    to  smooth  the 
edge   after  the   stone,  and  serve  of  them- 
selves, for  a  time,  to  keep  the  edge  keen  ; 
and  they  are   always  attached  to  and  car- 
ried along  the  upper  end  of  the  snead  at  d, 
by  a  T  headed  nail   and   spike.     Scythe- 
stones    are    either   square    or   round,    are 
formed  of  the   same    sandstone   as   grind- 
stones, and  cost  4d.  each.     They  are  only 
occasionally  used  to  set  a  new  edge  on  the 
blade.     Ragstones    cost  4d.  per  lb.      The 
blade  of  a  scythe  is  mounted  in  this  man- 
ner :    the   snead  is  furnished  with   an   iron  ring   at   the    end,   to    which 
the  blade  is  attached  ;    the  projecting  hook  at  the  butt-end  of  the  blade 
is   imbedded    flush    into    the    snead    by    taking   away  a  portion    of  the 
wood,  and  the  ring  is  then  slipped  over  the  imbedded   hook,  and   is  held 
tight  in  its  position  by   an  iron  wedge  as  at  a.     The    peculiar  position 
which  the  blade  bears   to  the    snead    is  determined  by    measunng    the 
length  of  the  blade  a  o  straight  along  the   snead  from  a  to  d,  where  is 
fastened  the  handle   for  the   light  hand,  and  the  same  length  from  d,  to  c 
fixes  the  point  of  the  scythe,  so  that  a  d  c  forms  an  equilatei'al  triangle  ; 
and  of  course  the  l)]ade  stands  at  an  angle  of  60°  with  the  snead.     Theory 
would  advise  the  placing  of  the  j^ld^c  of  the  blade  parallel  with  the  ground, 
when  the  scythe  is  held  as  intended  for  cutting  ;  but  practice  requires  the 
cutting  edge  to  be  a  little  elevated  above  the  ground,  and  above  the  back 
of  the  scythe  which  sweeps  along  the  surface  of  the  ground ;  and  the  rea- 
son for  keeping  the  edge  elevated  is,  that  it  would  not  only  be  apt  to  run 
into  the  ground  if  swung  parallel  with  it,  but  the  scythe  would  be  worked 
with  greater  labor,  as  the  stems  of  the  plants  to  be  cut  would  present  an 
obstacle  directly  at  right  angles   against  the  blade,  whereas  the  edge  set 
upward  cuts  the   stems  in  an  oblique  direction.     The  blade  is  still  farther 
secured  in  its  position  by  the  grass-nail^  which  is  hooked  by  one  end  into 
e  hole  in  the  blade,  and  is  nailed  through  an  eye  by  the  other  to  the  snead  ; 
and  a  great  use  of  the  giass-nail   is  to  prevent  any  plants  cut  from  being 
entangled  between  the  blade  and  snead.     The  left-hand  handle  e  is  placed 
to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  workman.     I  shall  reserve  remarks  on  the 
mode  of  using  and  sharpening  the  scythe  until  we  treat  of  harvest-work. 

(522, 


THE  PATENT  SCYTHE  WITH  BENT 
SNEAD. 


HORSES  AT  GRASS.  283 


(2C09.)  Objections  have  been  made  to  pasturing  grass  at  all  by  any  spe- 
cies of  stock,  inasmuch  as  the  same  extent  of  land  will  maintain  a  gieater 
number  of  aniinals  when  cut  and  given  them  in  houses  or  yards.  To  ex- 
press this  proposition  shortly,  soiling  is  a  more  profitable  and  less  waste- 
ful mode  of  using  grass  than  pasturing.  Although  there  is  much  truth  in 
the  observation,  it  is  too  generally  expressed  to  be  true  in  all  cases.  In 
the  case  of  mountain-grass  it  is  evidently  an  impracticable  proposition  to 
use  it  by  soiling.  Much  cattle  and  sheep  must,  therefore,  be  allowed  to 
pasture ;  and  with  regard  to  much  of  the  old  grass  of  the  low  country  a 
great  part  of  the  summer  would  elapse  before  it  would  be  fit  for  the  op- 
eration of  the  scythe.  What  is  to  become  of  stock  in  the  mean  time  1  The 
only  other  grasses  left  are  the  cultivated  kinds,  such  as  clover  and  rye-grass, 
and  that  from  irrigated  meadows.  Of  these  two  kinds  it  is  quite  possible 
to  procure  a  supply  of  cut  grass  from  water-meadows  by  the  time  the 
Swedish  turnips  are  exhausted  in  the  beginning  of  June  ;  but  the  culti- 
vated grasses  are  not  fit  for  cutting  by  that  time  except  in  the  neighbor- 
»  hood  of  large  towns.  What,  again,  is  to  become  of  stock  in  the  mean 
time  1  Some  other  plants  than  clover  and  rye-grass  must  be  cultivated  to 
support  the  stock  till  that  period ;  perhaps  lucerne  and  Italian  rye-grass 
might  be  cultivated  for  the  pui-pose,  but  both  cannot  be  cultivated  every- 
where, for  lucerne  will  not  thrive  in  Scotland,  and  before  either  could  be 
cultivated  anywhere  for  an  extensive  system  of  soiling,  a  different  system 
of  husbandry  will  have  to  be  contrived,  and  a  system  to  produce  early 
forage  in  a  late  climate  will  not  be  easily  discovered.  In  regard  to  the 
comparative  extent  of  a  ground  required  for  soiling  and  pasturage,  it  has 
been  alleged  to  be  3  to  1  in  favor  of  soiling;  that  is,  33  head  of  cattle 
were  soiled  from  20th  May  to  the  1st  of  October,  1815,  on  171  English 
acres,  and  which  number  of  cattle,  it  was  said,  would  have  required  50 
acres  to  pasture  them.*  On  the  face  of  this  statement  I  would  say,  that 
any  33  head  of  cattle  that  could  be  maintained  on  17^  acres  of  cutting 
grass,  would  as  easily  be  maintained  on  the  same  land  on  33  acres  of  pas- 
ture— 1  acre  of  pasture  to  an  ordinary  sized  ox  being  quite  sufficient  to 
maintain  it  from  May  to  October.  So  that  the  proportion  is  reduced  from 
2  to  1,  which  I  believe  is  near  the  truth  in  regard  to  the  maintenance  of 
Oxen.  In  regard  to  work-horses,  it  is  different,  for  they  will  certainly  re- 
quire a  much  greater  extent  of  ground  in  cutting  grass  than  in  pasture. 
To  cut  grass,  however,  for  all  the  cattle  on  a  large  farm,  to  lead  it  to  the 
steading,  and  to  supply  them  with  sufficient  litter  in  summer,  is  what  I  con- 
sider an  impracticable  thing,  were  it  for  no  other  reason  than  that  the  crop 
of  grain  on  any  farm  that  admits  of  its  grass  being  pastured  cannot  afford 
sufficient  straw  to  litter  stock  the  whole  year;  and  if  sheep  are  to  be  in- 
cluded in  the  soiling  system,  where  is  the  steading  that  could  afford  them 
accommodation  ]  Nor  is  the  objection  against  grazing  of  the  manure  of 
animals  being  entirely  lost,  altogether  valid,  because  land  that  is  constantly 
grazed  will  support  stock  to  an  indefinite  time ;  whereas  where  grass  is 
cut  and  canied  off  evexy  year,  the  time  will  soon  arrive  when  the  grass 
can  no  longer  be  cut  xmtil  manure  be  applied  to  the  ground.  Does  not 
this  circumstance  of  itself  show  that  the  dung  dropped  on  pasture  is  not 
entirely  lost,  and  that  the  land  derives  considerable  advantage  from  being 
pastured  ]  I  have  often  thought  that  all  the  work-horses  on  a  farm  might 
be  supported  in  the  steading  night  and  day  upon  cut  grass.  I  have  tried 
the  experiment  twice  myself,  but  failed  in  both  cases,  at  one  time  for  want 
of  cutting  gi-ass,  the  second  cutting  having  entirely  failed  that  year,  and 
the  other  for  want  of  straw  for  litter  until  the  arrival   of  the  new  crop. 

♦  See  Sinclair's  Code  of  Agriculture,  and  Notes. 
(523) 


284 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


The  straw  might  have  been  economized  in  the  stable,  but  the  stable  in 
summer,  even  with  open  doors,  ventilators,  and  no  hay-loft,  is  insuffera- 
ble ;  and  the  horses  required  far  more  straw  to  keep  them  dr^-  in  the  ham- 
mel  on  cut  grass  than  they  did  on  straw  and  corn  in  the  stable  in  winter. 
Taking  all  these  untoward  circumstances  into  consideration,  they  led  to 
the  conviction  that  soiling  on  a  large  scale  is  impracticable  ;  and  until 
early  growth  of  grass,  as  well  as  a  late  growth  of  aftermath,  and  plenty  of 
straw,  are  assured  to  the  farmer  every  year,  I  cannot  see  how  soiling  can 
be  established  as  a  regular  practice  in  husbandry  on  a  farm  of  even  mod- 
erate extent.  Oft  a  small  scale  where  only  a  few  animals  of  every  kind 
are  kept,  I  conceive  that  soiling  might  be  practiced  with  advantage,  and 
it  behooves  all  small  farmers  to  make  their  grass  land  go  as  far  as  possible. 

(2010.)  Work-horses,  when  on  grass,  are  subject  to  few  distempers,  the  principal  being  an- 
noyance from  a  host  of  iiisccts.  and  among  these  the  common  horse-fly  or  cleg,  and  the  bot-tiy, 
are  the  most  troublesome.  The  cleg  delights  in  warm  and  sultrj- weather ;  is  most  active  on 
the  wing  during  the  day,  and  therefore  most  troublesome  to  horses  and  cattle  when  they  stand 
most  in  need  of  repose.  They  are  particularly  excited  and  eager  for  blood  when  the  aimo.«phere 
is  in  a  warm  and  humid  state,  such  as  it  usually  is  after  a  thunder  shower;  and  it  is  this  circum- 
stance which  has  obtained  the  specific  name  oi phtv talis  for  the  cleg.  Another  pest  to  the  horse 
is  the  great  spotted  horsebot,  Gasterophilus  equi,  seen  at  a.  fig.  362.     It  is  about  7  lines  in  length ; 

Fig.  362. 


THE  HORSE-BOT GASTEROPHILUS  EQUI. 

general  color  clear  yellowish-brown :  thorax  inclining  to  gray ;  abdomen  rust-brown,  with  a 
tinge  of  yellow ;  wings  whitish  ;  and  legs  yellowish.  The  antennae  are  inserted  in  the  cavity  of 
the  face,  as  seen  at  h,  the  second  joint  large  and  kidney-shaped,  the  remaining  three  forming  a 
naked  bristle  as  at  c.  The  eyes  are  equally  distant  in  both  sexes  ;  mouth  either  entirely  want- 
ing, or  consisting  merely  of  an  indistinct  line  or  opening.  This  insect  takes  no  nourishment  of 
any  kind  ;  in  fact,  the  alimentarj-  canal  has  no  opening  at  its  anterior  extremity.  It  flies  in  com- 
pany, producing  a  humming  sound.  "The  female  having  selected  the  individual  to  which  her 
treasure  is  to  be  intrusted,"  savs  Mr.  Duncan,  "  she  continues  to  hover  about  for  a  short  time  till 
the  egg  be  propelled  through  tfie  oviduct,  and  placed  in  tlie  pincers  at  the  extremity  of  the  anal 
tube.  Thus  pre[iarcd.  she  makes  a  sudden  descent  upon  the  horse — her  body  carried  nearly  in 
a  perpendicular  direction,  and  the  ovipositor  curved  forward — and  deposits  the  egg  upon  a  liair, 
to  which  it  instantly  adheres  by  means  of  a  glutinous  matter  secreted  along  with  it  This  process, 
which  is  performed  with  so  much  expedition  that  the  fly  can  scarcely  be  said  to  alipht  on  ilie 
horse,  is  repeated  at  inter%al8  till  the  whole  of  the  mature  eggs  are  discharged."  These  eggs, 
which  are  very  numerous,  400  or  500  being  sometimes  placed  on  a  single  hair,  are  somevChat 
pouch-shaped,  and  shatreened  with  transverse  and  longitudinal  strioe,  as  seen  at  d.  Under  tlie 
guidance  of  an  instinct  which  cannot  be  sufficiently  admired,  the  fly  almost  invariably  attaches 
her  eggs  to  some  part  of  the  fore  quarter  of  the  horse,  the  inside  of  the  knee  and  the  shoulder  be- 
ing the  spots  most  commonly  selected,  so  as  to  be  within  the  reach  of  his  mouth,  for  he  is  himself 
to  be  made  the  unconscious  instrument  of  conveying  them  into  his  stomach,  where  r.lone  they  can 
be  brought  to  maturity,  the  temperature  of  a  horse's  stomach  being  as  high  as  102=  Fahrenheit. 
Even  when  beyond  the  reach  of  the  mouth,  the  eggs  are  not  necessarilj-  lost,  for  the  horses  are 
in  the  habit  of  licking  each  other,  and  a  horse  free  from  hots  may  thus  receive  them  from  another. 
"  \Vhen  the  eggs  are  mature,  "  continues  Mr.  Duncan,  "  it  would  seem  that  the  lar%a»  make  their 
appearance  verj'  soon  after  they  are  touched  by  the  tonpue,  the  warmth  and  the  moisture  both 
contributing  to  their  immediate  development.  Indeed,  if  the  larvae  were  not  disclosed  before 
reachinir  tlie  stomach,  or  verj-  shortly  after,  the  eggs  would  very  soon  pass  into  the  alimentary 
canal.  The  larvae  fix  themselves  by  hooks  to  the  inner  tissue  of  the  stomach,  where  they  remain 
in  security,  uninjured  by  the  powerful  action  of  the  gastric  juice,  and  enjoying  the  warmth  of  a 
(524) 


SHEEP-WASHING.  285 


tropical  climate."  A  small  ^oup  of  these  larvas  adhering  to  the  coat  of  the  stomach  are  repre- 
sented by  e.  Their  color  is  pale  reddish- yellow.  Their  only  food  seems  to  be  the  humor  secreted 
by  the  internal  membrane  of  the  stomach,  or  it  may  be  the  chyme,  the  latter  undergoing  a  farther 
elaboration  to  adapt  it  to  their  system.  Bots  take  up  their  quarters  in  the  stomach  in  the  end  of 
summer  or  autumn;  and  pass  the  whole  winter  and  spring  months  there,  without  undergoing  any 
change,  save  gradually  enlarging  and  advancing  to  maturity.  When  that  is  complete,  they  cease 
to  retain  their  hold,  pass  into  the  intestinal  canal,  and  are  ejected  by  the  anus.  On  account  of  the 
many  ordeals  which  this  insect  has  to  pass  in  its  transformation,  perhaps  not  1  in  100  of  the  eggs 
ever  arrive  at  the  perfect  state  of  fly.  The  red-tailed  horse-bot,  Gasterophilus  hamorrhoidahs, 
though  only  half  the  size  of  the  preceding,  is  nevertheless  a  greater  torment  to  the  horse.  The 
female  parent  fly  deposits  her  eggs  on  the  lips  of  the  horse,  and  this  operation  is  attended  with 
so  much  pain,  that  no  sooner  does  it  make  him  aware  of  the  presence  of  the  fly,  than  he  tosses  his 
head  and  gallops  oft' to  a  different  part  of  the  field,  or,  if  he  has  the  opportunity,  betakes  himself 
to  the  water,  where  his  tormentor  generally  leaves  him,  having  a  peculiar  dislike  to  that  element. 
Indeed  all  the  tribe  of  gadflies  have,  and,  to  avoid  them,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  numbers  of 
cattle  lying  on  the  sea-shore  until  the  approach  of  tide  alone  compels  them  to  retire.  When  this 
fly  succeeds  in  fixing  an  e§^,  the  horse  rubs  his  mouth  against  the  ground  or  upon  his  fore-legs  in 
great  agitation,  frequently  striking  out  with  his  fore-foot,  which  occasionally  comes  in  contact 
with  the  jaw,  and  serves  but  to  increase  his  irritation.  The  larvse  are  taken  into  the  stomach,  and 
fix  themselves  there,  exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  the  greater  hot.  When  they  reach  the  in- 
testines, they  remain  a  long  time,  casting  anchor  again  in  the  rectum,  where  they  cause  great  un- 
easiness to  the  horse,  causing  him  to  kick  frequently,  and  even  rendering  his  movements  awkward. 
These  bots  should  occasionally  be  looked  for  in  horses  that  have  been  out  at  grass  the  preceding 
year,  at  the  extremity  of  the  anus.  The  only  speedy  remedy  for  getting  quit  of  them  is  in  back- 
raking  by  the  anus.  The  more  rare_  species  are  the  Gasterophilus  nasniis,  salutiferus,  and 
Clarkii.  Mr.  Bracey  Clark  was  of  opinion  that  the  presence  of  bots  in  no  way  injured  the  horse, 
but  on  the  contrary,  by  stimulating  the  stomach,  they  tend  to  prevent  colic,  gripes,  and  other  in- 
digestions which  aflect  the  head  of  the  horse  and  produce  staggers.  "  The  appearance  of  exan- 
themous  eruptions  on  the  skin,"  he  says,  •'  and  the  formation  of  local  abscesses,  from  the  same 
cause  of  partial  irritation,  often  relieve  a  general  disorder  of  the  sj'stem.  The  mucous  membranes 
of  the  skin  possess  this  power,  when  irritated,  in  the  most  eminent  degree,  and  to  these  the  larvae 
of  the  CEstri  are  applied.  Irritating  the  membranes  of  the  stomach  in  other  animals  would  ex- 
cite nausea  and  vomiting  ;  but  the  horse  not  possessing  this  power,  his  stomach  is  peculiarlj-  fitted 
for  the  stimulus  of  such  animals."*  An  annoying  insect  of  less  importance  is  the  Chrysops  ccbcu- 
tiens,  which  is  of  a  bright  color,  and  though  frequent  in  some  parts  of  England,  is  not  so  great  a 
pest  there  as  to  horses  on  the  Continent.  Another  fly,  the  Stomoxydce  calcitirans,  is  in  size  and 
markings  not  unlike  the  common  house-fly,  Musca  dovicstica.  This  insect  attacks  various  animals, 
as  well  as  man  himself,  and  becomes  very  troublesome  in  certain  localities.  It  attacks  the  legs, 
and  its  punctures  are  attended  with  great  pain,  especially  in  damp,  moist  weather.  Another  an- 
noyance to  horses  is  the  forest-fly,  Hippobosca  equina.  "  The  attacks  of  this  insect."  says  Mr. 
Duncan,  "  are  principally  confined  to  horses.  It  occasions  no  other  harm  than  an  extreme  degree 
of  irritation,  and  if  the  flies  are  numerous,  the  animal  is  apt  to  become  unmanageable.  It  insinu- 
ates itself  by  a  sideling,  crab-like  motion  beneath  the  hair,  and  anchors  itself  to  the  skin  by  means 
of  its  largely-toothed  claws.  It  also  runs  about  among  the  roots  of  the  hairs  with  great  ease,  cre- 
ating an  insufferable  titillation,  which  is  still  more  increased  by  the  frequent  insertion  of  its  pro- 
boscis into  the  pores  of  the  skin.  The  places  to  which  it  prefers  attaching  itself  are  the  under  side 
of  the  belly,  beneath  the  tail,  and  on  the  under  side  of  the  jaws.  The  insect  is  so  flat,  tough,  and 
unyielding,  that  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  kill  it  by  pressure,  and  it  is,  moreover,  tenacious  of  life. 
It  is  said  that  horses  long  accustomed  to  its  attacks  become,  in  some  measure,  indifferent  to  them ; 
those  which  have  never  experienced  this  plague,  which  is  enough  to  render  some  animals  almost 
frantic,  may  be  saved  from  it,  according  to  M.  Kollar,  by  the  following  application.  Take  of 
mineral  earth  8  oz.  and  of  lard  1  lb.,  and  make  them  into  a  salve.  Some  of  this  salve  is  to  be 
rubbed  on  here  and  there  upon  the  hair,  and  worked  in  with  a  wisp  of  straw.  After  24  hours  the 
salve  is  to  be  washed  off  with  warm  water,  in  which  brown  soap  has  been  dissolved.  Care  must 
be  taken  that  the  horse  does  not  catch  cold." 


25.    SHEEP-WASHING,    SHEEP-SHEARING,  AND  THE  WEANING 

OF  LAMBS. 

"  Gay  shearing  time  approacheB.    First,  howe'er, 
Drive  to  the  double  fold,  upon  the  brim 
Of  a  clear  river — gently  drive  the  flock — 
And  plunge  them  one  by  one  into  the  flood." 

Dyeb. 

(2011.)  I  have  said   that  as  lambs   become  strong  enough  to  be  put  to 
pasture,  they  always  get  new  grass,  in  order  to  increase  the  miUc  of  the 

*  Clark's  Essay  on  Bots. 
(525) 


286  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

ewes  (1835).  The  new  grass,  to  be  pastured  by  ewes  and  lambs,  should 
be  selected  with  iudgment,  and  that  intended  for  hay  should  first  be  stock- 
ed, because  it  i.s  found  that  new  grass,  if  moderately  eaten  down  in  spring, 
stools  out,  and  afiords  a  thicker  cutting  at  hay-time,  than  if  it  had  not  been 
so  pastured.  For  the  same  reason,  the  new  grass  intended  to  cut  for  horses' 
forage,  should  also  be  earlier  pastured  than  what  is  to  be  pastured  all  the 
season,  not  only  to  give  both  it  and  the  hay-giass  time  to  attain  their  gi-owth 
when  they  shall  be  wanted,  but  to  give  the  pasture-grass  time  to  become 
so  strong  as  to  support  being  pastured.  None  of  the  new  grass  should  be 
eaten  too  bare,  even  the  part  which  is  to  be  pastured  by  the  ewes ;  and 
rather  than  commit  such  a  mistake,  even  in  a  late  season,  the  ewes  should 
have  a  hasty  i-un  over  the  best  of  the  older  grass  for  a  fortnight  or  so,  till 
the  hained  new  grass  has  revived.  After  the  castration  of  the  lambs  (1841), 
there  is  nothin«T  to  do  to  them  until  the  ewes  are  washed  preparatory  to 
shearinor  the  wool  for  them,  and  which  is  done  about  the  beginning  of  June 
(1843).° 

(2012.)  When  the  turnips  are  all  consumed,  and  the  time  has  anived 
for  the  last  of  the  turnip  land  to  be  plowed  up  for  barley  (1852),  the  /toggs 
receive  a  change  of  treatment.  The  u-ether-hoggs  are  either  sold  to  the 
dealer  of  the  turnips,  or  put  to  grass  till  shorn  of  their  wool,  and  then  dis- 
posed of;  but  the  ewe-hoggs  are  always  retained  on  the  farm,  because  it  is 
they  which  supply  the  waste  of  ewes,  and  are,  of  course,  clipped  of  their 
wool  in  due  time.  The  circumstance  that  determines  which  of  these  ways 
the  u-e/Jier-hoggs  should  be  treated,  is  the  state  of  the  wool  and  mutton 
markets.  If  you  find,  on  examination,  that  the  hoggs  are  so  forward  in 
condition  as  to  realize  as  much  money  off  the  turnips,  with  cunent  prices, 
as  they  probably  would  after  being  kept  for  a  month  on  giass,  and 
washed  and  clipped,  it  is,  of  course,  more  profitable  to  dispose  of  them 
at  once  ;  and,  independent  of  this  circumstance,  should  you  fear  the  gi-ass 
to  prove  insufficient  to  support  them  well  till  they  are  clipped,  there  is  a 
necessity  for  parting  with  them  immediately  off  the  tuniips ;  but  should 
you  find  that  you  have  grass  to  maintain  their  condition,  and  that  the  wool 
market  is  likely  to  be  brisk,  it  would,  of  course,  be  advisable  to  clip  them. 
It  is  of  less  importance  to  increase  the  condition  of  the  eu-e-hoggs  off  the 
turnips  by  putting  them  on  the  best  grass,  nevertheless  they  should 
not  be  allowed  to  faU  off  in  condition,  for  fear  of  injuring  the  quality  of 
their  wool.  If  you  determine  on  selling  the  wether-hoggs,  y(m  should  first 
ascertain  their  value  ;  and  in  attempting  this  you  will  at  once  perceive, 
that  a  sheep  wearing  its  coat  of  wool  cannot  be  subjected  to  the  ordinary 
rules  of  measurement ;  nor  can  its  true  weight  be  found  by  weighing  it 
alive,  because  the  weight  of  the  wool  enters  as  a  disturbing  element  into 
the  calculation,  and  the  value  of  that  material  depends  on  very  different 
circumstances  from  that  of  mutton.  A  new  cli})ped  sheep,  however,  may 
either  be  measured  or  weighed,  and  its  value  ascertained  pretty  nearly. — 
The  eye  and  the  hand  must  be  employed  to  judge  of  the  weight  of  a  rough 
sheep ;  and  there  is  no  more  certain  way  of  acquiring  a  conect  judgment 
of  its  weight  in  that  state,  than  by  first  handling  the  sheep  in  the  way  I 
have  before  described,  and  weighing  the  4  quarters  after  it  is  slaugh- 
tered. An  average  sized  sheep  of  a  large  flock  thus  treated  will  enable 
you  to  form  a  pretty  correct  idea  of  the  average  weight  of  the  whole,  and 
the  market  price  of  mutton  per  stone  is  quoted  in  all  the  newspapers  of 
the  day. 

(20i3.)  The  season  for  washing  sheep  having  arrived,  a  fit  place  should 
be  selected  for  the  purpose.  It  should  consist  of  a  natural  rivulet,  or, 
where  that  is  wanting,  of  a  large  ditch,  having  both  its  banks  clad  with 

(526) 


SHEEP-WASHING. 


287 


clean  sward.  The  next  step  is  to  form  a  damming  across  the  rivulet,  if  it 
is  not  naturally  sufficiently  deep  of  water  to  conduct  the  operation  of 
washing.  The  bottom  of  the  river  or  ditch  should  be  hard  and  gravelly, 
and  the  water  in  it  pure,  or  it  will  not  answer  the  purpose ;  as  a  soft  and 
muddy  bottom,  and  dirty  water,  will  injure  the  wool  more  than  do  it  good. 
A  damming  may  be  made  either  entirely  of  turf-wall  built  across  the  stream, 
though  that  imposes  considerable  labor  and  waste  of  grass,  or  with  an  old 
door  or  two  or  other  boarding  placed  across  the  bed  of  the  stream,  sup- 
ported by  stabs  against  the  weight  of  water,  and  the  chinks  at  the  bottom 
and  sides  filled  up  with  turf;  and  over  which,  when  the  water  accumu- 
lates, the  water  falls.  In  constructing  this  dam,  the  overflowing  should  be 
as  great  as  to  cause  such  a  current  in  the  pool  as  to  carry  away  quickly  all 
impurities,  such  as  earthy  matter,  greasy  matter,  small  locks  of  wool,  and 
scum.  One  side  of  the  pool  is  occupied  by  the  unwashed,  and  the  oppo- 
site by  the  washed  sheep.  They  are  confined  in  their  respective  places 
by  flakes,  fig.  216,  or  nets,  fig.  217.  To  prevent  any  sheep  taking  the  wa- 
ter of  themselves,  which  they  are  apt  to  do  when  they  see  others  in  before 
them,  the  fence  should  be  returned  along  the  sides  of  the  pool  as  far  as 
the  men  who  wash  the  sheep  are  stationed.     Fig.  363  brings  out  all  these 

Fig.  363. 


SHEEP-WASHING. 


particulars  pretty  well.  The  damming  a  a,  by  means  of  doors  and  stabs, 
and  turfing,  retain  the  water  until  it  ovei-flows.  The  net  on  each  side  of 
the  pool  is  returned  so  far  down  both  its  sides.  The  depth  of  the  water  is 
seen  to  take  the  men  to  the  haunches — the  proper  depth. 

(2014.)  Everything  being  thus  prepared  at  the  pool,  the  sheep  are  also 
prepared  for  the  washing.  The  lambs  not  being  washed,  and  to  save 
trouble  with  them  at  the  washing  pool,  they  are  separated  from  their  moth- 
ers, and  left  in  a  court  of  the  steading  until  the  washing  is  over.  The 
ewes,  hoggs  and  dinmonts  are  all  taken  to  the  pool  in  a  lot.  They  should 
be  driven  gently,  and  not  allowed  to  be  at  all  heated.  The  ewes  wiH  be 
troublesome  to  drive,  being  always  in  search  of  their  lambs  ;  but,  notwith- 
standing this  annoyance,  they  should  not  be  dogged,  and  rather  give  them 
plenty  of  time  upon  the  road'  They  should  be  driven  along  the  road  most 
free  of  dust  or  mud.  The  men  who  are  to  wash  also  prepare  themselves 
by  casting  their  coats,  rolling  up  the  sleeves  of  their  shirts,  and  putting  on 

(527) 


288  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

old  trowsers  and  shoes  to  stand  in  the  water  with.  The  shepherd  and 
other  2  men  are  quite  cnoucfh  to  wash  a  laig»,"  number  of  sheep  thoroughly, 
but,  if  the  stream  is  very  broad,  another  may  be  required  to  save  time  in 
handing  the  sheep  across.  These  3  men  are  repre.scnted  in  the  figure,  e 
.being  the  shepherd,  and  the  last  man  to  handle  the  sheep,  and  d  and  c  his 
assistants.  At  least  2  men  are  required  to  catch  the  sheep  for  the  wash- 
ers, of  whom  1  is  seen  at  b.  On  an  occasion  of  this  kind  the  men  receive 
a  gratuity  of  bread  and  cheese,  and  ale,  and  also  a  dram  of  spirits  as  a 
stimulus,' as  at  h,  where  the  dog  is  seen  to  keep  watch.  Indeed,  some 
stimulant  of  this  kind  is  requisite  for  men  who  stand  for  hours  in  the  wa- 
ter, the  lower  half  of  their  body  being  chilled  by  the  water,  and  the  upper 
half  being  heated  by  the  work.  If  they  were  provided  with  large  fisher- 
men's boots,  they  would  less  require  such  a  fillip. 

(2015.)   The  washing  is  performed  in  this  way  :    While  the  3  men  are 
taking  up   their  positions  in  the  water,  the  other  2  are  catching  a  sheep  ; 
and,  to  render  this  fatiguing  work  more  easy,  the  fold  should  not  be  made 
larger  than  to  contain  the  sheep  easily.     A  sheep  is  caught,  and  is  being 
presented  by  b  to  the  first  washer  c,  who  takes  the  sheep  into  the  water, 
and,  allowing  its  wool  to  become  saturated  with  it,  turns  it  over  upon   its 
back,  keeping  up  its  head,  and  taking  a  hold  of  the  arm  of  a  fore-leg  with 
either  hand,  and  of  the  wool   on   the  opposite  side  of  the  head  with   the 
other.     He  then  dips  the  sheep  up  and  down,  to  and  fro,  and  from  one  of 
its  sides  to  the  other,  slowly,  causing  all  the  wool   to  wave  backward  and 
forward,  as  if  rubbing  it  against  the  water.     In  doing  this  the  water  be- 
comes very  turbid  about  the  sheep,  and  he  continues  to  do  it  till  it  clears 
itself,  when  he  hands  the  sheep  to  the  next  washer  d,  standing  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  stream.     Whenever  c  gets  quit  of  one  sheep,  another  should  be 
ready  by  the  catchers   for  him  to  receive  into  the  water.     The   second 
washer  d  holds   and  manages  the  sheep   in  the  same   manner,  and  then 
hands  it  to  the  shepherd  e,  and  is  immediately  ready  to  take  another  sheep 
from  the  first  man.     It  is  the  duty  of  the  shepherd  to  feel  if  the  skin  of  the 
sheep  is  clean,  and  every  impurity  removed  from  the  wool.     The  position 
of  the  sheep  on  its  back  is  favorable  for  the  rapid  descent  of  eaithy  matter 
fi-om  the  wool.     Wherever  he  feels  a  roughness  upon  the  skin,  he  washes 
it  off  with  his  hand  ;  and  wherever  any  clots   are  felt  in  the  wool  which 
have  escaped  the  other  washers,  he  rubs  them  out.     The  belly,  breast,  and 
round   the  head,  he  scrubs  with   the  hand.     Being  satisfied  that  the  sheep 
is  clean,  he  dips  it  over  the  head  while  turning   it  to  its  natural  position, 
when  it  swims  ashore,  and  gains  the  bank  at  g.     Its  first  attempts  at  walk- 
ing on  coming  out  of  the  water  are  very  feeble,  its  legs  staggeiing  under 
the  weight  of  the  dripping  fleece ;  in  a  little  after  it  frees  itself  from  the 
water  entirely  by  making  its  fleece  whirl  like  a  large  mop.     It  will  be  ob- 
served in  the  figure  that  the  3  men  do  not  stand  abreast  across  the  water, 
but  in  eschelon ;  and  they  stand  so  for  this  reason,  namely:  the  sheep  be- 
ing in  the  dirtiest  state  when   in  the  hands  of  the  first  man  c,  his  standing 
farthest  do\vn  the  stream  allows  the  dirtiest  water  to  flow  away  at  once, 
and  not  come  near  the  stations  of  the  other  men.     The  sheep   being  in  a 
comparatively,  clean  state  when  it  reaches  the  second  man  <?,  the  water 
from  it  cannot  render  that  more  dirty  which  runs  past  the  first  man  c.     In 
like   manner,  the   same  sheep,  when  with  the  shepherd  c,  can  but  very 
slightly  render  the  water  impure  to  those  below  it,   and,  being  washed 
highest  up  the  stream,  gets  an  immediate  supply  of  the  cleanest  water  for 
finishin"'  its  washing.     This  is  the  way  in  which  sheep  are  washed   in  the 
Lowlands ;  and  from  2  to  3  scores  may  be  washed  in  1  hour,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  sheep,  the  activity  of  the  washers,  and  the  supply  of  water 

(52tf) 


SHEEP-SHEARING.  289 


Tups  are  washed  2  or  3  weeks  before  the  rest  of  the  flock,  and  dipped  as 
long  before  to  allow  time  to  their  wool  to  grow ;  and,  as  they  are  usually 
in  high  condition,  their  new  wool  rises  soonest,  and,  of  course,  soonest  al- 
lows the  old  fleece  to  be  taken  off".  After  washing,  sheep  should  not  be 
driven  along  a  dirty  or  dusty  I'oad,  nor  should  they  be  put  into  any  grass- 
field  having  bare  earthy  banks,  against  which  they  might  rub  themselves. 
In  fact,  they  should  be  kept  perfectly  clean  until  their  fleeces  are  taken 
off:  How  long  they  should  be  kept  depends  on  the  state  of  the  weather; 
for  the  wool  must  not  only  be  thoroughly  dry,  but  the  ijolk,  as  the  natural 
oil  of  the  wool  is  called,  must  return  again  into  it.  Perhaps  8  or  10  days 
may  suffice  to  produce  both  these  effects.  But  another  circumstance,  more 
important  than  either,  should  receive  attention  before  the  wool  is  clipped, 
which  is,  that  the  new  wool  be  I'isen  from  the  skin  before  the  old  be  at- 
tempted to  be  taken  off".  Disregard  to  this  state  of  the  fleece  will  make 
good  clipping  very  difficult  to  accomplish,  and  it  will  certainly  deteriorate 
the  appearance  of  the  fleece.  You  need  be  under  no  apprehension  of  the 
wool  falling  off"  when  the  new  growth  commences,  for  wool  will  remain  for 
years  upon  the  sheep's  back  if  not  clipped  off",  and  the  sheep  be  in  a  clean 
and  healthy  state.  How  many  years  the  fleece  may  continue  to  grow  I 
do  not  know,  but  I  have  seen  a  3-years'  fleece.  Lord  Western  showed 
Anglo-Merinos,  at  the  Show  of  the  Royal  English  Agricultural  Society  at 
Oxford,  in  1839,  the  fleeces  of  which,  when  clipped,  weighed,  I  think,  20 
lbs.  each. 

(2016.)  A  place  under  cover  should  be  selected  for  clipping  the  fleeces. 
The  straw-barn  L,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.  of  the  steading,  is  a  very  suitable  place 
for  the  purpose.  The  end  next  the  chaff"-house  r,  between  the  two  doors, 
will  answer  for  the  clipping  process,  and  the  remainder  will  contain  the 
sheep  under  cover  until  they  are  returned  clipped  to  the  fields  again.  The 
clipping  floor  is  prepared  in  this  way  :  Let  clean  wheat  straw  be  spread 
equally  over  the  floor  2  or  3  inches  thick,  and  spread  over  it  the  lai-ge  can- 
vas barn-sheet,  the  edges  of  which  should  be  nailed  down  tight  to  the 
floor.  The  use  of  the  straw  is  to  convert  the  floor  into  a  sort  of  soft  cush- 
ion for  the  knees  of  the  clippers,  as  well  as  for  ease  to  the  sheep.  A 
broom  should  be  provided  to  sweep  the  cloth  clean.  A  board  2\  feet 
above  the  floor  should  be  provided  to  wind  the  fleeces  upon,  and  it  may- 
be placed  along  the  wall  of  the  bani  opposite  to  that  occupied  by  the  clip- 
pers. A  space  near  this  should  be  cleaned,  and  a  sheet  spread  upon  it, 
for  putting  the  rolled  fleeces  upon.  The  remainder  of  the  barn  should  be 
cleared  of  dust  both  from  the  floor  and  walls  as  high  as  the  sheep  can 
reach,  and  a  little  clean  straw  strevni  upon  the  floor  for  them  to  lie  upon. 

(2017.)   The  instrument  by  which  the  wool  is  clipped  off"  sheep  is  named 
loool-shears,  as  seen  in  fig.  364.     They  re- 
quire  no   particular  description    farther  Fig.  364. 
than  to  explain  that  the  bend  or  botvl  a, 
which  connects  the  two  blades,  acts  as  a 
spring  to  keep  them  separate,  while  the 
pressure  of  the  hand  on  each  side  of  the       "^s?^     °^**^°*-===*4,ai_iii-a^> 
handle  b  overcomes  and  brings  the  blades                    the  wool-shears. 
together.     There  are  wool-shears  which 

have  additional  springs  placed  between  the  handles  h  to  separate  the  blades 
more  forcibly,  but  are  not  so  agreeable  to  the  hand  as  the  simple  bent 
spring  a.  Sometimes  the  spring  of  a  is  so  strong  as  soon  to  tire  the  hand, 
to  relieve  which  a  piece  of  cord  is  wound  slackly  round  the  handles. — 
Strong  shears  are  more  easily  worked  if  held  near  the  blades ;  but  if  held 
upon  their  sharp  edges  they  will   soon  hurt  the  hand.     When  not  in  use, 

(585) 19 


290  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

the  blades  are  held  together  by  their  points  being  passed  through  a  ring 
of  leather.  A  rag-stone  is  used  to  shai-pcn  wool-shears.  The  cost  of  the 
shears  is  from  2s.  Gd.  to  3s.  6d.  each.  A  shepherd  requires  2  or  3  pairs  to 
do  other  j'jbs,  and  he  makes  it  a  rule  to  use  clipping-shears  on  no  other 
occasion  than  at  regular  shearing. 

(2018.)  In  case  of  dew  or  rain  in  the  morning,  it  is  customary  to  bring 
into  the  bam  as  many  dry  sheep  on  the  previous  evening  as  the  clippers 
will  shear  on  the  ensuing  day.  About  1  score  of  Leicester  sheep  to  each 
clipper  is  considered  a  very  good  day's  work.  It  is  a  fi-equent  custom  for 
neighboring  shepherds  to  assist  each  other;  and  though  the  plan  does  not, 
perhaps,  expedite  the  entire  sheep-shearing  of  the  country,  yet  a  number 
of  men  clipping  at  the  same  lime  makes  work  seem  lighter,  and  it  gets  the 
clipping  of  any  individual  flock  the  sooner  through.  It  is  seldom  that  a 
steward  can  clip  sheep,  but  it  is  an  accomplishment  not  unfrequently  pos- 
sessed by  a  hedger ;  and,  if  the  cattle-man  has  been  a  herd,  he  can  lend  a 
hand  as  far  as  he  is  able,  and  in  this  way  a  party  of  clippere  is  mustered 
upon  the  farm  itself.  Clipping  being  both  a  dirty  and  heating  work,  the 
coat  should  be  stripped,  and  the  oldest  clothes  worn  ;  and  the  hat  and  the 
vest  are  commonly  thrown  aside.  Garters  or  tight  knee-breeches  will  be 
found  very  irksome  pieces  of  dress  in  clipping.  There  is  an  order  fol- 
lowed in  the  classes  of  sheep  as  they  are  clipped — the  tups  are  taken  first, 
then  the  hoggs,  and  lastly  the  ewes ;  and,  where  there  are  dinmonts  or 
wethers,  they  follow  the  tups.  The  reason  for  adopting  this  order  is,  that 
as  tups  are  highest  in  condition,  and  having  been  earliest  clipped  the  sea- 
son before,  their  fleece  rises  earliest  in  this ;  and,  if  they  are  to  be  let  in 
autumn  on  hire,  the  sooner  they  are  washed  and  clipped,  they  will  then 
show  in  better  wool.  Hoggs,  too,  being  forward  in  condition,  should,  be 
ready  before  ewes,  as  the  latter  lose  their  flesh  by  suckling,  or  require 
longer  time  to  bring  the  yolk  again  into  their  old  ^vool,  and  for  the  new  to 
rise.  The  object  of  washing  the  sheep  perfectly  clean  will  be  apparent  at 
shearing,  for  if  the  shears  grate  upon  anything,  they  will  make  bad  work ; 
and  if  any  dirt  is  found  on  clipping,  either  upon  the  skin  or  fleece,  the 
shepherd  is  alone  to  blame  who  had  the  sheep  last  through  hands,  and  had 
the  charge  of  them  afterward  on  pasture. 

(2019.)  Clipping  is  done  in  this  way:  Whenever  a  sheep  is  caught  in 
the  barn,  every  straw  or  dirt  on  the  wool  or  hoofs  should  be  taken  away 
before  it  is  laid  on  the  canvas  carpeting.  Clipping  consists  of  3  stages, 
the^^r*^  of  which  is  represented  in  fig.  365.  After  setting  the  sheep  on  its 
rump,  and,  on  the  supposition  that  the  clipper  is  a  right-handed  man,  he 
goes  down  on  his  right  knee,  and  leans  the  back  of  the  sheep  against  his 
left  leg  a.  Taking  the  shears  in  his  right  hand,  and  holding  up  the  sheep's 
face  with  his  loft,  he  first  clips  the  .short  wool  on  the  neck,  and  passes  down 
the  throat  and  breast  between  the  fore-legs  to  the  belly.  Then  placing  the 
fore-legs  under  his  left  arm,  as  seen  at  b  under  c,  the  belly  is  left  exposed 
to  be  next  shorn  across  from  side  to  side  down  to  the  groins.  In  passing 
down  here,  while  the  shears  d  arc  at  work,  the  left  hand  e  is  engaged 
keeping  the  skin  titjht  where  it  is  naturally  loose.  The  scrotum  y  is  then 
bared,  then  the  inside  of  the  thighs  g  ff,  and  then  the  under  side  of  the  tail 
h.  The.se  complete  all  the  parts  of  this  position.  For  clipping  this  part 
of  the  slieep,  small  .shears,  as  in  the  figure,  will  suffice  ;  and  as  the  wool 
is  short  and  of  a  detached  character  on  the  under  side  of  a  sheep,  it  is  best 
clipped  away  by  the  points  of  the  shears,  as  by  (L 

(2020.)  The  shears  are  used  in  a  ]iarticular  manner,  to  be  safe  alike  to 
the  fleece  and  the  skin  of  the  animal.  The  essential  thing  is  to  keep  the 
points  always  clear  of  the  skin,  for,  if  held  do\vnward,  they  vrill  inevitably 

(586) 


SHEEP-SHEARING. 


291 


run  into  it ;  and,  should  such  a  prick  be  made  when  the  hand  is  about  to 
close,  the  consequence  will  be  that  a  large  piece  of  the  skin  will  almost  be 
clipped  out  before  the  clipper  is  aware  of  what  he  is  about.     This  is  a 

Fiz.  365. 


THE  FIRST  STAGE  OF  CLIPPISG  A  SHEE 


common  en*or  committed  by  new  clippers,  and  it  is  a  great  offence  in  any 
clipper's  hands.  The  only  way  to  avoid  this  serious  injury  to  sheep  is  to 
rest  the  broad  part  of  the  shears  only  and  always  upon  the  skin.  In  this 
position,  with  the  skin  drawn  tight  by  the  left  hand,  the  shears  are  made 
to  move  forward  with  a  hold  of  the  wool  not  exceeding  1  inch  in  breadth, 
in  very  short  and  frequent  clips,  taking  care  only  to  bring  together  the 
broad  parts  of  the  blades  from  where  they  are  seen  to  separate  in  fig.  364 
to  as  far  as  c,  keeping  the  points  always  apart.  The  form  of  the  carcass 
of  a  sheep  being  round,  it  is  clear  that  the  shears  cannot  make  a  long  clip 
by  bringing  the  points  of  the  blades  together  at  every  stroke,  without  cut- 
ting the  wool  with  the  points  at  a  considerable  elevation  above  the  skin. 
Very  short  clips,  no  doubt,  make  slow  work,  but  rather  work  slow  with 
short  cuts  than  injure  the  wool  with  long.  Experience  will  teach  you  to 
make  longer  clips  effective  when  you  know  how  to  manage  the  shears  dex- 
terously. 

(2021.)  Fig.  366  represents  the  second  stage  of  clipping.  Its  position  is 
gained  by  first  relieving  the  fore-legs  from  the  first  position,  fig.  365,  and, 
gently  turning  the  sheep  on  its  far  side,  the  fore-legs  c  are  put  under  the 
right  or  clipping  arm  f,  while  the  clipper,  going  on  both  knees,  supports 
the  shoulder  of  the  sheep  upon  them,  thus  giving  the  animal  an  easy  re- 
clining posture.  You  may  rely  upon  this  fact,  that  the  more  at  ease  the 
animal  feels,  the  more  readily  will  it  he  quiet  to  be  clipped.  Supporting 
the  head  of  the  sheep  with  his  left  hand,  the  clipper  first  removes.the  wool 
from  behind  the  head,  then  around  the  entire  back  of  the  neck  to  the  shoul- 
der-top. He  then  slips  its  head  under  his  left  arm,  as  a  under  g.  Having 
the  left  hand  thus  at  liberty,  he  keeps  the  skin  tight  with  it,  while  he  clips 

(5ST, 


292 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


the  wool  with  tlie  right,  from  where  the  clipping  in  the  first  position  was 
left  off  to  the  back-])onc.  In  the  figure  the  fleece  appears  to  have  been 
removed   about  half  way  down  the  carcass ;  the  left  hand  b  is  laid  flat, 

Fig.  3C6. 


THE  SECOND  STAGE  OF  CLIPPING  A  SHEEP. 


keeping  the  skin  tight,  while  the  right  hand  e  holds  the  shears  at  the  right 
part  and  in  the  proper  position.  The  clipper  thus  proceeds  along  the  thigh 
and  the  rump  to  the  tail  d,  which  is  entirely  bared  at  this  time. 

(2022.)  Clearing  the  cloth  of  the  loose  parts  of  the  fleece,  the  clipper, 
holding  by  the  head,  lays  over  the  sheep  on  its  clipped  side,  and  still  con- 
tinuing on  his  knees,  slips  his  left  knee  a,  fig.  367,  over  its  neck  to  the 
ground,  while  his  left  foot  h,  resting  on  the  toe,  supports  the  left  leg  c 
over  the  neck  of  the  sheej),  and  keeps  its  head  d  down  on  the  ground. 
This  is  the  third  position  in  clipping.  The  wool  having  been  bared  to  the 
shoulder  in  the  second  position,  the  clipper  has  now  nothing  to  do  but  to 
commence  where  it  was  left  off"  in  the  first  position,  and  clear  the  fleece 
entirely  to  the  back-bone,  meeting  the  clips  where  they  were  left  off  in 
the  second  position,  the  left  hand  c  being  still  at  liberty  to  keep  the  skin 
tight,  while  the  right  hand  f  uses  the  shears  along  the  whole  side  of  the 
tail.  The  fleece  g  is  now  quite  freed  from  the  sheep.  In  allowing  the 
sheep  to  rise,  care  should  be  taken  that  its  feet  do  not  become  entangled 
in  the  flaece,  for  in  its  eagerness  to  escape  from  the  unusual  treatment  it 
has  just  received,  its  feet  will  tear  the  fleece  to  pieces.  Immediately  that 
the  lot  of  sheep  in  the  bam  is  clipped,  it  is  taken  to  the  field,  and  another 
brought  in  its  place. 

(588) 


SHEEP-SHEARING. 


293 


(2023.)  A  new  clipped  sheep  should  have  the  appearance  of  fig.  368, 
where  the  shear-marks  are  seen  to  run  in  parallel  bands  round  the  carcass, 
from  the  neck  and  counter  a,  along  the  ribs  b,  to  the  rump,  and  down  the 


Fig.  367. 


THE  THIRD  AND  LAST  STAGE  OF  CLIPPING  A  SHEEP. 

hind  leg  c.  When  pains  are  taken  to  round  the  shear-marks  on  the  back 
of  the  neck  d ;  to  fill  up  the  space  in  the  change  of  the  rings  between  the 
counter  and  the  body  at  e  ;  to  bring  the  marks  down  to  f  to  the  shape  of 
the  leg ;  and  to  make  them  run  straight  down  the  tail,  a  sheep  in  good 
condition  so  clipped  forms  a  beautiful  object.  A  sheep  clipped  to  perfec- 
tion should  have  no  marks  at  all,  for  they  are  formed  of  small  ridglets  of 
wool  left  between  each  course  of  the  shears  ;  but  such  nicety  in  clipping 
with  shears  is  scarcely  possible,  and,  at  any  rate,  the  time  occupied  in  do- 
ing it  would  be  of  more  value  than  all  the  wool  that  would  be  gained.  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  closer  a  sheep  is  clipped,  it  is 
in  a  better  state  for  the  growth  of  the  next  year's  fleece. 

(2024.)  I  have  introduced  so  many  illustrations  on  this  subject,  in  order 
to  show  the  most  easy  positions  that  can  be  assumed  in  clipping,  both  to 
man  and  animal,  that  those  positions  may  easily  be  compared  with  the 
common  ones.  On  making  this  comparison,  it  is  necessary  to  look  again 
at  the  first  stage  of  the  process,  fig.  365,  the  common  practice  being  to 
place  the  sheep  upright  on  its  tail,  and  the  clipper  to  stand  on  his  feet, 
supporting  its  back  against  his  legs — an  insecure  and  painful  position  for 
the  sheep,  and  an  irksome  one  for  the  man  when  he  bows  down  to  clip 
the  lower  part  of  the  animal.  Again,  in  the  second  stage,  fig.  366,  it  is 
customary  for  the  man  still  to  remain  on  his  feet,  and  the  sheep  upon  its 
rump,  while  he  secures  its  head  sideways  between  his  legs,  in  order  to 

(589) 


xJ94 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


tighten  the  skin  of  tlie  entire  side  which  is  now  bent  outward.  The  skin 
is  thus  certainly  tiglitened,  but  at  the  expense  of  the  personal  ease  of  the 
animal ;  for  the  hand  can  tighten  the  skin  as  well,  as  shown  in  figs.  366 
and  367,  by  h  and  c,  while  the  bowing  down  so  low,  and  as  long,  until  he 

Fie  36?. 


A  NEW-CLIPPED  SHEEP — THE  PARALLELOGRAM  SHOWING  ITS  SYMMETRY. 

clips  the  entire  side,  cannot  fail  to  pain  the  man's  back.  The  third  posi- 
tion is  nearly  the  same  in  both  plans,  with  this  difference  in  the  old  one, 
which  keeps  the  right  leg  bent,  resting  on  its  foot — a  far  more  irksome 
position  than  kneeling  on  both  knees.  The  treatment  of  the  fleece  I  shall 
consider  in  a  separate  section ;  and  the  mode  of  washing  and  clipping 
Highland  sheep  will  be  found  below.  I  may  here  remark  that  sheep- 
shearing  is  usually  held  as  a  merry  season,  a  sort  of  harvest  in  which  an 
allowance  of  good  victuals — beef  and  broth  and  beer — is  usually  awarded 
to  clippers  engaged  at  their  fatiguing  task. 

(2025.)  Clipping  makes  such  a  change  on  the  appearance  of  sheep  that 
many  lambs  have  difficulty  at  first  in  recognizing  their  mothers,  while  a 
few  forget  them  altogether,  and  wean  themselves,  however  desirous  their 
mothers  may  be  to  suckle  them  ;  but  as  the  ewe  is  content  with  one  lamb, 
many  a  twin  which  does  not  follow  her  is  weaned  on  this  occasion.  It 
should  be  the  shepherd's  particular  care  to  mother  the  lambs  frequently 
after  clipping  ;  but  I  am  aware  of  the  difficulty  of  bringing  an  old  lamb 
and  ewe  together,  without  much  disturbance  to  the  rest  of  the  flock  ;  and 
besides,  the  shepherd  cannot  attend  constantly  on  the  clipped  portion  of 
his  flock  while  engaged  with  clipping  the  rest,  and  this  being  the  case 
constitutes  another  reason,  besides  those  previously  given  (2018),  for  clip- 
ping the  ewes  last.  Leicester  lambs  are  weaned  at  the  end  of  June  or  be- 
ginning of  July  ;  and  the  process  is  simple  and  safe,  as  most  of  them  by 
that  time  chiefly  depend  upon  grass  for  support.  All  that  is  requii^ed  is 
to  separate  the  lambs  from  the  ewes,  in  fields  so  far  lying  asunder  as  to  be 
beyond  the  hearing  of  the  bleatings  of  each  other.  Where  there  is  the 
convenience,  lambs  should  be  put  on  hilly  pasture  for  some  weeks  at  this 

(590) 


SHEEP-SHEARING.  295 


time,  the  astringent  quality  of  which  gives  an  excellent  tone  to  their  sys- 
tem, and  renders  them  more  hardy  for  winter.  Some  farmers  even  hire 
rough  hill  pasture  for  their  lambs,  but  where  such  cannot  be  had,  they 
are  put  on  the  oldest,  though  good  pasture,  for  a  few  weeks  before  the  af- 
termath is  ready  to  receive  them, 

(2026.)  The  ewes,  when  separated  from  their  lambs,  should  be  kept  in 
a  field  of  rather  bare  pasture,  near  at  hand,  until  their  milk  be  dried  up. 
They  must  be  milked  by  the  hand,  for  a  few  times,  till  the  secretion  ceases 
— once,  24  hours  after  the  lambs  are  taken  away — again,  36  hours  there- 
after— and  the  third  time  perhaps  2  days  after  that.  Even  beyond  that 
time  a  few  may  feel  distressed  by  milk,  which  the  shepherd  should  re- 
lieve at  intervals  until  the  udders  become  dry.  Indeed,  milkino-  after 
weaning  of  lambs,  is  essential  to  the  safety  of  ewes,  and  I  fear  it  is  not  so 
effectually  performed  as  it  should  be  until  the  udders  go  dry.  The  dan- 
ger to  be  apprehended  from  its  neglect  is  the  plugging  up  of  the  teats 
with  caseous  matter,  deposited  therein  by  the  milk  which  should  have 
been  drawn  away  ;  and  which  plugging,  in  the  next  lambing-season,  will 
probably  prevent  the  natural  flow  of  the  new  milk  ;  and  the  consequence 
will  be  that  inflammation  will  be  set  up  in  the  udder,  and  the  ewe  either 
take  puerperal  fever,  that  is,  ndderclap,  or  garget  (1847),  and  die,  or  her 
lambs  be  so  restricted  of  milk  as  to  be  half  starved.  Ewes  are  milked  in 
a  very  different  manner  from  cows.  A  long,  narrow  bught,  formed  of 
hurdles  on  both  sides  is  erected  along  a  fence  close  to  the  gate  of  a  field 
near  the  steading  or  dairy,  and  it  should  be  no  larger  than  to  contain  all 
the  ewes  in  a  crowded  state.  The  ewes  being  driven  into  the  buo-ht  head 
inward,  women  proceed  with  the  milking,  which  is  accomplished  by  hold- 
ing a  small  handy,  that  is,  a  small  vessel  formed  like  a  milking-pail,  in  the 
left  hand,  and,  squatting  down  behind  the  ewe,  the  milk  is  stripped  clean 
from  the  teats  alternately,  with  the  right  hand  into  the  handy.  The 
milker  requires  to  be  always  on  her  guard,  and  remove  the  handy  the  in- 
stant she  sees  the  ewe  showing  the  least  symptom  of  voiding  either  water 
or  fceces,  and  a  ewe  is  very  apt  to  void  the  former  whenever  she  is  touched 
behind  for  the  first  time.  Every  ewe  is  turned  out  of  the  bught  by  the 
shepherd  as  it  is  milked,  to  prevent  its  coming  in  hand  again.  Time  was 
when  ewe-milking  created  a  great  stir  in  the  farm-house  for  the  making 
of  ewe-milk  cheese,  and  so  much  anxiety  did  housewives  evince  to  make 
it,  that  the  ewes  were  milked  till  they  were  perfectly  lean  to  supply  a  suf- 
ficiency of  this  soz't  of  milk.  Better  ideas  now  prevail,  and  farmers  very 
properly  will  not  allow  their  ewes  to  be  milked  oftener  than  is  requisite 
to  render  them  completely  dry.  It  was  misplaced  economy  to  reduce  the 
condition  of  the  entire  ewe  flock  for  the  poor  boast  of  making  a  few  strong- 
tasted  cheeses, 

(2027,)  When  lambs  cease  to  bleat  for  their  mothers,  they  should  be 
marlced  and  buisted,  not  only  to  identify  them  with  the  flock  of  the  farm 
on  which  they  are  bred,  but  is  a  record  of  the  particular  blood  from  which 
they  are  descended.  The  markings  are  Tit^ftned  to  the  ears,  and  consist 
of  small  pieces  being  cut  out,  or  slits  made  in  the  tips,  with  a  knife,  from 
the  fore  or  back  margin,  or  of  holes  made  with  punching-nippers,  or  of  a 
combination  of  both  sorts  of  marks.  The  female  stock  are  always  marked 
on  the  near  ear,  and  the  male  on  the  far  one.  Thus,  a  single  round  hole 
is  punched  through  the  near  ear  of  all  the  ewe-lambs,  and  a  similar  hole 
through  the  far  ear  of  the  wether-lambs  ;  and  should  any  of  the  ewe-lambs 
be  considered  fit  for  breeding  tups,  they  either  receive  an  additional  hole 
through  the  near  ear,  or  a  bit  cut  out  from  a  margin  of  the  same  ear,  cor- 
responding to  a  similar  mark  on  their  dams  or  sires,  to  distinguish   their 

(591) 


29G 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


THE  nXCHISG-SIPPERS. 


Fig.  370. 


particular  blood  from  the  rest  of  the  flock.  Twin  ewe-lambs  receive  a  hole 
through  both  ears.  Tup-lambs  receive  no  f^ir-marks,  their  long  tail  serv- 
ing the  puipose  till  they  aif  weaned,  when  they  are  at  once  transfeired  to 
the  tups.  Individual  tups  are  so  easily  identified,  and  their  descent  so  well 
known  by  the  shepherd,  tliat  they  require  no  marking.  Fig.  309  are  the 
j}unc/ihfi{-nippcr.s,  al' which  ihe 
inverted  hollow  cone  r/,  having 
its  small  end  sharpened,  is  em- 
ployed to  cut  the  hole  out  of 
the  ears  ;  and,  to  save  the  ears 
from  being  unduly  pinched,  a 
pad  of  horn  b  is  inserted  into 
the  straight  under-arm  of  the 
nippers,  the  pieces  nipped  out 
rising  out  of  the  orifice  c.  The 
figure  at  once  shows  how  the 
instrument  is  used,  being  sim- 
ilar to  the  one  used  by  shoemakers  to  punch  holes  into  the  lappets  of  shoes, 
through  which  the  shoe-strings  are  passed,  and  it  costs  2s.  9d.  Buisting 
consists  of  stamping  a  letter  or  letters,  expressive  of  the  initials  of  the 
name  of  the  owner  or  of  that  of  the  farm,  or  of  both.  The  buist  or  mark 
is  effected  by  a  simple  instrument  a,  fig.  370,  which 
carries  the  capital  letter  S.  This  mark  is  made  on  the 
same  principle  as  the  ear-marks,  the  near  side  indicat- 
ing the  female,  and  the  far  side  the  male  sheep.  The 
material  of  which  the  buist  is  made  is  boiled  tar,  made 
viscid  by  a  little  pitch.  The  sheep  to  be  buisted  are 
put  into  a  convenient  apartment  of  the  steading,  and 
handed  out  one  by  one,  and  kept  steady  by  holding  the 
head  and  rump  by  the  hands  ;  and  a  knee  being  placed 
against  the  opposite  side  causes  the  side  to  be  marked 
to  project.  The  buist  is  then  dipped  lightly  into  the 
melted  tar,  to  prevent  its  dripping  ;  and,  to  make  the 
mark  vivid,  it  should  be  applied  with  some  force,  and 
with  the  entire  surface  at  once,  to  compress  the  wool 
equally,  and  then  quickly  withdrawn.  The  wool  must 
be  quite  dry,  or  the  tar  will  not  adhere  to  it.  All  new- 
clipped  sheep  are  buisted  in  this  manner ;  and  though 
but  a  temporary  mark,  being  in  time  obliterated, 
though  not  on  short  wool,  it  serves  the  present  purpose 
well.  To  my  taste,  the  buist  looks  best  on  that  point 
which  is  the  roundest  part  of  the  rib,  but  others  prefer 
it  on  the  shoulder,  the  rump,  or  the  loins.  In  fig.  370 
is  another  instrument  h,  the  branding-iron,  also  bearing 
the  capital  letter  S.  It  is  sometimes  used,  and,  on  be- 
ing heated  in  the  fire,  is  applied  to  brand  the  letter  on  one  side  or  other 
of  the  nose,  or  on  one  of  the  horns,  of  Black-faced  sheep,  or  on  the  horns 
of  Highland  cattle,  in  lieu  of  the  punching-nippers  or  knife,  and  it  makes 
an  indelible  mark.  To  save  twice  handling  of  the  lanil»s,  they  should  be 
marked  and  buisted  at  the  same  time — one  person  makinor  the  marks,  an- 
other applying  the  buisting-iron.  The  buist  costs  3s.,  and  the  brand  4s., 
though  a  smaller  instrument,  as  the  letter  has  to  be  cut  out  of  the  brand 
like  that  of  a  die,  and  it  must  be  made  of  the  best  iron  to  stand  frequent 
heating.  These  are  all  the  operations  to  which  sheep  are  subjected  in 
summer. 

(592) 


THE  BCISTISO-IRK.V  AND 
BRANDl.VO-lRO.N. 


SHEEP-SHEARING. 


297 


THE  HEAB-CAP,  or  HOOD,  FITTED  ON  THE  SHEEP. 


(2028.)  Scalded  Heads. — Sheep  are  much  infested  in  summer  with  flies.     A. s  a  protection  to 

the  head  a,s;ainst  them,  the  simple  cap,  or  hood,  as  seen  in  Hg.  371,  is  effectual.     It  may  be  made 

of   stout   linen,   and    fostened 

with  4  tapes  tied  crosswise  uu-  Fig.  371. 

der  the  chin,  or  of  leather,  and  

buckled  at  the  same  place. — 

Leicester  tups  should  not  be 

without  these  caps  in  summer, 

especiallj'  when  grazing  near 

wo<id3;  and,  as  tups  are  occa- 
sionally apt  to  box  each  other, 

any  little  portion  of  skin  whicli 

maj-  thereby  be  abraded  on  the 

head  will  receive   immediate 

protection  from  the  cap. 

(2029.)     Doddering. One 

great  means  of  warding  off  tlie 

attack  of  the  fiy  on  hoggs  is 

doddering,  especially  in  locali- 
ties obnoxious  to  iiies.     This 

operation  consists  of  clipping 

away  all  the  wool  off  the  tail 

and   between  the  hind-legs. — 

Should  hoggsscour.which  they 

are  not  unapt  to  do  when  put 

on  foggage  immediately  after 

being  weaned,  and  when  there 

is  no  rough  moory  or  hilly  pasture  to  put  them  upon  previously  for  some  weeks,  the  removal  of 

the  wool  will  prevent  the  discharge  remaining  about  the  animal,  and,  of  course,  deprive  the  fly 
of  one  object  of  attraction.     The  use  of  docking  the  tails  of  sheep  is  now  made  obvious  (1841). 

(2030.)  Those  who  have  many  horse-chestnut  trees,  ^scu/us  hippocastanum,  may  be  pleased 
to  learn  that  their  fruit,  which  is  considered  worthless,  and  even  poisonous  in  this  countrj-,  though 
both  opinions  are  erroneous,  may  be  usefully  employed  in  feeding  sheep.  "  While  I  was  at  Ge- 
neva in  the  autumn  of  1837,"  says  a  correspondent,  "  I  observed  every  one  collecting  carefully  the 
fruit  of  the  horse-chestnut,  and  on  inquiry  I  learned  that  the  butchers  and  holders  of  grazing  stock 
bought  it  readily  at  a  certain  price  per  bushel.  I  inquired  of  my  butcher,  who  himself  kept  a 
very  extensive  grazing  farm,  and  he  told  me  it  was  given  to  those  sheep  in  particular  that  were 
fattening.  The  horse-chestnuts  were  well  crushed — something  in  the  way,  so  I  understood,  that 
apples  are — previous  to  cider  being  made.  In  Switzerland,  they  are  crushed  or  cut  up  in  a  ma- 
chine kept  solely  for  that  purpose  ;  then  about  2  lbs.  weight  is  given  to  each  sheep,  morning  and 
evening.  Sheep  eat  it  greedily ;  it  must  be  portioned  out  to  them,  as  too  much  would  disagree 
With  them,  it  being  of  a  very  heating  nature.  The  butcher  told  me  that  it  gave  an  excellent  rich 
flavor  to  the  meat.  The  Geneva  mutton  is  noted  for  being  as  highly  flavored  as  any  in  England 
or  Wales."* 

(2031.)  Sheep  on  hill-pasture  delight  in  summer  to  spread  themselves  over,  and  to  go  to  the 
highest  point  of  their  range.  Ewes  are  restricted  in  their  range  by  the  lambs,  which,  when  young, 
show  little  inclination  to  wander  afar,  but  rather  to  lie  down  and  sleep  after  being  satisfied  with 
milk.  Hoggs  keep  much  together,  and  on  that  account  do  not  wander  far  from  their  morning 
lair,  wherever  that  may  be.  Wethers,  on  the  other  hand,  attain  the  hight  of  their  pasturage  at  an 
early  period  of  the  day,  and  remain  till  dusk.  You  thus  see,  when  sheep  of  different  ages  are 
brought  up  together,  how  usefully  they  distribute  themselves  over  their  entire  pasture  ;  and  where 
only  one  class  of  sheep  are  reared,  they  extend  their  range  according  as  their  age  increases,  or 
their  food  becomes  bare.  On  contiguous  estates,  where  there  is  no  march  dyke  to  define  their 
common  boundary,  it  is  quite  possible  tliat  the  flock  of  one  property  may  occasionally  trespass  on 
the  pasture  of  another.  Should  this  happen  in  the  early  part  of  the  day,  the  shepherds  should  not 
dog  off  the  strange  sheep,  as  that  may  render  them  restless  even  for  days;  but  wait  till  nightfall, 
and  then  point  them  gently  over  the  march  to  their  own  ground,  where  they  will  take  to  their 
usual  lair.  Sheep  usually  select  a  spot  for  resting  at  night,  and  it  will  mostly  be  that  which  is 
safest  for  them,  especially  if  the  sheep  are  aged,  and  well  acquainted  with  the  ground.  In  fine 
weather  they  should  not  be  disturbed  in  thus  selecting  their  lairs,  but  in  case  of  threatening  storm 
they  had  better  be  directed  to  the  sheltered  side  of  the  pasture,  or  even  near  the  stells,  if  need  be. 
Within  inclosed  fields  in  the  Lowlands,  sheep  can  hardly  go  wrong  in  summer  in  selecting  their 
lairs  for  the  night. 


(2032.)  The  figures  of  the  bull's  ring  and  bullock-holder  not  having  reached  me  when  their  use 
was  described  in  (1994),  I  here  give  them  before  concluding  the  account  of  the  treatment  of  stock 
in  summer.  Fig.  372  represents  the- bull's  ring  in  an  open  state,  ready  to  be  inserted  into  the 
bull's  nose,  the  joint  a  allowing  the  two  sides  of  the  ring  to  open  as  wide  as  the  end  b  may  be  in- 
serted into  the  hole  burned  into  the  septum  of  the  nose.  Fig.  373  shows  the  ring  closed,  after  it 
has  been  fastened  into  the  nose,  a  being  the  joint,  and  b  the  two  ends  of  the  ring  lapped  over  and 
secured  together  by  2  countersunk  screws.  The  ring  is  formed  of  5-inch  .rod-iron,  and  its  diam- 
eter over  all  is  2^  inches,  and  it  should  be  highly  finished. 

*  The  Gardener's  Chronicle,  2l8t  October,  1843. 
(593) 


298 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


(2033.)  The  BHllockhilder  is  well  represented  by  fij^.  374.  where  a  is  the  joint  which  allows 
its  two  parts  to  open  so  far  as  each  to  enter  a  nosiril  of  the  animal.  The  lever  nut  c  brings  the 
two  kuobbed  points  b  as  close  as  to  cnibraoo  and  hold  fimi  the  soptam  of  the  nose.  The  leading 
rein  is  fastened  to  the  under  ring  e.    This  form  of  bullock-bolder  would  allow  the  points  i  to  b« 

Fi«.  374. 


Fie.  372. 


Fig.  373. 


THE  bill's  RI.VG  I.V  A  STATE  TO  BE 
INSERTED  INTO  THE  BULL's  NOSE. 


THE  BV^LL  S  ItING  A«  KASTENED 
I.V  THE  bull's  .VOSE. 


THE  BVLLOCK- 
HOLDER. 


screwed  to  anv  degree  of  tightness,  nntil  they  meet  each  other ;  and  it  is,  in  my  opinion,  so  far 
obiectionable,'as  the  screwing  mav  be  carried  as  far  by  a  rash  hand  as  to  hurt  the  animal  when 
the  instrument  was  moved  inthe  least  desrree  to  either  side.  Another  form  which  I  have  seen 
and  approve  of,  never  allows  the  two  knobs  b  of  the  instrument  to  be  screwed  closer  than  just  to 
embrace  the  septum  of  the  nose,  allowing  the  holder  to  swing  from  the  nose  at  ease  while  it  holds 
the  nose  firmly  whenever  the  animal  attempts  to  move  away.  The  cost  of  a  bullock-holder  of 
either  of  these  forms  is  4s.  each. 


26.    ROLLING  THE  FLEECE,  AND  THE   QUALITIES   OF  WOOL. 

"  Come,  gentle  swains,  the  bright  unsullied  locks 
Collect':  *  i  *  • 

Be  faithful ;  and  the  genuine  locks  alone 
Wrap  round;  nor  alien  flake,  nor  pitch  enfdld  ; 
Stain  not  your  stores  with  base  desire  to  add 
Fallacious  weight." 

Drsa. 

(2034.)  Whenever  a  fleece  is  clipped  from  the  sheep,  a  field-worker 
should  be  ready  to  roll  it  up.  I  have  already  said  that  a  board  should  be 
provided  to  roll  the  fleeces  upon,  and  it  may  be  erected  either  in  the  clip- 
pine-bam,  or  any  other  adjoining  apartment,  such  as  the  corn-barn  ;  but 
the  most  convenient  place  for  it  is  beside  the  clippers,  as  is  also  the  stance 
for  the  roUed-up  fleeces  to  lie  upon  till  the  end  of  the  day's  work,  when 
they  are  removed  to  the  wool-room.  Suppose  the  board  to  be  placed  in 
the  clipping-barn,  the  fleece,  whenever  separated  from  the  sheep,  is  lifted 
unbroken  from  the  cloth,  and  spread  upon  the  board  on  its  clipped  side. 
The  winder  examines  the  fleece  that  it  is  quite  free  of  extraneous  sub- 
stances, such  as  straws,  bits  of  thorn,  of  whin,  or  burs,  and  removes  them, 
and  she  also  removes,  by  pulling  off",  all  locks  that  have  lumps  of  dung 
adherino-  to  them,  and  which  have  escaped  the  notice  of  the  washers.  The 
farmer  should  be  very  particular  in  giving  instructions  on  the  purity  of  the 
fleece,  as  the  purchaser  cannot  unloose  every  fleece  he  buys  ;  and  should 
he  find  as  much  filth  in  the  fleeces  after  purchase  as  to  warrant  the  belief 
that  it  had  been  purposely  left  in  them,  he  may  either  rehnquish  his  bar- 
gain, or  make  a  large  deduction  from  the  price — in  the  former  case  imply- 

(594) 


ROLLING  THE   FLEECE.  299 


ing  fraud  on  the  part  of  the  farmer,  and  in  the  latter  diminishing  his  profits. 
And  besides  the  disgrace,  any  person  who  attempts  to  commit  fraud  in 
the  case  of  wool  is  liable  to  be  merced  in  heavy  fines  when  informed 
against,  which  he  puts  in  the  power  of  the  purchaser  of  the  wool  to  do. 
The  winder  being  satisfied  that  there  are  no  impurities  in  the  fleece,  folds 
in  both  its  sides,  putting  any  loose  locks  of  wool  into  the  middle,  and 
making  the  breadth  of  the  folded  fleece  from  about  24  to  30  inches,  ac- 
cording to  its  size.  She  then  begins  to  roll  the  fleece  from  the  tail  toward 
the  neck  as  tightly  and  neatly  as  she  can,  and  when  amved  at  the  neck, 
draws  the  wool  there  as  far  out,  twisting  it  into  a  sort  of  rope,  as  will  go 
round  the  fleece,  hold  its  own  end  firm,  and  make  the  ejitire  fleece  a  tight 
bundle.  The  fleece  is  then  easily  carried  about,  having  the  clijiped  sur- 
face outside,  which,  being  composed  of  wool  saturated  with  yolk,  exhibits 
a  shining,  silveiy  lustre.  Fleeces  are  by  no  means  all  alike  either  in  struc- 
ture or  color.  Those  of  ewes,  for  instance,  will  be  found  thin  and  open 
in  the  locks,  of  pale  color,  and  feel  light  in  hand  ;  those,  again,  of  hoggs 
will  be  close  and  long  in  the  pile,  of  a  rich  color,  and  the  rolled  fleece 
will  feel  heavy  and  be  bulky  in  hand.  Neither  will  all  the  fleeces  be  alike 
entire  and  in  proper  condition.  An  occasional  fleece  may  want  some  part, 
having  been  shed  off";  and  another  may  be  coated,  that  is,  have  its  wool 
felted  together  like  a  piece  of  very  thick  cloth  ;  while  another  may  be  a 
black  fleece.  Whenever  any  such  difference  is  observed  in  a  fleece,  it 
should  be  laid  aside.  The  infeiior  stray  locks,  and  those  clotted  with 
dirt,  should  be  put  into  a  basket  by  themselves,  to  be  afterward  washed, 
dried,  and  used  at  home  for  various  purposes,  such  as  in  repairing  of  sad- 
dlery. Every  day's- clipping  is  carried  into  the  wool-room,  at  W  in  the 
steading,  fig.  4,  Plate  IV.,  which  enters  by  a  stair  firom  the  straw-bam. 
Previous  to  being  occupied,  the  room  should  be  completely  swept  of  all 
dust  from  its  floor  and  plastered  walls,  and  washed  clean  and  dried.  The 
fleeces  are  built  up  on  the  floor  at  a  little  distance  from  the  wall,  putting 
the  hogg  and  ewe  fleeces  in  separate  divisions.  The  whole  are  covered 
with  clothes,  and  the  shutters  of  the  windo^v  closed.  The  reason  for 
these  precautions,  which  are  too  seldom  attended  to  by  farmers,  is,  that 
the  cloths  keep  off"  dust,  prevent  too  quick  evaporation  of  the  yolk  of  the 
wool,  which,  if  allowed,  will  diminish  its  weight,  and  the  window-shutters 
being  closed  excludes  the  light,  which  obscures  the  bright  lustre  of  clipped 
wool.  The  odd  fleeces  and  locks  should  not  be  brought  into  the  wool- 
room  at  all,  but  the  former  sold,  and  the  latter  prepared  for  use  immedi- 
ately, as  their  unclean  state  creates  an  effluvium  which  induces  the  wool- 
moth,  the  Tinea  sarcitella  of  Linnaeus,  to  come  into  the  wool-room. 

(2035.)  Wool  is  a  ticklish  article  for  a  farmer  to  keep  long.  If  the 
wool-room  is  too  dry,  the  natural  moisture,  occasioned  by  the  yolk,  evap- 
orates, and  the  fibres  become  curled,  and  feel  harsh ;  and  on  the  other 
hand,  if  it  is  too  damp,  which  is  its  usual  condition,  the  fleeces  become 
compressed,  feel  clammy,  and  affected  with  gi-een  and  yellow  mould.  The 
wool-moth  then  takes  up  its  residence,  in  summer,  among  such  fleeces,  and 
breeds  numerous  larvae,  which  subsist  on  the  very  fibres  of  the  wool,  and 
of  course  entirely  destroy  their  character.  There  are  farmers  who  have 
no  wool-room,  but  keep  their  wool  in  the  granary  or  an  outhouse,  where, 
of  course,  either  of  these  effects  are  aggravated.  The  best  means  that  I 
know  of  preserving  wool  for  a  length  of  time  in  the  fleece,  is  to  keep  it  in 
a  wool-room  with  a  wooden  floor,  packed  in  the  pack-sheet,  in  which  it 
will  be  out  of  reach  of  dust,  light,  and  moths,  and  where  no  more  air  and 
light  need  be  admitted  than  is  desirable.  If  it  is  meant  to  keep  wool  only 
for  a  few  weeks,  the  means  spoken  of  in  the  last  paragraph  are  all  that 

(595) 


300 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARJI SUMMER. 


are  requisite.  The  safest  plan  for  the  wool-grower  is  so  sell  it  ever)'  year 
at  the  current  prices,  which  are  determined  at  the  gi-eat  wool  fairs  that 
take  place  in  summer  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  where  wool-dealers 
attend,  and  wliuse  proceedings  are  duly  reported  in  the  newspapers. 

(203G.)  When  a  wool-dealer  purchases  wool  from  a  farmer,  he  sends 
his  own  people  to  pack  it  in  his  ou-n  pack-sheets.  Wool  is  weighed  and 
packed  in  this  way  :  wool  is  sold  in  Scotland  by  the  wool-stone  of  24  lbs. 
avoirdupcjis,  and  it  is  weighed  out  in  double  stones  of  48  lbs.,  each  being 
called  a  wciir/i.  Usually  7  Leicester  hopg  and  11  ewe  fleeces  make  1 
weigh.  In  England,  wool  is  sold  by  the  lb.  and  weighed  out  by  the  fod 
of  2  stones  of  14  lbs.  each,  or  28  lbs.  In  weighing  out,  the  above  number 
of  fleeces  may  not  exactly  weigh  the  double  stone  ;  and,  as  fleeces  are 
never  broken  to  equalize  the  scales,  a  few  small  weights  are  used  to 
balance  the  scale  either  on  the  side  of  the  wool  or  of  the  weights,  at 
each  weighing.  In  this  way  the  weight  of  the  number  of  scalefulls 
required  to  fill  each  pack  are  conectly  ascertained,  a  memorandum 
being  taken  of  the  number  of  weighings.  While  a  simple  and  large 
beam  and  scales  for  weighing  the  wool  is  erecting,  the  pack  for  contain- 
ing the  fleeces  is  also  making  ready,  so  that  they  may  be  packed  imme- 
diately from  the  scales,  and  save  much  handling.  Pack-sheets  are  made 
of  thin  canvas,  of  the  shape  of  an  oblong  rectangle,  about  8  feet  long  when 
empty,  and  open  along  one  side.  A  small  stone  being  placed  in  each  end 
of  the  opening  of  the  sheet,  a  rope  for  each  end  being  suspended  from  the 
ceiling,  the  stones  form  knobs  which  prevent  the  comers  of  the  sheet  slip- 
ping through  the  ropes,  as  at  a  a,  fig.  375.     The  sheet  d  is  suspended  just 

Fig.  375. 


THE  WEIGHING  AND  PACKING  OF  WOOL. 

to  swim  above  the  floor.  Two  men,  b  and  c,  then  get  into  the  sheet,  anc 
placing  the  fleeces,  as  handed  to  them  by  the  woman  e,  in  regular  order 
lengthways  across  its  bottom,  trample  them  down  ^\^th  considerable  force 
especially  at  the  corners,  where  they  are  pushed  down  with  both  feet  set  to- 
gether, while  both  hands  are  holdincr  firm  by  the  outside  of  the  comer  of 
the  sheet  immediately  under  the  tying,  as  shown  in  action  by  the  man  b 
The  second  layer  of  fleeces  is  laid  contrary  to  the  first,  that  is,  in  length 
along  the  sheet,  placing  2  or  3  fleeces  parallel  in  the  breadth  of  the  sheet ; 
but  the  fleeces  at  the  ends  are  always  placed  across  the  length  of  the  sheet, 
in  the  same  position  as  before,  and  pressed  down  in  the  same  manner. 
The  sheet  is  thus  filled  with   alternate  layers  of  fleeces  to  the  top,  when 

(596) 


THE   QUALITIES   OF  WOOL.  301 

the  packers  leave  it,  and  then  loosening  the  ropes,  and  reserving  the  small 
stones  for  the  next  sheet,  immediately  close  the  mouth  of  the  pack  ;  for  if 
left  open,  the  elasticity  of  the  wool  will  cause  the  fleeces  to  rise  so  far  as 
to  render  the  closing  afterward  impracticable,  and  a  pack  is  difficult  to 
close  at  any  time.  With  the  aid  of  hand-cramps,  inserted  into  the  oppo- 
site sides  of  its  mouth,  the  edges  are  brought  together,  and  are  so  held  by 
iron  skewers  being  passed  through  both  edges.  When  a  farmer  is  pack- 
ing wool  on  his  own  account,  it  is  as  well  to  know  that  common  table- 
forks  answer  as  well  as  hand-cramps  for  pulling  the  edges  of  the  pack- 
sheet  together,  and  for  keeping  them  as  close  as  skewers.  The  edges  be- 
inf  thus  brought  together,  they  are  permanently  secured  by  sowing  with 
packing-needle  and  stout  twine,  and  the  skewers  are  removed  as  the  sew- 
ing proceeds.  Thus,  one  pack  is  filled  after  another.  A  pack  of  wool  _/ 
contains  10  stones,  that  is,  240  lbs.  Any  wool  I  have  seen  packed  in  the 
Highlands,  was  not  put  so  regularly  into  the  sheet  as  I  have  described  ; 
the  fleeces  were  crammed  in  and  trampled  down  in  the  most  in-egular  and 
promiscuous  manner.  I  once  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  merino  wool 
packed  on  a  large  scale  at  Leipsic.  The  sheets  were  made  of  horse-hair, 
and,  during  the  packing,  were  occasionally  subjected  to  the  pressure  of  a 
long  pole  of  wood  acting  upon  them  as  a  lever.  The  pole  was  fastened 
at  one  end  by  a  ring  to  the  ground,  and  heavy  weights  were  suspended, 
and  a  rope  passed  from  the  other  through  a  ring  in  the  ground,  to  keep 
good  what  the  lever  had  gained.  The  wool  was  packing  for  Great  Brit- 
ain, and  was  to  be  conveyed  in  large  wagons,  each  drawn  by  8  stallions, 
to  be  shipped  at  Rotterdam.  In  the  rest  of  the  cut  the  wool  is  seen  piled 
up  at  g,  and  the  man  i  is  in  the  act  of  weighing  a  scalefull  with  the  large 
beam  and  scales  h. 

(2037.)  Even  on  the  slightest  inspection  of  a  fleece  on  the  sheep's  back, 
one  can  perceive  that  it  contains  wool  of  different  qualities  ;  the  coarser  is 
evidently  below  and  the  finer  above ;  but  none  but  wool-staplers  would 
discover  10  different  qualities  of  wool  in  the  same  fleece.  As  a  general 
description  of  a  fleece,  I  may  mention  that  the  finest  wool  is  upon  the 
shoulder  and  along  the  top  of  the  back  to  the  rump  ;  the  next  best  is  be- 
low the  shoulders,  along  the  ribs  to  the  rump — the  coarsest  being  on  the 
haunches — and  that  below  the  belly  is  short  and  detached,  and  cannot  be 
classed  with  the  rest.  Each  of  these  parts  have  their  respective  qualities, 
which  wool-staplers  classify,  in  order  to  satisfy  the  wants  of  their  custom- 
ers, the  manufacturers.  The  subdivision  of  the  fleece  by  wool-staplers, 
after  they  have  purchased  the  wool  from  the  farmers,  is  technically  in  these 
terms:  Prime — choice — super — ^head — downrights — seconds — fine  abb — 
coarse  abb — ^lively — short  coarse  or  breech-wool.  It  would  be  well  for 
wool-growers  to  receive  lessons  from  wool-staplers  on  the  essential  prop- 
erties which  constitute  good  wool,  that  they  may  be  able  to  judge  whether 
the  wool  which  they  grow  be  intrinsically  good  or  bad,  comparatively  im- 
proving or  deteriorating,  or  to  what  species  of  manufacture  it  is  best  suit- 
ed. According  to  present  practice,  wool-growers,  I  believe,  demand  prices 
for  their  wool  on  the  faith  of  markets,  without  knowing  whether  their  wool 
is  really  worth  a  high  or  low  price. 

(2038.)  Good  wool  should  have  these  properties  :  The  fibre  of  the  sta- 
ple— a  staple  being  any  lock  that  naturally  sheds  itself  from  the  rest — 
should  be  of  uniform  thickness  from  root  to  point ;  it  should  be  true,  as  the 
phrase  has  it:  the  finer  the  wool,  the  smaller  is  the  diameter  of  the  fibre ; 
the  fibre  should  be  elastic,  and  not  easily  broken  ;  its  surface  should  have 
a  shining  silvery  lustre  ;  and  it  should  be  of  great  density  or  specific  grav- 
ity.    Of  a  staple,  all  the  fibres  should  be  of  the  same  length,  otherwise  the 

(597) 


302  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

staple  will  have  a  pointed  character ;  the  end  of  the  staple  should  be  as 
bright  as  its  bottom,  and  not  seem  as  if  composed  of  dead  wool ;  the  entire 
staple  should  be  strouc,  and  its  strength  is  tested  in  this  manner :  Take 
the  bottom  of  the  staple  between  the  finger  and  thumb  of  the  left  h^nd, 
and  its  top  between  those  of  the  right;  and,  on  holding  the  wool  tight  be- 
tween the  hands,  make  the  third  finger  of  the  right  hand  play  firmly  upon 
the  fibres,  as  if  in  staccato  on  the  strings  of  a  violin,  and  if  the  sound  pro- 
duced be  firm  and  sharp,  and  somewhat  musical,  the  wool  is  sound  ;  if  the 
fibres  do  not  break,  on  repeatedly  jerking  the  hands  asunder  with  consid- 
erable force,  the  staple  is  sound  ;  if  they  break,  the  wool  is  unsound,  and, 
what  is  remarkable,  it  will  break  at  those  places  which  issued  from  the  felt 
of  the  sheep  when  the  sheep  was  stinted  of  meat  or  had  an  ailment ; 
though  it  will  not  break  at  every  place  simultaneously,  because  the  weaker 
part,  occasioned  by  the  greater  illness,  will  first  give  way.  A  good  fleece 
should  have  the  points  of  all  its  staples  of  equal  length,  otherwige  it  will 
be  a  pointy  one  ;  the  staples  should  be  set  close  together ;  and  it  should 
be  clean.  One  essential  good  property  of  wool  is  softness  to  the  feel  like 
silk,  which  does  not  depend  on  flneness  of  fibre,  but  on  a  peculiar  property 
of  yielding  to  the  touch  at  once,  and  readily  returning  to  the  hand.  There 
should  be  no  hairs  in  wool — neither  long  ones,  which  are  easily  distinguish- 
able from  wool,  and  give  the  name  of  bearded  to  the  fleece  ;  nor  short 
ones,  soft  and  fine,  like  cat^s  hair,  which  are  not  easily  distinguishable  from 
wool,  and  are  denominated  Jceinps.  The  long  hairs  are  frequently  of  a  dif- 
ferent color  from  the  wool,  but  the  kemp  hairs  are  of  the  same  color;  and, 
of  the  two,  the  latter  are  much  the  more  objectionable,  as  being  less  easily 
detected.* 

(2039.)  Keeping  all  these  properties  in  view,  it  is  clear  that  a  farmer 
who  breeds  sheep  having  fleeces  with  pointy  staples,  thinly  set  on,  and  of 
unequal  lengths — who  stints  his  sheep  of  food  at  one  time,  and  overfeeds 
them  at  another,  thereby  producing  wool  of  unequal  size,  and  therefore 
untrue — who,  moreover,  does  not  wash  his  sheep  clean,  or,  having  so 
washed  them,  allows  their  wool  to  be  again  dirtied  before  being  clipped, 
thereby  creating  much  waste  to  the  manufacturer  to  bring  the  wool  again 
to  a  clean  state — the  farmer  who  manages  his  sheep  and  wool  so  as  to  pro- 
duce these  effects,  injures  himself  to  an  incalculable  extent. 

(2040.)  Ii  is  remarked  by  Mr.  Culley  that  "  tlie  Herefordshire  sheep  that  have  the  finest  wool 
are  kept  lean,  and  prodnce  \\  lbs.  each  ;  if  better  kept,  tliey  grow  larger,  and  produce  more 
wool,  bat  inferior  m  quality ."t  This  is  true  of  every  breed  of  sheep,  and  particularly  of  the  Me- 
rino, ■whose  prnpenniti/  to  leanness  caused  their  culture  to  be  abandoned  in  Great  Britain,  as  be- 
ing unprofitable.  Their  wool  did  not  so  much  deteriorate  in  this  cold  climate,  as  there  wa-s  no 
possibility  of  getting  mutton  upon  their  carcass.  But,  though  leanncs.s  produces  wool  of  finer 
qualitj-  than  high  condition,  yet  the  remark  is  only  strictiy  true  when  applied  to  breeds  which 
vield  fine  wool  in  every  state  of  condition;  for  no  degree  of  leanness  will  cause  a  coarsc-wooled 
breed  of  sheep,  such  as  the  Black-faced,  to  pro<lnce  _fiue  wool.  To  obtain  any  given  qnaJitv  of 
wool,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  possess  the  breed  that  produces  it,  and  then  the  wool  will  be 
finer  or  coarser  in  comparison  as  the  sheep  are  kept  in  low  or  high  condition.  There  is  uo  doubt 
that  the  general  quality  of  wool  in  this  countrj'  has  become  coarser  than  it  was  years  ago ;  not 
because  tliL  breeds  of  sheep  have  deteriorated — for,  on  the  contrary-,  they  have  all  fraproved — but 
because  the  animals  are  now  kept  throughout  the  year  in  much  higher  condition ;  and  tliis  result 
might  have  been  anticipated,  for,  if  there  is  any  analogy  between  the  vegetable  and  animal  econ- 
omy, we  know  that  well  manured  soil  will  produce  flax  of  thicker  and  lorfger  fibre  than  the  same 
soil  in  poor  condition  :  so.  in  like  manner,  sneep  when  in  high  condition  produce  wool  of  thicker 
and  loncer  fibre  than  whf^n  lean.  During  the  improvement  that  has  taken  jilace  in  the  breeds  of 
sheep,  a  counteractini?  influence,  as  I  conceive,  has  been  at  work  to  retain  the  wool  of  finer  qnal- 
itv  than  the  high  condition  would  produce — 1  mean  the  influence  of  shelter;  and  though  it  may 
only  be  of  a  negative  character,  preventing  uncqnal  evaporation  of  the  yolk  of  wool,  by  warding 
offcold  and  drjing  winds,  yet,  in  preventing  these,  iu  effecu  are  positively  beneficial.'inasmucn 
as  Mr.  Luccock  observes  that  "  the  silky  softness,  like  most  other  good  qualities  of  the  fleece,  de- 
pends very  much  upon  the  breed  of  the  sheep,  and  the  mialtlv  of  yolk  irhich  they  constantly  af- 
ford." It  is  difficult  to  sav  whether  the  density  of  the  fibre  o(  wool,  that  most  desirable  property, 
depends  on  eome  general  law  connected  with  the  breed,  or  the  circuiustances  in  which  the  fibre 

»  See  Luccock  on  Wool ;  Ed.  1905.  t  CnUey  on  Live-Stock— iVotc 

(.598) 


THE  QUALITIES  OF  WOOL.  303 


is  produced  ;  for  the  mere  coarseness  or  fineness  of  the  fibre  does  not  affect  its  specific  gravity 

as,  for  instance,  the  close  full-grown  wool  off  the  shoulder  of  a  sheep  does  not  differ  materially  iu 
density  from  that  from  the  thin  and  hairy  breech  ;  and  hence,  perhaps,  the  density  does  not  de- 
pend on  the  breed.  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  soil  and  climate  very  much  affect  the  general 
condition  of  fleeces,  for  we  find  wool  grown  in  the  chalky  districts  of  England  much  drier  and 
coarser  than  that  which  is  produced  on  fine,  soft  hazel  loam  ;  and  wool  grown  upon  turnips  ap- 
pears to  me  coarser  than  when  grown  on  grass  in  the  same  soil  in  similar  condition.  This  fact  is 
undeniable,  that  fleeces  from  the  same  breed,  reared  even  in  similar  circumstances,  differ  much  in 
density.  The  conclusion  to  be  inferred  from  all  these  considerations  seems  to  be,  that  whatever 
induces  the  greatest  secretion  of  yolk,  whether  it  be  breed,  condition  of  animal,  nature  of  soil,  or 
climate,  will  produce  fibre  of  the  greatest  specific  gravity  ;  and  hence  on  grass  on  a  deep  mellow 
soil  in  good  heart,  and  in  a  sheltered  situation,  a  breed  of  sheep,  capable  of  continuing  in  good 
condition  throughout  the  year,  should  produce  the  densest  and  the  finest  quality  of  fibre  of  wool. 
If  these  views  be  at  all  correct,  you  can  easily  perceive  how  much  depends  on  the  judgment  of 
tlie  farmer  himself,  to  produce  wool  that  will  possess  the  greatest  number  of  good  qualities. 

(2041.)  Chemically,  "  wool  has  not  yet  been  subjected  to  a  rigid  examination,"  says  Dr.  Thom- 
son ;  "  but,  from  the  experiments  made  on  it  by  BerthoUet,  there  is  reason  to  conclude  that  its 
chemical  qualities  do  not  differ  much  from  those  of  hair.  When  growing  upon  the  sheep,  it  is 
enveloped  in  a  kind  of  soapy  matter,  which  protects  it  from  the  attacks  of  insects,  and  which  is 
afterward  removed  by  scouring.  Vauquelin  has  examined  this  matter,  and  found  it  to  consist  of 
the  following  ingredients :  A  soap  of  potash — carbonate  of  potash — a  little  acetate  of  potash — 
lime — a  very  little  muriate  of  potash — and  an  animal  matter."* 

(2042.)  Mr.  Youatt  has  examined  the  external  structure  of  ■wool  with  the  microscope,  and  has 
ascertained  that  the  surface  of  the  fibre  is  covered  with  a  sort  of  scale  ^vhich  fonns  a  series  of  ser- 
rations along  the  entire  length.  The  general  outline  of  the  woolly  fibre  consists  of  a  central  stem 
or  stalk,  probably  hollow,  or  at  least  porous,  and  possessing  a  semi-transparency  not  found  in  the 
fibres  of  hair.  From  this  central  stalk  there  springs  at  different  distances,  in  different  breeds  of 
sheep,  a  circlet  of  leaf  shaped  projections.  It  is  thus  ascertained  that  wool  possesses  a  property 
common  to  all  independent  horny  fibres  which  issue  from  the  felt  of  animals— namely,  an  irregu- 
larity which  constitutes  a  certain  degree  of  roughness  upon  their  surface  from  the  root" to  the  point. 
Hence,  both  physically  and  chemically,  wool  and  hair  are  analogous  substances.  Some  of  the  re- 
sults of  Mr.  Youatl's  investigations  with  the  microscope,  in  conjunction  with  the  micrometer,  were 
these : 

Diameter.  Serrations. 

Merino  wool yto   ^^  inch,  and  2,400  in  an  inch. 

Picklock yi^  . .  2,560 

Saxony -gig-  ..  2,720 

Leicester ^-L  ..  1,860 

Deccan,  black ToVo  -  •  1,280 

Odessa yfo  -  •  2,080 

Wallachian yig  ..  2,080 

Australian yfg-  ..  1,920 

New  South  Wales -J-j  . .  2,080 

Mr.  Arthur's ylo  . .  2,400 

Van  Diemen's  Land ys-q 

South-Down g-l^  . .  2,080 

AViltshire -^  ..  1,860 

Ryeland yl^  ..  2,420 

Cheviot,  hill-fed -^  . .  1,860 

good  pasture 1,440 

Norfolk 5-1^  ..  1,600 

Lincoln -^  ..  1,280 

Irish ^  ..  1,920          ..t 

Another  instrument  besides  the  micrometer,  named  the  eirometer — the  invention  of  the  late  cele- 
brated optician,  Dolland.  of  London,  and  which  reads  off  diameters  to  a  very  minute  fraction  of 
an  inch,  is  used  for  measuring  the  diameters  of  wool,  and  it  may  be  employed  by  an  inexperi- 
enced hand  with  less  chance  of  error  than  a  micrometer.  It  produces  a  double  image  of  the  fibre 
which  are  brought  in  contact,  and  the  result  is  then  read  off  from  a  circular  index. 

(2043.)  Wool  is  well  known  to  have  a  felting  power,  but  it  is  unknown  in  what  that  power 
consists.  A  coated  fleece  is  a  natural  instance  of  the  felting  tendency  of  wool.  Mr.  Youatt  seems 
to  believe  that  the  discovery  of  the  serrations  on  tlie  fibre  of  wool  accounts  for  its  felting  property. 

*  Thomson's  Animal  Chemistry.  t  Youatt  on  Sheep. 

(599) 


304 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


•'  It  is  a  carious  and  interesting  point  that  has  been  established,"  he  soys.  "  the  existence  of  an 
irregularity  «f  form  in  the  wool,  accounting  for  and  noccRsarily  giving  it  a  felting  power — is  there 
a  variation  in  this  structure  correspondiiiir  with  the  degri-o  of  felling  power?  "  Mr.  Boyd,  of  In- 
nerleithen, Peeblesshire,  is  much  dispo»»'d  to  question  Mr.  Youalt's  views.  "Mr.  Youatt  asserts 
with  much  confidence,"  he  remarks — and  in  this  remark  Mr.  Boyd  is  supported  by  Mr.  Luccock 
— '•  that  the  telling  properties  depend  entirely  on  the  structure  of  the  wool.  During  an  experi- 
ence of  many  years  I  have  found  this  not  to  be  the  fact,  and  therefore  stale,  without  fear  of  contra- 
diction, that  in  many  instances  it  is  impossible  to  estimate  the  extent  of  the  felting  properties  in  a 
variety  of  wools,  until  they  have  been  submitted  to  the  actual  lest  of  cxperimeiil ;  and  I  am  de- 
cidedly of  ojiinion,"  ho  adds,  '•  tJiat  however  perfect  the  structure  of  wool  may  be,  if  produced  in 
the  absence  of  an  oily  or  saponaceous  substance,  it  cannot  po.<ises8  the  recjuisite  properties  of  a 
clothing  material.""  "Mr.  Boyd  is  again  supported  by  Mr.  Luccock,  when  the  latter  says,  "  Ifthe 
wool-grower  be  anxious  to  promote  the  growth  of  fleeces  in  which  the  felting  quality  greatly  pre- 
vails, I  sliould  recommend,  from  the  little  knowledge  at  present  possessed,  that  he  attend  closely 
to  the  supply  of  natural,  rich,  and  nutritions  yolk,  which  the  pile  receives  while  growing."  I 
confess  that  Mr.  A'ouatt's  theory  to  account  for  the  felting  pmperty  of  wool,  in  reference  to  the 
action  of  the  serrations  on  the  surface  of  the  fibre  upon  one  another,  appears  to  me  unsatisfactorj*. 
On  the  authority  of  Mr.  Luccock,  the  application  oi  moifture,  warmth  and  pirssiirf  are  necessary 
to  bring  the  felting  property  of  wool  info  action.  "  Without  tlie  aid  of  moisture,"  he  affirms,  "it 
remains  perfectly  dormant ;  the  warmth  and  pressure  are  required  to  quicken  the  process."  And 
he  adds,  "the  degree  of  heat  required  to  make  the  felling  property  act  with  the  utmost  force  is 
considerably  below  the  boiling  point  of  water,"  and  that  '•  a  higher  temperature  loo.-ens  the  text- 
ure of  the  thread,  and  increases  the  elasticitj-  of  the  hair,  thus  giving  it  a  disposition  to  start  from 
the  substance  of  the  cloth  and  spoil  its  surface."!  If  the  action  of  the  serrations  on  the  fibres  is 
the  priii('i[>al  means  of  felting  wool,  it  must  be  proved  that  they  change  their  structure  on  beinfif 
imnicrgcd  in  water  of  a  temperature  near  the  boiling  point,  which  has  not  yet  been  done.  It  is 
also  known  that  wool,  after  being  combed  with  heated  iron  combs,  will  not  felt ;  and  yet  the  fig- 
ures given  by  Mr.  Youatt,  of  combed  and  uncombed  wool  of  different  varieties,  indicate  no  sncn 
decided  change  by  combing,  on  the  structure  of  the  serrations,  as  to  warrant  us  in  believing  that 
in  the  one  stale  wool  shall  felt,  and  in  another  it  shall  not. 

(2044.)  Having  mentioned  the  application  of  the  microscope  to  the  structure  of  wool,  it  may 
prove  instructive  to  show,  by  the  same  instrument,  in  what  manner  wool  grows.  '•  If  the  f(Ptu8 
of  a  sheep,"  says  M.  Raspail.  "  taken  when  it  is  of  the  length  of  about  4  J  inches,  and  preser%-ed  in 
alcohol,  be  examined,  it  will  be  found  studded  with  globules  of  uniform  size,  elegantly  arranged, 
and  almost  at  equal  distances,  round  certain  white  spots  disposed  in  quincunxes,  which  seem, 
even  at  this  early  period,  to  indicate  the  places  where  the  hairs  are  to  grow.  On  the  epidermis 
of  the  temple,  in.stead  of  thin  white  spots,  we  find  vesicles  projecting  in  the  form  of  bottles,  or 
rather  of  urns,  whose  sides  are  granulated  in  the  same  manner  as  tlie  epidermis.  These  vesicles 
are  the  rudiments  of  hairs."| 

(2045.)  The  number  of  sheep  in  the  empire,  estimated  by  Mr.  Macculloch,  from  different  soarces 
of  information,  is  the  following : 

In  England 26,148,463 

In  Scotland 3,500,000 

In  Ireland 2,000,000 

Total .31,648,463|] 

By  a  statement  made  by  the  late  Mr.  Hubbard,  an  eminent  wool-stapler  in  Leeds,  the  number 
of  packs  of  wool  grown  every  year  in  England  is  463,169,  of  240  lbs.  each,  or  of  111,160,560  lbs., 
which  gives  an  average  weight  to  each  fleece,  including  tliose  of  lambs,  of  4i  lbs.$ 

(2046.)  The  term  Merino,  applied  to  a  particular  breed  of  sheep  and  variety  of  wool,  is  of  ob- 
scure origin.  Mr.  Southey  informs  us  that  "  Merino  is  an  old  Leonese  title,  still  presened  in 
Portugal,  though  long  since  obsolete  in  the  other  kingdoms  of  Spain.  Perhaps  it  is  a  mongrel 
diminutive  of  the  Arabic  title  mir  or  emir,  likely  enough  to  have  been  formed  when  the  two  lan- 
guages, Spanish  and  Moorish,  were,  as  it  were,  running  into  each  other.  Mirquchtr,  the  augment- 
ed title,  was  in  use  at  Ormuz.  Merino  would  be  sufficiently  explained  by  supposing  it  a  dimin- 
utive graile.  The  old  laws  of  Spain  define  it  thus :  '  He  is  a  man  who  has  authority  to  administer 
justice  within  a  certain  district.'  The  first  mention  of  this  office  is  in  the  reign  of  Bermudo  II. 
The  Merinos  then  commanded  the  troops  of  their  respective  provinces  in  war :  but.  before  the 
time  of  Henriijue  II.,  it  was  become  w  holly  a  civil  office,  and  the  title  was  gradually  giving  place 
to  that  of  Alguacil,  mayor.  Most  i)robahly  the  judge  of  the  shepherds  was  calle<l  the  Merino,  and 
hence  the  appellation  extended  to  the  flocks  nndcr  his  care."  It  is  the  general  opinion  that  Me^ 
rino  sheep  came  to  this  countn,-  from  Spain,  and  so  they  did  at  the  end  of  the  last  century ;  but  it 
appears  that  Jinciroolcd  sheep  were  sent  from  England  to  Spain  a  verj-  long  time  ago.  That 
sheep  were  sent  from  England  to  Spain  at  a  known  period  is  certain,  for  Mr.  Youatt  quotes  from 
the  chronicles  of  Stowe,  that  "  this  yere  (1464)  King  Edward  IV.  gave  a  license  to  pass  over  cer- 
tain Cottesirohh'  sheep  into  Spain."  And  he  quotes  Baker  also,  who  says  :  "  King  Edward  IV. 
enters  into  a  league  with  John,  King  of  Arra^on,  to  whom  he  st>nt  a  score  of  Costal  ewes  and 
four  rams — a  small  prcsepf  in  sliow,  but  great  m  the  event  for  it  proved  of  more  benefit  to  Spain, 
and  more  detrimcntnl  to  Encland,  ilian  could  at  first  have  been  imagined."  The  wool  of  the 
Cotteswolde  sheep  of  the  present  day  is  long,  and  not  remarkable  for  fineness.  Perhaps  the  old 
Colteswolde  wool  was  finer  than  the  present,  because  the  latter  has  been  much  crossed  with  the 
Leicester.    But  if  the  old  Cotteswolde  conferred  so  much  benefit  on  Spain,  it  may  be  feirly  in- 


[|{  Recent  estimates  make  the  number  from  50  to  70.000,000.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xlv.  f  Luccock  on  Wool. 

J  Raspail'g  Organic  Chemiatry,  5  MaccuUoch's  Dictionary  of  Commerce,  art.  Wool. 

(600) 


MAKING  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE.  305 

ferred  that  the  wool  of  Spain  was  not  so  fine  as  that  of  England  at  the  time.  But  sheep  were  ex- 
ported from  England  to  Spain  prior  to  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  as  Mr.  Southey  intimates  that 
"  Fernan  Gomez  de  Cibdareal,  in  one  of  his  letters  (Epist.  73),  mentions  a  dispute  between  two 
Spaniards  concerning  rank  in  the  presence  of  Juan  II.,  1437.  It  was  objected  tauntingly  to  one 
of  them,  that  he  was  descended  from  a  judge  of  the  shepherds.  The  reply  was,  that  this  office 
had  always  been  held  by  hidalgos  of  great  honor,  and  that  '  King  D.  Alfonso  had  instituted  it  in 
the  person  of  Inigo  Lopez  de  Mendoza,  when  the  English  sheep  were  first  brong-ht  over  to  Spain.'  " 
This  dispute  occurring  in  1437,  and  refeiTing  to  an  ancient  title  of  honor  which  had  been  conferred 
as  far  back  as  tlie  time  of  the  introduction  of  English  sheep  into  Spain,  and  a  taunt  being  given 
in  1437  to  a  def:cendant  of  a  judge  of  the  shepherds — that  is,  of  a  Merino — thereby  implying  that 
he,  the  descendant,  was  at  least  of  the  second  or  third  generation,  it  is  clear  that  the  English 
sheep  referred  to  could  have  no  reference  to  the  Cotteswoldes  exported  in  1464,  as  mentioned  by 
Stowe.  "  How  long  was  it  before  the  Merino  fleece  became  finer  than  that  of  the  original  stock  ?" 
asks  Mr.  Southey  ;  and  he  replies,  "  Brito,  who  wrote  toward  the  close  of  the  16th  century,  says, 
in  praise  of  the  wool  grown  about  Santarem,  it  is  so  fine  that  it  may  vie  with  that  of  England. 
(Monarchia  Lusitania,  f.  i.,  p.  93.)  If  the  Spanish  wool  had  been  as  fine  then  as  it  is  now,  he 
would  hardly  have  drawn  his  comparison  from  the  English."*  While  these  facts  are  recorded 
in  Spanish  literature  regarding  the  origin  and  ancient  quality  of  the  wool  of  Spain,  the  opinion 
of  Mr.  Youatt  seoms  much  too  strongly  expressed,  when  he  says  that  "  Europe  and  the  world  are 
originally  indebted  to  Spain  for  the  most  valuable  material  in  the  manufacture  of  cloth."  And. 
again,  "  The  chunahs,  therefore,  may  be  descendants  of  the  English  sheep,"  namely,  those  sent 
to  Spain  in  1464.  "  mixed  with  the  common  breed  of  the  country  ;  but  farther  than  this  England 
cannot,  with  any  degree  of  justice,  urge  the  claim  which  some  have  done,  of  being  instrumental 
in  producing  the  invaluable  Spanish  wool."t  And  yet,  as  we  have  seen,  sheep  were  probably 
sent  from  England  to  Spain  long  before  that  date,  or  even  long  before  1437;  for  if  the  King  Al- 
phonso,  mentioned  above  as  having  instituted  the  order  of  judge  of  the  shepherds,  be  Alfonso  the 
Wise,  King  of  Leon  and  Castile,  who  is  stated  to  "  have  digested  a  code  of  excellent  laws,  and 
rendered  his  name  famous  in  history  by  his  patronage  of  the  arts  and  sciences,"'!  he  reigned  at  the 
early  period  of  from  1252  to  1284.  And  another  fact  mentioned  by  Mr.  Southey — wl^en  Catherine, 
daughter  of  John  of  Gaunt,  was  e.-^poused  to  Henrique  III.,  she  took  English  sheep  with  her  as 
her  dowry — fixes  another  exportation  of  sheep  to  Spain  about  1390,  a  considerable  while  prior  to 
the  Cotteswolde  exportation  of  1464  ;  and,  if  the  English  sheep  had  been  of  an  inferior  descrip- 
tion to  those  of  Spain,  it  is  not  likely  that  the  future  dueen  of  Castile  would  have  taken  them 
with  her  as  her  own  dowry.  In  concluding  this  subject,  Mr.  Southey  puts  this  doubting  query: 
"  Can  there  possibly  be  any  truth  in  the  remark  of  Yepes  (t.  7,  §  134),  who  says :  '  Daily  experi- 
ence shows  US  that,  if  a  lamb  is  suckled  by  a  goat,  the  wool  becomes  hard  and  hairy ;  and,  on  the 
contrary,  if  a  kid  is  suckled  by  a  ewe,  the  hair  becomes  soft?'  " 


27.    THE  MAKING  OF  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE. || 

•'  And  now  the  Dairy  claims  her  choicest  cnre, 
And  half  her  household  find  employment  there  : 
Slow  rolls  the  chum — its  load  of  clogging  cream 
At  once  foregoes  its  quality  and  name  : 
From  knotty  particles,  first  floating  wide, 
Congealing  butter  's  dashed  from  side  to  side  ; 
Streams  of  new  milk  through  flowing  coolers  stray, 
And  snow-white  curds  abound,  and  wholesome  whey." 

Bloomfield. 

(2047.)  The  dairy  operations  on  a  farm  of  mixed  husbandry  are  limited, 
both  in  regard  to  the  season  in  which,  and  the  quantity  of  materials  by 
which,  they  can  be  prosecuted.  Until  the  calves  are  all  weaned,  which 
can  scarcely  be  before  the  end  of  June,  there  is  no  milk  to  spare  to  make 
butter  or  cheese,  but  what  of  the  former  may  suffice  for  the  inmates  of  the 
farm-house ;  and  as  some  of  the  cows,  at  least,  will  have  calved  4  months 
before  all  the  cows  are  free  to  yield  milk  for  the  dairy,  a  full  yield  of  milk 
cannot  be  expected  from  them  even  when  entirely  supported  on  grass. — 
But  though  thus  limited,  both  in  regard  to  length  of  time  and  amount  of 
milk,  there  is  ample  opportunity  for  performing  every  dairy  operation,  ac- 
cording to  the  taste  and  skill  of  the  dairy-maid.     For  example :  Butter 

[II  The  dairy  products  of  the  United  States  in  1840  were  put  down  at  $.33,787,008. 

Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

*  Southey's  Omniana,  vol.  U.  t  Youatt  on  Sheep.  t  Bigland's  View  of  the  World,  vol.  ii. 

(601) 20 


306  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

may  be  made  from  cream,  or  fi-om  the  entire  sweet  milk.  It  may  be  made 
up  fresh  for  market,  or  salted  in  kits  for  families  or  dealers.  Cheese  may 
also  be  made  from  sweet  or  skimmed  milk,  for  the  market;  and  any  vari- 
ety of  fancy  clieese  may  be  made  at  a  time — such  as  cream-cheese,  imita- 
tion Stilton,  Gloucester,  or  Wiltshire.  With  all  these  means  at  command, 
to  a  moderate,  indeed,  but  available  extent,  it  is  quite  possible  for  the 
dairy-maid  to  display  as  much  skill  and  taste  in  her  art  on  a  mixed  as  on 
a  dairy  farm — not  only  in  these  respects,  but  in  the  endless  forms  in  which 
milk  may  be  served  on  the  table  of  the  farmer.  In  short,  the  only  advant- 
age a  dairy-farm  possesses  over  one  of  mixed  husbandry  is,  that  all  its 
dairy  operations  are  conducted  on  a  larger  scale. 

(2048.)  The  milk-housc,  large  enough  and  otherwise  convenient  and 
suitable  for  a  farm  of  mixed  husbandry,  may  be  seen  represented  in  plan 
at  VI,  fig.  32;  and  the  cheese-room  adapted  to  the  same  is  seen  in  plan  at 
1i,  fig.  33.  The  moJe  in  which  a  milk-house  should  be  fitted  up,  is  de- 
scribed in  (231),  as  well  as  a  cheese-room  in  (237). 

(2049.)  The  vtotsih  with  which  a  dairy  should  be  supplied,  comprise  a 
large  number  of  articles,  though  all  of  simple  construction.  The  milk- 
dishes  are  composed  of  stone- ware,  wood,  metal,  or  stone.*  The  stone- 
ware consists  of  Wedgewood  and  common  ware  ;  the  wooden  of  copper- 
work,  "of  oak-staves  bound  with  hoops  of  iron;  the  metal  of  block-tin,  or 
of  zinc  ;  and  the  stone  are  hewn  out  of  the  block,  and  polished.  Besides 
these,  utensils  formed  of  a  combination  of  materials  are  used,  such  as 
wooden  vessels  lined  with  block-tin  or  zinc,  and  German  cast-iron  dishes 
lined  with  porcelain.  Of  the  whole  variety,  the  stone  and  wooden  ones 
lined  with  metal,  are  stationary,  and  the  rest  movable.  All  milk-dishes 
should  be  of  a  broad  and  shallow  form,  for  the  purpose  of  exposing  a  large 
surface  with  a  shallow  depth  of  milk,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  disenf^age- 
ment  of  the  several  parts  of  the  milk.  There  seems  to  be  a  difference  of 
opinion,  which  of  those  substances  have  the  greatest  influence  in  disen- 
gaging the  greatest  quantity  of  cream  from  the  milk.  I  have  heard  it 
maintained  at  one  place  that  stone  is  much  the  best ;  at  another,  that  wood 
is  the  best ;  at  another,  that  stone-ware  is  preferable  to  all  others,  and  of 
the  two  kinds  of  stone-ware  that  of  the  common  ware  is  better  than 
Wedgcwood's  ;  and  at  another,  that  zinc  is  by  far  the  best ;  from  all  which 
difference  of  opinion  I  would  infer  that  the  subject  has  not  been  satisfac- 
torily ascertained  by  comparative  experiment,  and  which  I  believe  to  be 
the  case  ;  but  I  am  sure  that  different  management,  even  in  the  same  cir- 
cumstances, will  produce  very  different  results  in  this  product  of  milk. 
Independently  of  the  consideration  of  cream,  however,  other  circumstances 
should  be  regarded  in  making  choice  of  milk-dishes.  Wooden  ones  re- 
quire much  labor  to  keep  them  thoroughly  clean,  though  they  are  the  least 
liable  to  injury  in  the  use.  Metal  ones  also  require  much  cleaning,  and 
are  liable  to  be  bruised  ;  and  it  is  not  questionable  that  they  are  unwhole- 
some for  milk,  if  not  kept  thoroughly  clean.  Tin  produces  no  injurious 
salt  with  the  acid  of  milk  ;  but  the  salt  produced  by  the  action  of  lactic 
acid  upon  zinc,  is  believed  to  be  in  a  slight  degi'ee  poisonous  to  the  human 
stomach.  At  all  events,  the  thought  of  kicjumr  milk  in  metallic  dishes  is 
unpleasant  to  the  mind.  Stone-ware  is  easily  frangible,  but  is,  neverthe- 
less, so  cheap,  so  easily  cleaned,  and  so  safe  in  use,  that  it  forms  the  most 
convenient  material  f(ir  milk-dishes  to  every  class  of  country  people.  The 
advantage  of  Wedgewood  ware  consists  in  its  hardness,  and  the  durability 
of  its  glazing.     The  price  of  dishes  of  common  ware,  of  15  inches  in  di- 

[*  Better  if  made  of  glass,  with  thoir  capacity  stamped  in  the  making.  Ed.  Farm.  Lii>.] 

(602) 


MAKING  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE.  307 

ameter,  is  9d.  each  ;  of  Wedgewood's  ware,  from  12  inches  to  24  inches, 
from  2s.  to  8s.  each ;  of  wood,  16  inches  diameter  and  4  inches  deep,  2s. 
each,  and  of  zinc,  IS  inches  in  diameter,  3s.  9d.  each,  and  others  are  3d. 
per  inch  more  or  less,  as  the  diameter  increases  or  diminishes  from  this 
size. 

(2050.)  The  other  utensils  are  :  Creaming  scallop,  for  taking  the  cream 
off  milk ;  a  jar  for  containing  the  cream  until  it  is  churned ;  a  Wedge- 
wood  one,  with  top  and  opening  in  it  to  he  covered  with  muslin,  to  keep 
out  dust  and  let  in  air,  costs  from  6s.  to  7s.  6d.  ;  a  churn,  of  which  there 
are  many  forms,  all  of  which  will  be  found  described  below  by  Mr.  Slight ; 
a  flat  wooden  kit,  to  wash  butter  in ;  scales  and  weights  for  weighing  but- 
ter, whether  in  pounds,  fractional  parts  of  a  pound,  or  in  the  lump  ;  jars 
or  firkins  for  packing  salted  butter  ;  moulds  for  forming  prints  of  butter 
for  the  table  ;  covered  dishes  for  holding  fi-esh  butter  in  pounds ;  a  tub 
for  earning  the  milk  in  when  aboiit  to  make  cheese  ;  a  curd-cutter,  and  a 
curd-breaker ;  a  drainer  to  lay  across  the  cheese-tub  while  the  whey  is 
straining  from  the  curd  ;  cheese-vats  for  giving  the  form  to  cheese  ;  a 
cheese-press,  a  figui'e  of  the  most  convenient  and  powerful  form  of  which 
is  given  below ;  a  furnace  and  pot  for  heating  water  and  milk  ;  and  a  sup- 
ply of  spring-water  is  an  essential  concomitant  to  a  dairy. 

(2051.)  A  word  or  two  on  churns.  The  old-fashioned  upright  hand- 
plunge-churn  is  now  confined  chiefly  to  the  use  of  small  farmers  and  cot- 
ters ;  but,  when  inanimate  power  is  applied  to  the  making  of  butter,  the 
upright  churn  is  yet  used  by  many  dairy  farmers  who  conduct  their  opera- 
tions on  a  large  scale.  About  20  years  ago  the  barrel-chum  was  much  in 
vogue,  and  it  was  very  well  suited  for  making  butter,  as  it  kept  all  the 
cream  in  constant  agitation  ;  but  the  trouble  required  to  keep  it  clean, 
from  its  inconvenient  form  to  get  within  it,  has  tended  to  bring  it  into  dis- 
repute. It  is  now  su^^erseded  by  the  box-churn,  whose  constiiiction  ad- 
mits of  its  being  easily  taken  to  pieces  and  cleaned.  Of  the  two  forms  of 
box-chum,  I  prefer  the  one  in  which  the  agitators  move  horizontally,  be- 
cause it  can  be  filled  to  any  degree  of  fullness,  without  danger  of  the  cream 
or  milk  working  out  of  the  journal-holes  of  the  axle.  Long  ago,  small 
chums  were  in  repute  ;  though  they  fell  into  desuetude,  but  lately  have 
again  come  into  use,  and  for  making  small  quantities  of  butter  they  are 
admirably  adapted.  Various  constructions  of  small  churns,  intended  to 
regulate  the  temperature  of  the  cream,  have  of  late  been  proposed,  some 
of  which  are  noticed  below. 

(2052.)  A  word  or  two  also  on  cleanliness.  Unless  the  milk-house  is 
kept  thoroughly  clean,  in  its  walls,  floors,  and  shelves,  the  milk  will  be- 
come tainted ;  and  in  order  to  keep  them  clean,  the  floor  and  shelves 
should  be  of  materials  that  will  bear  cleansing  easily  and  quickly.  In 
most  farm-houses  the  shelving  is  of  wood,  and  the  floor  of  pavement  or 
brick.  Wooden  shelves  can  be  kept  clean,  but  are  too  warm  in  summer. 
Stone  shelving  is  better,  but  must  be  polished,  otherwise  cannot  be  suffi- 
ciently cleaned;  and  to  be  kept  clean,  requires  at  times  to  be  rubbed  with 
sandstone.  Marble  shelving  is  the  best  of  all  for  coolness  and  cleanliness, 
and  they  are  not  so  expensive  as  many  imagine.  Polished  pavement 
makes  a  more  durable,  easier  cleaned,  and  cooler  floor  than  brick.  There 
should  be  ample  means  of  ventilation  in  the  dairy  when  required  ;  the 
principal  object,  however,  not  being  so  much  a  constant  change  or  a  larger 
quantity  of  air,  as  an  equality  of  temperature  through  summer  and  win- 
ter. To  obtain  this  desideratum,  the  windows,  which  should  face  the  N. 
or  E.,  should  not  be  opened  when  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  above  or 
below  the  proper  one,  which,  on  an  average,  may  be  stated  at  50°  Fahren- 

(603) 


308  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

heit.  Tlie  milk-house  should  be  thoroughly  dry  ;  ihe  least  natural  damp  in 
the  walls  and  floor  will  emanate  a  heavy  fungus-like  odor,  very  detrimen- 
tal to  the  flavor  of  milk  and  its  products.  The  utensils  should  all  be  kept 
thoroughly  clean,  and  exposed  to  and  dried  in  the  air.  Some  daiiy-maids 
are  so  careless  in  this  respect,  that  1  have  seen  seams  of  green  and  yellow 
rancid  butter  left  in  the  corners  and  angles  of  chums,  and  a  heavy  smell 
of  dirty  woolen  rags  pcr>'adhig  wooden  utensils.  However  effectual 
woolen  scrubbers  may  be  in  removing  greasiness  left  by  milk  and  butter 
on  wooden  articles,  they  should  never  be  employed  in  a  dairy,  but  only 
coarse  linens,  which  should  always  be  washed  clean  in  hot  water  without 
soap,  and  dried  in  the  air.  All  the  vessels  should  be  quickly  dried  with 
linen  cloths,  that  no  feeling  of  clamminess  be  left  on  them,  and  then  ex- 
posed to  the  air.  In  washing  stone-ware  dishes,  they  should  not  be  dried 
at  that  time,  but  set  past  singly  to  drip  and  dry  ;  and  they  should  be  rubbed 
bright  with  a  linen  cloth  when  about  to  be  used.  If  dried  and  set  into 
one  another  after  being  washed,  they  will  become  quite  clammy.  The 
great  objection  to  using  stone  milk-coolers  is  the  difficulty  of  drying  them 
thoroughly  before  being  again  used.  No  milk-house  should  be  so  situate 
as  to  admit  the  steam  rising  from  the  boiler  which  supplies  hot  water  for 
washing  the  various  utensils ;  nor  should  the  ground  before  its  windows 
contain  receptacles  for  filth  and  dust,  but  be  laid  out  in  grass,  or  fiimished 
with  evergreens.  It  is  said  that  the  odor  from  the  blossom,  of  the  com- 
mon elder,  Snmbvcus  nigra,  in  summer  is  a  complete  muscafuge,  if  I  may 
be  allowed  to  coin  a  word. 

(2053.)   The  articles  which  engage  the  dairy-maid's  attention  within  the 
dairy  are  milk,  butter,  and  cheese  ;  and,  first,  as  to  milk.     I  have  already 
said  that  the  milk  is  drawn   from  the   cow  into  a 
pail  (1670),  the  most  convenient  form  of  which  is  Fig.  376. 

given  in  fig.  376,  and  the  size  of  which  may  vary 
to  suit  the  pleasure  of  the  dairy-maid.  It  is  made 
light,  of  thin  oak  staves  bound  with  iron  hoops, 
and  costs  from  2s.  6d.  to  5s.,  according  to  the  size. 
The  milk,  in  being  drawn  from  the  cows,  is  put 
into  a  tub,  and  left  to  cool ;  but  not  to  become  so 
cold  or  stand  so  long  as  to  separate  the  cream. 
The  tub  should  be  placed  in  the  air,  and  out  of 
reach  of  animals,  such  as  cats  and  dogs.  After  it 
has  co(jled,  the  milk  is  passed  through  the  milk- 
sieve  into  the  milk-dishes,  and  as  much,  only  is  put 
into  each  dish  as  not  to  exceed  2  inches  in  depth. 
To  know  at  once  the  age  of  milk  in  the  dishes, 
one  mark  or  score  should  be  made  with  chalk  on 

.1  T    1  •  (.11      1  1  1  1  •         1  THE  MILKIXG-PAIL. 

the  dishes  just  nlled,to  show  that  they  contanithe 

last  drawn  milk,  or  fj-eshest  meal  ;  a  second  mark  is  made,  at  the  same 
time,  on  the  dishes  containing  the  meal  before  this ;  and  a  third  is  put  on 
the  dishes  containing  the  milk  drawn  before  the  second  meal,  and  which 
constitutes  the  third  meal,  or  oldest  milk.  If  the  cows  are  milked 
three  times  a  day,  when  the  first  mark  is  put  on  the  dishes  of  the  evening 
meal,  those  of  the  morning  meal  of  the  same  day  will  have  3  marks,  to  in- 
dicate its  being  the  third  meal  previous,  and  the  dishes  of  the  mid-day  or 
second  meal  will  have  2  marks.  At  every  meal  all  the  utensils  that  have 
been  used  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  set  past  dry,  ready  for  use 
when  required. 

(2054.)  The  next  care  of  the  dairy-maid  is  taking  the  crcarn  off"  the  milk. 
In  ordinary  weather  in  summer  the  cream  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain 

(604) 


MAKING  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE.  309 

Ion  O'er  on  the  milk  than  3  meals — that  is,  when  a  fi-esh  meal  is  brought  in, 
the  cream  should  be  taken  off  the  dishes  which  have  3  marks,  when  the 
milk  will  be  20  or  22  hours  old  ;  but,  should  the  weather  be  unusually 
warm,  the  milk  should  not  be  allowed  to  be  more  than  IS  hours  old,  or 
that  having  2  marks,  before  the  cream  is  taken  off  it.  For  example :  in 
ordinary  routine,  the  cream  of  the  previous  mid-day's  milk  should  be  taken 
off  in  the  morning,  and  at  mid-day  the  milk  of  the  previous  evening  would 
be  creamed,  and  so  on  ;  but,  when  the  weather  is  very  warm,  it  would  be 
well  to  anticipate  the  creaming  of  one  meal,  and  take  the  cream  of  the  two 
oldest  meals  at  one  time,  and  in  this  way  take  off  all  the  cream  that  can 
be  got  every  18  hours.  The  reason  for  using  this  precaution  in  taking  off 
cxeam  is,  that  the  milk  should  on  no  account  be  allowed  to  become  sour 
before  the  cream  is  taken  off,  because  the  cream  of  sour  milk  makes  bad 
butter.  Let  sweet  cream  become  ever  so  sour  after  being  taken  off  the 
milk,  and  no  harm  will  accrue  to  the  butter.  Not  that  sour  cream  off  sour 
milk  is  useless,  or  really  deleterious,  for  it  may  be  eaten  with  relish  by  it- 
self, as  a  dessert,  or  with  porridge.  The  cream  is  skimmed  off  milk  with 
a  thin,  shallow  dish,  called  a  skimmer  ov  creamer.  It  may  be  made  of  wood 
or  of  stone-ware  ;  and,  of  the  two  substances,  the  ware  is  preferable  for 
cleanliness  ;  and,  of  ware,  Wedgwood's  or  porcelain  is  the  best,  being 
light,  thin,  hard,  highly  glazed,  and  smooth.  There  is  no  other  way  of 
taking  cream  off  dishes  but  with  a  skimmer ;  but  in  stationary  coolei's,  of 
metal  or  of  stone,  a  spigot  is  drawn  cautiously  from  a  hole  in  the  bottom, 
through  which  the  milk  runs  slowly  down  into  a  vessel,  and  the  cream  is 
left  on  the  bottom  of  the  vessel ;  and  this  manner  of  separating  the  cream 
from  the  milk  is  said  to  be  the  most  effectual ;  but,  of  course,  the  skimmer 
can  be  used  for  creaming  the  milk  in  coolers,  as  well  as  other  dishes.  The 
cream,  when  taken  off  the  milk,  is  put  into  a  cream-jar,  in  which  it  accu- 
mulates until  churned  into  butter.  Every  time  a  new  portion  of  cream  is 
put  into  the  jar,  the  cream  should  be  stirred,  in  order  to  mix  the  different 
portions  of  cream  into  a  uniform  mass.  The  stirring  is  usually  done  with 
a  stick  kept  for  the  purpose,  but  spoons  of  Wedgwood  ware  are  made  for 
doing  it.  The  cream  soon  becomes  sour  in  the  jar,  and  it  should  not  be 
kept  too  long,  as  it  is  apt  to  contract  a  bitter  taste.  Twice  a  week  it  should 
be  made  into  butter,  however  little  the  quantity  may  be  at  a  time.  The 
skimmed  milk  is  put  into  a  tub  and  made  into  cheese  ;  but,  if  a  cheese  is 
only  made  every  other  day,  the  milk  kept  for  the  following  day  should  be 
scalded  befor.»  it  is  put  into  the  tub, 

(2054.)  On  Converting  cream  into  Mittcr,  the  first  act  is  to  put  the  chum 
into  a  proper  state.  It  is  assumed  that  the  churn  when  last  used  was  put 
aside  in  a  thoroughly  clean  and  dry  state.  This  being  the  case,  a  little  hot 
water,  about  2  quarts,  should  be  poured  into  it  to  scald  and  rinse  it.  In 
summer  it  should  be  rinsed  with  cold  water  after  the  hot,  but  not  in  win- 
ter. Some  people  sprinkle  a  little  salt  into  the  churn  before  the  ci'eam  is 
put  into  it,  but  whether  it  does  any  good  or  not  I  cannot  say.  The  chum 
being  thus  prepared,  the  cream  is  strained  into  it  through  a  bag  of  coarse, 
open  sort  of  linen  cloth,  well  known  under  the  name  of  cheese-cloth.  This 
cloth  is  always  kept  in  a  sweet  state,  no  soap  ever  being  employed  to  wash 
it.  It  is  dipped  in  water,  and  then  held  over  the  churn  ;  and,  on  the  cream 
being  slowly  poured  into  it  from  the  jar,  the  greater  proportion  will  run 
through  into  the  churn ;  but  the  clotted  part,  which  will  contain  in  it  dust, 
drowned  flies,  moths,  and  spiders,  and  other  impurities,  which  it  i-s  impos- 
sible to  keep  out  of  an  open  cream-jar,  the  cloth  will  keep  back,  on  being 
gently  pressed.  In  the  small  hand  plunge-churn,  and  in  a  barrel-chum,  a 
churn-cloth  is  required  to  be  put  round  the  mouth  of  the  former,  and  un- 

^605) 


310  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

der  the  bung  of  the  latter,  to  prevent  the  cream  being  throwii  out  in  churn- 
ing. The  temperature  at  which  cream  is  put  intci  the  chura  has  a  consid- 
erable influence  on  the  time  which  the  butter  will  take  to  make,  and  also 
on  the  weight  of  butter  obtained  from  a  given  quantity  of  cream.  It  has 
been  found  that  fti'P  Fahrenheit  is  the  temperature  which  best  attains  these 
ends,  and  it  is  one  easily  attained  in  a  cool  apartment  early  of  a  summer's 
morning.  The  churning  should  be  done  slowly  at  first,  until  the  cream 
has  been  comj)letely  broken — that  is,  rendered  a  uniform  mass — when  it 
becomes  thinner,  and  the  churning  is  felt  to  be  easier.  During  the  break- 
ing of  the  cream  a  good  deal  of  gas  is  evolved,  which  is  usually  let  off  by 
a  small  spigot-hole,  if  the  chura  be  tight,  such  as  a  baiTel-chuni ;  but  in 
other  churns,  which  have  a  cover,  the  air  escapes  of  itself  When  the  mo- 
tion of  churning  is  rotatory,  it  should  be  continued  in  the  same  direction, 
and  not  changed  backward  and  forward.  I  am  not  sure  that  a  satisfactory 
reason  can  be  given  for  continuing  uniform  motion,  but  the  opinion  is  that 
the  butter  is  formed  more  simultaneously,  and  that  the  backward  and  for- 
ward motions  are  apt  to  make  the  butter  soft.  It  is  certain,  at  all  events, 
when  the  motion  is  uniform  and  rather  slow,  the  butter,  whenever  it  is 
formed,  is  felt  to  stop  the  motion  of  the  agitators  at  once.  After  the  cream 
has  been  broken,  the  motion  may  be  a  little  increased,  ai\d  continued  so 
until  a  change  is  heard  in  the  sound  within  the  churn,  from  a  smooth  to  a 
harsh  tone,  and  until  an  unequal  resistance  is  felt  to  be  given  to  the  agita- 
tors. The  butter  may  soon  be  expected  to  form  after  this,  and,  by  increas- 
ing the  motion  a  little  more,  it  will  form  the  sooner,  and,  the  moment  it  is 
formed,  the  motion  should  cease.  The  rate  of  motion  in  churning  butter 
is  of  some  importance,  for,  when  performed  too  slowly,  a  longer  time  will 
be  spent  in  churning  than  is  necessary,  and  the  butter  will  be  strong-tasted  ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  when  the  motion  is  too  rapid,  the  butter  will  be 
soft  and  frothy,  when  the  churning  is  said  to  have  burst.  In  very  warm 
weather,  and  when  the  cream  is  put  in  too  warm,  the  churning  is  liable  to 
burst  with  any  degi-ee  of  fast  motion,  and  hence  the  judgment  is  required 
to  be  exercised  in  the  circumstances.  I  suppose  that  the  most  proper  mo- 
tion in  churning  has  never  been  ascertained  by  experiment,  and  to  deter- 
mine which  would  probably  be  tedious,  but  it  would  be  worth  while  being 
tried.  When  butter  forms  from  cream  in  |^  of  an  hour  to  1  hour  churning, 
it  is  satisfactory  work  ;  when  it  comes  much  sooner  it  will  be  soft,  and 
when  much  later  it  will  be  strong-tasted.  The  temperature,  by  agitation 
during  churning,  rises  3^  or  4°. 

(2055.)  Immediately  on  Iijiing  forrfted,  butter  should  oe  taken  out  of  the 
churn  and  put  into  the  butter  tub,  one  of  a  broad  and  shallow  form,  to  be 
worked  u]).  A  little  cold  water  being  first  put  into  the  tub,  and  the  tub 
set  in  an  inclined  position,  the  butter  is  spread  out,  rolled  up  round  the 
edges,  and  pressed  out  by  the  palm  of  the  hand,  in  order  to  deprive  it  of 
all  the  buttermilk — for  the  least  portion  of  that  ingrculient  retained  in  it 
would  soon  render  it  rancid.  The  milky  water  is  poured  off,  and  fresh 
poured  in,  and  the  butter  is  again  washed  and  rubbed  as  often  as  the  wa- 
ter becomes  milky.  -If  intended  to  be  kept  or  disposed  of  in  a  fresh  state, 
the  large  lump  is  divided  and  weighed  in  scales  in  1  lb.  or  ^  lb.  lumps 
each,  and  placed  sejiarately  in  the  tub  among  water.  Each  lump  is  then 
clapped  firmly  by  the  hand  and  formed  into  the  usual  form  in  which  pounds 
and  half-pounds  of  butter  are  disposed  of  in  the  part  of  the  country  in 
which  your  farm  is  situate.  For  the  table  any  reqiiisite  number  of  the 
pounds  should  be  moulded  from  the  lump  into  prints  according  to  taste, 
or  rolled  into  forms  with   small  wooden  spades,  figured   or  plain.     The 

(606) 


MAKING  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE.  311 

made-up  butter  is  then  floated  in  jars  with  covers,  in  a  clear,  strong  brine 
of  salt  and  water,  fit  to  float  an  egg,  made  ready  for  the  purpose. 

(2057.)  Objections  have  been  urged  against  the  use  of  the  hand  in  mak- 
ing up  butter,  and  small  wooden  spades  recommended  to  be  employed  for 
the  purpose ;  and  the  use  of  water  has  also  been  objected  to  making  up 
of  butter,  as  it  is  said  to  deprive  the  butter  of  its  pleasing  aroma.  A  wo- 
man who  has  hot,  clammy  hands,  should  never  become  a  dairy-maid,  for, 
butter  being  very  susceptible  of  taint,  its  flavor  will,  no  doubt,  be  injured 
by  the  heavy  smell  of  sweaty  hands ;  but  clean,  cool  hands — rendered  so 
by  washing  in  warm  water  and  oatmeal,  not  soaj>,  and  then  rinsed  and 
steeped  in  cold  water — hands  so  prepared  will  make  up  butter  far  cleaner 
and  more  solid  than  any  instrument,  whether  of  wood  or  of  any  other  ma- 
terial ;  and  as  to  cold  water  injuring  butter,  there  can  be  no  such  strong 
affinity  between  a  fatty  matter  like  butter  and  cold  water,  as  that  the  lat- 
ter shall  dissolve  any  essential  ingredient  out  of  the  former ;  at  all  events, 
water  will  more  effectually  take  away  any  milky  substance  from  butter 
than  any  dry  instrument  that  can  be  used,  or  even  all  the  art  the  hand 
alone  can  accomplish.  Let  the  trial  be  made  both  ways,  and  their  com- 
parative efficacy  be  tested  by  keeping  the  butter  fresh,  and  seeing  which 
will  keep  the  longest  siveet. 

(2058.)  If  the  butter  is  intended  to  be  salted,  it  is  somewhat  differently 
treated.  After  being  washed  clean,  as  above  described,  it  is  weighed  in 
the  scales,  and  salt  is  immediately  applied.  Practice  varies  much  in  the 
quantity  of  salt  given  to  butter,  so  much  as  from  1  oz.  of  salt  to  1  lb.  of 
butter,  to  ^  oz.  of  salt  to  1^  lbs.  of  butter  :  1  oz.  to  1  lb.  is  too  much — it  is 
like  curing  butter  with  as  little  ai't  as  a  salt  herring — ^  oz.  of  fine  pure  salt 
being  quite  sufficient;  and  this  quantity  is  intended  for  keeping-butter,  for 
as  to  powdered  butter  for  immediate  use,  ^  oz.  to  2  lbs.  is  quite  sufficient. 
In  the  process  of  salting,  the  butter  is  spread  out  in  the  tub,  and  the  salt, 
g-round  fine,  is  sprinkled  over  it  by  little  and  little,  and  the  butter  rolled 
up  and  rubbed  down  with  the  side  of  the  hand  until  the  whole  mass  ap- 
pears uniform,  and  is  considered  to  be  incorporated  with  the  salt.  To  in- 
sure uniform  salting,  only  half  the  salt  should  be  applied  at  once,  and  the 
butter  lumped  and  set  aside  until  next  day,  when  the  other  half  of  the  salt 
should  be  rubbed  in.  Whatever  of  brine  or  milk  may  have  subsided  from 
the  lump,  in  the  mean  time,  should  be  poured  off".  The  salted  lump  is  then 
put  into  the  jar  or  firkin  on  the  second  day.  One  great  advantage  of  de- 
ferring the  making  up  of  butter  until  the  second  day  is  that,  without  it,  the 
butter  will  not  assume  that  firm,  smooth,  waxy  texture,  which  is  so  charac- 
teristic a  property  of  good  butter.  Butter  when  kitted  is  pressed  firmly 
down  in  all  points,  and  great  care  taken  that  it  be  particularly  pressed 
with  the  side  of  the  finger  round  the  circumference  of  the  jar,  and  its  sub- 
stance made  solid,  and  its  surface  flat  and  smooth.  If  a  former  churning 
of  butter  had  been  put  into  the  jar,  its  surface  should  be  raised  up  into 
regular  furrows,  that  the  new  lump  of  butter  may  be  commingled  with 
what  was  put  into  the  kit  before.  The  compressing  of  butter,  then,  into 
the  kit,  is  of  great  importance,  inasmuch  as,  if  the  least  cell  of  air  be  left 
in  its  mass,  or  get  access  by  the  side  of  the  kit,  it  will  wind  the  butter — 
that  is,  impart  to  it  a  rancid  taste.  After  the  kit  has  been  filled  within  an 
inch  of  the  top,  the  butter  is  made  smooth,  and  covered  with  a  new  piece 
of  wetted  white  linen  or  cotton  cloth.  To  secure  its  goodness,  butter 
should  be  salted  immediately  on  being  made. 

(2059.)  The  state  of  the  kit  should  be  particularly  examined  before  it  is 
used  for  packing  butter.  If  composed  of  stone-ware,  it  is  easily  cleansed 
and  rendered   sweet.     A  wooden  kit  that  has  been  used  before  should  be 

(607) 


312  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

filled  with  water  for  some  time,  to  render  it  water-tight  by  the  swelling  of 
the  edges  of  the  staves.  It  should  then  be  repeatedly  scalded  with  hot 
water,  and  exposed  to  the  air,  and,  just  before  being  used,  should  be  rinsed 
with  cold  water,  and  a  slight  sprinkling  of  salt  scattered  over  its  bottom. 
A  new  wooden  kit  requires  somewhat  different  treatment,  because  the  odor 
from  the  new  wood  will  impart  a  disagreeable  flavor  to  the  butter.  It 
should  be  filled  with  water  mixed  with  garden  mould,  or  with  lime-shells 
and  water,  for  some  days,  and  the  mixture  occasionally  stirred  ;  after  which 
it  should  be  thoroughly  scrubbed  and  cleansed  with  hot  water,  and  rinsed 
with  cold  water,  and  salted  before  being  used. 

(2060.)  The  quality  of  the  salt  has  a  material  effect  on  the  taste  of  the 
butter  that  has  been  salted  with  it.  Ordinary  sea-salt  contains  a  consider- 
able proportion  of  other  salts  which  are  bitter,  and,  of  course,  they  will 
have  effect  upon  the  butter  as  well  as  the  true  salt.  "  It  is  easy,  however, 
to  purify  the  common  salt  of  the  shops  from  these  impurities,"  says  Pro- 
fessor Johnston,  "  by  pouring  2  quarts  of  boiling  water  upon  1  stone  or  2 
of  salt — stirring  the  whole  well  about,  now  and  then,  for  a  couple  of  hours, 
and  afterward  straining  it  through  a  clean  cloth.  The  water  which  runs 
through  is  a  saturated  solution  of  salt,  and  contains  all  the  impunties,  but 
may  be  used  for  common  culinary  purposes,  or  may  be  mixed  with  the 
food  of  the  cattle.  The  salt  which  remains  in  the  cloth  is  free  from  solu- 
ble salts  of  lime  and  magnesia,  and  may  be  hung  up  in  the  cloth  till  it  is 
dry  enough  to  be  used  for  mixing  with  the  butter  or  with  cheese."* 

(2061.)  Butter  assumes  a  texture  according  as  it  has  been  treated.  When 
burst  in  the  churning,  it  is  not  only  soft  but  frothy,  and,  on  being  cut  with 
the  knife,  seems  as  if  it  could  be  compressed  into  much  less  bulk.  When 
churned  too  rapidly,  especially  in  warm  weather,  the  chuniing  may  not 
advance  to  the  degree  of  bursting,  but  the  butter  will  always  continue  sofi^,* 
and  never  assume  a  firmness,  though  worked  up  with  ever  so  much  care, 
and  in  the  coolest  manner  ;  and,  when  one  piece  is  separated  from  another, 
they  are  drawn  asunder  with  a  jagged  surface,  and  stick  to  the  knife  that 
cuts  them.  Soft  butter  will  not  keep  long,  whether  salted  or  fresh.  When 
over-churned — that  is,  when  the  churning  has  been  continued  after  the 
butter  had  been  formed,  it  becomes  soft,  not  unlike  the  state  when  it  is  too 
rapidly  churned.  When  properly  churned,  both  in  regard  to  time  and 
temperature,  butter  becomes  firm  with  very  little  working,  and  is  tena- 
cious ;  but  its  most  desirable  state  is  that  of  waxy,  when  it  is  easily  mould- 
ed into  any  shape,  and  may  be  drawn  out  a  considerable  length  before 
breaking.  It  is  only  in  this  state  that  butter  has  the  rich  nutty  flavor  and 
smell,  which  impart  so  high  a  degree  of  pleasure  in  partaking  it.  To 
judge  of  butter,  it  is  not  necessary  to  taste  it — the  smooth,  unctuous  feel, 
on  rubbing  a  small  piece  between  the  finger  and  thumb,  expresses  at  once 
its  richness  of  quality ;  the  nutty  smell  indicates  a  similar  taste;  and  the 
bright,  glisteniiig,  cream-colored  surface  shows  it  to  be  in  a  clean  state. 

(2062.)  What  I  have  stated  in  reference  to  the  making  of  butter,  applies 
especially  to  that  obtained  from  cream  alone,  and  from  cream  in  the  usual 
state  for  butter — namely,  after  it  has  become  sour  by  keepin  A  but  butter 
can  be  obtained  from  sweet  cream  as  well,  though  chuniing^enders  its 
buttermilk  sour,  as  well  as  that  always  is  from  sour  cream.  To  have  but- 
ter in  perfection  from  sweet  cream,  it  should  be  churned  every  dav ;  and, 
as  the  supply  of  cream  daily  is  usually  very  limited,  a  smaller  churn  than 
usual  is  most  convenient  to  be  used  ;  and  for  this  purpose  there  is,  per- 
haps, none  better  than  the  table-churn  figured  hereafter — by  l\m  peculiar 


•  Johnston's  Lecturea  on  Agricultural  Chemistry. 
(608) 


MAKING  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE.  313 

construction  of  which,  being  placed  in  a  vessel,  the  temperature  of  the 
cream  can  be  regulated  in  all  seasons.  I  see  it  alleged  in  adveitisements 
of  churns  of  similar  construction  to  this,  that  butter  may  he  made  from 
cream  in  10  or  12  minutes.  I  have  made  several  experiments  w-iih  such 
a  table-chum,  in  churning  cream  at  different  temperatures,  and  \\-ith  differ- 
ent velocities,  but  never  obtained  good  butter  in  less  than  30  minutes  ;  and, 
when  formed  so  quickly  as  in  15  minutes,  the  butter  was  as  soft  as  froth. 
I  have  heard  it  alleged  that  butter  of  the  finest  quality  cannot  be  obtained 
from  sweet  cream  ;  but  the  alleeation,  I  suspect,  is  made  by  persons  who 
have  little  experience  of  butter  from  sweet  cream.  So  far  am  I  from  co- 
inciding in  this  opinion,  that  I  know  butter  of  the  richest  quality,  and  of 
the  finest  flavor  and  appearance,  can  be  made  from  sweet  cream.  Ti^'ere 
this  butter  not  necessarily  good,  would  the  nobles  of  the  land  have  it  upon 
their  tables  every  morning  ?  It  is  true  that  sweet  cream  requires  longei 
churnine  than  sour — still,  butter  is  obtained  from  it  in  from  30  to  40  min- 
utes ;  and,  if  it  is  an  unprofitable  mode  of  using  cream,  that  is  a  different 
question.  For  my  ovm  taste,  I  would  never  desire  better  butter,  all  the 
vear  round,  than  that  churned  every  momins:  in  a  small  chum  from  sweet 
cream.  Such  butter,  on  new  baked  oat-cake,  cooled,  with  a  little  virgin 
flower-honey,  and  a  cup  of  hot,  strong  coffee,  mollified  with  crystalized 
sugar  and  cream,  such  as  the  butter  had  been  made  from,  is  a  breakfast 
worth  partaking  of,  but  can  seldom  be  obtained. 

(2063.)  Besides  cream,  butter  is  made  from  street  milk  ;  but,  to  obtain 
which,  a  large  chum  is  required,  and  the  churning  continued  for  a  long 
time,  seldom  less  than  3  hours.  When  the  quantity  of  milk  is  large,  power 
other  than  human,  whether  of  steam,  water,  or  horse,  is  employed  to  move 
the  chum.  The  butter  obtained  from  this  method  is  very  good.  The  ob- 
vious objection  to  this  method  is,  the  labor  imposed  in  agfitating  a  gi-eat 
quantity'  of  milk,  and  in  consequently  having  a  large  quantity  of  butter- 
milk ;  which,  however,  may  easily  be  disposed  of  in  towns,  and  may  even 
be  converted  into  very  good  cheese.  The  method  has  its  advantages  in 
the  uniform  character  of  the  butter  which  it  affords  in  all  seasons,  from  the 
certainty  of  obtaining  a  churning  at  the  proper  temperatiire,  which  is  re- 
quired to  be  higher  than  that  of  cream,  being  65^  Fahrenheit,  and  easily 
obtained,  in  A\'inter  and  summer,  by  the  addition  of  hotter  or  colder  water 
among  the  milk.  Churning  from  sweet  milk  is  thus  a  comparatively  sim- 
ple process.  The  milk  is  poured  into  coolers  at  first,  and  from  them  "  it 
is  drawn  off  by  siphons  into  vats  sufilciently  large  to  contain  both  the  eve- 
ning and  morning  meals;  and  the  vats  are  then  put  by,  to  stand  totallv  un- 
distui-bed.  till  the  whole  acquires  a  sufiicient  degree  of  acidity.  The  time 
required  for  this  purpose  varies  a  little  according  to  the  heat  of  the  weather 
and  the  temperature  of  the  milk-house.  The  point  is  ascertained  by  the 
formation  of  a  strong,  thick  brat  or  scum  on  the  siurface,  when  this  becomes 
uneven."  All  the  milk  is  not  of  the  same  age,  but  this  does  not  affect  the 
quality  of  the  whole.  The  times  of  churning  are  these  :  "  The  milk  of 
Sunday  and  Monday  is  churned  on  the  Thursday  morning :  that  of  Tues- 
day, Wednesday,  and  Thursday  mornings,  on  the  Saturday  evening ;  and 
that  of  Thursday  evening.  Friday  and  Saturday,  on  the  Monday  morning."* 

(2064.)  In  churning  either  ingredient  the  residuum  is  huttermilJc,  which, 
when  obtained  in  large  quantity  from  milk,  may  be  disposed  oi  in  towns, 
or  converted  into  cheese  ;  and.  when  derived  in  small  quantity  from  ci-eam, 
a  part  may  be  used  for  domestic  purposes,  and  the  remainder  mixed  with 
the  food  given  to  the  brood-sow. 


Transactions  of  the  Highland  and  Agricaltsral  Society,  for  July,  1343. 
(609) 


314  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

(2065.)  It  is  now  time  to  say  something  on  the  making  of  cheese.  On  a 
farm  of  mixed  husbandry,  as  much  skimmed  milk  cannot  be  procured  ev- 
ery day  as  to  make  a  cheese  of  ordinary  size,  but  there  may  be  one  made 
every  other  day.  To  save  skimmed  milk  from  souring  in  warm  weather 
till  the  next  day,  it  is  necessary  to  scald  it — that  is,  to  put  it  into  a  furnace 
pot,  and  heat  it  sufficiently,  and  then  let  it  cool.  The  nre  shAuld  be  a  gen- 
tle one,  and  the  milk  should  be  so  carefully  attended  to  as  neither  to  burn 
nor  boil,  nor  be  made  warmer  than  the  finger  can  bear.  After  being  thus 
heated  in  the  morning,  the  milk  should  be  poured  into  a  cheese-tub,  to 
await  the  cheese-making  of  the  following  day.  Tlie  skimmed  milk  of  next 
morning  is  poured  into  the  same  tub,  except  about  ^  of  it,  which  is  put 
into  the  furnace  or  another  pot,  and  made  warm  for  the  purpose  of  ren- 
dering the  entire  milk  of  the  tub  sufficiently  wann.  The  heat  is  applied 
slowly  to  the  pot ;  the  milk  occasionally  stirred  with  a  stick,  and  made  as 
warm  as  the  finger  can  hardly  bear.  This  warm  portion  is  then  poured 
into  the  tub,  the  contents  of  which  are  thereby  made  as  warm  as  new  milk 
— that  is,  about  110'^  or  112^.  The  various  degrees  of  heat  here  referred 
to  are  in  rather  vague  terms,  but  1  believe  no  specific  degi-ee  of  heat  is 
required  in  scalding,  provided  the  milk  is  not  allowed  to  bum  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  pot,  and  is  prevented  from  boiling  ;  for,  if  it  boil,  the  milk  will 
coatjulate  instantly,  and  be  useless  for  cheese-making,  because  the  cheese 
will  then  be  hard  or  flinty ;  and,  so  far  as  these  two  points  are  concerned, 
the  ready  and  practical  test  of  the  finger  is  sufficiently  accurate.  On  the 
contents  of  the  tub  being  mixed  by  stirring,  the  rennet  or  earning  is  added 
to  the  milk,  which  is  allowed  to  stand  some  time  to  coagulate,  with  a  cloth 
thrown  over  it,  to  keep  the  proper  heat. 

(2066.)  In  the  meanwhile,  I  shall  describe  the  method  of  preparing  the 
rennet,  or  reed,  or  earning.  A  calf's  stomach  is  usually  recommended  for 
this  purpose ;  but  as  calves'  stomachs  are  not  easily  obtained  in  districts 
where  calves  are  reared,  a  pig's  stomach,  which  can  be  easily  obtained  on 
every  farm,  will  answer  the  purpose  equally  well — and,  indeed,  many  be- 
lieve that  it  makes  the  stronger  earning  of  the  two.  WHien  the  pigs  are 
killed  for  hams  in  %vinter,  their  stomachs  should  be  preserved  for  rennet, 
and  they  are  preserved  in  this  manner  :  Let  the  inside  skin  of  the  stom- 
achs be  taken  out ;  the  opei'ation  is  somewhat  troublesome,  but  may  easily 
be  done  by  an  experienced  dairy-maid.  Any  curdling  in  it  is  thrown 
away,  as  being  unnecessary',  and  tending  to  filthiness  ;  and  the  skin  is  then 
wiped  clean  with  a  cloth,  not  washed.  It  is  then  laid  flat  on  a  table,  and 
rubbed  thickly  over  with  salt  on  both  sides,  and  placed  on  a  dish  for  4 
days,  by  which  time  it  has  imbibed  sufficient  salt  to  preserve  it.  It  is  then 
hung  stretched  over  a  stick  near  the  fire  to  dry  and  won,  and  in  the  dried 
state  is  kept  for  use  as  rennet  by  the  next  season.  Some  people  place  a 
layer  of  clean  wheat  straw  on  the  skin,  after  it  is  salted,  and  roll  the  skin 
over  if.  to  keep  it  open — tie  a  piece  of  paper  around  it,  and  then  hang  it 
up  near  the  kitchen-fire  to  dry  and  won.  This  plan  is  good  enough,  but 
not  better  than  the  other.  When  the  rennet  is  to  be  used,  a  strong  brine 
of  salt  and  boiling  water,  sufficient  to  float  an  g^^,  is  made  and  sieved 
throuffh  a  cloth,  and  allowed  to  cool,  to  the  amount  of  3  imperial  pints  to 
each  skin.  One  skin  is  allowed  to  remain  in  that  quantity  of  brine  in  a 
jar,  with  its  mouth  covered  with  bladder,  for  3  or  4  days,  when  the  coag- 
ulating strength  of  the  brine  is  tested  by  pouring  a  drop  or  two  into  a  tea- 
cupfull  of  lukewarm  milk  ;  and,  when  considered  suflficiently  strong,  the 
brine  is  freed  of  the  skin,  bottled  and  tightly  corked  for  use.  The  skin  is 
again  salted  as  before,  and  spread  over  a  stick  to  dry  and  won,  and  is 

(610J 


MAKING  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE. 


315 


Fig   377. 


THE    CUKD-CUTTKR. 


again  ready  for  use  when  required.     Half  a  tea-cupfull  of  this  rennet  will 
coagulate  as  much  milk  as  will  make  a  15-lb.  cheese. 

(2067.)  When  the  milk  is  sufficiently  coagulated,  which  it  wll  be  in  half 
an  hour,  the  curd  is  cut  in  the  tub  with  the  curd-cutter,  fig.  377,  which  con- 
sists of  an  oval  hoop  of  copper  a  h,  9  inches  long 
and  6  inches  wide,  and  1^  inches  deep,  embracing 
a  slip  of  copper,  of  the  same  depth,  along  its  longi- 
tudinal axis  a  b.  The  stem  c  of  round  copper  rod 
rising  from  each  side  of  the  oval  hoop  unites  at  c, 
and  after  attaining  in  all  18  inches  in  length,  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  wooden  handle  d,  9  inches  in  lengtli, 
but  6  inches  would  be  enough,  by  which  it  is  held 
either  by  one  or  both  hands,  and  on  the  instrument 
being  used  in  a  perpendicular  direction,  cuts  the  curd 
into  pieces  in  the  tub.  Some  people  break  the  curd 
at  first  with  the  hand,  but  this  instrument  cuts  it 
more  effectually.  On  being  cut,  the  curd  lets  out  its 
whey,  which  is  drained  off  by  means  of  a  flat  dish 
being  pressed  against  the  curd-cloth,  linen  of  open 
fabric,  spread  upon  the  curd.  As  much  of  the  whey 
is  removed  in  this  way  as  practicable,  and  the  curd 
will  be  left  comparatively  dry,  when  it  receives  an- 
other cutting  with  the  cutter,  and  the  whey  again 
expressed  from  it.  The  curd  is  then  lifted  out  of  the  tub,  and  wrapped 
into  the  curd-cloth,  which,  in  the  form  of  a  bundle,  is  placed  upon  a  drainer 
lying  across  the  mouth  of  the  tub,  and  the  whey  is  pressed  out  of  it  by 
main  force.  This  is  the  laborious  part  of  the  operation,  and  to  save  both 
time  and  labor  in  large  cheese  dairies,  the  bundle  of  curd  is  placed  in  a 
large  cheese-vat,  and  subjected  to  pressure  in  the  cheese-press  to  get  quit 
of  the  whey.  The  curd  becomes  very  firm  after  this  pressing,  and  must 
be  cut  into  small  pieces  by  some  instrument  before  it  can  be  put  into  the 
cheese-vat.  In  most  small  dairies,  I  believe  that  the  hand  alone,  or  a  table- 
knife,  is  employed  to  divide  the  curd,  but  a  simple  implement,  such  as  rep- 
resented and  described  below,  effects  the  purpose  with  comparative  ease 
and  sufficient  minuteness.  The  curd,  being  made  small  enough,  is  salted 
to  taste  with  salt  ground  fine.  In  some  parts  of  the  country,  such  as  in 
Cheshire,  and  in  Holland,  cheeses  are  salted  by  being  floated  in  a  strong 
solution  of  salt  in  water,  which  no  doubt  penetrates  the  new  formed  cheese, 
but  it  seems  an  uncertain  mode  of  giving  any  desired  degree  of  saltness. 
After  being  salted,  the  curd  is  put  into  a  cheese-cloth,  spread  over  a  cheese- 
vat,  and  firmly  packed  into  the  vat  higher  than  its  edge,  and  on  the  curd 
being  covered  with  the  cloth,  the  vat  is  placed  in  the  cheese-press  and  sub- 
jected to  pressui-e,  upon  which  a  quantity  of  whey  will  probably  exude  by 
the  holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  vat.  In  a  short  lapse  of  time,  2  hours  or 
more,  the  cheese  is  turned  out  of  the  vat,  a  clean  and  dry  cheese-cloth  put 
in,  the  cheese  replaced  into  it  upside  down,  and  again  subjected  to  in- 
creased pressure  in  the  press.  Should  whey  continue  to  exude,  the  cheese 
must  again  be  taken  out  of  the  vat,  and  a  clean  cloth  substituted ;  in  short, 
a  clean  cloth  should  be  substituted,  and  the  pressure  increased,  as  long  as 
any  whey  is  seen  to  exude  ;  but  if  the  prior  operations  have  been  properly 
performed,  the  exudation  should  cease  in  about  12  hours,  after  which  the 
pressure  is  continued  until  the  press  is  wanted  for  a  new  cheese  on  the 
second  day.  Fig.  378  shows  the  common  cheese-vat  or  cJiessart,  as  it  is 
called,  the  form  being  varied  according  to  that  adopted  for  the  cheese.  This 
vat  is  built  in  elm  staves,  as  beinoj  less  liable  to  burst  with  pressure.  anJ 

(611) 


316  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

Strongly  hooped,  and  is  furnished  with  a  sub- 
stantial bottom,  pierced  with  holes,  to  allow 
the  whey  expressed  to  flow  away,  and  a  strong 
wooden  cover  cross  doubled.  It  is  of  advan- 
tage that  the  cover  fit  the  vat  exactly,  and  that 
the  vat  have  as  little  taper  interiorly  as  possi- 
ble. In  some  parts,  as  in  Cheshire,  cheese-vats 
are  made  of  tin,  with  holes  in  the  bottom.  The 
old  and  inconvenient  form  of  cheese-press,  as 
well  as  the  new  and  convenient  one,  are  both 
found   ficrured   and   described   below    by   Mr. 

C,,.     ,  >  ,     .  r    .    •     *       1  V.  THE    CHEESE-VAT. 

Slight.     In  some  dairy  distncts  large  cheeses 

are  subject  to  immense  pressure.  In  Cheshire  the  cheese  is  subject  to 
three  presses,  the  first  giving  a  pressure  of  -1,  a  second  of  a  ^,  and  a  third 
of  1  ton  weight.  There  the  cheeses  being  unusually  large,  are  bound 
round  with  fillets  of  linen  until  their  form  attains  consistency. 

(2068.)  After  the  cheeses  have  been  suflficiently  pressed,  they  are  put 
into  the  cheese-room  h,  fig.  33,  which  should  not  be  exposed  to  too  much 
heat,  drouth,  or  damp,  as  heat  makes  cheese  sweat ;  drouth  dries  them 
too  quickly,  and  causes  them  to  crack  ;  and  damp  prevents  them  harden- 
inor  and.  wonning:,  and  causes  them  to  contract  a  bitter  taste.  Cheeses  be- 
ing  exposed  to  a  cool,  dry,  and  calm  air  upon  the  shelves  in,  will  dry  by 
degi-ees,  and  obtain  a  firm  skin.  The  skin  becomes  harder  by  being  dip- 
ped in  hot  water,  but  I  see  no  benefit  to  be  derived  from  such  a  practice. 
They  should  be  wiped  with  a  dry  cloth,  to  remove  any  moisture  that  may 
have  exuded  from  them,  and  turned  daily.  To  expedite  the  process  of 
turning  and  rubbing,  a  cheese-rack,  such  as  is  figured  below,  has  been  in 
use  in  England,  and  found  to  answer  the  purpose.  New  cheeses,  as  they 
are  made,  are  set  in  the  rack,  while  as  many  of  the  oldest  are  removed 
from  it  and  placed  upon  the  shelves.  Some  cheeses  burst,  and  throw  out 
a  serous-like  fluid,  which  accident  happens  in  consequence  of  the  whey 
which  was  left  in  it  fermenting,  and  which  should  have  been  pressed  out. 
Any  cheese  that  changes  the  shape  which  the  cheese-vat  gave  it,  should  be 
suspected  of  some  organic  change  taking  place  within  it ;  but  if  such  a 
cheese  does  not  crack,  so  as  to  admit  the  air  into  it,  it  may  soon  become 
ripe  and  mould,  and  prove  of  fine  flavor.  The  inconvenience  of  cracks 
in  cheese,  is  the  facility  afforded  to  the  cheese-fly  to  enter  and  deposit  its 
eggs ;  and  to  prevent  their  egress,  the  cracks  should  be  filled  up  every  day 
with  a  mixture  of  butter,  salt,  and  pepper,  made  to  a  proper  consistency 
with  oatmeal. 

(20G9.)  But  the  casualties  which  I  have  mentioned  are  less  hkely  to  be- 
fall skimmed-milk  cheese,  the  making  of  which  I  have  been  describing, 
than  new  or  sweet-milk  cheese.  These  are  made  exactly  in  the  same 
manner  with  the  milk  as  it  comes  from  the  cow.  One  day's  milk  being 
in.sufficient  for  a  cheese,  the  fresh  morning's  meal  is  mixed  with  the  meals 
of  the  previous  day,  the  oldest  part  of  which  will  have  thrown  up  a  cov- 
ering of  cream,  which  is  mixed  through  the  milk,  and  the  entire  gatherings 
are  heated  with  a  portion  of  the  mf)ming's  milk.  The  rennet  is  applied 
in  the  same  manner,  but  in  rather  larger  quantity.  Greater  difficulty  \n\\ 
be  found  to  squeeze  the  whey  entirely  from  the  curd  than  with  the  skim- 
med milk,  and  it  is  the  difficulty  of  expressing  all  the  whey  out  of  them 
which  renders  sweet-milk  cheeses  more  liable  to  ferment,  and  burst  and 
lose  their  shape. 

(2070.)  I  have  ^aid  nothing  of  employing  annotto  or  arnotto  for  dyeing 
cheese,  because  I  think  it  a  very  useless  piece  of  trouble  which  cheese- 

(612) 


MAKING  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE.  317 


farmers  impose  upon  themselves.  It  is  employed  in  Gloucestershire  to 
the  extent  of  1  oz.  of  arnotto  to  1  cwt.  of  cheese;  and  in  Cheshire,  Sdwts. 
to  60  lbs.  of  cheese,  and  it  costs  from  Is.  to  Is.  6d.  per  lb.  Arnotto  is  a 
precipitate  from  maceration  of  the  pulp  which  covers  the  seeds  of  the  Bixa 
orellana  of  Linnaeus.  It  is  manufactured  in  two  forms,  one  in  flags  or 
cakes  of  2  lbs.  or  3  lbs.  each,  of  a  bright  yellow  color,  soft  to  the  touch,  of 
good  consistence,  and  comes  from  Cayenne  wrapped  in  banana  leaves,  and 
is  much  used  in  giving  an  orange  tint  to  silk  and  cotton  goods,  but  which 
is  not  permanent ;  and  the  other  kind  is  called  roll  arnotto,  which  is  small, 
not  exceeding  2  oz.  or  3  oz.  each,  hard,  dry,  and  compact,  of  a  brownish- 
color  outside  and  red  within,  is  brought  from  Brazil,  and  is  the  kind  used 
in  the  dairies.  The  duty  on  the  roll  kind  used  to  be  c£5  12s.  per  cwt.,  and 
is  now  4s.*  When  employed  it  is  put  into  the  milk  before  the  earning, 
and  it  is  prepared  by  rubbing  down  the  requisite  quantity  in  a  bowl  of 
warm  milk.  All  the  quantity  employed  is  said  to  impart  no  peculiar  fla- 
vor to  the  cheese,  and  this  being  the  acknowledged  case,  of  what  utility  is 
it  1  for  as  to  the  appearance  of  cheese,  I  suppose  it  will  be  allowed  that 
Stilton  and  Dunlop  cheese  look  as  well  on  a  table  as  that  of  Gloucester 
and  Cheshire.  Marigold  flowers,  saffi'on,  and  carrots,  are  also  employed 
to  give  color  to  cheese. 

(2071.)  The  yield  of  dairy-cows  varies  so  much,  even  in  the  same  circumstances,  that  no  aver- 
age result  can  be  depended  upon.  I  have  had  covrs  of  the  same  breed  give  from  8  to  17  Scotch 
pints  aday,  that  is,  from  16  to  34  quarts;  and  I  have  known  a  cow  of  a  crossbreed  give  60  quarts 
a-day.  So  is  the  variation  in  respect  of  the  quality  of  the  milk.  I  have  had  cows  whose  milk 
would  only  yield  a  thin  film  of  cream  in  the  course  of  '24  hours,  while  that  of  the  others  would 
almost  admit  of  its  cream  of  the  same  age  being  lifted  oif  with  the  fingers.  But  though  I  can  say 
nothing  satisfactory  on  this  head,  I  may  state  a  few  of  the  circumstances  which  are  supposed  to 
have  a  controlling  influence  on  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  inilk  of  cows. 

(2072.)  The  circumstances  which  alFect  the  quantity  oi  milk  are  the  breed;  the  smaller  breeds 
yield  the  smaller  quantity,  and  the  yearly  quantity  of  the  large  and  smalt  breeds  may  vary  fi-om 
4900t  to  2400^;  quarts  ;  the  kind  of  food,  cows  fed  on  succulent  food,  such  as  moist  meadow-grass, 
brewers'  and  distillers'  refuse,  and  new  sown  grass,  will  yield  a  larger  quantity  of  milk  than  when 
fee'  on  hay  and  roots,  and  old  pasture  :  and  the  time  from  calviner,  which,  according  to  a  state- 
ment of  Mr.  Alton,  causes  a  variation  from  1200  quarts  in  the  first  50  days,  to  300  quarts  in  the 
sixth  50  days  after  calving.|| 

(2073.)  The  circumstances  which  affect  the  quality  of  milk  are  more  various.  The  bi-eed  has 
an  effect ;  the  small  ones  yield  richer  milk  than  the  large,  in  which  respect  the  small  Kerry  cow 
is  superior  to  the  large  Yorkshire.  The  kind  of  food,  hay,  corn  and  oil-cake,  produce  richer  milk 
than  turnips  and  straw,  and  yield  more  butter ;  and  bean-meal  and  tares  afford  more  cheese  than 
oil  cake,  corn,  potatoes  and  turnips.  In  the  time  from  calving,  it  is  well  known  that  the  first 
milk  of  a  cow,  called  the  biestings  (1677),  is  much  richer  than  the  ordinary  milk  which  the  cow 
afterward  gives.  It  has  a  different  composition  from  milk,  and  acts  as  a  purgative  to  the  new- 
born calf,  which  is  of  essential  use  to  it  at  that  period  of  life,  in  removing  the  sticky  sort  of  dung 
called  ihe  meconivm,  from  its  bowels.  You  thus  see  how  erroneous  is  the  practice  of  those  breed- 
ers of  calves  who  throw  away  the  biestings  as  injurious.  In  7vet  and  cold  weather  the  milk  is  less 
rich  than  in  dry  and  warm ;  and  on  this  account  more  cheese  should  be  obtained  in  cold,  and  but- 
ter in  warm  weather.  The  season  has  its  effect;  the  milk  in  spring  is  supposed  to  be  best  for 
drinking,  and  hence  it  is  then  best  suited  for  calves ;  in  summer  it  is  best  for  cheese,  and  in  au- 
tumn for  butter;  and  hence,  perhaps,  autumn  butter  keeps  better  than  that  of  summer,  because  it 
contains  less  of  the  caseous  principle.  Cows  less  frequently  milked  than  others  will  give  richer 
milk,  and  consequently  more  butter ;  morning's  milk  is  richer  than  the  evening's  ;  and  the  laft 
drawn  milk  of  each  milking,  at  all  times  and  seasons,  that  is,  the  afterings  or  strokings,  are  well 
known  to  be  the  richest  part  of  the  milk,  and  the  first  drawn  the  poorest.  A  cow,  before  she  is 
asrain  in  calf,  gives  richer  milk  than  when  she  is  pregnant,  a  portion  of  the  secretion  which  sup- 
plies the  richer  milk  being,  no  doubt,  withdrawn  to  support  the  foetus.  A  well  formed  cow  will 
give  more  and  better  milk  than  an  ill-formed  one.  Old  pasture  will  produce  richer  butter  than 
new.  Cows  kept  constantly  in  the  byre  are  said  to  give  richer  milk  than  those  allowed  to  go  at  large 
at  pasture,  but  the  latter  are  supposed  to  yield  more  cheese  ; — the  exercise,  perhaps,  preventing 
the  due  proportion  of  the  richer  secretion.  Many  other  circumstances  may  be  known  in  different 
localities  to  affect  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  milk  of  cows  ;  but  a  sufficient  number  are  here 
related  to  show  how  perplexing  a  thing  it  is  to  conduct  a  dairy  in  the  most  profitable  way. 

(2074.)  The  phenomena  accompanying  the  changes  in  milk  are  well  known  to  every  dairy-maid, 
but  few  of  theni  know  that  the  constituent  parts  of  milk  are  only  mechanically  commixed ;  and 
this  must  be  their  state  even  in  the  udder  of  the  cow,  otherwise  the  afterings,  which  had  occupied 
the  upper  part  of  the  udder,  would  not  be  the  richest  portion  of  the  milk,  nor  the  first  drawn  the 

*  McCulloch'8  Dictionary  of  Commerce,  and  Ure's  Dictionary  of  the  Arts,  art-  Annatto. 
t  Dickson  on  Live  Stock,  vol.  1.  J  Alton's  Treatise  on  Dairy  Husbandry.    H  lb. 

(613) 


318 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMyWER. 


poorest  All.  therefore,  that  is  renuired  to  separate  the  different  parts  of  milk  is  rest  and  time. 
The  cream  or  fatty  part  floats  to  the  surface  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours;  in  a  little  longer  time, 
according  to  the  state  of  the  temperature,  the  caseous  portion  becomes  sour,  and  in  a  still  greater 
leni-'ih  of  time  the  acidity  beconiLs  xo  powerful  as  to  coagulate  the  milk  in  one  mass,  and  in  a  still 
greater  lapse  of  time  the'coagulati-d  mass  s<'parates  into  two  parts,  one  becoming  firmer,  or  cheese, 
the  other  again  fluid,  or  whey.  The  rationale  of  this  natural  process  is  thus  w  ell  given  by  M. 
Raspail : — "  Milk,  when  viewed  by  the  microscope  with  a  power  of  only  100  diameters,  exhibits 
spherical  globules,  tlie  largest  of  which  are  not  more  than  .0004  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  which, 
from  their  smallness,  ap()ear  of  a  deep  black  at  the  edtrcs.  These  globules  disappear  on  the  ad- 
dition of  an  alkali,  such  as  ammonia,  and  the  milk  then  becomes  transparent  If  the  proportional 
quantity  of  milk  be  more  considerable,  it  forms  a  coagulum  of  a  beautiful  white  color,  on  the  ad- 
dition of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  This  consjulum  docs  not  arise  simply  from  the  adhesion  of 
the  globules  to  each  other,  but  it  may  be  plainly  seen  by  the  microscope,  that  the  globules  are 
evolved  in  a  transparent  albuminous  membrane,  which  has  no  appearance  of  a  granular  structure. 
Milk,  then,  is  a  watery  fluid,  holding  in  solution  albumen  and  oil,  by  the  agency  of  an  alkaline 
salt  or  a  pure  alkali,  and  having  suspended  in  it  an  immense  number  of  globules  which  are  in  part 
albuminous  and  in  part  oily.  The  albuminous  globules  must  lend  to  subside  slowly  to  the  bottom 
of  the  ve»i*el  by  their  specific  gravity,  while  the  oily  globules  must  have  a  tendency  to  rise  to  the 
surface.  But  ilic  oily  globules  being  dispersed  in  myriads  amid  equally  numerous  albuminous 
globules,  they  cannot  rise  to  the  surface,  without  taking  with  them  a  greater  or  less  number  of  the 
globules  of  albumen  Hence,  at  the  end  of  24  hours,  we  find  on  the  surface  of  the  milk  a  crust 
composed  of  2  layers,  the  upper  one  of  which  contains  more  butter  than  milk,  while  the  lower 
contains  more  milk  than  butter.  This  separation  will  take  place  equally  with  or  without  the  con- 
tact of  the  air.  The  liquid  part  which  lies  under  the  crust  contains  the  dissolved  albumen  and 
oil,  with  a  portion  of  the  sugar,  ilie  soluble  salts,  and  a  certain  quantity  of  the  albumen  and  oily 
globules.""  Cream  cannot  rise  through  a  great  depth  of  milk.  If  milk  is,  therefore,  desired  to 
retain  its  cream  for  a  time,  it  should  be  put  in  a  deep  narrow  dish  ;  and.  on  the  other  hand,  if  it  is 
desired  to  free  it  most  completely  of  its  cream^it  should  be  poured  into  a  broad  flat  dish,  not  much 
exceeding  1  inch  in  depth.  The  quantity  of  cream  which  any  given  milk  contains  can  be  easily 
measured  by  the  Galactomeler.  which  consists  of  a  narrow  tube  of  glass  not  more  tlian  5  inches 
in  length.  3 "of  which  are  divided  into  100  parts,  and  on  being  filled  with  milK  to  the  top  of  the 
graduated  scale,  whatever  number  of  degrees  the  thickness  of  the  cream  embraces,  will  be  the 
per  ceutage  of  cream  yielded  by  the  milk.  For  example,  if  the  cream  covers  4  lines  of  tlie  scale, 
it  is  4  per  cent,  if  8  lines,  8  per  cent  The  evolution  of  cream  is  facilitated  by  a  rise,  and  retard- 
ed by  a  depression,  of  temperature.  At  the  usual  temperature  of  the  daii^-  at  50^  Fahrenheit, 
all  the  cream  will  probably  rise  in  36  hours,  and  at  70^  it  will,  perhaps,  all  rise  in  half  that  time ; 
and  if  the  milk  is  kept  near  the  freezing  point  the  cream  will  rise  very  slowly,  because  it  becomes 
partially  solidified.  Milk  boils  and  freezes  about  the  same  temperature  as  water.  Milk  may  be 
prevented  becoming  sour  by  being  kept  in  a  low  temperature;  in  a  high  temperature,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  rapidly  becomes  sour.  and.  at  the  boiling  point,  it  curdles  immediately.  The  acid  oi 
milk  is  called  the  lactic  acid,  and,  in  its  nature,  resembles  acetic  acid,  the  acid  of  vinegar. 

(2075.)  Milk  contains  many  very  ditferent  substances  in  its  composition,  to  each  of  which  may 
easily  be  traced  the  origin  of  its  various  properties.  I  shall  give  the  composition  of  biesting,  aloiig 
with" that  of  milk,  from  tlie  analyses  of  MM.  Henri  and  Chevalier,  in  order  to  shew  the  great  dif- 
ference between  them.  It  appears  that  biesting  contains  nearly  3  times  more  casein  tlian  milk, 
and  only  a  trace  of  sugar  of  milk,  no  salts,  and  a  large  proportion  of  macas;  and  more  than  9 
times  more  casein  than  mare's  milk : 


Jccord,ng  to  Henri  and  ChevatUr. 

jtccnrdinff 
to  Luuciu$ 
and  Bondt. 

Co 
Bintin^t. 

Milk. 

Am. 

GoaL 

.... 

1     Woman. 

Mare. 

C  isein 

150.7 
20.0 
26.0 

trace. 

803  .'3 

44.8 

31.3 

47.7 

6.0 

870.2 

18.2 
l.l 

60  8 

3.4 

916.5 

40.2 

33.2 

52.8 

5.8 

868.0 

45.0 

42*0 

50.0 

6.8 

856.2 

1.^2 

35.5 

65.0 

4.5 

879.8 

16.2 

trace. 
87.5  . 

1  896.3 

Sugar  of  Milk 

:>alt.s 

Water 

1000. 

lOUO. 

\000. 

1000. 

1000. 

1000. 

1000. 

Butter  gives  its  richness  to  milk,  sugar  its  sweetness,  casein  its  thickness,  water  its  refreshing 
property  as  a  drink,  and  salts  its  peculiar  flavor.  Of  tlie  different  kinds  of  milk  enumerated  above, 
the  superior  sweetness  and  thinness  of  mare's  milk  are  accounted  for  by  the  large  proportion  of 
sugar  and  the  small  quantity  of  casein  it  contains.  "  The  change  which  takes  place  when  milk 
becomes  sour,  is,  therefore,  easily  understood,"  as  well  observed  by  Professor  Johnston.  •'  Un- 
der the  influence  of  the  casein  the  elements  of  a  portion  of  the  milk-sugar  are  made  to  assume  a 
new  arranLrement  and  the  sour  lactic  acid  is  the  result  There  is  no  loss  of  matter,  no  new  ele- 
ments arc  called  into  play,  nothing  is  absorbed  from  the  air,  or  given  off  into  it,  but  a  simple  trans- 
position of  the  elements  of  the  sugar  takes  place,  and  the  nev\-  acid  compound  is  produced.  These 
changes  appear  very  simple,  and  yet  how  dillicult  it  is  to  conceive  by  what  mysterious  influence 
the  mere  contact  of  this  decaying  membrane,  or  of  the  casein  of  the  milk,  can  cause  the  elements 
of  the  sugar  to  break  up  their  old  connection,  and  to  arrange  themselves  anew  in  another  prescrib- 


'  Raspall's  Organic  Chemistry. 
(614) 


MAKING  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE.  319 

ed  order,  so  as  to  form  a  compound  endowed  with  properties  so  very  different  as  those  of  lactic 
acid." 

{'2076. )  "  Cream  does  not  consist  wholly  of  fatty  matter  (butter),"  observes  Professor  Johnston, 
"but  the  globules  of  fat,  as  they  rise,  bring  up  with  them  a  variable  proportion  of  the  casein  or 
curd  of  the  milk,  and  also  some  of  the  milk  sugar.  It  is  owing  to  the  presence  of  sugar  that 
cream  is  capable  of  becoming  sour,  while  the  casein  gives  it  the  property  of  curdling  when  mix- 
ed with  acid  liquids,  or  with  acid  fruits.  The  proportion  of  cheesy  matter  in  cream  depends  upon 
the  richness  of  the  milk,  and  upon  the  temperature  at  which  the  milk  is  kept  during  the  rising  of 
the  cream.  In  cool  weather  the  fatty  matter  will  bring  up  with  it  a  large  quantity  of  the  curd, 
and  form  a  thicker  cream,  containing  a  greater  proportion  of  cheesy  matter.  The  composition  of 
cream,  therefore,  is  very  variable — much  more  so  than  that  of  milk — and  depends  very  much  up- 
on the  mode  in  which  it  is  collected."  In  warm  weather,  therefore,  the  cream  should  be  rich 
though  thin.  Cream,  at  a  specific  gravity  of  1.0244.  according  to  the  analysis  of  Bei'zelius,  con- 
sists of 

Butter,  separated  by  agitation 4.5 

Curd,  separated  by  coagulating  the  buttermilk, 3.5 

Whey, ..92.0 

100. 

(2077.)  "  5  !<(!ter,"  says  Professor  Johnston,  "prepared  by  any  of  the  usual  methods,  contains 
more  or  less  of  all  the  ingredients  which  exist  in  milk.  It  consists,  however,  essentially  of  the 
fat  of  milk,  intimately  mixed  with  a  more  or  less  considerable  proportion  of  ca.sein  and  water,  and 
with  a  small  quantity  of  sugar  of  milk.  Fresh  butter  is  said  to  contain  about  1-6  of  its  weight 
(16  per  cent.)  of  these  latter  substances,  and  5-6  of  pure  fat.  according  to  Chevreul.  How  much  of 
the  16  per  cent,  usually  consists  of  cheesy  matter,"  may  be  seen  by  this  statement : — "  two  sam- 
ples of  fresh  butter  from  cream,  examined  in  my  laboratory,  have  yielded  only  0.5  and  0.7  per  cent, 
respectively.  This  is  certainly  a  much  smaller  quantity  than  I  had  expected.  Does  butter  from 
the  whole  milk  contain  more  ?"*  The  proportions  of  butter  yielded  by  milk  varies  considerably, 
from  1  lb.  of  butter  to  15  quarts  of  milk,  as  in  Holstein,  to  8  quarts  of  milk  of  the  Kerry  cow.t 

(2078.)  Curd  in  a  state  of  purity  is  named  casein.  "  Casein  has  many  properties  in  common 
with  the  albumen  of  blood,"  says  Dr.  Thomson,  •'  and,  like  albumen,  may  be  obtained  in  two 
states,  namely,  uncoagulated,  when  it  is  soluble  in  water,  and  coagulated,  when  it  is  insoluble  in 
that  liquid.  ■  It  is  precipitated  from  its  aqueous  solution  by  acetic  acid,  which  is  not  the  case  with 
albumen.  It  is  coagulated  by  a  boiling  heat,  but  slowly  ;  separately  in  films,  which  collect  upon 
the  surface  of  the  liquid.  Coagulated  casein  subjected  to  pressure  to  free  it  from  the  whey  con- 
stitutes cheese.  If  cheese  consists  of  nothing  but  casein,  it  has  a  bluish-white  color,  is  very  hard, 
almost  like  horn,  and  is  quite  insipid.  Good  cheese  is  always  made  from  milk  still  retaining  its 
cream.  It  is  impossible  to  state  the  proportion  of  casein  which  exists  in  milk,  because  it  varies 
80  much,  not  only  in  the  milk  of  different  animals,  but  also  in  that  of  the  same  animal  at  different 
times.  According  to  Berzelius,  100  parts  of  skimmed  milk,  which  he  analyzed,  contained  2.8  of 
casein."  The  average  proportion  of  curd  to  milk  is  thus  given  by  Dr.  Dickson, — "Exact  and  re- 
peated trials  have  shown  that  about  15  gallons  of  milk  are  necessary  for  making  about  11  lbs.  of  2- 
meal  cheese,  and  that  1  lb.  of  curd  is  produced  from  1  gallon  of  new  milk.  And  as  the  food  af- 
forded by  the  extent  of  from  2^  to  3|  acres  of  land  is  commonly  suppcsed  sufficient  for  the  sup- 
port of  1  cow  the  year  round,  by  taking  the  medium  of  355  lbs.  of  cheese  for  each  cow,  the  quan- 
tity of  cheese  produced  by  1  acre  will  be  118  lbs.,  which  is  supported  by  the  authority  of  many 
statements.  But  during  the  summer  season,  cows  will  afford  from  14  lbs.  to  20  lbs.  of  cheese,  or 
more,  in  the  week,  when  no  butter  is  made."| 

(2070.)  Whey  has  a  yellowish-green  color,  and  an  agreeable  and  sweetish  taste,  in  which  the 
flavor  of  milk  may  be  distinguished.  Almost  the  whole  curd  may  be  separated  by  keeping  the 
whey  for  some  time  at  a  boiling  temperature.  "  It  still  retains  its  sweet  taste,"  says  Dr.  Thomson, 
"but  much  of  the  milky  flavor  is  dissipated.  If  it  be  now  evaporated  over  the  steam-bath,  it  de- 
posits a  number  of  crystals  of  sugar  of  milk.  Toward  the  end  of  the  evaporation,  some  crys- 
tals of  chloride  of  potassium,  and  some  of  common  salt,  make  their  appearance.  According  to 
Scheele,  it  contains  also  a  little  phosphate  of  lime,  which  may  be  precipitated  by  ammonia." 
"  The  sugar  of  milk  constitutes,  at  an  average,  about  3.5  per  cent.,  while  the  saline  ingredients  do 
not  exceed  0.22,  or  2-9  of  a  per  cent,  of  whey.  The  water,  of  course,  constitutes  about  93.3  in 
the  100  parts." 

(2080.)  Schwartz  found  that  1000  parts  of  cowa'  milk  left  3.697  of  ashes,  and  of  woman's  milk 
4.407,  composed  of 

Cow's.      Woman's. 

Phosphate  of  lime, 1.805  2.5 

Phosphate  of  magnesia, 0.170  0.5 

Phosphate  of  iron 0.032  0.007 

Phosphate  of  soda, 0.225  0.4 

Chloride  of  potassium 1,350  0.7 

Soda,  combined  with  lactic  acid, 0.115  0.3 

3.697  4.407 

(2081.)  There  are  a  number  of  other  facts  given  by  Dr.  Thomson  connected  with  milk  in  vari- 
ous states,  worth  mentioning.  The  constituents  of  skimmed  milk,  for  example,  according  to  the 
analysis  of  Berzelius  in  1808,  are 

*  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry. 

t  Journal  of  the  Royal  EngUsh  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  i.       t  Dickson  on  Live  Stock,  vol.  L 
(615) 


320  THE   BOOK   OF   THE   FARM SUM5IER. 

Water 92.875 

Curd,  not  free  fruni  butter, 2.800 

Supar  of  milk 3.500 

Lactic  acid,  aiid  the  lactate  of  potash 0.600 

Chloride  of  r)ota."»siun 0-170 

Phosphate  of  jKJtash 0.025 

Phosphate  of  liiue  aod  magnesia,  with  a  trace  of  iron 0.030 

100.000 

Brisson  states  the  specific  gravity  of  varioas  milks:  but  it  is  important  to  remark,  that  it  varies  so 
much  even  in  the  milk  from  the  same  animal,  that  it  is  impo.sKible  to  give  a  correct  mean.  The 
specific  gravity  of  cows'  milk  is  the  lowest,  being  1.0.324  ;  its  whey  is,  of  course,  siill  lower. 
1.0193  ;  and  that  of  ewe.s'  milk  is  the  hiehest.  beine  1.0409.  La.'i.saigne  examined  the  specific  grav- 
ity of  cows'  milk  at  various  distances  of  time  before  and  after  parturition,  at  a  temperature  of  46^ 
Fahrenheit  and  the  results  were  generally,  that  at  21  days  before  parturition  it  was  highest,  be- 
ing 1.064  ;  and  lowest  at  6  days  after  parturition,  being  1.033.  The  cow,  from  42  days  before  to 
30  days  after  parturition,  was  fed  on  the  same  kiml  of  food,  namely,  beetroot,  hay.  and  straw. 
Lase^tigne  also  ascertained  the  quantity  of  cream  yielded  by  the  same  animals  at  different  times. 
There  was  no  difference  in  the  ratio  beiwecn  the  bulks  of  cream  and  whey  from  the  same  cow, 
fed  on  beetroot,  hay,  and  straw,  from  42  days  before  to  4  days  after  parturition,  when  the  quanti- 
ties were  200  volumes  of  of  cream  to  800  of  whey  ;  but  by  30  days  alter  parturition,  the  volume 
of  cream  had  dcrrenfcd  to  64.  and  that  of  whey  had  increased  to  93C,  and  by  that  imie  the  water 
in  100  parts  of  milk  had  also  increased  to  90.0.  LassaitTje  made  a  curious  reniarK  respecting  the 
milk  of  a  cow.  which  he  examined  at  10  different  periods.  4  of  these  before  and  6  alter  parturi- 
tion. The  milk  examined  during  the  first  three  of  the  former  periods,  namely,  42  days.  32  days, 
and  21  days  before  parturition,  contained  no  casein  at  all.  but  in  place  of  it  albumen :  no  sugar  of 
milk  and  no  lactic  acid,  but  a  sensible  quantity  of  uncombined  soda.  The  milks  examined  11  days 
before  and  just  after  parturition,  contained  both  albumen  and  casein,  while  milk  11  days  before 
parturition,  and  always  after  it,  contained  free  lactic  acid  and  sugar  of  milk,  but  no  free  soda. 
The  milks  examined  4  days,  6  days.  20  days,  21  days,  and  30  days  ajler  parturition,  contained 
casein  and  no  albumen.  It  would  appear  from  these  observations  that  the  milk  of  the  cow  is  at 
first  very  similar  to  the  serum  of  blood,  and  that  the  casein,  sugar  of  milk,  and  lactic  acid,  to  which 
it  owes  much  of  its  distinguishing  characters,  begin  first  to  make  their  appearance  in  it  about  11 
days  before  parttirition. 

(2082.)  A  great  deal  more  might  be  given  in  detail  of  experiments  made  in  different  parts  of 
the  countrj'  on  churning  butter  at  different  temperatures,  and  of  the  various  recipes  for  making 
the  innumerable  variety  of  cheeses  to  be  found  in  this  country ;  but  as  those  experiments  are 
merelj-  so  many  isolated  attempts  to  illustrate  particular  points,  without  reference  to  general  prin- 
ciples" their  results  are  unsatisfactorj-.  In  like  manner  the  numerous  experiments  in  the  labora- 
tory on  milk  and  its  constituents  have  as  yet  led  to  no  improvement  in  practice.  The  field,  there- 
fore, to  the  practical  and  chemical  experimenter  is  still  open,  and  it  might  be  usefully  explored 
by  their  combined  labors,  with  a  view  to  the  establishment  of  general  principles  on  the  best  mode 
of  keeping  dairy  stock,  and  of  evolving  their  products,  in  a  superior  degree  than  hitherto  attain- 
ed. As  one  instance  of  a  want  of  common  understanding  on  this  subject,  I  may  adduce  the  nu- 
merous forms  in  which  the  cheeses  of  Scotland  are  made,  whether  in  the  homely  kebbiick,  or  in 
the  finished  new-milk  cheese  intended  for  city  epicures.  Everj-where  else  but  in  Scotland  the 
place  of  origin  of  a  cheese  may  be  told  by  its  form.  A  Parmasan.  a  Gruyere.  a  Gonda.  a  Kanter, 
an  Edam,  a  Cheshire,  a  Gloucester,  whether  double  or  single,  a  Wiltshire,  a  Cheddar,  or  a  Stilton, 
can  be  named  at  sight,  but  who  can  tell  where  a  Scotch  cheese,  whether  of  skimmed  milk  or  new, 
whether  poor  or  rich,  comes  from,  until  examined  by  a  ronnaisseur?  for  its  Stilton  or  Wiltshire 
form  would  not  necessarily  imply  an  imitation  of  those  celebrated  substances.  There  should  be 
some  settled  conventional  forms  adopted  for  the  identification  of  the  respective  classes  of  cheese 
of  this  countrj-,  that  they  may  pass  current  in  commerce  without  suspicion  and  challenge.  I  shall 
finish  this  interesting  subject  with  recipes  for  making  a  number  of  pleasant  dishes  from  milk,  all 
of  which  are  in  the  power  of  every  farmer  to  have  in  summer  as  a  cool  diet.  Curdi  arc  obtain- 
ed by  simply  earning  a  dishfull  of  new  milk.  When  served  up  with  grated  loaf  sugar,  sprinkled 
over  the  curd  deprived  of  whey,  it  has  the  appearance  of  a  prepared  dish,  and  is  eaten  with 
sugar  and  cream.  A  sour  cos  is  a  dish  of  milk  allowed  to  stand  with  its  cream  until  the  milk  be- 
comes tliorousrhly  coagulated  by  sourness,  and  the  sour  cream  and  milk  arc  eaten  together.  Plain 
cream,  whether  sweet  or  sour,  is  an  excellent  accompaniment  to  oatmeal  or  barleynieni  porridge, 
ortosowens.  The  clnulrd  cream  of  Devonshire  is  prepared  by  strainine  the  new  milk  into  a  shal- 
low dish,  into  which  a  little  warm  water  has  previously  been  put  ;  and  after  allnwing  it  to  stand 
from  6  to  12  hours,  it  is  carefully  heated  over  a  slow  fire  or  hot  plate  till  the  milk  approaches  to 
the  boiling  point,  but  it  must  not  actually  boil,  or  the  akin  of  cream  be  broken.  The  dish  is  then 
removed  to  the  dairy,  and  the  cream  allowed  to  cool,  when  it  may  be  u.-^ed  as  crenm  or  made 
into  butter.  Milk  oatmeal  porridge  is  more  agreeable  to  the  palate  than  water  porridge,  and 
when  eaten  with  cream  forms  a  rich  diet.  HaJf  churned  cream  is  better  with  oatmeal  porridge 
than  plain  cream,  having  a  slicht  taste  of  acidity.  Xeiruntrathed  butter  is  a  great  treat  to  break- 
fast. Hatted  kit  is  one  of  the  pleasantest  preparations  of  milk.  Make  2  quarts  of  new  milk 
scaldins  hot.  and  pour  upon  it  quickly  4  quarts  of  fresh  buttermilk,  and  let  it  stand,  without  stir- 
ring, till  it  becomes  cold  and  firm.  Then  lake  off  the  hat  or  upper  part,  drain  it  in  a  hairseive, 
»nd  put  it  into  a  shape  for  half  an  hour,  and  ser%o  with  cream.  The  slight  acidity  of  tliis  dish, 
with  the  rich  sweetness  of  the  cream,  and  the  addition  of  a  little  sugar,  combine  to  make  this  a 
verv  delicious  dessert.  Float-irhey  is  another  preparation  equally  good  as  hatted  kit.  and  more 
delicate.  Pour  in  all  the  whey  drained  from  the  new-milk  cheese  that  has  just  been  made,  into  a 
small  furnace  pot ;  apply  a  slow  fire,  and  raise  the  whey  near  the  boiling  point,  but  not  to  let  it 
boil,  else  the  curd  will  fall  to  the  bottom.  During  the  neatinir,  a  scum  of  curd  forms  upon  the 
(616) 


MAKING  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE.  321 


surface  of  the  whey.  Take,  then,  1  quart  of  fresh  buttermilk,  and  pour  it  gently  over  the  scum 
and  pool-  as  much  more  buttennilk  till  the  scum  has  attained  some  thickness  and  consistency. 
After  pouring  in  some  cold  water  to  lower  the  temperature  of  the  whey,  thereby  rendering  the 
scum  more  consistent,  skim  off  the  scum  upon  a  hair-sieve,  put  it  into  a  mould,  and  on  turning  it 
out  a  short  time  after,  serve  with  sugar  and  cream.  A  treacle  ponxet  is  made  by  boiling  a  little 
milk  in  a  pan  and  putting  a  table-spoonfuU  of  treacle  or  molasses  into  it.  On  removing  the  curd 
the  whey  is  ready  for  use  for  a  sore  throat  or  cold.  White-wine  whey  is  made  exactly  in  a  simi- 
lur  manner,  but  is  sweetened  in  addition.  To  make  Irish  two-milk  whey,  put  §  of  sweet  milk 
into  a  saucepan,  and  make  it  boiling  hot,  then  pour  in  \  of  buttermilk,  gently  stirring  it  round 
the  edges  of  the  pan.  Let  the  whole  come  to  a  boil;  take  it  off  the  fire,  let  it  settle,  and 
strain  off  the  whey,  which  is  an  excellent  drink  in  fever.  Cream  may  be  used  as  an  emul- 
sion with  all  sorts  of  preserved  fruits,  and  it  enhances  the  flavor  of  every  kind  of  fruit  used  with 
it;  and  there  is,  perhaps,  no  form  of  cream  more  agreeable  or  more  generally  admired,  than 
blaiic  milage  flavored  witli  almonds.  Iced  cream  flavored  with  pine-apple  is  a  delightful  cooler 
in  wann  \\eather.  1  conclude  with  a  recipe  for  making  cream-cheese.  •■  One  pint  of  cream  be- 
ing mixed  with  12  pints  of  noonday  milk,  warm  from  the  cow,  a  little  rennet  is  added,  and  when 
the  curd  is  come  the  whey  is  poured  out  gently,  so  as  to  break  the  curd  as  little  as  possible.  It  is 
then  laid  in  a  cloth,  and  put  into  a  small  sieve  ;  the  cloth  is  changed  every  hour  during  the  day, 
and  in  2-1  hours  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  It  may  be  served  on  a  breakfast-plate  with  vine-leaves  un- 
der it,  and  it  will  keep  perfectly  good  only  one  day."* 

(2083.)  Notwithstanding  the  immense  quantity  of  cheese  made  in  this  country,  a  large  importa- 
tion of  foreign  takes  place  every  year,  not  less  than  132,000  cvvt.  chiefly  from  Holland.  The  old 
duty  of  20s.  per  cwt.  is  retained  iDy  the  New  Tariff.! 

(2084.)  Cheese  is  liable  to  many  casualties  besides  those  already  alluded  to  as  arising  from  fer- 
mentation, chiefly  from  the  attacks  of  animals.  When  yet  quite  fresh,  the  cheese-fly  fPio- 
phila  caseij,  a,  fig.  379,  is  ready  to  deposit  its  eggs  in  the  deepest  crack  it  can  find  by  means  of 

Fig.  379. 


CHEESE-FLY  AND  MAGGOT — PIOPHILA  CAS  EI  ;    AND  WHEAT-STEM-FLY — CHLOROPS  PUMILIONIS. 

an  extensile  abdominal  tube.  The  specific  distinguishing  characters  of  this  insect  are.  in  the 
words  of  Mr.  Duncan,  "  about  2  lines  in  length,  the  whole  body  of  a  greenish-black  color,  smooth 
and  shining;  front  of  the  head  reddish-yellow,  paler  yellow  on  the  under  side  ;  thighs  ochre  yel- 
low at  the  base  and  apex ;  tibiae  deep  ochre,  the  first  and  last  pair  black  at  the  apex ;  anterior 
tarsi  black,  the  others  ociirey.  with  2  last  joints  and  the  claws  black  ;  wings  clear  and  iridescent, 
slightly  tinged  with  rust-color  at  the  base  ;  halteres  ochrey."t  The  cheese-maggots  produced 
from  tills  fly  are  commonly  caXXed  jumpers,  and  it  prepares  itself  for  jumping  as  seen  at  b.  "When 
it  prepares  to  leap,  our  larva  first  erects  itself  upon  its  anus,  and  then  bending  itself  into  a  circle, 
by  bringing  if*  head  to  its  tail,  it  pushes  forth  its  unguifomi  mandibles,  and  fixes  them  in  2  cavi- 
ties in  its  anal  tubercles.  All  being  thus  prepared,  it  next  contracts  its  body  into  an  oblong,  so 
that  the  two  halves  are  parallel  to  each  other.  This  done,  it  lets  go  its  hold  with  so  violent  a  jerk 
that  the  sound  produced  by  its  mandibles  can  be  easily  heard,  and  the  leap  takes  place.  Swam- 
merdam  saw  one,  whose  length  did  not  exceed  the  fourth  part  of  an  inch,  jump  in  this  manner 
out  of  a  box  6  inches  deep,  which  is  as  if  a  man  6  feet  high  should  raise  liimself  in  the  air  by 
jumping  144  feet!  He  had  seen  others  leap  a  great  deal  higher."||  When  cheese  i)asses  its 
stage  of  ripeness,  it  is  liable  to  become  mouldy,  if  kept  in  a  damp  situation,  which  all  ripe  cheeses 
should  be  to  retain  their  moisture  and  flavor,  and  where  the  latter  is  much  enhanced  by  the  pro- 
duction of  blue  mould.  It  is  possible  to  inoculate  new  cheese  with  the  blue  mould  of  old,  and 
thereby  at  once  impart  the  flavor  of  ripeness.  This  process  is  easiest  done  by  insertina:  rolls  of 
moulded  cheese,  extracted  by  the  .scoop  or  spyler,  into  holes  previously  made  in  the  new  cheese 
by  the  same  scoop,  an  instrument  usually  employed  by  cheesemongers  to  taste  cheese. ^  Toward 

*  Dalgaini's  Tractice  of  Cookery.  t  JrcCullooh's  Dictionary  of  Commerce,  art.  Cheese. 

t  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  ii.  1|  Kirby  and  Spence's  Introduction  to  Entomology,  vol.  ii. 

§  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agiiculturai  Socictj-,  vol.  ix. 
(681) 


322  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

a  still  farther  period  of  decay,  cheese  is  attacked  by  the  well-known,  and,  by  Bome,  the  highly- 
prized  cheese-mite  (Acarut  tiro  of  Linnipus).  "  We  often  wonder  how  the  choesc-mite  is  at 
hand  to  attack  a  clieciH;  wherever  deposited  ;  but  when  we  lenm  from  Leewenhock  that  one 
lived  11  weeks  jrummed  on  its  back  to  the  point  of  a  needle  without  food,  our  wonder  is  dimin- 
ished," say  Kirby  and  Spence.  Both  chccse-maegotJi  and  mites,  when  numerous,  destroy  cheese 
rapidly,  by  crumbling  it  into  small  pieces,  and  by  emiltinir  a  liquid  substance,  which  causes  the 
decayed  parts  to  spread  speedily.  They  may  easily  be  killed,  however,  by  exposure  to  strong 
heat  or  by  plunging  the  cheese'in  some  liquid  capable  of  destroying  the  larvrp.  without  commu- 
nicating any  disagreeable  Havor.  such  as  \\hisky.  Hats  and  mice  are  remarkably  fond  of,  and 
commit  sad'  havoc  among,  old  cheese.  Nothing  but  a  cat  can  deter  them  from  a  cheese  cellar, 
where  poison  cannot  be  employed  with  impunity. 

(2085.)  [The  process  of  churiiing.  or  agitating  milk  and  cream  for  the  production  of  butter,  is 
perfbrmed  in  such  a  variety  of  machines,  and  in  vessels  so  variously  formed,  each  of  which  has 
Its  advocates,  and,  probably,  with  but  little  difference  in  the  principal  results,  that  it  becomes  a 
qaestion  of  no  small  difficulty  to  answer,  which  of  these  numerous  forms  is  the  best.  That  there 
■will  be  sliL'ht  differences  is  at  the  same  time  sufficiently  apparj^nt.  but  these  will  arise  more  from  the 
capacity  of  the  vessel,  as  affecting  temperature,  than  from  peculiarity  of  structure,  and  probably, 
also,  from  other  conditions  aH'ccting  llie  chemical  changes  that  take  place  during  the  process.  It 
will  also  be  obvious,  on  a  full  consideration  of  the  subject,  that  causes  of  dirterence  will  arise,  to 
some  extent  from  the  circumstances  attending  the  more  or  less  perfect  nature  of  the  agitation 
produced,  as  arising  from  the  peculiar  formation,  and  tlie  motions,  whether  of  ilie  containing  ves- 
sel or  of  the  agitators. 

(2086.)  The  peculiarities  of  form  may  be  viewed  nnder  four  distinct  classes.  1.  Those  in  which 
boili  the  ffuid  and  the  containing  vessel,  with  its  agitators,  are  in  rotative  motion  ;  2.  In  which 
the  containing  vessel  is  at  rest,  and  the  agitators  in  rotative  motion  horizontally:  .3.  In  which  the 
containing  vessel  is  at  rest,  and  the  agitators  in  rotative  motion  vertically  ;  and  4.  Wherein  the 
containing  vessel  is  .still  at  rest,  and  the  agitator  having  a  rectilineal  vertical  motion. 

(2087.J  In  the  first  clxss  are  to  he  noticed  those  machines  acting  by  their  gyration  on  a  center, 
Buch  as  the  old  barrel-churn,  wherein  the  contained  fluid  will  have  a  tendency  to  acquire  a  mo- 
tion of  rotation  approaching  to  that  of  the  ves.sel ;  and  if  this  rotation  were  continued  always  in 
the  same  direction,  the  process  would  be  very  much  retarded  from  a  deficiency  of  agitation  ; 
hence,  in  such  machines,  very  frequent  changes  in  the  direction  of  the  rotative  motion  is  abso- 
lutely neces.sary  to  the  completion  of  the  process. 

(20S8.)  The  second  cla."!s  embraces  those  iu  which  the  ves.«el  is  permanent,  and  an  agitator  of 
two  or  four  arms  revolves  horizontally  within  it.  If  the  vessel  is  cylindrical  the  agitation  will  be 
imperfect,  for  the  fluid  will  very  s<'on  acquire  a  motion  en  mnitsc,  and  will  be  carried  forward  by 
the  arms  of  the  agitator,  undergoing  such  agitation  only  as  will  arise  from  the  central  portion, 
acting  by  the  centrifugal  force,  having  always  a  tendency  to  fly  toward  the  circumference  of  the 
revolving  mas.s.  This  wi!l  no  doubt  ultimately,  though  slowly,  produce  the  requisite  eflect,  but 
it  will  be  more  speedily  accomplished  if  the  vessel  is  of  a  square  form ;  for  in  that  case  the  rota- 
tion of  the  mass  will  be  interrupted  at  every  angle,  and  eddies  formed  therein  of  such  force  aa 
will  not  only  cause  disturbance  ot' the  fluid  in  these  angles,  but  in  doing  so  will  produce  corre- 
sponding counter-motions  in  the  entire  mass.  From  such  causes,  churns  of  this  class  and  of  the 
square  form  arc  found,  especially  on  the  large  scale,  to  be  very  efficient,  though,  from  the  incon- 
venience of  adapting  manual  power  to  a  horizontal  motion,  it  is  seldom  resorted  to  iu  the  small 
scale. 

(2089.)  In  the  third  class  of  machines,  where  the  vessel  is  also  permanent,  but  having  the  agita- 
tors revolving  in  a  vertical  direction,  the  agitation  is  regular,  iind  pervades  at  all  times  the  entire 
mass  of  fluid  ;  and  in  this  respect  there  is  little  if  any  dift'erenee  in  effV'ct.  whether  the  bottom  of 
the  vessel  bo  Hat  or  cylindrical,  nor  is  there  any  necessity  for  changing  the  direction  of  motion. 
We  accordingly  find  that  whether  on  the  large  or  small  scale,  chums  of  tliis  class  find  favor  in 
almost  all  localities. 

(20!'0.)  The  fourth  class  of  this  usseful  machine  is  the  upright  or  plunge  chum.  The  vessel  in 
this  is  also  permanent,  and  its  hight,  unlike  all  the  others,  is  considerable,  as  compared  with  its 
breadth.  As  a  matter  of  convenience,  it  is  always  made  cylindrical,  or  rather  slightly  conical, 
which  last  property  is  given  to  it  for  tlie  convenience  of  hiwjiing.  for  in  every  other  rcsprct  its 
tapering  form  is  a  defect.  The  plunsrer  must  necessarily  always  move  vertically,  without  any 
rotative  motion,  and.  when  extended  throughout  the  entire  column  of  fluid,  the  agitation  must  be 
as  complete  as  it  is  possible  to  attain.  Plunge  or  vertical  churns,  therefore,  are  by  ninny  held  as 
the  most  perfect  for  tiie  production  of  butter,  as  well  as  for  saving  time  in  the  operation  :  but 
there  are  objections  to  it  a.-i  regards  fitness  for  the  adaptation  of  manual  power.  It  is  obvious  to 
even  a  careless  observer,  that  the  human  arm,  if  applied  directly  to  the  npri^'ht  staftof  this  chum, 
the  body  being  also  upriglit,  will  be  emidoying  that  power  under  the  gieatist  possible  disadvan- 
tages. The  muscles  of  the  ann  acting,  as  they  do,  in  all  cases  under  great  natural  disadvantages 
in  respect  of  their  levorasjc.  will,  in  their  peculiar  position,  he  deprived  of  nearly  all  aid  which 
the  muscles  of  ilie  trunk  in  many  i)ositions  are  calculated  to  give  out  to  assi^^t  lliose  of  the  arm  ; 
hence  it  is  that  the  labor  of  working  these  chums  by  hand,  is  found  so  oppressive  that  the  opera- 
tor is  unable  to  keep  uji  a  constant  action;  and  the  principle  on  which  the  churn  is  based  is 
blamed  for  that  delay  in  the  operation,  that  ought  rather  to  he  attributed  to  the  defect  in  the  me- 
dinm  through  which  the  power  is  applied.  In  proof  of  this,  we  lind  that  when  animal,  or  any  of 
the  inanimate  powers,  are  applied  to  the  vertical  chum,  it  attains  a  character  superior  to  all  oth- 
ers, both  as  to  time  arid  production,  ani!  this  character  is  sustained  throughout  some  of  the  best 
dairj'  districts  in  .Scotland.  The  advantages  of  applying  hand  [lower  throuch  a  proper  medium 
are  also  observable  in  the  case  of  this  chum,  when  snrh  power  is  applied  through  a  winch-handle 
with  a  fly-wheel.  Examples  of  this  arrangement  have  been  attended  with  the  best  eflbcU,  and 
with  much  ease,  as  compared  with  the  direct  application  of  the  power  to  the  plunger  rod. 

(2091.)  In  proceeding  to  the  details  of  the  chumine  machinery,  the  first  class  embraces  those 
(682) 


MAKING  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE. 


323 


machines  that  act  by  their  i^yration  round  a  center,  the  fluid  and  the  containing  vessel  revolving 
together,  or  partially  so  ;  of  which  the  common  barrel-churn  may  be  taken  as  the  type.  The  bar- 
rel, which  is  of  capacity  suited  to  the  dairy,  is  sometimes  provided  only  with  a  large  square 
bung-hole,  secured  by  a'clasped  cover,  by  whicli  it  is  charged  and  emptied  ;  while  in  other  cases 
one  of  its  ends  is  movable,  and  made  tight  by  screwing  it  down  on  a  packing  of  canvas  cloth. 
In  all  cases  it  is  necessary  that  the  interior  of  the  barrel  should  be  armed  with  three  or  more  lon- 
gitudinal ribs  of  wood  standing  as  radii  toward  the  center,  and  perforated  in  various  forms ;  these 
constitute  the  agitators  of  the  chum.  Each  end  of  the  barrel  is  furnished  with  an  iron  gudgeon 
or  journal  strongly  fixed  to  it.  and  to  one  of  them  is  applied  the  winch-handle  by  which  the  ma- 
chine is  turned  ;  while  it  is  supported  on  a  wooden  stand,  having  bearings  for  the  two  journals. 
More  than  one  imperfection  attends  this  construction  of  churn  ;  from  the  circumstance  of  its  rotatory 
motion,  it  will  always  have  less  or  more  of  a  tendency  to  carry  the  fluid  round  with  the  barrel 
and  the  agitators,  more  especially  if  a  rapid  velocity  of  rotation  is  given  to  it ;  and  to  counteract 
this  tendency,  it  becomes  necessary  to  reverse  the  motion  at  every  few  turns,  which  is  of  itself  an 
inconvenience.  There  is,  besides,  the  great  inconvenience  of  getting  access,  either  to  remove 
the  butter  that  may  adhere  to  the  agitators,  or  to  cleanse  the  interior  of  the  barrel.  This  is  espe- 
cially the  case  where  there  is  no  movable  end ;  and  even  with  this  convenience  for  cleaning,  the 
trouble  of  opening  and  closing  the  end  is  considerable.  To  those  imperfections  it  is,  no  doubt, 
chiefly  owing  tliat  this  churn,  once  in  high  repute  in  East-Lothian  and  Berwickshire,  has  gradu- 
ally fallen  into  comparative  disrepute  ;  and  from  these  circumstances,  it  has  been  deemed  neces- 
sar,'  to  give  figures  of  this  class  of  churn. 

(2092.)  Tlie  machines  to  be  here  noticed  under  the  second  class,  are  of  a  less  varied  character 
than  any  of  the  otlier.s,  are  seldom,  if  ever,  used  with  hand-labor,  but  are  generally  worked  by 
horse-power,  and  chiefly  in  town-dairies,  or  in  those  around  Edinburgh.  From  the  comparatively 
small  importance  of  this  churn,  it  has  been  deemed  necessary  to  give  a  figure  of  it;  but  its  struc- 
ture is  so  simple,  that  the  following  description  will  convey  a  tolerably  correct  knowledge  of  its 
construction  to  the  mechanical  reader.  The  horse-path,  especially  in  towns,  where  space  is  valu- 
able, seldom  e.xceedB  16  feet:  the  horse-beam,  with  yoke,  is  fixed  to  an  upright  central  shaft, 
which  carries  a  si)ur-wheel  placed  at  a  hight  of  about  3^  feet  from  the  floor,  the  wheel  being  about 
4  feet  diameter.  One,  or  sometimes  two,  churning  vessels  are  attached  to  the  machine  ;  their  di- 
mensions vary  with  the  extent  of  the  dairy,  but  for  one  of  25  or  30  cows,  where  much  of  the  pro- 
duce is  sold  as  .sweet  milk,  the  vessel  may  be  2  feet  8  inches  square  and  2  feet  8  inches  deep  ;  they 
are  placed  securely  on  the  floor  at  a  proper  distance  from  the  central  shaft,  to  suit  the  spur-wheel. 
A  foot-step  of  metal  is  placed  in  the  center  of  the  bottom,  and  a  cross-head  is  attached  to  two  up- 
rights fixed  on  opposite  sides  of  the  vessel.  The  foot-step  and  cro.s.s-head  serve  as  the  two  bear- 
ings for  an  upright  spindle,  which  carries  the  four-armed  agitator,  and  a  pinion  of  3^  inches  di- 
ameter adapted  to  the  spur-wheel.  These  parts,  and  a  close  cover  for  the  vessel,  complete  the 
machine,  which  is,  therefore,  extremely  simple,  and  in  a  dairy  which  is  too  extensive  for  manual 
power  being  applied  effectually  to  churning,  while  want  of  space  may  preclude  the  adoption  of 
more  bulky  niachines,  the  one  here  described  may  be  resorted  to  with  advantage. 

(2093.)  In  the  same  class  stands  the  tnhle  cA ?//•«.  remark- 
able for  its  elegance  and  cleanliness,  and  which,  though 
adapted  only  for  the  lighter  purposes  of  the  butter-dairy, 
I  have  considered  as  deserving  a  place  here.  This  utensil 
is  represented  in  fig.  380  in  perspective,  exhibiting  it  in  the 
most  recently  improved  form,  with  outer  case  to  contain 
hot  or  cold  water.  This  churn  has  for  the  last  few  years 
been  broucht  prominently  before  the  public  as  a  recent  in- 
vention ;  but  on  close  inquiry,  I  find  that  the  merit  of  its 
original  introduction  is  due  to  the  late  celebrated  Mr. 
Wedgewood,  and  that  it  has  been  in  u.se  for  a  period  of  30 
or  40  years.  The  containing  vessel  is  still  formed  of  the 
Wedgewood  stoneware  ;  and,  as  I  am  informed  by  Mr. 
Child  of  Edinburgh,  the  indefatigable  purveyor  of  elegance, 
utility,  and  comfort,  in  the  china,  stoneware,  and  glass 
trade,  it  was  in  great  request  about  30  years  ago.  its  lately 
extended  appearance  being  merely  a  revival.  The  chief 
part  of  the  utensil  is  the  Wedgewood  receptacle  (/,  formed 
of  the  finest  and  strongest  white  glazed  ware  of  that  man- 
ufacture ;  they  are  of  various  sizes,  from  1  to  4  gallons  ca- 
pacity ;  it  is  furnished  with  a  varni.shed  wooden  cover  i.— 
The  outer  ca.se  c  is  made  of  zinc  or  of  tin  plate  ;  it  is  2 
inches  wider  than  the  churn,  furnished  with  handles  d.  and 
two  ears  to  which  the  iron  cross-bar  e  is  attached  by  two 
thumb-screws  e  and  d,  serving  to  secure  the  cover  to  the 
top  of  the  vessel.  A  brass  socket  /  is  fixed  in  the  cover, 
and  an  iron  spindle  armed  with  three  vanes  is  fitted  to  turn 
in  the  socket,  a  wooden  pulley  is  usually  placed  in  the  po- 
sition of  the  wheel  ^  on  the  top  of  the  spindle,  and  when 
secured  there  it  holds  the  spindle  and  cover  in  constant 

connection.     The  common  drillbow  is  the  usual  medium  „  ,.o,,„v, 

of  power,  the  string  of  which  being  held  in  tension  by  the  the  wedgew.jod  tabi.i,  churn. 
elasticity  of  the  steel-back  or  bow.  any  movement  backward  or  forward  of  the  instrument  will 
cau.«e  the  pulley  and  spindle  to  revolve,  and  the  movements  are  effected  by  applying  the  hand  to 
the  handle  of  the  drill-bow.  When  the  cover  and  spindle  have  been  secured  by  the  screws  e  d. 
and  the  bow-string  applied  as  above,  which  is  effected  by  bending  the  bow  until  the  string  is  suf- 
ficiently relaxed  to  allow  of  its  being  laid  once  round  the  pulley,  the  bow  is  then  allowed  to  ex- 
(683j 


324 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


Fig.  381. 


pand,  and  the  operation  proceed§.     It  has  been  rtated  (20^'7)  that  vessels  in  this  class,  if  cylindrio- 

al,  do  not  produce  the  ettl-cts  of  churning  ho  sj»e«Mlily  a.*"  if  the  form  were  square, 

to  obviate  which  the  motion  of  tlie  a;;italor   muHl  be  frci|ueiitly  reversed  in  the 

cylindrical  vessel.     The  drillbow  niniion  is  ndmimbly  adapted  to  the  reversing 

process  ;  for  in  punhinp  the  bow  forward   by  the  hand,  the  agitator  will  be 

made  to  revolve  2  or  3  times,  llie  number  being  in  the  projiortion  of  the  length 

of  the  string  to  the   proportion   of  the   pulley;  and  in  drawing  them  back  the 

same  number  of  revolutions  will  be  performed  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  so 

on  till  the  process  is  completed.     Fig.  381  is  a  view  of  the  agitator,  a  a  a  are 

the  vanes  of  strong  tinpluie  with  perforations,  b  is  that  part  of  the  spindle  that 

falls  within  the  s<><-ket.  and  c  that  on  which  the  pulley  or  the  wheel  is  fastened. 

(2094.)  The  drillbow  being  rather  an  awkward  medium  of  power,  especial- 
ly in  non mechanical  hands,  an  attempt  has  lately  been  made  to  substitute  for 
it,  in  this  casHJ,  the  common  winch  handle  turning  horizontally.  This  arrange- 
ment is  exhibited  also  in  fig.  n.-^O,  where  A  is  a  toothed  beveled  wheel  of  4  inch- 
es diameter,  on  the  axle  of  which  the  handle  i  is  fixed,  and  it  works  into  the 
wheel  g  fixed  on  the  top  of  the  agitator  spindle  in  the  place  formerly  occupied 
by  the  pulley,  the  two  standards  //  being  fixed  on  the  cover  b,  to  carry  the 
axle  of  the  "wheel  h.  By  this  arrangement  two  turns  of  the  handle  t  produce 
the  same  result  in  the  agitator  as  wa.i  done  by  one  stroke  of  the  bow,  and  the 
motion  of  the  handle  being  reversed  at  every  second  revolution,  the  ultimate 
effect  is  the  same  as  before,  and  the  manual  operation  is  more  ea.sily  effected  in  thk  agitator. 
the  one  case  than  in  the  other.  With  a  view  to  determine  whether  the  alter- 
nate motion  may  not  be  dispensed  with  even  in  a  cylindrical  vessel,  I  have  instituted  experiments 
in  which  the  interior  of  the  vessel  is  armed  with  combs,  and  the  agitator  being  converted  to  a 
like  form,  but  having  its  prongs  or  teeth  adjusted  to  the  intervals  of  those  of  the  vessel ;  with  this 
apparatus  I  have  found  that  like  quantities  of  milk  and  cream,  and  with  the  same  temperature, 
yield  their  butter  in  the  following  times  : 

In  the  plane  cylindrical  vessel,  with  the  agitator  always  moving  in  one  direction,  butter  was 
not  obtained  in  55  minutes.  In  the  same  vessel,  with  the  agitator  moving  alternately  right  and 
left,  at  every  two  revolutions,  butter  was  obtained  in  25  minutes.  In  this  same  vessel,  fitted  as  above 
described,  with  counter  agitators,  but  with  the  agitator  moving  in  one  direction  only,  butter  was 
obtained  in  20  minuie.'i.  From  these  results  it  appears,  that,  even  with  a  cylindrical  vessel,  if  prop- 
erly armed,  the  process  is  performed  in  a  shorter  time  than  with  the  inconvenient  reversed  motions. 

(2095.)  It  is  well  known  that  a  certain  elevation  of  temperature  is  acquired  by  the  fluid  in  the 
process  of  butter-making,  and  that  the  process  is  accelerated  by  producing  this  temperature  arii. 
ficially,  from  the  application  of  heated  water.  For  this  purpose  also,  a  practice  is  becoming  prev- 
alent to  apply  the  water  e.xteraally  to  the  ve.ssels  containing  the  milk  and  cream,  and  not  in  mix- 
ture with  them.  Fig.  380  exhibits  the  application  of  this  process  to  the  utensil  now  under  con- 
eideration,  where  c  is  the  water  case  formed  of  tin  plate,  zinc,  or  of  wood,  at  the  bottom  of  which 
is  fixed  a  circular  stand  to  place  the  receptacle  a  upon,  that  the  water  may  be  under  as  well  as 
around  the  receptacle.  Wood,  from  its  non-conducting  quality,  is  perhaps  belter  adapted  than 
any  metal  for  a  water-case.  Water  brought  to  the  proper  temperature  is  poured  into  the  space 
between  tlie  ca.se  and  the  retaining  vessel,  and  if  found  necessary  to  increase  or  diminish  the  tem- 
perature, part  of  the  contained  water  is  drawn  ofl'  below  by  a  spigot,  and  hot  or  cold  added  to  re- 
store the  requisite  degree  of  heat.  Experience  seems  to  point  out.  that,  in  operating  on  tlie  large 
Bcale  in  vondtti  vcxneJs,  no  extraneous  heat  is  required,  the  naturally  acquired  heat  appears  to  be 
Bufticient,  especially  if  aided  in  winter  by  the  admixture  of  a  small  quantity  of  moderately  heat- 
ed water,  and  the  nonconducting  quality  of  the  wooden  vessel  retains  it;  whereas  the  stoneware 
vessel  will  be  continually  abstracting  heat,  and  giving  it  off  by  radiation,  if  not  surrounded  by  a 
medium  of  equal  temperature. 

Fig.  382. 


(2096.)  Clnirits  of  the  third  class  are 
much  more  numerous  than  the  two 
former,  and  though  in  them.selves  not 
differing  much  in  the  essential  points, 
they  yet  exhibit  a  variety  of  struc- 
ture in  their  details.  They  are  usual- 
ly distinpuishod  by  the  name  of  bo.r- 
churns,  though  the  class  embraces  not 
only  the  cubical  and  oblon?  box,  but 
also  the  cylinder  or  barrel,  the  dis- 
tinctive character  beine  an  agitator 
revolving  in  the  vertical  direction 
within  a  stationary  case  of  any  form. 

(2097.)  To  illu.strate  this  clas.s,  I 
have  selected,  first,  the  box  hftnd- 
churn,  in  very  general  use.  The 
present  example,  fig.  382.  is  18  inches 
m  length,  11  inches  in  width,  and  20 
inches  in  depth,  inside  measure. 
Birch  or  plane-tree  are  the  best  mate- 
rial for  the  jjurpose,  and  it  requires 
to  be  very  carefully  Joined  so  as  to  be 
^ater-tight.  As  before  noticed  (2088) 
it  isof  very  small  moment  whether  the 
bottom  is  formed  to  the  circle  of  the  ag- 
itator, or  remains  fiat,  in  as  far  as  the 
(684) 


THE  BOX  HAND-CHURN. 


Mi^KING  BUTTER   AND  CHEESE. 


325 


Fig.  383. 


prodaction  of  the  batter  is  to  be  considered  ;  but  for  the  process  of  cleansing,  the  curved  bottom  will 
present  some  little  advantag:es;  a  cover  of  the  same  material  is  fitted  close  in  the  top  of  the  box. 
with  convenient  handles.  The  agitator,  fig.  383,  is  of  the  u.sualform;  the  dimensions  of  its  parts 
are  unimportant,  except  that  they  have  sufficient  strength,  and  present  sufficient  surface  to  pro- 
duce the  requisite  degree  of  agitation  in  the  fluid.  The  tvro  pairs  of  arms  are  half  lapped  at  the 
center,  and  the  cross-bars  mortised  into  them  ;  the  dimensions  in  length  and  breadth  being  such 
as  to  allow  it  to  move  with  freedom  within  the  box.  At  the  center  a  perforation  is  made  through 
the  sides  to  admit  the  iron  spindle,  which,  at  this  part,  is  a  square  bar,  fitting  neatly  into  .socket- 
plates  of  iron  let  into  the  agitator  on  each  side,  as  seen  in  the  figure  at  a.  Tiie  farther  end  of  the 
spindle  projects  about  an  inch  beyond  the  agitator,  and  is  rounded  to  form  a  journal,  which  has 
its  bearing  in  a  close  brass  plate-bush  or  socket,  which  is  sunk  into  the  side  of  the  box,  and  fixed 
with  screws.  The  outward  end  of  the  spindle  is  furnished  with  a  conical  journal,  the  smallest 
diameter  of  which  is  equal  to  the  diagonal  of  the  square  part  of  the  spindle,  and  is  furnished  with 
a  raised  collar  or  ruff;  the  conical  journal  lying  in  a  thorough  brass  plate-bush,  leaving  the  collar 
outside,  but  embraced  by  a  cup  of  the  bush,  upon  which  a  coupling-ring  is  screwed,  covering  the 
collar,  and.  pressing  home  the  conical  journal,  preventing  thus  the  spindle  from  being  withdrawn 
until  the  coupling-ring  is  removed.  The  spindle  extends  be- 
yond the  collar  about  '2^  inches,  and  is  here  formed  into  a 
square  stud,  upon  which  the  eye  of  the  winch-handle  fisship- 
ped  when  in  work.  In  rigging  this  apparatus,  the  agitator  is 
placed  within  the  box,  and  the  spindle  is  pushed  through 
the  outer  bu.sh  and  the  agitator,  until  its  two  journals  rest  in 
the  bushes;  the  coupling-ring  is  then  screwed  on  to  the  out- 
er bu.«h,  until  the  spindle  with  the  agitator  just  tunis  round 
with  freedom  in  the  conical  bu.sh.  To  prevent  the  ring  from 
turning  round  by  the  Inotion  of  the  spindle,  a  smooth  ring  or 
washer  of  steel  maj'  be  interposed  between  the  collar  and  the 
brass  rina:.  Various  other  modes  of  securing  the  spindle  are  em- 
ployed, but  in  all,  the  object  is  to  prevent  leakage  at  the  bush. 
To  prevent  taint  from  galvanic  influence  al.so,  it  is  not  uncom- 
mon to  apply  bone  or  other  animal  substance  for  the  bu.shes. 

(2098.)  Churns  of  this  kind  are  made  of  all  sizes,  without 
any  change  in  the  princi[ile  of  their  construction.  They  are 
applied  to  all  kinds  of  power,  and  the  capacity  is  proportioned 
to  the  e.Ktent  of  tlie  dairy :  but  the  enlire  capacity  of  the  churn 
must  be  in  general  about  double  the  quantity  in  gallons,  of  the  fluid  intended  to  be  acted  upon. 
In  operating  with  the  box-churn,  it  may  be  filled  to  the  hight  of  the  spindle,  or,  if  that  member 
is  well  fitted,  the  milk  may  rise  considerably  above  it,  though  in  general  practice  it  rises  but  little 
above.  To  adapt  the  churn  to  power,  it  is  only  necessary  to  put  a  pulley  for  a  strap,  or  a  chain, 
upon  the  end  of  the  spindle,  in  place  of  the  handle;  or  the  spindle  may  be  attached  to  another 
shaft,  having  the  proper  velocity,  by  means  of  a  slip-coupling.  The  velocity  of  the  agitator  must 
depend  upon  the  size  of  the  churn ;  one  of  24  inches  diameter  may  make  60  revolutions  per  min- 
ute on  the  average,  but  may  be  higher  or  lower  in  different  stages  of  the  process. 

(2099.)  A  new  churn  of  this  third  class  has  been  lately  introduced,  and  meets  with  much  favor 
in  the  north  of  Ireland.     It  is  believed  that  its  introduction  from  France  is  due  to  Mr.  Blacker  of 


THE  AGITATOR  OF  THE  BOX-CHURN. 


Fig.  384. 


THE  IRISH  BOX-CHURN. 

Armagh,  who  is  ever  zealous  in  the  advancement  of  objects  tending  to  the  improvenient  of  bis 
country ;  but  the  manufacturing  of  it  is  conducted  by  Mr,  li.  Robinson,  Lisbum.    This  chum  is 
(685j 


32  b' 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


represented  in  figs.  384  and  385 ;  the  first  a  perspective  of  the  machine  as  it  appears  when  in 
■work,  the  second  a  cross  section,  showing  the  chief  peculiarity  of  its  construction.  In  the  prin- 
ciple of  its  operation,  this  chum  is  the  same  as  the  one  last  described,  but,  like  Uiat  alluded  to  un- 
der our  second  class,  it  is  furnished  with  a  case  for  containing  water  to  reirulate  the  temperature. 
It  differs  also  from  the  common  l>ox-chum.  in  having  tJie  spindle  or  axis  of  the  agitator  passing 
through  the  len^h,  in.«ti-ad  of  the  breadth,  of  the  containing  vessel. 

(ilOO.)  In  construction,  fig.  384  rc|iresoiits  a  hand  churn  of  ordinary-  size;  the  containing  vessel 
is  of  an  oblong  form,  with  a  Bcmi-cylindrical  bottom,  its  length  a  A  is  22J  inches,  the  breadth  b  c 
14  inches,  and  the  dt'plli  to  the  axis  of  the  semi  cylinder  11  ^  inches,  the  entire  depth  being  21 
inches,  all  inside  measure.  The  sides  and  ends  are  formed  of  birch  or  plane-tree,  1^  inches  in 
thickness,  securely  joined  at  the  ancles ;  the  ends  of  the  vessel  thus  constructed  descend  to  the 
full  depth  of  the  semi-cyliuder,  while  the  sides  are  only  12  inches  in  deptli.  The  bottom  is  form- 
ed in  two  plates  of  zinc,  tl)e  edges  of  which  are  secured  to  the  outer  and  inner  faces  of  the  sides, 
by  means  of  close  nailini:.  and  also  to  tlie  ends,  making  watertight  joinings  all  round,  in  the  man- 
ner seen  in  section  at  d  and  e,  fig.  38.1,  where  the  space  d  f  e,  between  the  outer  and  inner  plates, 
form  the  receptacle  for  the  water.  In  llie  edge  of  one  side  there  is  inserted  a  funnel  g,  by  which 
llie  water  is  introduced  into  the  receptacle  by  passing  down  through  a  small  bore  in  tlie  side  of 
the  vessel,  and  the  spigot  h  serves  to  draw  off  the  water  when  required.  A  wooden  cover  is  fitted 
into  the  opening  in  the  top.  with  knobs  for  the  convenience  of  lifting  it  out.  The  chamber  thus  con- 
structed is  set  in  the  iron  frames  i  i  i,  which  are  attached  to  each  end  of  the  box,  with  screw 
nails,  and  are  farther  securt^d  by  the  stretcher-bolts  k,  and  furnished  with  stud-handles  /  /.  for  the 
convenience  of  lifting  the  chum. 

(2101.)  lu  fig.  385  the  agitator  is  also  seen  in  section,  whereof  jti  m,  Ac,  are  the  four  arms,  the 
three  transverse  bars  in  each  arm  being  in  this 

case  round  rods.which  are  here  shown  cut  across  Fig.  385. 

by  the  section,  as  is  likewise  the  square  spindle  g 

passing  through  the  center.  The  spindle  is 
formed  and  inserted  in  the  same  manner  as 
described  for  the  box-churn  (2097),  and  dif- 
fers only  from  it  in  the  mode  of  securing  it  in 
place.  In  this  machine  the  spindle  is  pressed 
home  by  a  perforated  oblong  plate,  as  seen  in 
fig.  384,  which  pas.sing  upon  the  outward  end 
of  the  spindle  till  it  rest  asaiu.«t  the  collar,  it  is 
then  passed  upon  two  stud-bolts  fi.xed  in  the 
end  of  the  ves.sel,  having  a  screw-nut  on  their 
point,  which  presses  the  plate  and  the  spin- 
dle, by  means  of  the  collar,  home  to  the  conical 
bush  with  any  degree  of  tightness ;  and  the 
winch-handle  is  then  applied  to  the  extreme 
end.  It  will  be  obser\-ed  that  both  this  and 
the  last  described  chum  require  being  placed 
upon  a  stand  or  table  about  2J  feet  high  when 
■worked  by  the  hand,  in  order  that  the  handle 
may  be  brought  to  a  proper  hight  for  the  full 
effect  of  the  liand.  When  cither  of  them  are 
worked  by  power,  tliey  are  then  most  con- 
Tenienily  set  on  the  floor  of  the  dain.'. 

(2102.)  InUie  fourth  class  of  our  .subdivision, 
there  is  only  to  be  considered  the  plunger    _ 
churn;  for  in  this  class  there  is  no  variety,  e.x-  12  g  (,  TooL  1 

cept  as  to  the  dimensions.   The  means  of  work-    ,       .    i   .    .    \ ^.   i       .    i  -t 

ingtheplunger.aiid  the  different  media  through  tka.vsverse  section  of  the  irish  churn-box. 
which  the  power  is  applied,  whether  of  man  or 

of  animals,  are  of  a  character  much  more  varied  than  in  all  die  others  put  together :  and  all  these 
varieties  st-em  to  have  been  suggested  with  a  vie\\'  to  overcome  llie  very  unfavorable  position  in 
which  a  man  applies  his  force  directly  to  the  plunger-rod  of  this  chum.  Among  these  varieties 
of  construction  in  the  mechanical  media  through  which  power,  of  whatever  kind,  may  be  a]iiilied, 
we  find  all  possible  varieties  of  the  lever  and  its  combinations,  the  loaded  pendulum,  with  com- 
binations of  the  lever  and  of  rack-gearinc.  crank  and  lever,  and  crank  with  connecting-rods  ;  but  it 
would  be  profitli'ss  to  enumerate  all  the  forms  that  have  been  devised  for  the  improvement  of 
this  par.icuiar  kimi.  and  much  more  so  to  attempt  to  describe  tliem.  I  will,  therefore,  rest  satis- 
fied with  one  that  hau  long  been  in  extensive  use,  and  is  equally  well  adapted  to  the  hand  or  to 
power  of  any  kind. 

(2103.)  The  upright  or  plnnsre  chumine-rettel,  is  always  a  piece  of  cooper-work  varj-ing  in  ca- 
pacity, according  to  the  extent  of  the  dairj'  in  which  it  is  to  lie  employed,  from  10  to  130  gallons. 
It  is  built  slightly  tapering  upward  for  the  convenience  of  being  titrhlly  hooped,  having  a  strong 
bottom  and  a  movable  cover,  which  may  l>e  fastened  down  with  an  iron  clasp-hoop  ;  a  per- 
foration is  formed  in  llie  center  of  the  cover  for  the  passage  of  the  chum-staff  or  plunger-rod, 
and  this  is  surrounded  by  a  wooden  cup,  to  prevent  the  lashing  over  of  the  Huid  in  the  act  of 
churning.  The  plunger  or  agitator,  which  is  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  plunger-rod,  is  a  cir- 
cular reticulated  frame  of  wood  :  the  meshes  may  be  from  1  j  to  2  inches  square,  and  the  bars 
formine  the  reticulation  about  {  inch  thick  and  1 J  inches  deep,  the  whole  embraced  by  a  wooden 
hoop,  whose  diameter  will  just  enter  the  top  of  the  chum.  The  structure  of  the  jilunger  is  by  no 
means  important,  the  only  ess»'ntial  point  l>eing.  that  it  shall  not  present  too  much  resistance  to 
the  passase  of  the  fluid  Uirough  its  interstices,  nor  too  little  to  give  it  a  too  easy  passage,  which 
might  render  the  agitation  so  sli^jht  as  to  be  ineffectual ;  a  good  medium  is  to  rnake  the  horizon- 
(636) 


m 

• 

• 

m 

9 
U 
• 

m 

•    •    • 

• 

•  •i 

m 

• 

^^^ 

a 

tn 

m. 

MAKING  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE. 


327 


tal  area  of  all  the  interstices  IS  times  the  area  of  the  solid  parts,  and  this  rule  will  apply  to  the 
agitators  of  all  churns.  Such  is  the  simple  constraction  of  this  churning  vessel,  which  is  capable 
ol  adaptation  to  any  kind  of  power,  and  to  any  extent  of  dairj-. 

(2104.)  As  an  example  of  the  application  of  power  to  the  plunge-chum,  the  accompanying 
illustrations  are  taken  from  those  extensively  used  in  Lanarkshire  and  the  neighboring  counties, 
where  they  are  usually  worked  by  one  horse.  It  will  suffice  at  present  to  show  the  internal  me- 
chanism, leaving  the  horse-wheel  and  intermediate  gearing  for  another  occasion.     Fig.  386  is  a 

Fig.  386. 

Sr, 


12       6         0 


THE  PLUNGE-CHURN  WITH  POWER-MACHINE. 


side  elevation  of  the  churn,  and  the  mechanism  required  within  the  chum-room  of  the  dairj'.  It 
is  here  represented  as  being  for  hand-power,  but  the  arrangements  of  the  machine,  so  far  as  here 
exhibited,  are  the  same  whether  for  man  or  horse.  Fig.  387  is  a  back  view  of  the  same,  and  the 
same  letters  apply  to  the  corresponding  parts  in  each  figtire.  The  floor-line  of  the  chuming-room 
is  represented  by  the  line  a  a,  and  6  c  is  an  upright  frame  of  cast-iron,  which  is  bolted  to  the  floor. 
The  frame  consists  of  two  cheeks,  which  are  bolted  together  on  the  flanged  bars  d,  d :  it  is  5  feet 
9  inches  high,  and  16  inches  wide.  The  reciprocating  cast-iron  lever  e/  is  supported  by  its  ful- 
cra on  the  top  of  the  frame,  by  means  of  a  center-shaft-passing  through  the  lever.  The  length 
from  the  fulcrum  to  the  head  /  is  4  feet  2  inches,  and  from  the  same  point  backward  to  the  ex- 
tremity is  2  feet  3  inches;  a  counterpoise  is  here  placed  upon  the  lever  to  bring  it  nearly  to  an 
equilibrium.  The  connecting-rod  gh\s,  jointed  upon  a  bolt  that  is  fitted  to  move  along  the  oblique 
groove  sr  i  formed  in  the  lever,  and  the  crank  k  is  formed  on  a  shaft  that  turns  in  bearings  in  the 
upright  frame  ;  its  throw  is  8  inches,  less  or  more,  proportioned  to  the  bight  of  the  churning-ves- 
sel.  and  the  foot  h  of  the  connecting-rod  is  fitted  to  the  crank-pin.  /  is  a  light  sheei*  of  malleable 
iron,  whose  forked  ends  embrace  the  head  of  the  connecting-rod,  which  is  also  forked  at  the 
head  :  and  the  pin  of  the  groove  passes  through  all  the  three.  The  adjusting-screw  m,  with  its 
winch  handle  n,  is  supported  in  a  swivel  socket  in  the  bracket  o;  while  its  screwed  end  m  works 
in  the  bend  of  the  sheers  /,  which  is  screwed  as  a  nut  to  receive  it,  for  the  purpose  of  shortening 
or  lengthening  the  distance  m  g,  and  so  changing  the  position  of  the  head  of  the  connecting-rod. 
The  head /of  the  lever  is  mounted  with  a  pair  of  side-links  ;j /),  jointed  on  a  cross-head  in  /  :  the 
links  are  again  jointed  on  a  wooden  cross-head  ?/,  into  which  the  head  of  the  plunger-rod  q  is  m- 
serted.  andfixed  by  a  pin  or  key  ;  these  side  links,  jointed  as  they  are  at  top  and  bottom,  produce 
a  very  imperfect  parallel  motion,  but  sufficient  to  answer  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  plunger-rod. 
The  liandle  s  is  fixed  on  one  end  of  the  crank-shaft,  and  on  the  other  is  placed  the  fly-wheel  t,  to 
equalize  the  motion  of  the  lever,  and  compensate  the  inequality  of  the  resistance  to  the  plunger  in 
its  ascent  and  descent.  The  churning-vessel  r  is  3  feet  high,  with  an  average  diameter  ot  15 
inches,  and  its  capacity  about  23  gallons.  In  extensive  dairies,  it  is  common  to  have  two  chum- 
iug-vessels  attached  to  the  machine,  in  which  case  the  wooden  cross-head  w  is  elongated  so  as  to 
receive  the  head  of  the  plunger-rods  of  both  vessels,  the  vessels  standing  side  by  side  during  the 
operation. 

(2105.)  When  this  machine  is  in  operation,  the  revolutions  of  the  crank  produce  a  reciprocating 
(687} 


328 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


Fig.  387. 


action  in  the  connecting-rod.  which  is  commanicated  to  the  lever,  and  thence  to  the  plangrera; 
and  it  will  be  seen  that,  by  moving  the  head  e  of  the  connecting-rod  in  the  obliqae  groove  of  tbe 
lever,  the  strokes  or  rt'ciprocaiiona  of  the  iilunjrcr  will 
be  long  or  short  as  the  juint  at  e  is  moved  upward  or 
dow^nward  in  the  croove  ^  i.  It  is  foand  from  expe- 
rience that  tliere  art-  advantaces  to-the  process  deriva- 
ble from  this ;  hence,  at  tlie  commencement  of  the  op- 
eration, the  head  of  the  rod  e  h  i»  kept  at  the  lower  ex- 
tremity of  tbe  slit,  producing  the  shortest  stroke  ;  as 
the  fluid  becomes  heated,  and  from  the  consequent  effer- 
vescence, its  bulk  is  increased,  the  stroke  is  grad- 
ually lengthened  by  taming  tl)e  handle  n  of  the  screw  ; 
and  by  thus  shortening  tiie  distance  e  m,  the  pin  at  ff 
is  brought  to  the  head  of  the  slit,  producing  a  stroke  of 
the  greate.*t  lensth  :  and  when  the  efler\-esceiice  ceases, 
and  tlie  butter  haa  bccun  to  form,  this  state  is  reversed, 
the  stroke  is  gradually  shortened,  till  tlie  process  is  fin- 
ished with  the  shortest  stroke. 

(2106.)  The  application  of  power  to  this  machine  is 
easy  and  commoilious.  It  may  be  effected  by  a  pulley 
placed  on  the  crankshaft  instead  of  the  handle  s,  and 
so  driving  with  a  strap  or  a  chain ;  or  it  may  be  driven 
by  a  spur-wheel  placed  on  the  same  point,  calculated 
to  the  speed  that  may  be  afl'orded  by  the  pow  er,  u  heiher 
horse,  water,  or  steam.  The  usual  rate  of  the  plunger 
in  these  churns  is  about  50  to  55  double  strokes  per 
minute,  subject  to  the  nsual  variation  that  is  required  in 
the  different  stages  of  the  process.  The  price  of  the 
hand-machine,  as  in  the  figure,  is  from  £6  to  £S  ;  and, 
•when  completed  with  horse-wbeel  and  gearing,  it  is 
from  £15  to  £18. 

(2107.  j  Besides  the  four  established  classes  of  chums 
now  described,  there  are  a  few  other  anomalous  cases 
which  have  of  late  years  been  brought  forward  by  in- 
ventors, and  iliough  they  ultimately  may  be  found  to 
fiossess  merit,  they  cannot  yet  be  received  as  of  estab- 
ished  character.  The  machines  to  which  I  here  allude 
may  be  named  -'oscillating  chums.''  They  possess  no 
distinct  agitator,  but  produce  their  effects  by  a  species 
of  oscillation  produced  in  the  fluid.  Among  these  may 
be  mentioned  a  vessel  of  an  oblong  form,  placed  upon 
skids,  cur\-ed  in  a  manner  that  when  the  vessel  is 
touched  with  even  a  centle  force,  it  will  assume  a  mo- 
tion resembling  the  well-known  swing  of  a  child's  cradle,  which  will  thereby  produce  a  constant 
succession  of  irregular  oscillatory  motions  in  the  contained  fluid,  which  will  produce  the  effect  of 
churning. 

f210?.|  Another  of  these  forms  is  an  upright  cylindrical  vessel  containing  the  fluid,  and  which 
is  attached  by  its  bottom  to  a  crank  revolving  horizontally.  The  vessel  is  restrained  from  re- 
volvine  on  its  own  axis,  but  is  made  to  describe  a  small  circle,  and  everj'  point  in  its  base  will 
virtually  describe  that  circle  which  will  be  equal  to  that  described  by  the  crank  that  pives  it  mo- 
tion. The  effect  of  this  oscillatine  motion  in  the  vessel  is  to  produce  oscillation  in  the  flui.i.  which 
will  ultimately  make  gjrations  witliiu  the  ves,«el.  combined  with  an  undulatorj-  motion,  that  will 
again  produce  the  effect  of  the  chum.  In  the  first  of  these  proposed  machines,  the  motion  would 
be  so  easy  and  equable  that  there 


BACK  VIEW  OF  THE  PtCSGl-CHURH 
WITH   POWER-MACHt.SE. 


appears  no  mechanical  ditficulty  Fir.  ^f'". 

in  the  scheme  :  but  in  the  second, 
when  >*'e  consider  the  mass  of  fluid 
that  may  be  contained  in  the  ves- 
sel, and  then  the  wlnile  put  in  that 
kind  of  motion  that  may  be  dc 
scribed  as  reciproratintr-oircular. 
which,  when  combined  with  the 
tmequal  effects  of  the  undulatory 
motion  on  the  fluid  within,  would, 
it  is  feared,  require  cither  a  much 
stronger  fabric  than  is  usually 
allotted  to  such  operations,  or  oth- 
erwise the  machine  would  be 
very  liable  to  derangement  and 
to  fracture.  A  churaing-nia- 
chine,  on  this  principle,  was  ex- 
hibited at  the  Show  of  the  ,,,,,,,„„.  .  , 
Hoyal  Agricultural  Improvement  Society  of  Ireland,  held  at  Belfast  m  August,  1843,  and  excited 
considerable  interest  from  its  apparent  novelty. 

f210'.i.|  The  utensils  and  machines  yet  remaining  to  be  described  in  tbe  cheese-making 
department  of  the  dairy,  consist  principally  of  the  curd-breaker,  cheese-press  and  cheese- 
tamer. 

(688) 


THE  CCRD-BREAKIR. 


MAKING  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE. 


329 


THE  SECTION  OF  THE  CURD-BREAKER. 


(2il0.)  The  ctird-brcaker,*  of  which  fig.  388  is  a  plan,  and  fig.  389  a  transverse  section,  consists 
of  a  hopper-shaped  vessel  a  b, 

17  by  14  inches  at  top,  and  10  Fig.  3S9. 

inches  deep.  It  is  fixed  npon 
two  bearers  e  e,  which  are  set 
upon  a  stand  or  tub  when  in 
operation.  A  wooden  cylin- 
der f,  havin?  an  iron  axle, 
which  passes  through  the  bear- 
ers e,  and  is  turned  by  a  winch- 
handle  d.  The  axle  is  kept  in 
its  bearings  in  c  by  means  of 
slots  k  on  each  side,  which 
slide  in  grooves  in  the  bearers, 
and  are  held  in  their  place  by 
a  slider  at  h.     The  cylinder  is  7 

inches  long  and  3^  inches  in  diameter,  studded  all  over  with  pegs  of  hard  wood  I  inch  square,  and 
projecting  j  inch.  These  pegs  or  teeth  are  set  in  eight  regular  zones  round  the  cylinder,  each 
zone  containing  18  teeth.  Two  wedge-shaped  pieces  c  c  are  attached  to  the  sides  of  the  hopper 
below,  serving  at  the  same  time  to  reduce  the  opening  between  the  cylinder  and  the  hopper,  and 
to  carry  a  row  of  pegs  similar  to  those  of  the  cylinder,  but  falling  into  the  spaces  between  the 
zones  of  pegs,  as  seen  in  fig.  389.  In  using  this  machine,  it  is  placed  over  the  tub  or  other  recipi- 
ent for  the  broken  curd  ;  the  hopper  is  filled  with  the  curd  that  requires  to  be  broken  ;  and  while 
one  hand  is  turning  the  winch-handle,  which  may  be  turned  either  way,  the  other  hand  maj'  oc- 
casionally be  required  to  press  the  curd  down  upon  the  cylinder.  To  prevent  the  curd  being 
passed  beyond  the  ends  of  the  cylinder,  it  is  covered  at  each  end,  to  the  extent  of  \  inch,  with  an 
overlap  of  the  sides  of  the  hopper. 

(0111.)  The  cltecsc-press  comes  next  in  the  order  of  business,  and  of  that  machine  the  varieties 
are  very  numerous,  though  they  may  be  all  resolved  into  three  kinds,  namely,  the  common  old 
stone-press ;  the  combined  lever-press,  of  which  the  varieties  are  the  most  numerous,  embracing 
from  the  single  lever,  through  the  various  combinations  of  simple  levers,  to  the  more  elaborate 

Fig.  390. 


THE  STONE  CHEESE-PRESS. 


one  of  the  rack  and  levers  ;  and  the  atmospheric  or  pneumatic  press.  An  essential  characteristic 
of  these  presses  must  always  be,  that  the  load,  in  whatever  way  produced,  shall,  when  left  to  itself 
have  the  power  to  descend  after  the  object  being  pressed,  as  that  may  sink  by  the  expression  of 
the  whey  trom  the  curd.  or'  j  j  r 

*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  iv. 
(689< 


330 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


(2112.)  An  example  of  the  first  of  these  is  chown  in  fig.  390;  it  cnngista  of  a  strong  frame  of 
wooil.  of  which  a  in  the  sill,  2  feet  long,  18  inches  broad,  and  4  inches  thick  ;  two  upriphiH  hh  are 
niorti.sed  or  dovt'tiiilt'd  into  it  ;  these  arc  each  ti  inches  broad  by  2J  inches  thick,  and  3  feet  high, 
and  are  connected  at  to|)  by  the  crossheud  c  mortised  upon  the  posts.  A  cubical  block  of  stone 
A  e  is  squared  to  puss  freely  between  the  posts;  nn  iron  stem  of  1  inch  diameter  is  fixed  into  the 
upper  surface  of  the  block,  and  the  upper  end  of  it  being  screwed,  is  passed  through  tlie  centre 
of  tlie  top  bur.  and  the  levernut  /  is  a|iplied  to  it  for  raising  or  lowering  the  block.  In  each  end 
of  the  block  a  vertical  groove  is  cut  corresponding  to  the  mid<ile  of  the  posts;  and  a  baton  of 
wood  is  nailed  u[pon  the  latter,  in  such  form  and  jiosition  as  will  admit  the  block  to  rise  and  fall 
freely,  while  it  is  prevented  falling  to  either  side.  When  put  in  operation,  the  block  is  raised  by 
means  of  tin-  .«crew  until  the  cheese-mould,  with  its  contents,  can  be  placed  unon  the  sill  a  under 
the  block.  This  being  done,  the  nut  is  screwed  backward  till  the  block  rests  lighth-  on  the  cover 
of  the  mould  ;  it  is  let  down  by  small  ariditions.  as  the  cuni  consolidates,  until  it  is  thought  safe  to 
let  tlif  eniiif  \\fiL:lit  press  upon  the  mould,  which  is  done  by  withdrawing  the  uut  /.  In.steadof 
the  solid  block  of  stone  d  e,  which,  when  left  to  itself,  will  always  produce  the  same  pressure,  it 
is  better  to  have  one  block  ti  nr  into  which  the  susjiending  bolt  is  fixed,  and  the  remainder  of  the 
mass  made  up  of  smaller  pieces,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  by  which  means  the  amount  of  free  pres- 
sure can  be  regulated  to  the  particular  size  and  slate  of  the  cheese ;  or  blocks  of  cast-iron  are 
sometimes  used  in  the  form  last  described,  which  are  more  commodious,  and  less  liable  to  be  broken. 

(2113.)  The  next  class  of  this  machine,  ffie  lerer-prest,  to  speak  in  general  terms.  pos.s«!sse8  the 
eill  of  the  former  in  .«oine  shape  or  other,  but  generally  of  wood,  with  two  uprights  as  before  ;  but 
instead  of  a  heavy  block  of  stone,  a  simple  movable  sill  of  plank  is  emi)loyed,  having  an  iron 
or  a  wooden  .'<tem  attached  to  it,  upon  which  simple  or  com]iound  levers  are  made  to  act  in  pro- 
ducing the  pressure.  An  improved  form  of  this  lever-press  was  brought  out  by  the  Shotts  Iron 
Ck)mpany,*  made  entirely  of  iron,  of  a  more  commodious  and  compact  construction  than  had 
hitherto  been  attenii)ted.  and,  with  slight  alterations,  is  here  presented  as  the  type  of  the  class. 

(2114.)  The  combined  h'vrr  cheese- 


press  of  iron  is  represented  in  the  Fig.  391. 

perspective  view,  fig.  391,  and  is 
constructed  in  the  following  man- 
ner: a  a  are  a  pair  of  cast-iron  feet, 
on  which  the  machine  is  su|)portcd  ; 
they  have  a  socket  formed  at  the 
crown  to  receive  the  malleable  iron 
pillars  h  h.     The  sill  plate  c  is  18 

inches  in  diameter,   cast  with   two  I 

perforated  ears,  through  which  the 
feet  of  the  pillars  1/  h  also  pas.s,  and 
secure  the  sill  to  the  feet. — tht;  cross 
lines  in  the  sill  in<licato  channels  for 
the  escape  of  the  expressed  whey. 
The  niovable  sill  d  is  of  the  same 
size  as  the  one  below,  with  corres- 
ponding ears  perforated  and  fitted 
to  slide  on  the  pillars,  and  having 
the  rack-bar  f  fixed  in  its  centre. 
A  top  frame  e,  18  inches  by  9  inches, 
and  3  inches  deep,  is  seated  upon 
the  top  of  the  pillars,  where  it  is  fix- 
ed by  two  screw-nuts,  anrl  adapted 
to  carry  the  g:earing  of  th(!  machine. 
The  action  of  the  rack  and  its  sill  is 
efl'ected  in  the  following  manner : 
The  ratchet  wheel  ft  is  fixed  upon 
an  axle  that  has  its  bearings  in  the 
top  frame  ;  on  the  same  axle  is  fix- 
ed a  pinion  of  eight  teeth,  not  seen 
in  the  figure,  which  works  in  the 
wheel  i  of  twenty-four  teeth,  fixed 
upon  an  axle  which  has  its  bearing 
also  in  the  top  frame  ;  and  this  axle 
carries  also  a  pinion  of  eight  teeth, 
which  acts  upon  the  rack,  but  is  also 
hid  from  view  in  the  figure.  The 
ratchet-wheel  «-  stands  clear  of  the 
top  frame  about  an  inch,  and  its  axle 
is  prolonged  beyond  the  wheel 
double  that  extent.  The  lever  A-  is 
forked  at  the  extremity  p,  and  the 
terminations  of  the  furcation  are  re- 
ceived upon  the  axle  of  the  wheel 
g, — the  wheel  being  embraced  by 
the  fork  of  the  lever,  but  the  lever  iiioving  freely  upon  the  axle.  The  furcation  is  also  lengthened 
toward  k  to  an  extent  that  receives  a  pall  at  h ;  between  and  in  the  throat  of  the  fork,  the  pall  is 
jointed  upon  a  pin  that  passes  through  both,— the  edge  of  the  pall  pointing  downward  to  catch 

*  Prize  Kssays  of  the  Highland  and  Agrirullural  Society,  vol.  x. 
(690) 


THE  COMniNED  I.EVEK  CHEESE-PRESS. 


MAKING  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE.  331 

the  ratcliet,  while  it  has  a  knob-handle  standing  upward,  by  which  it  can  be  conveniently  disengag- 
ed from  its  wheel.  A  small  winchhauiile  /  is  also  fitted  upon  the  axle  of  the  ratchet-wheel,  and 
a  pin  seen  near  h  is  adapU'd  to  a  perforation  in  the  top  frame,  by  the  insertion  of  which  the  de- 
Bcent  of  the  lever  is  checked,  when  8uch  is  required,  and  this  completes  the  mechanism  of  tlie 
press. 

(2115.)  In  prensing  with  this  machine,  the  cheese-mould  is  placed  upon  the  lower  sill,  and  the 
lever  beiiiar  supported  on  the  pin  at  h.  the  winch-handle  is  turned  to  the  left,  depressing  the  rack 
and  its  sill  till  the  sill  presses  upon  the  cover  of  the  mould.  The  lever  is  now  lifted  by  the  hand, 
and  the  pall  allowed  to  take  into  the  ratchet ;  while  the  lever,  being  loaded  by  the  weight,  will 
cause  the  ratchet  to  turn,  auJ  produce  the  descent  of  the  rack.  If  necessary,  this  is  repealed 
asain  and  again,  till  a  considerable  pressure  is  produced  ;  and  if  it  is  wished  that  a  continued 
pressure  is  to  go  on,  the  lever  is  again  raised  considerably  above  the  horizontal  line,  and  left  to 
descend  gradually,  following  the  consolidation  of  the  cheese.  If  it  is  wished  that  the  load  shall 
not  follow  the  shrinking  of  the  cheese,  the  pin  h  is  inserted,  which,  when  the  lever  comes  to  rest 
upon  it.  checks  farther  descent.  The  amount  of  pressure  is  also  regulated  by  the  disposal  of  the 
weight  m  in  the  difterent  notches  of  the  lever.  The  usual  selling  price  of  this  machine  is  ,£4, 
when  constructed  of  iron,  as  in  the  figure  ;  but  with  wooden  framework,  and  the  rack  and  other 
gearin?  of  cast-iron,  the  price  is  £3  5s. 

(■2116.)  In  the  third  division  of  the  cheese-presses  there  is  not  such  a  variety  as  in  the  others, 
and  what  does  exist  is  of  recent  introduction.  I  have  to  notice  only  one — the  pneumatic  cheese- 
/)/-d'.<.<  of  the  late  Sir  John  Robison  of  Edinburgh — as  an  elegant  application  of  Science  to  a  homely 
though  important  domestic  purpose.  The  principle  here  applied  is  the  pressure  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, brought  to  bear,  with  any  degree  of  force  compatible  with  that  natural  pressure,  upon 
the  curd  when  placed  in  the  mould,  by  exhausting  a  vessel  placed  below  and  in  communication 
with  the  mould,  by  means  of  a  pipe  descending  from  the  bottom  of  the  mould  to  a  receiving- 
vessel.  To  this  pipe  of  communication  a  small  air-pump  is  attached,  and  the  mould  having,  be- 
sides its  true  bottom,  a  movable  one  of  wire  or  of  wicker-work,  the  curd,  wrapped  in  a  cloth,  is  laid 
upon  the  pervious  bottom,  and  gently  pressed  with  the  hand  till  it  fill  the  vessel  all  round.  The 
pump  is  worked  a  few  strokes  to  produce  a  partial  vacuum  in  the  receiver  and  below  the  curd, 
when  the  atmosphere,  by  its  pressure  on  the  surface  of  the  curd,  causes  the  whey  to  separate 
and  descend  into  the  receiver.  The  pressure  may  be  continued  or  increased  at  pleasure  by  a 
few  more  strokes  of  the  pump,  until  the  cheese  has  acquired  sufficient  consistency  to  allow  of 
its  being  handled,  when,  as  recommended  by  Sir  John,  it  is  to  be  removed  from  the  mould  and 
placed  within  another  of  close  wire-work,  with  a  weight  placed  over  it  to  complete  the  consolida- 
tion.* The  whey  that  is  discha-ged  from  the  curd  while  under  the  atmospheric  pressure,  being 
collected  in  the  receiver,  is  drawn  off"  bv  means  of  a  stop-cock. 

("21 17. 1  There  falls  yet  to  be  taken  notice  of  an  important  article  in  the  cheese  department  of 
the  dairy  machinery — the  tumbling  cheese-rack,  or  cheeae-turner.  This  machine  is  the  invention 
of  Mr.  William  Blurton,  of  Fieldhall.  Uttoxeter,  and  its  merits  are  believed  to  be  sufficient  to  war- 
rant its  adoption  on  dairy-farms.  The  object  of  the  machine  is  to  save  much  of  the  labor  re- 
quired in  the  daily  turning  of  a  large  number  of  cheeses  in  the  drying-room,  and  this  it  does  very 
effectually,  for  with  a  rack  containing  50  cheeses,  they  are  turned  over  in  very  little  more  time 
than  would  be  required  to  turn  a  single  one. 

(•2118.)  Fig.  392  is  a  view  of  the  cheese-turner,  as  constructed  to  stand  alone,  and  on  its  own 
feet :  though  this  is  not  the  best  mode  of  constructing  the  machine.  It  consists,  first,  of  an  exter- 
nal frame  a  b  c  d.  of  which  the  two  parts  a  b  and  c  d  are  6|  feet  high,  and  7  inches  by  "21  inches; 
they  are  here  represented  each  with  a  cross  foot  a  and  c.  and  connected  at  top  by  a  top-rail  b  d. 
If  constructed  in  a  cheese-room,  the  posts  sliould  be  at  once  ii.Ked  to  the  floor  at  bottom,  and  to 
the  joisting  or  tie-beams  overhead,  becoming  thus  a  fixture  in  so  far  as  regards  the  external 
frame.  The  second  part  of  the  machine  is  a  movable  frame  or  rack,  formed  by  the  two  interior 
posts  e  and/,  which  are  framed  upon  the  1'2  shelves  g  h  i,  &c. ;  the  posts  are  6  feet  high,  and  are 
again  7  by  i^  inches,  the  shelves  being  7  feet  long  and  14  inches  broad,  or  more,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  cheeses  manufactured,  by  1  inch  thick.  The  shelves  extend  to  5|  feet  in  his^'ht  over 
all.  and  are  tenoned  into  and  lipped  over  the  posts,  and  each  shelf  is  finished  on  both  sides  with 
a  knife-edged  lath,  nailed  along  the  back  edare  :  these  laths  are  2  inches  broad,  and  \  inch  thick 
at  the  back,  thus  inci-easing  the  thickness  of  that  edge  of  the  shelves  to  1^  inches.  As  the  figure 
represents  a  rack  that  will  contain  5  cheeses  on  each  shelf,  a  corresponding  number  of  pairs  of 
vertical  laths,  k,  k,  &c.,  are  nailed  upon  the  back  edge  of  the  shelves.  The.se  laths  are  1^  inches 
broad  and  1  inch  thick,  chamfered  off  to  one  side  to  the  thickness  of  5  inch  or  thereby  at  the  edges, 
against  which  the  cheeses  are  laid,  and  are  checked  upon  the  shelves,  and  securely  nailed.  The 
shelf-frame  thus  formed  is  provided  with  t\vo  strong  iron  gudceons  or  pivots  fixed  in  the  side- 
posts  at  mid-bight,  and  these  are  received  into  corresponding  holes  in  the  outer  or  bearing-posts, 
so  that  the  shelf-frame  swings  poised  upon  the  two  pivots  ;  and  it  is  farther  provided  with  an  iron 
latch  at  top  and  bottom  on  one  end,  by  which  it  may  be  tilted  and  secured  with  either  the  shelf 
g  or  e  /uppermost.  The  catches  of  the  two  latches  are  both  placed  at  top  on  the  external  post 
at  one  side,  suited  to  the  motion  of  the  shelfAame,  and  to  prevent  its  being  turned  with  the  back 
edge  of  the  shelves  upward. 

(2119.)  When  cheeses  are  placed  upon  the  shelves,  it  will  be  found  that  the  knife-edge  laths 
keep  them  free  of  the  body  of  the  shelf,  and  thus  permit  air  to  pass  under  them,  while  the  pair  of 
vertical  laths  keep  the  cheese  in  its  proper  position  on  the  shelf  The  bight  between  the  shelves 
is  such  as  to  leave  a  free  space  of  1  inch  between  the  cheese  and  the  shelf  above  it;  and  what- 
ever number  of  cheeses  may  be  lying  upon  the  shelves,  the  simple  act  of  lilting  the  frame  will 
place  every  cheese  which  wax  resting  on  a  shelf  on  its  opposite  side,  vpon  that  shelf  which  im- 
mediately before  was  abcn-e  the  cheese,  but  by  the  tilting  is  now  beloic  it.  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  vertical  laths  serve  to  prevent  the  cheeses  from  falling  out  while  the  frame  is  tilting,  and 

*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agiicultural  Society  vol.  s. 
(691) 


332 


THE   BOOK   OF  THE   FARM SU3IMER. 


each  cheem  has  only  to  fall  one  inch  in  that  operation,  or  from  the  one  shelf  to  the  other,  in  a  re- 
versed position. 

(2120.)  It  will  be  also  observed  lliat  the  fixed  external  frame  is  beat  adapted  for  an  extenslTe 

Fie.  392. 


THE  CHEESE-TUR.NER. 

cheese-room,  where  the  racks  may  be  placed  in  rows  extending  the  length  of  the  room,  leaving 
free  passaee  between  the  rows.  The  width  of  the  passaees  requires  to  be  equal  to  half  the  hieht 
of  the  shelf-frame,  or  .3  feet ;  a  room,  therefore,  20  feet  wide  would  contain  4  rows  of  such  raclis  ; 
and  if  the  leueih  were  equal  to  10  diameters  of  the  cheeses,  or  containing  that  number  in  ilie 
leneth.  the  room  would  contain  in  all  440  cheeses  in  the  best  piossible  condition  for  their  being 
prepared  for  market,  havine  free  ventilation,  and  access  for  the  dairy-maids  to  handle  and  wipe 
any  cheese  at  any  time.  We  have  no  experience  of  this  cheese-rack  in  Scotland  ;  but,  judging 
from  its  apparent  capabilities,  there  is  much  reason  to  think  that  it  might  be  employed  with  ex- 
cellent eflect  in  the  extensive  cheese-dairies  of  Ayrshire  and  Galloway.  The  price  of  a  portable 
rack,  as  here  figured,  capable  of  holding  55  cheeses,  is  £4.— J.  S.] 


28.  THE  DOUBLE  MOULD-BOARD  PLOW. 


(0121.)  [The  double  mould-board  ploir,  is  an  implement  essentially  requisite  in  the  cnltivation 
of  the  turnip  and  potato  crop.  'When  duly  constructed,  it  is  highly  efficient  in  the  formation  of 
the  drills  or  ridgelcts  for  either  of  these  crops,  selling  up  at  each  turn  the  half  of  a  ridgelet  on 
each  side,  while  the  common  plow,  or  onehorso  plow  so  much  employed  for  this  purpose,  sets  up 
only  a  half  ridgelet  at  each  turn,  doing,  therefore,  but  half  tlie  work.  In  a  variety  of  forms  also, 
it  is  much  employed  in  the  earthing-up  of  the  potato  crop  ;  tor  this  purpose  it  is  frequently  made 
of  wood,  but  m  all  cases  the  iron  jilow  is  to  be  recommended. 

(2122.)  Fig.  393  is  a  representation  of  a  common  double  mould-board  iron  plow  equipped  for 

the  purpose  of  earthing-up.    The  framework  of  it  is  pretty  much  in  form  of  the  common  plow, 

except  that  the  beam  a  lies  right  in  the  central  line  of  the  whole  plow.     The  bridle  b  is  variously 

formed  according  to  the  taste  of  tlie  maker,  but  always  poseessiug  the  properties  of  varying  the 

(692) 


DOUBLE   MOULD-BOARD   PLOW. 


333 


point  of  dranght  upward  and  downward,  as  well  as  right  and  left.  The  breast  d  is  &  shield  form- 
ing part  of  the  cast-iron  body-frame  afterward  described.  The  share  e  is  plain  on  both  sides, 
epear-pointed,  and  set  upon  the  head  of  the  cast-iron  body-frame.  The  right  and  left  mould-boards 

Fig.  393. 


THE  DOUBLE  MOULD-BOARD  PLOW. 

ff  are  hinged  to  the  edge  of  the  shield  d  with  drawing  hinge-pins,  and  they  are  supported  be- 
hind by  a  jointed  iron-strap  affixed  to  the  back  of  each  mould-board,  and  which  slide  through  a 
socket  in  the  body-frame,  where  the  tails  of  both  straps  are  secured  by  means  of  a  pinching-scre^v, 
setting  the  mould-boards  at  anj-  required  width  behind.  The  handles  §■  are  bolted  on  each  side 
of  the  beam,  as  seen  at  /  /,  and  are  supported  near  the  helves  by  the  usual  stretcher  and  bow. 
The  dimensions  of  the  plow^  are :  from  the  breast  d  to  the  point  of  the  beam  3  feet,  6  inches, 
from  d  to  extremity  of  mould-board  f,  2  feet  6  inches,  and  from  d  to  end  of  helve  6  feet  6  inches. 
The  hight  of  the  mould-board,  where  it  joins  the  shield,  is  12  inches,  and  at  the  point/  10  inch- 
es; length  of  share  16  inches.  The  mould-boards  of  such  plows  are  liable  to  great  variation  in 
their  form :  some  of  them  have  little  or  no  twist,  and  others  variously  contorted.  Those  of  the 
present  figure  have  been  selected  as  possessing  all  the  requisite  qualifications  for  an  eartbing-up 
plow.  At  the  fore-edge,  where  they  join  the  shield,  the  surface  is  nearly  in  a  straight  line,  and 
along  the  upper  edge  they  are  slightly  convex  ;  from  these  two  lines  they  twist  gradually,  round- 
ing away  below  tosvard  the  tail,  so  as  to  leave  the  furrow  of  a  round-botlomed  trough  shape. 
\Vhere  the  double  mould  board  is  employed  for  forming  the  ridgelets,  the  mould-board  is  made  to 
fit  the  shield  d,  as  in  the  figure  ;  it  then  stretches  away  to  a  length  of  2  feet  6  inches  along  the  up- 
per edge,  the  point  /  being  at  a  hight  varying  from  11  to  14  inches  above  the  sole-line.  At  this 
point  the  depth  of  the  mould-board  is  only  6  inches,  so  that  the  lower  edge  runs  off  at  a  consider- 
able elevation,  and  the  surface  having  not  more  than  3  inches  of  twist,  it  is  the  lower  edge  only  of 
the  board  that  effects  the  purpose  of  laying  up  the  earth  to  form  the  ridgelet.  In  working  the 
plow,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  drills,  there  is  frequently  a  marking-bar  jointed  to  the  beam  im- 
mediately before  the  breast  d  ;  the  bar  folds  to  either  side,  and  having  an  adjustable  double-edged 
scraper  fitted  to  it,  a  rut  is  drawn  on  the  surface  at  the  proper  distance  for  the  centre  of  the  next 
farrow. 

(2123.1  The  plow  just  described  and  represented,  is  convertible  into  a  scuffling  or  cleaning  plow, 
or  horse-hoe.     To  effect  this,  the  hinge-pins  of  the  mould-boards  are  withdrawn,  and  the  mould- 
boards  removed,  when  we  have  an  implement  represented  by  fig.  394,  which  exhibits  the  body- 
Fig.  394. 


THE  BODY  OF  THE  DOUBLE  MOULD-BOAKD  ALTERED  TO  A  SCUFFLING  PLOW. 

parts  of  the  same  plow  upon  an  enlarged  scale,  and  from  which  portions  of  the  beam  and  han- 
dles are  cut  off.  Here  a  is  the  remainins  portion  of  the  beam,  and  b  b  those  of  the  handles,  ex- 
hibiting also  their  junction  with  the  tail'  of  the  beam.  The  body-frame  c  c,  is  of  an  irre^nlar 
rhomboidal  form,  whereof  the  front  bar  forms  the  shield  ;  its  breadth  from  right  to  left  behind  is  3 
inches,  running  off  forward  to  a  sharp  edge,  and  is  hollowed  out  behind.  The  top  bar  c,  by  which 
U  is  bolted  to  the  beam,  is  2i  inches  broad,  and  1  inch  thick  ;  the  sole-bar  c  is  formed  flat  below, 
(693) 


334 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


to  receive  the  plaiu  eole-iihoc  m,  and  Uie  hind  bar  is  formed  to  receive  the  malleable  iron  docket  L, 
through  which  the  tails  of  the  uiuuld  board  straps  are  passt-d.  and  secured  by  the  pinchine  screw 
/,  when  these  are  in  use.  To  complete  the  implement  for  the  purpose  of  scuffling,  the  two  -wing 
bars  ^  g  are  jointed  to  a  stud  that  projects  frimi  the  beam  on  each  side  al  k.  A  quadrant  bar/",  2 
feet  long,  and  IJ  by  j  inch  is  attached  by  bolts  to  the  two  stilts  at  /,  and  the  ends  of  the  wmg- 
bars  having  a  mortif-e  formed  lo  receive  the  quadrant,  are  moved  upon  this  to  any  required  width, 
and  secured  by  the  screws  i  i.  A  second  mortise  is  punche<l  in  each  wing-bar  to  receive  the 
scuffling  coulters  h  h  ;  these  are  2  inches  broad  by  ^  inch  tliick,  thinned  oft'  to  a  knife-edge  in 
front,  and  bent  inwani  below  till  the  points  stand  6  inches  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  shanks.  A 
double-feathered  share  e  is  now  fittetl  to  the  head  of  the  body-frame,  which  completes  tliis  simple 
horse-hoe,  and  ihe  change  from  the  one  state  to  the  other  is  effected  in  a  few  minutes,  for,  in  re- 
turning it  to  the  double  mould  board  stale,  it  is  only  necessary  to  remove  the  scufflers  and  the 
feathered  sliare.  The  dimensions  of  the  body  are,  hisiht  at  the  breast  from  the  sole  to  the  top  of 
the  beam  14  inches,  length  of  sole  2  feet  6  inches,  including  the  feathered  share.  The  effect  of 
this  horschoe  in  the  soil  is  to  loosen  the  eartli  between  the  rows  of  drills,  or  if  foul,  to  under-cut 
all  the  weeds  that  exist  in  that  space,  or  to  such  breadth  as  the  two  scufflers  may  be  set ;  the  up- 
right part  of  these  coulters  jierforming  a  species  of  paring  along  the  sides  of  the  two  contiguous 
rows.  If  the  land  is  in  good  order,  and  tolerably  clean,  stirring  it  witli  this  scuffler  will  be  suf- 
ficient;  but  if  overrun  with  weeds,  one  or  other  of  the  drill  harrows  or  grubber  will  be  found 
necessary  to  prevent  a  re-vegetation  of  the  weeds,  and  the  following  will  be  found  to  answer  this 
purpose  well. 

(2124.)  The  common  driUsrruhhcr,  fig.  395,  is  a  light  and  convenient  implement  drawn  by  one 
horse.    It  consists  of  a  central  beam  a  b  c,  the  neck  part  of  which  a  6  is  Id  inches  long,  the  body 


Fig.  395. 


THE  COMMON  DRILL-GRUBBER. 

part  3  feet  6  inches ;  and  of  the  two  wings  h  d,  which  are  extended  to  c  c.  forming  the  handles, 
the  length  from  d  lo  c  is  3  feet  4  inches.  The  neck  part  of  the  bea^  is  1 J  inches  square,  and  peen- 
ed.  or  rounded,  and  this  strength  is  carried  past  the  first  tine  :  the  remainder  of  iliis  bar,  as  well 
as  of  the  wings,  is  IJ  inches  deep  by  j  inch  thick,  the  handles  becoming  lighter  backward.  The 
beam  i.s  punched  at  the  front  for  the  pas.-'age  of  the  stem  of  the  wheel,  and  at  b  for  the  fixin?  of 
the  two  joint-plates  for  the  wings,  as  well  as  for  the  front  tine;  and  it  is  also  perforated  horizon- 
tally at  the  end  c,  for  the  quadrants  of  tlie  wings.  The  wing-bars  require  to  be  ven,-  neatly  forged 
in  forming  the  swells,  in  which  the  tine  holes  are  lo  be  punched,  and  also  for  the  joint  at  h  w  hece 
they  are  hingetl  to  the  beam,  between  the  two  joint-]>laies,  which,  being  riveted  dead  upon  the 
beam,  leave  a  chamber  on  each  side  for  the  reception  of  the  ends  of  the  wing-bars,  and  through 
these  their  joint-bolis  are  pa.s.«ed.  The  wing-bars  are  each  furnished  with  a  quadrant-bar  riveted 
into  the  wings  at  (/  d  ;  the  tail  of  the  quadrants  passing  through  the  mortise  at  c  are  secured  by 
a  pinching-screw  fixing  the  wings  at  any  required  width.  To  the  point  of  tlie  beam  is  affixed  a 
simple  bridle  f  with  a  cross-web  and  shackle,  giving  a  small  range  of  yoke  right  and  left :  the 
rise  of  this  pomt  is  lu  inches  above  the  line  of  the  body  of  the  beani.  The  front  wheel,  whose 
office  is  to  regulate  the  depth  of  the  c-rubbing.  is  usually  8  or  9  jnches  diameter,  set  in  the  sheers 
of  the  stem,  which  maybe  20  inches  long,  and  is  IJ  inches  broad  by  j  inch  thick.  The  tines  e- are 
1.5  inches  long,  the  body  being  1  ^  inches  broad  by  ^  inch  thick,  forged  \\  itli  duck-feet  not  exceeding 
2J  inches  broad  and  pointing  slightly  forward.  In  many  localities  tliis  implement  is  used  for  all 
the  purfKises  of  horse-hoeing,  except  the  process  of  paring  or  of  earthing-up.  and  having  cheap- 
ness as  well  as  utility  as  a  recommendation,  it  is  very  generally  approved  of.  It  is,  however, 
subject  to  variety  in  the  different  districts  where  it  is  employed  ;  in  .<ome  it  is  shortened  to  five 
tines,  in  others  lengthened  out  to  nine,  and  in  many  cases  the  tines  are  plain-pointed,  or  not  ex- 
ceeding 1  inch  broad.  It  is  frt-(piently  also  made  with  the  tines  standing  in  zigzag  position; 
but  except  in  the  second  pair  of  tines,  this  is  of  little  importance,  ae  those  behind  the  second  are 
sufficiently  far  apart  to  prevent  tliem  getting  choked  w  ith  weeds.  The  price  of  this  grubber  is 
about  £2"  10s. 

(212.i.)  In  this  class  of  implements,  we  find  a  very  handsomely  constructed  one,  known  a« 
(694) 


THE   WILKIE   DRILL-GRUBBER. 


335 


Wilkie's  drill-grubber  and  harrow,  which  is  here  represented  in  fig.  396.  The  implement  is. 
however,  of  older  date,  and  seems  to  have  been  invented  by  a  Banffshire  farmer,*  the  original 
having  been  constructed  with  wooden  framing  until  Mr.  Wilkie  adopted  the  iron  instead  of  wood. 


Fig.  396. 


WILKIE  DRILL-GRUBBER  AND  HARROW 

This  implement  is  constructed  with  a  beam  a  b,  and  a  pair  of  handles  c  c  attached  to  the  tail  of 
the  beam,  one  on  each  side,  in  the  way  formerly  shown  in  fig.  394.  It  has  no  proper  body-frame, 
but  is  merely  a  skeleton,  the  grubbing  parts  of  it  being  the  three  tines  or  coulters  d,  e.f.  The 
foremost  of  them,  d,  is  set  in  a  coulter-box  in  the  beam,  the  two  others,  e  andy,  are  continuations 
of  the  two  wings,  which  are  hinge-Jointed  to  the  side  of  the  handles  as  at  g,  and  where  they  are 
kneed  downward  at  h,  they  are  perforated  for  a  quadrant  bar,  on  which  they  are  moved  outward 
or  inward,  and  are  secured  by  the  pinching-screws  at  A.  The  front  tine  terminates  in  a  double" 
spreading  feather  or  duck's-foot  point  of  about  11  inches  in  length,  and  8  inches  in  breadth  at  the 
heel  ;  tiie  two  back  tines  are  flat  on  the  outward  sides,  and  feathered  inward  ;  their  effect  on  the 
soil  is  therefore  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  scuffler,  fig.  394,  paring  and  undercutting  ;  but 
the  implement  is  furnished  with  an  appendage  in  the  attached  harrow  i,  which  completes  the 
operation  at  one  turn.  The  harrow  consists  of  two  bars  jointed  to  the  middle  of  the  quadrant- 
bar  which  sustains  the  back  grubber  tines,  and  are  suspended  by  a  small  quadrant  attached  to 
each  of  the  bars  i,  from  the  first  stretcher  of  ihe  handles  at  k,  and  each  of  the  harrow-bars  carries 
three  common  harrow-tines,  but  somewhat  longer  than  usual.  The  harrow  is,  besides,  capable 
of  adjustment  to  depth  by  means  of  its  suspenders,  and  to  breadth  by  means  of  its  two  small  quad- 
rant-bars. The  reifulation  of  depth  is  aided  by  the  wheel  /,  which  may  be  from  8  to  10  inches  in 
diameter,  hung  in  the  sheers  «,  which  is  jointed  to  the  beam  at  a,  and  is  capable  of  being  shifted 
up  or  down  upon  the  cross-head  o  of  the  beam,  and  fixed  by  a  bolt  at  w,  passing  through  the  per- 
forations of  the  cross  head,  to  which  also  a  shackle  and  hook  are  attached  for  the  draught. 

(2120.)  It  requires  no  demonstration  to  show  that  the  principle  of  this  instrument  is  good — grub- 
bing or  scarifying  to  undercut  all  weeds,  which  are  immediately  brought  to  the  surface  by  the 
action  of  the  harrow,  to  w^ither  and  die — but  it  is  believed  that  defects  of  construction  exist  in  it 
that  in  some  measure  mar  its  utility.  In  stitt' soils  the  broad  feather  shares  will  with  difficulty  be 
kept  in  the  ground  ;  and.  from  their  great  length  and  breadth,  will  have  the  effect  of  consolidating 
that  part  of  it  which  they  pass  over,  into  a  hard  crust.  The  harrow  is  an  important, part  of  the 
implement,  but  adds  considerably  to  the  draught;  and  the  implement,  upon  the  wliole,  is  too 
heavy  for  one  horse  being  able  to  produce  efficient  work  with  it :  by  lightening  the  entire  struc- 
ture, and  altering  the  form  of  the  tine,  it  might  be  rendered  a  very  useful  horse-hoe.  Its  general 
dimensioiis,  as  constructed  by  Mr.  Wilkie,  may  be  shortly  stated.  Length  of  beam  from  cross- 
head  to  coulter  box  "2  feet  10  inches  ;  thence  to  quadrant  of  the  back  tines  1  foot  10  inches,  and 
thence  to  end  of  handles  4  feet  6  inches  ;  hight  of  beam  at  coulter  box  16  inches,  at  quadrant  14 
inches,  and  at  the  point  18  inches.  The  depth  of  the  beam  at  the  coulter  box  is  2^  inches,  and  its 
breadth  1  inch,  from  which  point  it  tapers  off  forward  and  backward  ;  the  handles  are  1|  inches  in 
depth  by  |  inch  in  breadth.  The  length  of  the  harrow-bars  is  2  feet  9  inches,  and  the  length  of 
the  tines  10  inches ;  the  weight  is  145  lbs. ;  and  the  price  of  the  implement  is  £4  1.5s. 

(2127.)  The  foregoing  constitute  a  series  of  green-crop  horse-hoeing  implements,  that  possess 
all  the  principal  points  requisite  for  this  operation ;  but  there  are  numerous  varieties  of  all  the 
types  here  exhibited,  though  all  are  referable  to  one  or  other  of  them.  It  is,  or  ought  to  be,  an 
essential  point  in  all  im[)lements  of  this  kind,  that  they  possess  a  principle  of  expansion  and  con- 
traction, to  suit  the  different  widths  of  drills  ;  and,  with  few  exceptions,  this  is  the  case.  In  many 
of  those  in  use,  however,  the  mode  of  expansion  is  attended  with  an  inconvenience  arising  from 
the  shortness  of  the  expanding  wings,  which  throws  the  coulters  or  tines  out  of  parallelism,  and 
thus  proves  detrimental  to  their  perfect  working  in  the  soil.  This  inconvenience  is  more  felt  in 
those  implements  which  have  their  tines  formed  like  those  of  fig.  396,  and  least  of  all  when  the 
scuifliug-tines  are  employed  as  in  fig.  394.  Mr.  Wilkie,  with  his  usual  ingenuity,  has  invented, 
some  years  ago,  an  implement  of  this  class,  in  which  the  expansions  and  conti-actions  are  effected 
by  means  of  a  parallel  motion  applied  to  tlie  tines,  as  exhibited  in  the  following  figure. 

(2128.)  Fig.  397  exhibits  Mr.  Wilkie's  horse-hoe  with  parallel  motion  ;  it  is  very  similar  in  figure 
to  the  last,  but  the  two  back  tines  have  their  tails  jointed  at  a,  b,  c.  d,  to  two  transverse  parallel 
bars,  which  traverse,  to  a  small  extent,  upon  pivots  placed  in  the  middle  of  their  length,  attached 
to  the  tail  of  the  beam.  By  moving  these  bars  upon  their  pivots,  from  the  position  of  a  right  an- 
gle with  the  central  line  of  the  beam,  the  one  tine  is  pushed  forward  and  the  other  backward, 
which  must  cause  the  points  a,  b,  c,  d,  to  approach  the  central  line,  and  along  wilh  these  the 
points  of  the  tines,  preserving  a  perfect  parallelism,  and  capable  of  being  secured  at  any  required 


'  Agricultural  Report  for  Banffshire. 
(695) 


336 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


width  by  pinchinp-screws.  This  is  the  most  perfect  moiic  of  adjustment  for  tlie  tines  of  a  hoe  of 
this  construction — three-lined — but  it  does  not  apply  to  those  with  more  than  three,  and  i«,  withal, 
perhaps,  too  refined  fur  a  field  implement    The  self-cleaDsiiig  form  of  the  tine  which  is  exhibited 


Fig.  397. 


WII.K1E  S  HORSE-HOE  WITH  PARALLEL    MOTION. 


here,  and  in  fig.  396,  in  the  two  back  tines  of  each,  has  been  often  dwelt  upon  as  of  much  im- 
portance ;  but  the  truth  of  the  matter  seems  to  be,  that  though  that  particular  form  is  beneficial  in 
the  great  field-grubber,  it  seldom  occurs,  and  ought  never  to  be  the  case,  that  a  drilled  field-crop 
ifl  so  overrun  with  weeds  as  to  require  a  self-cleansing  tine. — J.  S.] 


29.     HAY-MAKING. 


" as  they  rake  the  green  appearing  ground, 

And  drive  the  dusky  wave  nlong  the  mead, 
The  russet  hay-cock  rises  thick  oehiiid, 
In  order  gay." 

Thomson. 

(2129.)  Hay  is  made  both  of  sown  and  of  natural  meadow-grasses.  The 
sown  gra.'^ses  are  employed  for  hay  in  Scotland,  and  of  these  the  hay  con- 
sists of  red  clover  (  TrifoUum  pratcnse),  and  rye-grass  ( Lolium  pcrenne J  ; 
for  although  the  white  clover  ( Trifulium  rcpens)  is  sown  along  with  the 
seeds  of  the  other  two,  it  scarcely  forms  a  part  of  the  first  year's  gi'ass, 
and  constitutes  no  part  of  the  hay,  which  is  always  taken  fi"om  the  grass 
of  the  first  year.  As  hay  is  thus  taken  from  the  first  year's  grass,  it  mat- 
ters not  whether  the  rye-grass  made  into  hay  is  annual  or  perennial.  Tlie 
annual  yields  the  heavier  crop,  but  the  perennial  the  finer  quality  of  hay. 
The  natural  grasses  constitute  the  hay  of  England  and  Ireland.  These 
two  sorts  of  hay  are  certainly  veiy  different  in  appearance,  the  sown 
grasses  showing  the  strong  and  stiff  stems  of  the  red  clover  and  rye-grass, 
and  especially  when  the  rye-grass  is  annual,  while  the  hay  from  the  nat- 
ural grasses  is  soft  and  woolly  to  the  feel,  and  more  odorous  to  the  scent, 
because  the  sweet-scented  vernal-grass  ( Avthojranthum  odoratvmj  always 
forms  a  component  part.  In  so  far  as  their  nutritive  properties  are  con- 
cerned, if  both  are  equally  well  made,  there  will  probably  be  no  material 
difference  ;  but  this  fact  has  been  established  in  Scotland,  that  the  sown 
grasses  are  more  nutritive  for  young  stock,  both  sheep  and  cattle,  than 
natural  grasses,  and  for  that  I'eason  we  may  liold  it  as  true  that  their 
hay  will  also  be  more  nutritious  for  young  stock  ;  and  in  like  manner  the 
hay  of  natural  grass  should  be  more  nourishing  to  old  stock  than  from  that 
which  is  sown  ;  and  hence  natural  hay  is  best  for  cows. 

(2130.)  I  have  heard  farmers  express  the  opinion  that  sown  grasses  re- 
quire a  different  treatment  on  being  made  into  hay  than  natural  grasses. 
If  the  object  is  to  obtain  rye-grass  seed  while  hay  is  being  made,  then,  of 
course,  the  two  processes  should  be  different ;  but  if  the  object  is  to  make 

(696) 


HAY-MAKING.  337 


the  best  hay  from  both  the  substances,  then  I  cannot  see  why  the  processes 
should  be  different.  On  the  contrary,  the  nature  of  all  the  plants  employed 
beino-  the  same,  the  same  treatment  should  produce  in  all  the  sams  re- 
sults ;  and  as  the  art  of  hay-making  is  merely  to  expel  the  water  which 
the  plants  contain  without  injury  to  their  texture,  the  only  danger  to  be 
apprehended  is  excessive  fermentation,  Avhich  is  easily  excited  in  warm 
weather,  and  will  proceed  to  a  destructive  extent,  if  not  subjected  to  con- 
trol. Still  hay-making  varies  according  to  the  means  used  for  conducting 
it ;  for  if  manual  labor  alone  is  employed,  one  process  should  be  adopted, 
but  when  mechanical  assistance  is  received,  the  process  should  be  modi- 
fied accordingly. 

(2131.)  First,  then,  as  to  hay-making  with  manual  labor  alone.  The 
implements  required  for  the  purpose  are  few  and  simple.  The  grass  is 
cut  with  the  common  scythe,  fig.  361  ;  and  the  cutting  is  either  let  to  la- 
borers by  the  piece,  or  the  plowmen  of  the  farm  do  it,  should  there  be 
spare  time  from  horse-labor  between  the  sowing  of  the  turnips  and  the 
hay-harvest.  The  grass  will  be  better  and  more  expeditiously  cut  down 
if  let  by  the  piece,  as  the  contractors  will  exert  themselves  more,  and 
work  more  hours,  than  plowmen  who  have  charge  of  horses  can  be  ex- 
pected to  do.  The  usual  cost  of  cutting  grass  for  hay  is  2s.  6d.  or  3s.  per 
imperial  acre.  On  commencing  to  cut  a  field,  the  direction  toward  which 
the  clover  leans,  or,  should  it  be  thin  and  upright,  the  quarter  of  the  wind, 
which  always  influences  the  direction  of  thin  grass,  should  be  attended  to  ; 
and  in  both  cases  the  grass  should  lean  away  from  the  mower.  It  always 
makes  the  best  work  for  the  grass  to  be  mowed  across  the  ridges.  It  is 
fair  work  for  1  man  to  mow  1  acre  every  day ;  and  I  may  here  remark,  it 
is  no  good  sign  of  the  weight  of  the  crop  if  the  mowers  go  over  more 
ground  every  day.  The  other  implements  used  in  manual  hay-making 
are  forks  and  rakes.  Forks  are  shown  in  fig.  279,  and  rakes  are  figured 
and  described  below  ;  and  of  the  two  kinds  I  prefer  the  right-hand  figure, 
as  being  the  neatest  and  lightest.* 

(2132.)  Let  us  next  consider  the  making  of  hay  with  the  aid  of  horse- 
labor  and  suitable  iviplements,  the  employment  of  which  makes  a  consid- 
erable difference  in  the  process.  The  tedding-machine,  represented  in 
Plate  XXXI.  fig.  3G8,  is  used  to  ted  hay,  and  which  it  best  does  by  pass- 
ing across  the  swathes,  taking  up  and  teasing  and  scattering  them  on  the 
ground  in  the  most  regular  manner.  It  is  alleged  that  this  machine  is 
only  suited  to  ted  natural  grass,  but  why  so  is  not  obvious,  for  its  struc- 
ture is  capable  of  laying  hold  of  any  kind  of  grass.  It  would  indeed  shake 
rye-grass  too  much  that  is  intended  for  seed  ;  but  I  have  already  said  it  is 
impossible  to  obtain  good  hay  and  good  seed  from  the  same  crop.  If  the 
object  be  merely  to  ted  grass,  this  machine  will  doubtless  ted  sown  grasses 
as  well  as  natural,  when  they  are  cut  at  the  proper  age.  After  the  grass 
has  thus  been  tedded,  it  is  allowed  to  dry  in  the  sun  and  wind  all  the 
forenoon.  In  the  afternoon  the  hay-rake,  whether  the  common  horse-rake 
or  American  hay-rake,  both  of  which  are  represented  and  described  be- 
low by  Mr.  Slight,  is  employed  to  rake  the  tedded  grass  into  a  windrow 
across  the  4  ridges  which  intervene  between  every  fifth  ridge  which  con- 
tains a  row  of  cocks.  Where  the  crop  of  grass  is  very  thin,  the  horse- 
rake  might  carry  the  grass  into  a  windrow  over  more  than  4  ridges  upon 
the  fifth  ridge  ;  but  with  an  ordinary  crop  it  could  not,  perhaps,  accom- 
plish  this,  and  much  less  with  a  heavy  crop.     After  the  grass,  therefore, 

[*  Here  follow  minute  directions  for  hay-making,  not  applicable  to  our  countrj-,  from  various 
circumstances,  which  the  reader  can  imagine.  The  difficulty  with  us  is  to  get  the  grass  or  the 
ground.    The  process  of  curing  is  simple  enough.  ^^-  Farm.  Lib.\ 

(697) 2« 


338  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

has  been  withdrawn  across  the  4  ridges,  manual  labor  is  employed  to  put 
it  into  grass-cocks,  as  in  the  case  with  manual  labor.  It  will  be  observed 
that  few  people,  and  especially  women,  are  required  to  conduct  hay- 
making in  this  way,  the  heavy  part  of"  the  duty  consisting  of  making  the 
cocks  as  often  as  requisite,  which  is  best  done  by  men. 

(2133.)  A  large  oblong  hay-stack  should  be  biiilt  in  this  way  :  In  the 
first  place  a  dry  stance  should  be  chosen,  for  a  damp  one  will  cause  the 
destruction  of  several  stones  of  hay  at  the  bottom  of  the  stack.  The 
stance  should  be  raised  I  foot  above  the  ground  with  large  stones  inscribing 
the  circumference,  and  the  interior  filled  up  with  stone  shivers  or  gravel 
beat  firmly  down.  Upon  this  space  the  stack  should  he  built  by  2  men, 
who  are  supplied  with  armsfuU  of  hay  by  a  number  of  field-workers, 
whose  duty  is  not  merely  to  can-y  the  hay  but  to  tramp  it  under  foot  in  a 
regular  manner  from  one  end  of  the  stack  to  the  other.  The  2  men,  each 
occupying  a  side  of  the  stack,  shake  and  build  up  what  is  called  a  dace  of 
the  hay  befine  them  as  high  as  their  breast,  from  one  end  of  the  stack  to 
the  other ;  and  after  half  its  length  is  built  up  in  this  manner,  the  women 
go  upon  it  and  trample  it,  and  if  they  hold  by  one  another's  hand  in  a  row 
their  walking  will  prove  the  more  effective.  The  breadth  of  the  stack  is 
a  little  increased  to  the  eaves.  The  hay  is  forked  from  the  ground  by  2 
or  3  men,  and  when  the  stack  has  attained  an  inconvenient  bight  for  this 
purpose,  there  are  2  or  3  modes  by  which  hay  may  be  carried  to  greater 
hi^ht ;  one  is  by  placing  short  ladders  against  the  stack,  and  a  man  on 
each,  some  way  above  the  ground,  with  liis  back  to  the  ladder,  where  he 
receives  the  forksfull  of  hay  from  the  forkcr  on  ibe  ground,  and  raises 
the  load  above  his  head  u])on  the  stack.  Another  mode  i.s  for  men  to 
carry  back-loads  of  hay  up  long  ladders,  and  eni])ty  them  on  the 
stack.  A  third  is  to  erect  a  scaffolding  of  planks  upon  a  couple  of 
tresses  of  6  feet  in  bight,  and  to  fork  the  hay  off  tlie  scaffolding  to  the 
stack  as  it  is  forked  upon  it  from  the  ground.  Of  the  3  modes,  the  last 
of  the  scaffold  affords  the  most  secure  footing  to  the  men  at  an  eleva- 
tion from  the  ground,  and  in  the  end  is  the  most  expeditious;  and  in  all 
the  modes  4  men  will  be  amply  employed  in  forking  up  the  hay  to  keep 
2  builders  in  work.  The  hay  is  forked  off  the  ground  instead  of  the  cart, 
as  the  latter  mode  would  hinder  the  horses  too  long  to  make  them  stand 
till  the  cart  is  cleared  of  its  hay  by  forking.  The  hay  is,  therefore,  thrown 
down  upon  the  ground  from  the  cart,  and  if  the  cart  is  constructed  to  tilt 
up,  the  deposition  of  hay  is  easily  effected  ;  and  even  from  a  whole-bodied 
cart  hay  is  easily  thrown  off  by  the  forkers  sticking  their  forks  under  the 
load  along  one  side  of  the  cart,  and  pushing  upward  and  from  them  to 
the  other  side,  one  person  holding  by  the  wheel  nearest  the  men  to  pre- 
vent the  cart  upsetting.  The  position  in  which  the  load  is  thrown  upon 
the  ground  requires  to  be  considerately  chosen.  The  load  should  be 
thrown  away  fro7n  the  spot  upon  which  the  men  stand  to  fork,  when  the 
hay  will  easily  come  away  with  the  fork,  because  each  stratum  of  hay,  as 
it  was  forked  on  the  cart,  then  lies  toward  the  men  ;  whereas,  when  the 
load  is  thrown  toicard  the  forkers,  the  inclination  of  the  hay  abuts  against 
them,  and  every  forkfull  must  then  be  pulled  away  by  main  force.  A 
hight  of  12  feet  is  enough  for  the  body  of  the  stack,  and  a  breadth  of  15 
feet  is  convenient  for  a  hay-stack,  and  with  these  fixed  dimensions,  the 
length  may  be  made  more  or  less,  according  to  the  quantity  of  hay  to  be 
stacked.  With  these  dimensions  a  new-built  stack  of  40  feet  in  length 
will  contain  about  2,000  imperial  stones.  After  the  body  of  the  stack  has 
attained  12  feet  in  hight,  the  heading  is  commenced  by  gradually  taking 
in  the  breadth   on  each   side  to  the   ridging,  which  is  elevated  half  the 

(698) 


HAY-MAKIIVG.  339 


breadth  of  the  stack  above  the  eaves,  and  the  ends  are  built  perpendicular. 
One  man  and  one  woman  will  only  find  room  at  the  finishing  of  the  top  of 
the  stack.  A  few  straw  ropes  are  thrown  over  the  stack  to  prevent  the 
wind  blowing  off  its  new-made  top.  The  stack  is  left  for  several  days  to 
subside,  and  unless  it  has  been  slowly  built  and  firmly  tiampled,  it  may- 
subside  in  the  body  to  the  extent  of  2  feet.  Very  probably  heat  may  be 
indicated  in  some  part  of  the  stack  a  few  days  after  it  is  built,  by  a  leanino- 
toward  that  part,  because  heating  causes  consolidation  of  the  hay.  A  prop 
of  wood  placed  against  the  place  will  prevent  the  stack  subsiding  much 
farther,  and  the  handle  of  a  rake  pushed  in  here  and  there  into  the  stack, 
will  indicate  whether  the  heating  is  proceeding  upward  or  to  a  dangerous 
extent.  A  gentle  heating  will  do  no  harm,  but  rather  good,  by  renderino-  the 
quality  of  the  hay  uniform,  and  horses  do  not  dislike  its  effect.  Salt  has 
been  recommended  to  be  used  in  hay,  and  when  hay  is  in  a  damp  state  in 
consequence  of  the  weather,  it  is  an  excellent  remedial  measure  against 
mouldiness,  and  it  may  be  sown  by  hand  upon  every  dace  of  hay  laid 
down  by  the  two  builders.  The  proper  quantity  of  salt  is  to  be  used,  ac- 
cording to  the  state  of  the  hay,  has  never  been  correctly  ascertained,  and 
must,  therefore,  be  left  to  your  own  judgment  according  to  circumstances. 
Salted  hay  is  very  much  relished  by  all  kinds  of  stock,  and  especially  by 
cattle. 

(2134.)  When  the  hay   has  fairly   subsided,  and   the  heat,  if  any,  is  no 
longer  felt,  the  stack  should  be  thatched,;   and  as  a  preparatory  operation, 
the  sides  and  ends  are  neatly  pidJed  straight  from   angle  to  angle  of  the 
stack,  with  a  small  increase  of  breadth  to  the  eaves.     This  operation  sim- 
ply consists  of  pulling  out  the  straggling   ends  of  the  hay,  which  give  a 
rough  appearance  to  the  sides  and  ends,  in  order  to  render  them  smooth  ; 
and  its  use  is  to  save  the  hay  pulled  out  which  would  otherwise  be  bleach 
ed  useless  by  exposure  to   rain,  and  to  prevent  rain  hanging  upon  them 
about  the  stack.     The  heading  or  thatching  consists  of  straw  drawn  straio^ht 
in  bundles,  held  on  by  means  of  straw-ropes.     AVhen  a  hay-stack  is  to  be 
thatched,  the   drawn   bundles   of  straw,  and  the   straw-ropes,   should,  of 
course,  be  prepared  in  time ;   and  yet  it  is  a  matter  not  of  unfrequent  oc- 
currence for  farmers  to  allow  the  hay-stack   to  stand  unthatched  until  the 
corn  harvest,  for  want  of  straw  ;  or  even  to  allow  the  hay  to  be  left  in  ricks 
on  the  field  till  just  on  the  eve  of  harvest.     Straw,  in  some  instances,  may 
indeed  be  scarce,  but  in  that  case  rushes  and  other  tall-grown  wild  plants 
form  an  excellent  substitute,  both  for  thatch  and  ropes.     Ferns  and  heath 
are  good  materials  for  thatch.     The  thatching  should  be  carried   on  both 
sides  of  the  stack  simultaneously  by  2  men,  and  begun   at  the  same  end. 
The  men  being  mounted  on   the   head    of  the  stack,  the  bundles  of  straw 
are  handed  up  to  them  on  a  fork  one  by  one  as  they  are  needed,  and  each 
bundle  is  retained  in  its  place  on  the  roof,  beside  the  thatcher,  by  leaning 
against  a  graip   stuck   into  the   hay.     The   straw  is  first  placed  over  the 
eaves,  handfull  after  handfull  from  the  eave   to  the  top  of  the  stack,  each 
length  of  the  straw   being  overlapped  by  the  one  immediately  above  it. 
When  the  thatcher  feels  a  hollow  or  soft  part  with  his  feet  in  the  head  of 
the  stack,  he  makes  up  the  part  by  some  of  the  hay  that  was  pulled  out  of 
the  stack,  to  save  the  wasting   of  thatch  straw  in   filling  up  such  hollows. 
The  straw  is  thus  laid  from  the  eaves  to  the  ridge  of  the  stack  to  a  breadth 
as  far  as  the  thatcher  can  reach  at  a  time  with  his  arms.     When  the  men 
on  both  sides  meet   at   the  ridge,  straw  is   laid   along  the  stack  upon  the 
ridge,  to  cover  the  terminal  ends  of  the  thatch  on  the  sloping  roof,  and  to 
support  the  ropes  which   keep   down   the  thatch.     When  this  breadth,  of 
perhaps  3  feet,  or  a  little  more,  of  the  thatch   is  laid  down,  its  surface  is 

(699) 


340  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

switched  down  smooth  by  the  thatcher  \frith  a  supple  willow  rod,  and  then 
a  rope  is  thrown  across  the  stack  at  its  very  end,  and  another  parallel  to  it 
at  18  inches  apart,  and  made  fast  at  both  ends,  in  the  mean  time,  to  the 
sides  of  the  stack.  Other  ropes,  at  right  angles  to  the  first,  are  fastened 
18  inches  apart  to  the  hay  at  the  end  of  the  stack,  and  supposing  the  side 
of  the  roof  to  be  11  feet  along  the  slope,  6  ropes  running  horizontally  will 
be  required  to  cover  the  depth  of  the  slope,  leaving  a  space  of '9  inchep 
from  the  ridge  for  the  jilace  of  the  uppermost  rope,  and  the  rope  at  eacl 
eave  is  put  on  afterward.  Each  of  these  horizontal  ropes  is  twisted  onct 
round  every  peipendicular  rope  it  meets,  so  that  the  roping  when  com- 
pleted has  the  apjiearance  of  a  net  with  square  meshes.  As  every  subse- 
quent breadth  of  thatch  is  put  on,  the  roping  is  finished  upon  it,  the  ad- 
vantage of  which  is,  that  the  thatching  is  finished  as  it  proceeds,  and  placed 
beyond  danger  from  wind  or  rain,  or  disturbance  from  after  work.  If  the 
stack  stands  N.  and  S.,  the  E.  side  should  have  a  thicker  thatching  than 
the  W.,  as  being  most  liable  to  damp,  and  the  thatching  of  both  sides 
should  be  thicker  toward  that  end  of  the  stack  which  is  farthest  from  the 
steading,  as  it  will  stand  longest,  and  the  process  of  thatching  should  ter- 
minate at  the  end  which  will  be  first  broken  upon»  that  is,  nearest  the 
steading,  because  the  thatch  will  come  away  more  freely  when  removed 
in  the  opposite  direction  from  which  it  was  put  on.  The  horizontal  ropes 
at  their  termination  are  fastened  into  the  hay  at  the  end  of  the  stack.  The 
eave  is  finished  by  laying  a  stout  rope  horizontally  along  the  line  where 
the  roof  was  begun  to  be  taken  in,  and  twisting  it  round  each  perpendicu- 
lar rope  as  it  occurs ;  when  each  perpendicular  rope  is  broken  off  at  a  prop- 
er length  and  fastened  firmly  to  the  hay  immediately  under  the  eave,  and 
after  the  eave-ropes  have  thus  been  fastened  down,  the  projecting  ends  of 
the  thatch  over  the  eave  are  cut  straight  along  the  stack,  and  give  to  the 
beading  a  pretty  finish.  Another  mode  of  roping  the  thatch  is  to  place 
the  ropes  in  a  diagonal  direction  across  the  stack,  and  when  one  set  of 
ropes  cross  the  other  diagonally,  the  effect  is  lozenge-shaped,  which  looks 
well  ;  but  roping  in  this  fashion  requires  the  thatcher  to  place  all  the  straw 
upon  the  roof  before  he  guides  the  ropes  over  the  ridge  of  the  stack,  to  do 
which  he  must  stand  upon  the  ridge  and  step  backward  upon  it — a  plan 
which  allows  the  wind  to  have  liberty  to  blow  off  the  thatch  before  it  is 
roped  at  all,  and  also  obliges  him  to  trample  down  the  ridge  straw  to  a 
certain  degree. 

(2135.)  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  stack  is  built  under  cover  of  a  rtcA-- 
cloth  or  shed,  the  hay  may  be  led  in  by  a  cart-load  at  a  time,  employing 
only  3  hands,  for  the  builder  forks  the  hand-cocks  in  the  field  to  the  cart, 
and  the  carter  forks  the  hay  to  the  builder  off  the  cart,  while  the  same 
field-worker  who  rakes  the  bottoms  of  the  hand-cocks  in  the  field  car- 
ries the  hay  to  the  builder  on  the  stack,  each  forkfull  of  hay,  in  this 
case,  l/eing  thinly  scattered  over  the  stack,  is  easily  trampled  down, 
and  has  time  to  subside  before  another  load  is  put  over  it  on  the 
following  day.  Where  the  rick-cloth  is  used,  the  stack  should  be 
thatched  on  its  removal ;  but  where  a  shed  is  erected,  no  thatching  is  re- 
quired. 

(2136.)  Hay  is  sometimes  Iniilt  in  round  stacks,  which  are  kept  of  a  cyl- 
indrical form  for  7  or  S  feet  from  the  ground,  and  then  teiTninated  in  a  ta- 
pering conical  top,  and  thatched.  Such  stacks  contain  from  300  to  500 
stones  of  hay.  This  form  of  stack  is  convenient  enough  when  a  whole 
one  can  be  brought  at  once  into  the  hay-house,  but  should  the  stack  be  of 
such  a  size  as  to  be  necessary  to  bisect  it  perpendicularly,  the  remaining 
half  is  apt  to  be  blown  over ;  or  should  its  upper  half  be  brought  into  the 

(700) 


HAY-MAKING.  341 


hay-house,  the  under  part  must  be  protected  by  a  quantity  of  straw  kept 
down  by  some  weiq;bty  articles,  and  in  such  a  case  it  is  seldom  that  these 
aie  put  on  with  sufficient  care  to  keep  out  rain  and  resist  wind.  Upon  the 
whole,  the  oblong  form  of  stack  admits  of  being  most  conveniently  cut  for 
use,  and  left  at  all  times  in  safety;  because  a  section  of  any  breadth  can 
be  cut  from  top  to  bottom  to  fill  the  hay-house. 

CJiriT.)  Tlio  rule  for  asccrtainingr  the  number  of  stones  of  hay  in  oblong:  stacks  is  simple  enough, 
but  not  so  for  conical  stacks.  To  find  the  weight  of  hay  in  an  oblong  stack  : — To  the  hight.  from 
iho  ground  to  the  eaves  add  one-half  of  the  hight  of  the  top  above  the  eaves  for  the  mean  hight, 
t'lpii  nniliiply  the  mean  hight  by  the  breadth,  and  then  multiply  the  product  of  both  by  the  length. 
Divide  the  uross  product  by  27,  and  the  dividend  will  give  the  number  of  cubic  yards  in  the  stack, 
and  that  number  of  yards  multiplied  by  the  number  of  stones  of  hay  in  a  cubic  j-ard,  will  give 
the  weiu'ht  of  the  stacks  in  stones  imperial.  It  is  not  easy  to  state  the  exact  number  of  stones  of 
hay  in  a  cubic  yard,  as  that  must  varj-  according  to  the  compressed  state  of  the  hay,  the  weight 
actually  varying  from  .5  stones  to  9  stones  per  cubic  yard,  according  to  the  age  and  size  of  the  stack, 
and  the  part  of  the  stack  from  which  the  hay  is  taken ;  but  perhaps  6  stones  may  be  near  enough 
the  mark  of  the  weight  in  a  new  stack,  7  stones  in  one  that  has  stood  for  some  months,  and  8  stones 
in  one  that  has  stood  over  years.  The  contents  of  a  round  stack  with  a  conical  top  may  be  ascer- 
tained in  this  waj- : — Take  the  hight  of  the  round  part  from  the  ground  to  the  eaves,  and  add  to  it 
one-tliird  of  the  perpendicular  hight  of  the  conical  top  above  the  eaves  for  the  mean  bight  of 
the  stack.  Take  then  the  mean  girth,  which,  if  the  stack  is  vi-ider  at  the  eaves  than  at  the  ground, 
is  ascertained  by  taking  the  girth  at  the  eaves,  and  also  at  the  ground,  and  dividiuu  their  sum  by 
2.  Square  the  mean  girth,  and  multiply  the  product  by  the  decimal  .079.i,  which  will  give  the 
area  of  the  base  of  the  stack.  Then  multiply  the  area  by  the  mean  hight,  which  will  give  the 
contents  of  the  stack  in  cubic  feet,  divide  the  contents  by  27,  which  will  reduce  them  to  cubic 
yards,  and  then  multiply  the  yards  by  the  supposed  number  of  stones  of  hay  in  the  yard,  and  the 
capacity  of  the  stack  will  be  found  in  stones.  To  know  the  contents  of  a  conical  "stack  or  coll, 
take  the  girth  at  the  ground  in  feet,  find  the  area  of  the  circle  in  the  ordinary  way,  and  multiply 
the  area  by  one-third  of  the  hight.  The  contents  thus  found  in  feet  reduce  to  yards,  and  then 
multiply  by  the  number  of  stones  in  a  cubic  yard.  But  the  simplest  plan  in  all  such  cases  is  to 
use  any  of  the  Tables  which  are  published  for  the  purpose  of  saving  tedious  calculations,  such  as 
those  of  Anslie  or  Strachan,  the  latter  of  which,  however,  are  not  extended  far  enough  to  com- 
prehend stacks  of  the  largest  dimensions. 

(2138.)  A  crop  of  hay  varies  from  l.'iO  to  300  stones  per  acre,  according  to  the  season  and  the 
nature  of  the  soil.  On  light  gravelly  soils  the  crop  is  never  heavy,  but  its  qualit\'  is  generally 
fine,  and  on  good  clay  it  is  usually  heavy,  and  the  plants  large  and  strong,  the  clover  predomina- 
ting. For  quantity  and  quality  combined,  a  deep  mellow  clay  loam  may  be  regarded  as  the  best 
texture  of  soil.  On  thin  clay,  and  on  thin  light  soil  resting  on  retentive  clay,  the  clover  is  fre- 
quently thrown  out  by  frost  in  spring,  and  the  hay  then  consists  chiellj-  of  rye-grass,  and  on  the 
same  soil  the  same  effect  is  produced  by  severe  drouth  in  May.  Good  hay  should  consi.st  of 
equal  quantities  of  clover  and  rye-gra.ss,  feel  pleasant  to  the  hand,  and  smell  fragrantly,  and,  when 
well  prepared,  possess  a  liirht  brownish-green  color;  but  as  it  is  commonly  prepared",  the  color  ia 
usually  light  brownish-yellow.  Haj-  of  natural  grass,  when  well  prepared,  is  darkish  green  in 
color,  feels  soft,  is  generally  of  fine  quality,  and  highly  fragrant.  Grass  usually  loses  tvi'othirds 
of  its  weight  on  being  made  into  hay. 

(2139.1  Of  3060  grains  of  white  clover,  as  much  as  2430  grains  were  water,  100  grains  nutritive 
matter,  and  the  remaining  470  grains  were  insoluble  matter.  The  nutritive  matter  in  the  100 
grains  consisted  of  77  of  starch,  2  of  sugar,  7  of  gluten,  and  14  of  bitter  extract  and  saline  matter.* 
" When  green  grass  or  clover,  approaching  to  maturity,"  says  Professor  Johnston,  "is  first  cut 
down,  it  contains  a  considerable  proportion  of  starch,  sucrar,  and  gum  still  unchanged  into  woody 
fibre,  as  it  would  mostly  be  were  the  plant  allowed  to  become  fully  ripe."  Here  you  see  the  pro- 
priety of  cutting  down  grass  for  hay  before  any  of  its  seed  approaches  to  maturity,  because  lat- 
terly it  contains  woody  fibre  instead  of  the  nutritive  ingredients  just  mentioned.  But  even  when 
sueculent  grass  is  "  left  to  dry  in  the  open  air.  the  circulation  proceeds  to  a  certain  extent,  and, 
under  the  influence  of  light,  woodj-  fibre  continues  to  be  formed  in  the  upper  part  of  each  stem, 
until  it  becomes  completely  dry."  And  "  it  may  even  be  a  matter  of  doubt  whether  the  process 
of  change  does  not  often  proceed  after  the  hay  has  been  carried  off  the  field  and  stacked."!  All 
which  considerations  tend  more  and  more  to  prove  that  the  longer  grass  is  allowed  to  stand  after 
the  plant  has  attained  its  full  stature,  the  less  digestible  or  nutritious  the  hay  will  become  ;  and 
more  than  this,  the  longer  the  process  of  making  the  grass  into  hay  is  delayed,  the  more  woody, 
and,  of  course,  the  less  nutritious  the  hay  will  be.  Every  quick  process  of  converting  grass  into 
hay  is,  therefore,  better  than  any  slow  one.  There  is  a  very  quick  mode  practiced  in  Saxony, 
which  is  this: — The  grass  that  has  been  cut  down  during  the  day  is  put  into  large  cocks  late  in 
the  afternoon.  A  very  strong  fermentation  soon  ensues,  which  coiitinues  all  night  until  the  morn- 
ing, when  the  work-people  return  to  the  field,  by  which  time  the  cocks  have  contracted  much  in 
bulk,  and  the  steam  rises  briskly  from  them.  They  are  then  thrown  down  and  scattered  on  the 
ground,  and  their  contents  allowed  to  remain  all  day  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air.  and  by  the  after- 
noon the  hay  is  so  dry  and  won  as  to  be  fit  to  be  stacked,  and  accordina-lv  it  is  gathered  from  the 
ground  and  carried  to  the  stack.  The  new-mown  grass  of  the  day  is  put  into  large  cocks  in  the 
evening,  to  be  treated  the  next  day  in  the  same  manner.  This  mode  of  liay-making  might  be  fol- 
lowed in  this  country,  provided  w"e  could  trust  our  climate :  but  should  the  next  morning  prove 
a  rainy  or  even  a  damp  one,  the  contents  of  the  cocks  would  inevitably  be  rotted.     The  modes  of 

*  Sinclair's  Hortus  Gramineus  Wobumensis. 

t  Transactions  of  the  Highland  and  Agi-icultaral  Society  for  October,  1843. 
(701) 


342  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


Iiayiniiking,  bolh  manually  uikI  nicc-liaiiirollv,  wliich  I  hnvi;  ilewriljeii  above,  are  bolli  expeditioas, 
as  are  aluo  tlie  modes  destrib»d  by  Mr.  Little,  Curleogill,  and  Mr.  Miller  of  Forest,  boib  in  Dnm- 
fripsstiire.* 

(iHO.)  As  bay  is  u.funlly  made  in  a  tliriftless  manner,  and  as  firaiw  is  more  nourishing  to  stock 
than  bay,  and  as  g(X)d  food  ran  be  rooked  for  horses  in  winter  without  hay.  I  have  often  thought 
it  a  loss" to  farmers  to  make  bay  at  all.  The  grass  would  pay  better  on  being  grazed,  and  the  land 
would  be  retained  in  Intter  heart.  In  the  vicinity  o(  large  towns,  it  may  be  expedient  to  make 
hay,  and  yet  when  the  crop  proves  heav_y  the  prioe  is  low — the  average  may  be  stated  from  the 
trump-rick  at  Hd.  j)er  stone  ot  'J-Jlbs.  1  have  seen  the  price  as  low  as  4d.  and  as  high  as  Is.  4d.  per 
stone;  but  when  the  price  is  high,  the  crop  is  deticicnt,  and  the  quality  of  the  hay  bad.  Taking 
the  heaviest  crop  of  :iOO  stones  ut  M..  it  will  yield  X\0  an  acre,  but  220  stones  is  nearer  the  mark  ; 
and  yet  grass  lets  for  cutting  X12  or  £\4  per  acre  in  the  neighborhood  of  Edinburgh,  without  in- 
curring any  trouble  to  the  farmer.  1  am  sure  if  half  the  labor  spent  in  making  hay  were  bestow- 
ed in  winter  in  cooking  food  for  the  hor.«cs,  farmers  would  derive  a  profit  from  the  exchange.t 

(2141.)  [Of  the  hai/mahitif!  implements,  the  wylhc  (2t;i5),  and  fig.  361,  and  the  hay-fork,  fig. 
279,  having  been  already  alluded  to,  I  have  now  to  notice  a  machine  w  liich  is  extensively  em- 
ployed by  the  English  farmers  in  the  preparation  of  mcadowhay.  or  hay  prepared  from  tlie  mix- 
ed natural  gra.-wes,  in  conlradislinction  from  the  artificial,  or  rye-grass  ami  clover  hay. 

(2142.)  The  English  hay-tedding  machine,  which  is  represented  in  perspective  in  Plate  XXXI. 
fig.  360,  consists  of  a  skeleton  carriage,  having  a  scries  of  revolvinir  rakes  occupying  the  place  of 
the  body.  The  carriage  is  composed  of  the  transverse  bar  a,  ft  feet  in  length,  into  which  the 
horse-shafts  b  h  are  tenoned.  An  iron  stay -bar  c  c  on  each  side  connects  and  supports  the  shafts, 
and  the  stays  are  continued  backward,  and  attached  to  the  center  of  the  bo.\  that  carries  the 
axle  of  the  carriage-wheel  on  each  side.  The  length  of  the  bars  c  from  <i  to  the  center  of 
the  axle-box  is  3  feet  10  inches,  and  the  bars  arc  2|  by  \  inch.  The  carriage-wheels  d  d  are  3 
feet  10  inches  diameter,  and  turn  upon  arms  cast  on  a  circular  box,  into  which  the  nave  of  the 
wheel,  armed  with  a  ratchet  c,  is  received.  The  ratchet  wheel  c.  thus  attached  to  the  nave  of  the 
carriage-wheel,  takes  Iiold  of  the  spur-wheel/ by  means  of  a  pall,  and  carries  it  round  when  the 
machine  advances,  but  slips  hold  on  backing  or  turning.  The  spur-wheel/ works  inio  the  pinion 
fr.  which  is  mounted  on  the  end  of  the  hollowshaft  A,  extending  from  side  to  side  of  the  machine  ; 
and  though  in  the  figure,  for  the  sake  of  distinctness,  the  spur-wheel  and  pinion  are  exposed  to 
view,  they  are  in  the  machine  closely  boxed  uj)  in  a  cast-iron  casing,  which,  for  perfect  and  safe 
working  is  necessary  to  prevent  entanglement  from  the  hay  falling  between  the  wheel  and  pin- 
ion. A  bar  of  IJ-inch  round  iron  pa.sses  through  the  hollow  .'iliaft  /),  and  has  its  end  fitted  lightly 
into  the  outward  side  of  the  case  that  contains  the  pinion  "-,  and  there  fixed  firmly  with  a  screw- 
nut  on  the  outside  of  the  case  ;  and  the  hollow  shaft  and  pinions  being  firmly  connected  by  thin 
flanges  (which  are  left  out  of  the  figure),  they  revolve  round  the  central  rod  or  shaft  as  one  body, 
the  rod  having  turned  bearings  where  the  pinion  embraces  it.  The  two  rake-wheels  i  t  are  2 
feet  8  inches  diameter,  and  of  very  light  construction  ;  they  have  eyes  sufRciently  large  to  pass 
over  the  end  flanges,  of  about?  inches  diameter,  of  the  hollow  shaft,  to  which  the  pinions  c-  are 
attached  by  means  of  their  flanges;  and,  to  fill  up  the  large  eyes  of  the  rake-wheels,  the  shaU  h  is 
swelled  out  at  the  points  of  bearing.  The  rake-wheels,  fixed  dead  upon  the  shaft  /*,  are  no^ff 
armed  with  the  eight  rakes  ^  A: ;  these  are  wooden  bars  .'i  feet  6  inches  long,  and  2 J  inches  square, 
each  carrying  10  light  iron  teeth  about  7  inches  in  length.  The  rakes  are  attached  to  the  wheels 
by  a  tumbling  joint  m  vi,  &c.,  and  are  held  to  the  work  by  the  si)rings  .'  only  ;  by  which  arrange- 
ment, when  any  undue  resistance  is  opposed  to  a  rake,  such  as  a  stone  or  other  obstruction,  the 
rake  falls  back  till  the  obstruction  has  been  passed,  when  the  springs  immediately  return  it  to  its 
working  position. 

(2143.)  It  will  be  observed  that  there  is  no  thorough  axle  in  the  machine,  as  tlie  revolution  of 
the  rake  occupies  the  place  where  that  member  should  exist;  hence  the  axle-arms  or  heads  are 
simply  studs  projecting  from  the  box  which  contains  the  machinery  e,f,  g.  and  hence  ahso  the 
necessity  for  the  connecting-bar  which  passes  through  the  hollow  shaft ;  that,  together  with  the 

*  See  I'rize  Essays  of  the  Ilighlund  and  Agriculturnl  Society,  vol.  xiv. 

[t  We  have  before  us  a  letter  from  Henry  Ancrum,  of  Ashley,  Missouri,  in  which  he  says  : — "  I 
have  tried  a  great  many  experiments  on  animals.  I  have  kept  20  Durham  cows,  7  horses,  and 
other  stock,  in  a  situation  where  hay  was  $25  a  ton,  in  the  highest  health  and  condition  without  a 
blade  of  hay  ;  and  the  result  of  my  investigations  and  trials  is,  that  cooked  food  in  winter  is  the 
cheapest  and  most  wholesome, 

I  have  found  tliat  it  is  pretty  indifferent  as  to  the  quality  of  the  food  by  which  tlie  alimentary  ca- 
nal is  filled,  if  ample,  proviiled  a  certain  quantity  of  concentrated  food  is  given  containing  nitro- 
genous substances,  and  a  small  quantity  daily  suffices.  No  animal  can  be  brought  easily  and  read- 
ily to  his  highest  pitch  of  perfection  on  one  kind  of  food  alone.  The  great  secret  is  to  keep  up 
the  animal  heat  in  the  winter.  Where  this  is  strictly  attended  to,  any  inferior  food  at  discretion, 
and  given  with  staled  regularity,  will  make  an  animal  fat  I  have  seen  oxen  of  the  largest  size 
made  completely  fat  with  a  modemte  allowance  of  hay,  with  cabbages  of  the  Anjou  kind  ;  but 
these  animals  were  fed  with  the  greatest  regularity,  curried,  kept  extremely  warm,  and  the  chill 
taken  ofT  the  water  in  cold  weather.  How  many  millions  are  lost  in  the  United  States  by  not 
keeping  up  the  animal  heat  in  the  winter  ?" 

These  suggestions,  sustained  by  modem  experiments  on  the  nature  and  action  of  food,  we  con- 
sider important,  as  going  to  show   that  good   hay  is  not  so  indispensable  as  may  be  imagined  by 
those  who  have  it  not  within  their  reach  or  to  whom  it  would  be  very  costly.     Ed.  Farm.  Lib] 
(702) 


HAY-MAKING.  343 


bar  a  and  the  longitudinal  bars  c  c,  being  the  only  parts  which  constitute  the  framework  of  the 
machine.  Besides  tlie  capability  of  backing,  without  turning  the  rakes,  there  is  provision  for  dis- 
engaging them  when  the  machine  is  advancing.  To  effect  thisf  the  pall  which  is  attached  to  the 
spur-wheel/,  for  the  purpose  of  deriving  its  motion  from  the  ratchet-wheel  of  the  nave,  is  held  in 
action  by  means  of  a  spring  pressing  on  the  tail  of  the  pall,  and  the  disengagement  of  the  whole 
machinery  from  the  carriage  wheel  or  first  mover,  is  effected  by  a  small  tumbling  lever  affixed 
also  to  the  spur-wheel,  and  fitted  to  bear  upon  and  throw  the  pall  out  of  gear  with  the  ratchet  of 
the  carriage-wheel  nave.  The  machine  is  also  furnished  with  the  means  of  elevating  and  de- 
pressing the  center  of  the  revolving-rake,  and,  of  consequence,  bringing  the  rake-teeth  neOTer  to, 
or  farther  from  the  ground,  and  this  is  effected  by  turning  round  the  circular  boxes  that  contain 
the  gearing  to  the  extent  required,  which  is  then  fixed  by  means  of  a  quadrant  bolted  to  the  bars 
f ,  c  ;  a  small  portion  of  this  quadrant,  which  is  a  part  or  fiange  of  the  gearing-box,  is  seen  with  its 
bolt-holes  at  e  on  the  left,  and  at  i  on  the  right  of  the  figure.  When  in  operation  the  machine  is 
drawn  by  one  horse,  or  sometimes  two  horses,  and  the  result  of  the  combination  of  the  gearing  is 
that  the  revolving-rake  makes  4^  revolutions  for  one  of  the  carriage-wheel.  The  latter  being  3 
feet  10  inches  diameter,  will  pass  over  12  feet  or  thereby  in  one  revolution,  and  the  rakes  being  4 
feet  6  inches  diameter  over  the  extreme  points  of  the  teeth,  will  describe  a  circle  of  about  14 
feet  in  circumference,  and  this  revolving  4^  times  for  one  of  the  other,  the  points  of  the  teeth,  will 
pass  through  63  feet  while  the  carriage  has  moved  over  12  feet,  and  as  there  are  8  rakeheads, 
there  will  be  8X45=36  contacts  with  the  substance  which  is  to  be  lifted,  in  a  space  of  12  feet,  or 
one  at  every  4  inches.  From  this  calculation  it  will  be  seen  that  the  hay  under  the  operation  of 
this  machine  will  undergo  a  process  of  teazling  or  tedding  of  the  most  perfect  description  ;  it  will 
be  separated  and  tossed  about  until  no  two  stems  of  the  plants  will  be  left  in  contact,  and  by  this 
exposure  the  drying  process  is  effected  in  a  period  greatly  shorter  and  more  effectually  than  could 
be  done  by  any  number  of  hands.  Thus,  if  we  suppose  the  horse  to  walk  SJ  miles  per  hour,  and 
the  machine  to  cover  6  feet  in  breadth,  we  have  a  surface  of  1^  acres  nearly  covered  in  an  hour. 

(2144.)  The  following  machines,  though  not  confined  to  the  hay-field  alone,  but  are  also  em- 
ployed in  the  grain  harvest,  are  very  frequently  employed  in  hay-making,  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
colleciing  the  hay  into  heaps  after  the  tedding  process  has  been  gone  through. 

(2145.)  The  h/itid  hay  rake  is  an  implement  of  great  simplicity,  but  though  almost  elementary 
in  its  construction,  it  has  been  subjected  to  numerous  variations,  chiefly  in  one  point,  with  a  view 
to  improve  its  construction.  It  consists  of  a  head  c  d,  fig.  399,  g  h,  fig.  398,  of  from  24  to  27  inches 
in  length,  made  of  hard  wood  1^  inches  broad  in  the  middle,  tapering  a  little  to  each  end,  and  from 
1  to  1  ^  inches  thick.  Tiie  head  is  armed  with  twelve  or  thirteen  wooden  teeth  a  or  e,  made  of  oak 
or  ash  f  inch  in  diameter,  and.  when  first  made,  about  3|  inches  long.    They  ought  to  be  formed 

Fig.  398.  Fig.  399. 


THE  HAND-RAKES. 

with  a  slight  swelling  in  the  middle,  or  rather  towards  one  end.  the  shorter  end  being  adapted  to 
fit  into  holes  previously  bored  at  2  inches  apart  centres ;  and  vihen  the  teeth  are  driven  into  their 
holes  the  swell  on  the  tooth  fills  up  the  hole  tightly,  giving  the  tooth  much  greater  strength  than 
if  it  were  quite  cylindrical.  The  teeth  are  then  properly  .secured  by  wedging,  and  the  wedges 
and  ends  dressed  off;  the  points  of  the  teeth  are  likewise  dressed  off  to  a  uniform  length,  2^  inches 
or  thereby,  and  sharpened  off  from  the  back.  The  shaft  or  helve,  which  is  5^  feet  long,  is  usually 
made  of  ash,  but  as  lightness  is  an  object,  its  thickness  ought  not  to  exceed  1|  inches,  dressed 
neatly  smooth  and  round  except  where  it  enters  the  head  ;  here,  and  for  a  length  of  12  inches,  it 
is  usually  kept  square.  This  part  of  it  is  either  let  into  the  middle  of  the  head  by  a  tenon,  as  in 
fig.  399,  or  it  is  split  as  in  fig.  398,  and  enters  it  by  two  tenons.  It  is  in  this  point  of  the  construc- 
tion that  the  variations  have  occurred,  and  from  the  slightest  consideration  it  will  be  evident  that 
the  single  tenon  alone,  as  in  fig.  399,  is  defective  and  weak  ;  hence  the  grounds  for  the  variation, 
to  afford  some  additional  support  to  the  simple  tenon,  and  fig.  398  exhibits  one  mode  of  accom- 
plishing the  object ;  the  helve  is  split  with  a  saw  from  the  end  backward  to  J.  at  which  point  it  is 
prevented  from  splitting  farther  by  the  application  of  a  rivet  put  through  the  termination  of  the 
split  part,  or,  what  is  much  better,  an  iron  ferule,  as  in  the  figure,  is  drawn  tight  upon  it;  the  fork 
is  then  opened,  the  ends  adapted  to  the  respective  mortises  and  secured  into  the  head  of  the  rake. 
This  is  apparently  a  very  simple  mode  of  accomplishing  the  object,  but  it  is  not  by  any  means  a 
perfect  one.  Were  it  possible  to  make  the  two  parts  /  g  and  /  h  free  of  curvature,  the  object 
would  be  attained  ;  but  as  this  cannot  under  the  circum.stances  be  done,  the  head  and  the  helve 
will  have  a  very  unstable  attachment  to  each  other,  and  a  consequent  weakness  of  parts ;  neither 
is  It  less  expensive  than  other  and  better  methods,  though  the  rake  of  this  form  is  always  light  m 
hand,  which  is  its  only  commendation.  A  semi-circular  bow  of  bent  ash  wood  has  been  often  ap- 
plied, passing  through  a  hole  at  b,  fig.  399,  and  entering  the  head  at  c  and  d,  but  this,  by  reason  of 
its  curved  figure,  is  also  especially  defective,  besides  weakening  the  helve.  Equally  so  is  a  hght 
iron  bow  of  the  same  curvature,  but,  instead  of  passing  through  the  helve,  it  is  simply  attached  to 
(703) 


344  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


it.  and  to  tl.e  head  with  a  nail  at  each  of  these  points.  This  will  be  better  in  degree  than  the  last, 
from  tlie  greater  rigidilv  ol  the  iron,  but  is  not  better  in  principle.  The  true  and  only  mode  of 
applying  the  bow  is  that  exhibited  in  fig.  399,  where  the  parts  b  c  and  //  d  are  perfectly  ctraipht, 
and  formed  of  verv  Wizhl  iron  rod  •.  it  need  not  exceed  \  inch  .liameter,  flattened  at  the  two  exirem- 
tties  and  at  the  i-oiiit  h  into  a  small  flat  palm,  and  fixed  to  the  helve  and  the  head  by  a  screw-nail 
at  each  point.  This  part  of  the  rake  is  called  Uie  stay  or  brace,  and  in  the  last  deacnbed  form  u 
as  perfect  as  the  case  will  admit  of  o        i.         n  •      •     •        i 

(2144)  To  have  said  po  mnch  on  an  implement  so  simple  and  of  such  small  intrinsic  value  may 
appear  trilling,  but  the  hav  rake  is  not  so  much  the  object  here  as  the  development  of  the  pnnci- 
ple  on  which  depends  the  strengthening  and  supporting  the  parts  ot  any  form  oMrame-work. 
whether  of  wood  or  iron,  bv  the  aid  of  .fiagonal  slays  or  braces.  This  single  member  in  all  con- 
structions is  of  such  importance  that  no  opportunity  should  be  lo.st  in  impressing  the  principle  on 
the  mind  of  all,  whose  business  or  interest  lies  in  Uiose  departments  of  Mechanics  where  its  ap- 
plication is  required.  ,  -en- 

(2147  )  The  American  hny  rake,  is  so  called  from  its  having  been  an  importation  trom  Amenca. 
This  implement  is  represented  in  fig.  400,  in  perspective,  and  lying  in  the  workmg  position.    It 

Fig.  400. 


6      C 

THE  A.MERICAN  HAT-RAKE.* 

consists  of  a  beam  or  head  a  n,  9J  feet  long  and  about  4  inches  square  ;  it  is  perforated  with  18 
square  morti.«e.s,  into  which  the  transverse  bars  or  teeth  b  h,  c  c,  ice.  are  firml\-  fixed.  These 
teeth  are  about  3  feet  10  inches  long,  or  21  inches  on  each  side  of  the  head  a  a.  and  are  about  1^ 
inches  square  on  the  body,  slightlj-  tapering  to  each  end,  where  they  are  rounded  off  to  a  blunt 
point,  but  chiefly  upon  that  side  which  is  to  lie  next  the  ground,  and  this  constitutes  the  body  of  the 
rake.  It  is  drawn  by  a  horse  yoked  to  the  drauirhtframe  d  e.  of  which  d  and  e  are  two  naturally- 
bent  bars  of  wood  about  3J  feet  long  and  4  inches  by  2J  inches  at  the  butt  end  ;  at  the  butt  they 
are  worked  out  to  the  end  in  a  semicircle  half  embracing  the  head  a  a.  which  is  here  dre.«sed  in- 
to a  cylindrical  journal,  and  the  bars  d  e  are  secured  to  the  journals  by  a  strap  of  iron  passing 
round  each  and  nailed  or  bolted  upon  the  bans,  leaving  them  freedom  to  traverse  upon  the  jour- 
nals. The  stretcher-bar/  is  mortised  into  d  and  e  at  a  distance  of  not  less  than  2  feet  from  the  head 
a  a.  The  handle-frame  by  which  the  implement  is  guided  has  the  two  bars  g  and  h  A\  feet  long 
and  is  2J  feet  apart ;  the  bars  being  attached  to  the  head  in  the  same  manner  as  described  for  d  e. 
The  two  bars  g,  h.  are  also  connected  by  2  stretchers,  and  upon  the  lower  one  is  appended  the 
light  pendent  and  movable  frame  /.  the  depth  of  which  from  the  stretcher,  to  which  it  i.s  appended. 
to  the  bar  i  is  10  inches,  and  is  jointed  to  swing  freely  on  tlie  stretcher.  The  bar  i  ot  this  last 
frame  is  put  in  connection  with  the  drauL,'ht-frame,  by  means  of  the  connecting-rod  i  k,  which  is 
jointed  movable  at  both  ends  on  round  journals,  and  strapped  as  before.  The  stretcher  on  which 
the  frame  i  is  appended  is  prolonged  at  each  end  to  receive  the  catch-bars  /,  on  the  outside  of  tlie 
frame  g  h.  one  of  which  bars  is  seen  at  /.  jointed  on  the  prolonged  stretcher,  the  position  of  which 
18  2  feet  3  inches  from  the  journal  of  the  head  a.  The  catch-bars  are  3  J  inches  by  IJ  inches  at  /, 
but  diminish  for\vard  to  IJ  inches  square  at  the  point,  where  they  abut  upon  an  iron  stud,  which 
is  presented  at  two  of  the  opposite  corners  of  the  rake-head,  at  each  side  of  the  handle-frame, 
serving  an  essential  purpose  in  the  manacement  of  the  implement. 

(214*?.)  In  the  workin?  of  this  rake,  it  lies  nearly  flat  on  the  ground,  and  when  the  draught- 
frame  is  at  its  proper  hiirht,  the  connecting-rod  /  k  keeps  the  hanging  frame  ju.st  within  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  teeth  that  are  then  behind,  and  nearly  bearing  upon  them.  In  this  position  also, 
the  point  of  the  catch-bars  /  is  quite  free  of  the  studs  of  the  head  or  beam,  and  by  pressing  down 
the  handle-frame,  the  pendent  i  will  come  down  upon  and  depress  the  teeth  that  are  looking  back- 
ward, raising  at  the  same  time  tho.-je  in  front,  such  as  for  the  purpose  of  passing  over  any  obstruc- 
tion. When,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  wished  to  depress  the  front  teeth,  the  handle-frame  is  raised 
till  the  points  of  the  catch  bars  press  aizainst  their  studs,  which  will  depress  the  front-teeth  ;  and 
by  continuing  to  elevate  the  hainlle-frame,  the  connectiug-rod.  from  change  of  position  in  the  bars 
i%,i  I,  and  //.  will  push  the  pendent  i  beyond  the  extremity  of  the  teeth  behind,  when,  the  front 
teeth  taking  the  ground,  and  nothing  to  resist  the  rising  of  those  behind,  the  rake  will  immediate- 
ly tilt  over,  the  fore  and  hind  teeth  changing  places ;  but.  in  other  respects,  everything  will  be 
the  same  as  before.  The  effects  of  the  motion  and  tilting,  it  is  evident,  will  be.  tliat  in  the  pro- 
gressive state  the  rake  collects  the  hay  or  straw  upon  it  chiefly  in  the  front  part ;  and  when  the 
attendant  sees  that  the  rake  is  filled,  he  raises  the  handles  and  tilts  the  rake  as  above  described, 
leaving  the  collected  mass  at  the  spot  where  the  tilt  occurs. 


[*  Invented  by  Moses  Pennock  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  in  Delaware.    Men's  names  have 
been  immortalized  bv  acts  of  much  less  pablic  service.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

(704, 


THE  FLAIL.  345 


(2149.)  A  slight  consideration  of  this  implement  will  show  the  effectual  and  convenient  manner 
in  which  its  work  is  performed  ;  but  it  will  also  probably  occur  to  the  observer,  that,  for  pro- 
gressive motion,  it  is  by  no  means  so  well  adapted  as  for  collecting  and  depositing  the  products. 
The  heavy  transverse  bar,  or  head  of  the  rake,  is  drawn  forward  in  the  worst  po;:sible  position,  or 
vi'hat  is  called  bi'oad-side  on  ;  and  it  appears  very  obvious  that  this  defect  could  be  removed  by 
simply  applying  a  pair  of  low  light  wheels  to  the  ends  of  the  head;  their  diameter  need  not  ex- 
ceed 8  inches,  aud  they  should  be  very  light.  Perhaps  it  may  be  owing  to  this  defect  that  the 
American  hay-rake  has  of  late  j'ears  not  been  in  such  high  repute  as  formerly. 

(2150.)  The  Flail,  tig.  401,  is  an  implement  of  considerable  antiquity,  and  of  vei-y  extended  ap- 
plication. Till  about  80  years  ago,  it  was  the  sole  implement  employed  in  Britain,  and  to  this  day 
is  nearly  so  over  a  great  part  of  Europe,  for  threshing  out  the  grain  from  the  straw.  Though 
falling  rapidly  into  disuse  in  England,  it  is  nevertheless  an  important  impleinent  in  many  oth- 
ers, and  therefore  claims  our  attention  in  common  with  thoise  of  higher  pretension.  The  flail  con- 
sists of  two  parts,  the  hand-staff  or  helve  a  b,  and  the  supple  or  beater  b  c ;  the  first  is  a  light  rod 
of  ash  about  5  feet  in  length,  slightly  increased  in  breadth  at  the  lower  extremity,  where  it  is  per- 

Fig.  401. 


forated  for  the  passage  of  the  thongs  that  bind  the  beater  to  it.  The  beater  is  a  rod  of  from  30  to 
36  inches  in  length,  frequently  also  made  of  ash,  though  a  more  compact  wood,  such  as  thorn,  is 
better  adapted  for  it.  If  not  properly  applied,  the  ash  beater  will  very  soon  separate  into  thin 
plates,  which  are  portions  of  the  concentric  layers  of  the  wood,  and  their  separation  ai'ises  from  the 
beater  falling  upon  the  flat  or  convex  side  of  these  annular  layers — or  the  reed  of  the  wood,  as  vul- 
garly called.  To  prevent  this  disintegration  of  the  wood,  the  beater  should  be  constructed  to  fall 
upon  the  disc  of  the  segmental  portions  of  the  reed,  which  is  easily  accomplished  in  its  formation. 
The  usual  form  of  the  beater  is  cylindrical,  but  frequently  thickened  a  little  toward  the  extreme 
end,  the  diameter  being  from  1^  to  1^  inches.  For  the  most  part,  it  is  attached  to  the  hand  staff  by 
a  strap  of  leather,  or  more  frequently  of  hide  untanned  ;  when  mounted  in  this  manner,  the  beater 
is  formed  with  two  projecting  ears,  standing  at  right  angles  to  the  side  on  which  it  is  intended  to 
fall,  and  about  \\  inches  from  the  end  by  which  it  is  attached,  serving  the  purpose  of  retaining 
the  end  of  the  beater  within  the  strap.  The  strap  is  about  8  inches  long  and  1^  inches  broad  ;  it 
is  bent  over  the  end  of  the  beater,  and  the  tails  brought  to  embrace  the  sides  of  it  beyond  the  ears. 
The  strap  being  previously  perforated  with  four  holes  in  each  tail,  it  is  bound  by  a  thong  of  leather 
laced  throvigh  the  holes  and  round  the  neck  of  the  beater ;  the  upper  turn  of  the  lacing  thong 
catching  the  ears,  prevents  the  strap  from  slipping  off.  The  strap,  thus  applied,  forms  a  loop 
standing  about  1  inch  beyond  the  end  of  the  beater ;  and  through  that,  and  the  perforation  in  the 
end  of  the  hand-staff,  another  and  stronger  thong  is  passed  several  turns  and  secured,  forming  thus 
a  kind  of  loose  swing-joint  that  allows  free  action  to  the  beater  in  its  gyration  round  the  head  of 
the  thresher,  and  its  descents  upon  the  threshing-floor.  Another  mode  of  mounting  the  beater  is 
by  applying  a  strap  of  iron  in  place  of  leather,  which  is  fixed  to  the  wood  by  riveting,  leaving  a 
loop  as  before,  which  must  be  nicely  rounded  and  smooth,  to  prevent  the  too  rapid  chafing  of  the 
thong  by  which  it  is  bound  to  the  hand-staff,  in  the  same  manner  as  described  above.  The  figure 
here  described  exhibits  the  iron  strap.  In  constructing  a  flail,  a  very  general  practice  prevails, 
which  is,  to  have  the  beater  club-shaped,  or  thickest  at  the  farthest  extremity  c — intended,  no 
doubt,  to  give  the  better  effect  to  the  blows  ;  but  when  we  consider  the  effects  arising  from  the 
manner  of  wielding  the  instrument,  any  additional  weight  at  the  extremity  seems  misapplied. — 
The  greatest  amount  of  useful  effect  will  be  produced  by  the  beater  when  every  j)oint  in  its 
length  strikes  the  floor  with  an  equal  amount  of  momentum  or  force  ;  but  there  will  be  a  constant 
tendency  to  a  larger  amount  of  momentum  at  the  extremity  c  than  at  any,  other  point,  and  a  club- 
shaped  beater  will  always  augment  this  tendency,  for  the  greater  velocit3-  of  the  extreme  end, 
during  the  gyration  of  the  instrument,  multiplied  by  its  greater  weight,  must  give  an  undue  pre- 
ponderance of  effect  to  that  part  of  the  beater,  thereby  lessening  the  general  effect  upon  the  work 
(705) 


346  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


under  perfomiance.  The  opposite  mode,  which  is  also  practiced,  to  make  the  beater  thinner  to- 
ward the  extremity,  a.i  exhibited  in  the  figure,  is  more  consonant  lo  the  laws  of  d\-namic8.  and 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  its  practical  efiect«  will  be  equally  Tavoreble  as  compared  with  those 
of  the  club-shaped  beater.* — J.  8.] 


30.    SUMMER-FALLOWING,  AND  LIMING  THE  SOIL. 

"  The  bare  fallow  brings  to  teeming  foyson." 

Meascbx  fok  MzAStnix. 

(2151.)  Although  summer-fallow  occupies  the  same  division  of  the  farm 
as  green  crops — turnips,  potatoes,  tares — yet  it  may  most  characteristically 
be  reo^arded  as  the  first  preparation  for  the  crop  of  the  following  year  ;  it 
is  a  transferience  of  a  portion  of  the  land,  with  the  labor  bestowed  upon  it, 
from  one  year  to  another ;  it  forms  the  connecting  link  between  one  crop 
and  another.  But  although  the  preparation  of  the  soil  for  a  part  of  the 
crop  of  two  consecutive  years  are  conducted  simultaneously  by  means  of 
summer-fallow,  yet  the  ciops  which  occupy  the  soil  thus  simultaneously 
prepared  are  committed  to  it  at  verj'  different  periods — the  green  fallow 
crops  being  sown  early  in  summer,  while  the  sowing  of  the  fallow  crop  on 
the  summer-fallow  is  delayed  to  autumn  ;  so  that  before  the  latter  makes 
its  appearance  above  ground,  the  foi-mer  have  almost  advanced  to  matu- 
rity. Since  the  crop  on  summer-fallow  is  delayed  to  autumn — till  the  eve 
of  commencing  another  agricultural  year — the  practical  effect  of  the  delay 
is  to  dispense  with  a  crop  for  a  whole  year  on  that  part  of  the  fallow-break 
which  is  summer-fallowed,  and,  on  this  account,  such  a  fallowing  is  com- 
monly called  a  bare-faWow.  As  an  entire  crop  is  dispensed  with,  bare-fal- 
lowing should  impart  such  advantages  to  the  land  as  to  compensate  for  the 
rest  and  indulgence  which  it  receives  ;  and  so,  in  fact,  are  its  advantages 
felt  on  some  sorts  of  soils.  But  the  truth  is,  after  all,  that  bare-fallowing 
is  a  neces.'iitous  operation  in  soils  that  will  not  cany  green  or  summer 
crops;  and  if  such  soils  will  not  carry  them,  they  must  be  operated  on  so 
as  to  be  made  suitable  for  a  crop  which  they  will  not  only  bear  to  perfec- 
tion, but  will  pay  the  expense  of  the  operation.  The  sort  of  soils  alluded 
to  are  heavy  clays ;  and  why  will  f/iei/  not  bear  green  summer-crops  ?  A 
satisfactory  reason  cannot  be  given  ;  but  the  fact,  as  developed  by  expori- 
ence,  is,  that  their  nature  is  unkindly  to  the  growth  of  plants  commonly 
used  in  a  green  state  ;  and  their  heavy,  wet  and  obdurate  nature  prevents 
them,  at  any  rate,  from  being  prepared  in  time  for  sowing  such  plants.- — 
Could  clays  be  altered  in  their  nature  by  any  means,  they  might  be  em- 
ployed in  raising  summer  crops  as  well  as  the  naturally  more  kindly  soils ; 
and  such  a  change  has  l>een  effected  on  many  clay  soils  which  were  for- 
merly incapable  of  rearing  them  ;  and  the  change  has  been  effected  by 
ameliorating  their  texture  by  thorough -drainincr,  skillful  tillage,  and  liberal 
mantirina:  and  liming.  In  this  way  the  bounds  of  bare-fallow  have  been 
much  circumscribed,  and  those  of  green  crops  as  much  extended.  Still 
the  heavier  class  of  clays — the  deep  alluvial  clay.s — have  not  yet  been  ame- 
liorated to  the  degree  of  bearing  green  crops  profitably,  so  they  must  con- 
tinue to  be  bare-fallowed  ;  but  more  than  this,  part  of  even  the  ameliorated 

[*  This  implement  is  still  much  used  in  the  Eastern  States.  Col.  Chapman,  President  of  the  Sara- 
toea  Agricullura!  Society,  still  uses  it  on  the  ground  of  employment  to  the  poor  men  who  do  the 
work.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

(706) 


SUMMER-FALLOWING,  AND   LIMING.  347 


soil  of  almost  every  farai  is  necessitated  to  be  bare-fallowed,  for  want  of 
an  adequate  supply  of  farm-yard  manure.  Farms  in  the  vicinity  of  large 
towns  maybe  amply  supplied  with  extraneous  manure,  to  make  up  f  )r  the 
deficiencies  of  the  farm-yard  ;  but  as  most  farms  are  beyond  the  reach  of 
such  assistance,  it  may  be  alleged  that  bare-fallowing,  to  some  extent,  is 
practiced  every  year  upon  every  farm ;  though  the  limits  of  compulsory 
fallowing  have  been  much  circumscribed  of  late  years  by  the  purchase  of 
extraneous  manure  from  distant  sources,  which  are  easily  conveyed,  and 
sold  at  prices  that  aftord  a  profit.  Those  manures — and  I  only  allude  to 
them  here — are  bone-dust  and  guano.  These,  superadded  to  draining 
and  deep-plowing,  have  afforded  the  power  to  cultivate  green  crops  upon 
soils  which  were  naturally  unfit  for  them  ;  and,  without  such  auxiliaries, 
soils  suitable  for  their  growth  would  be  obliged  to  be  bare-fallowed,  to  al- 
low time  to  collect  the  reqiiisite  quantity  of  manure  to  support  their  fertil- 
ity. Until  manure  is,  therefore,  obtained  in  sufficient  quantity,  bare-fallow 
must  exist ;  but  whenever  that  desideratum  shall  be  accomplished,  many 
farms  will  dispense  with  bare-fallow  altogether.  But  there  is  a  natural 
obstacle  to  the  increase  of  manure  in  farms  themselves;  for  it  so  happens 
that  the  greatest  quantity  of  straw,  which  is  the  great  source  of  fertilizing 
manure,  is  afforded  by  land  the  least  fitted  for  green  crops  ;  and,  on  the 
contrary,  land  best  fitted  for  gi-een  crops  aflbrds  the  least  quantity  of  straw. 
Turnip-soils  cannot  supply  as  much  straw  as  to  manure,  to  the  degi'ee  and 
in  the  state  it  should  be  applied  to  green  crops,  little  more  than  ^  of  the 
fallow-break  ;  whereas  clay  soils  affiird  as  much  straw  for  manure,  in  the 
state  in  which  it  may  be  applied  to  them  in  bare-fallow,  as  sufficiently  to 
manure  the  fallow-break. 

(2152.)  The  land  subjected  to  bare-fallowing  should  have  the  strongest 
texture  ;  be  foulest  of  weeds,  if  any  there  be  ;  and  be  situate  farthest  from 
the  steading,  that  the  caniage  of  turnips  may  be  rendered  as  short  as  prac- 
ticable. The  winter  treatment  of  the  fallow  land  is  the  same  as  that  for 
the  summer  crops,  and  this  has  already  been  described  in  preparing  the 
soil  for  potatoes  (1870)  and  turnips  (1953).  If  one  fuiTOW — that  of  two- 
out-and-two-in,  or  of  four-out-and-four-in — has  been  given  to  the  fallow- 
break  after  cross-plo^ving,  it  will  be  as  much  as  time  can  afford  from  work- 
ing the  potato  and  turnip  land;  and  when  it  is  found  that  the  fallow-break 
will  not  likely  be  worked  for  some  time  to  come,  it  is  better  to  let  it  lie  in 
the  rough  state  left  by  the  plow,  than  to  render  it  smooth  with  the  harrow  ; 
because,  should  dry  weather  ensue,  the  air  will  more  easily  affect  rough 
than  smooth  land ;  or  should  it  prove  wet,  the  rain  will  less  likely  render 
rough  land  tough,  than  land  in  a  compact  and  smoothened  state;  and,  in 
strontj  soil,  rain  most  advantageously  moulders  down  rough  clods. 

(2153.)  When  leisure  is  again  afforded  to  pay  attention  to  the  fallow- 
break  from  the  advanced  working  of  the  turaip-land,  the  state  of  the  fal- 
low-soil should  be  particularly  examined.  Should  the  weeds  in  the  soil 
consist  principally  of  fibrous  and  fusiform-rooted  plants,  they  will  be  easily 
shaken  out  by  the  harrows  in  dry  weather;  but  should  the  running  roots 
of  weeds  be  found  to  have  threaded  themselves  through  hard,  round  clods, 
these  will  not  be  so  easily  detached,  and  it  requires  considerable  skill  in 
the  farmer  to  conduct  his  operations  so  as  to  detach  them  with  the  least 
application  of  labor.  It  is  inattention  to  these  states  of  the  weeds  which 
causes  so  much  unnecessary  work  in  the  subsequent  part  of  summer  in 
cleansing  fallow  land.  If  clods  containing  portions  of  the  running  roots 
of  plants  are  knocked  ever  so  much  about  in  dry  weather,  they  may  be 
broken  into  smaller  fragments  ;  but  the  roots  in  them  will  be  subdivided 
into  as  many  pieces  as  there  are  broken  clods,  and  the  land  will  be  as  far 

(707) 


348  THE  BOOK  OF  TFIE  FARM SUMMER. 

from  being  cleaned  of  weeds  as  ever;  nay,  the  greater  number  of  parts  in 
which  the  roots  are  divided,  so  many  more  chances  have  the  weeds  of 
being  disseminated  over  the  land. 

(2154.)  In  such  a  case,  which  is  of  frequent  occuiTence  on  strong  land, 
the  best  plan  is  to  allow  the  roots  to  grow  for  a  time,  and  the  force  of 
vegetation  will  have  sufficient  power  to  break  the  clods,  or  will  render 
them  easily  so  by  the  roller,  to  reduce  the  clods  by  rolling  after  such  a 
shower  of  rain  as  shall  have  nearly  penetrated  them.  A  precaution  in  the 
use  of  the  roller  should,  however,  be  here  observed.  When  most  of  the 
soil  is  in  a  mouldy  state,  rolling  the  hard  clods  found  on  it,  will  only  bury, 
not  break  them.  Rcdling,  with  a  view  to  breaking  large  clods,  should 
therefore  be  performed  when  the  soil  is  in  a  firm  state,  against  which  the 
clods  will  be  reduced  to  powder.  After  such  a  rolling,  the  land  should  be 
haiTowed  a  double  tine,  first  one  way  and  then  across  another  way.  The 
weeds  and  weed-roots  will  then  be  seen  upon  the  surface.  It  is  not  expe- 
dient to  srather  weeds  immediately  on  their  being  collected  by  the  har- 
rows, as  a  good  deal  of  fresh  soil  adheres  to  them.  A  day  or  two  of 
drouth  should  intenene,  and  the  weeds  will  then  be  easily  shaken  free  of 
soil  by  the  hand.  It  has  been  recommended  by  wiiters  to  gather  the 
weed.s  of  fallow  land  by  a  raking  implement,  such  as  the  American  hay- 
rake,  ficr.  400  ;  but  every  instrument  of  the  kind  will  rake  together  clods 
as  well  as  the  weeds  adhering  to  them,  and  if  these  are  canned  away  with 
the  weeds,  the  land  will  be  impoverished  by  the  loss  of  its  finest  soil ; 
whereas  the  hand  which  throws  the  weeds  into  convenient  heaps,  can  at 
the  same  time  shake  them  free  of  soil.  In  collecting  weeds,  the  field- 
workers  should  be  ranged  in  a  row  as  when  weeding  com,  eveiy  two 
throwing  the  weeds  into  the  same  heap  ;  and  the  rows  of  heaps  should  be 
placed  as  far  asunder  as  to  allow  a  cart  to  pass  between  them,  and  take 
awav  2  rows  at  a  time.  Many  writers  recommend  the  weeds  to  be  burat 
on  the  trround.  No  doubt,  weeds  wll  burn  readily  enough  when  dry,  and 
the  ashes  of  weeds  constitute  good  manure,  but,  for  my  part,  I  never  saw 
heaps  of  weeds  thoroughly  burned,  and  have  seen  their  remains  scattered, 
again  to  render  the  land  foul.  I  agiee  with  Lord  Kames,  that  it  is  better 
to  make  a  vegetable  compost  with  weeds,  than  to  destroy  them  by  incine- 
ration, and  with  him  readily  demand,  "What  better  policy  than  to  convert 
a  foe  into  a  friend  ]"  It  is  impossible  to  determine  beforehand  how  many 
times  fallow  land  should  be  plowed,  haiTOwed,  grubbed,  and  rolled,  to 
render  it  clean  ;  but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind,  to  incur  the  least  expendi- 
ture of  labor  in  accomplishing  the  object  fully.  It  was  once  the  practice 
to  work  fallow  land  until  it  was  reduced  to  the  state  of  meal  ;  but  experi- 
ence has  long  established  it  £is  a  fact,  to  be  better  for  the  ensuing  crop  of 
wheat  to  preserve  a  good-sized  clod  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground  in 
winter,  however  much  the  ground  may  be  othermse  pulverized.  The 
land  must  have  been  very  foul,  the  weather  very  unpropitious,  or  much 
time  wasted,  if  the  fallow  land  is  not  ready  for  the  manure  by  the  begin- 
ning of  August,  before  the  chance  of  haiTest  interfering  with  the  process 
of  manuring. 

(2155.)  The  usual  mode  of  laying  dung  on  falloic  land  is  to  feer  the 
ridges  (660),  cart  on  the  manure  in  heaps,  spread  them,  and  plow  the 
manure  in.  So  far  as  I  have  observed,  the  manure  is  spread  over  a  large 
portion  of  the  suiface  some  time  before  it  is  plowed  in,  when,  of  course, 
much  of  its  moisture  will  be  evaporated.  I  very  much  prefer  another  mode 
of  plowing  in  the  dung,  which  is,  to  angle-drill  the  land  in  preparation 
for  the  dung ;  that  is,  to  set  up  the  land  in  single  drills  (1735),  and  fig.  323, 
from  the  flat  without  any  feering,  beginning  at  one  comer   of  the  field, 

(708) 


SUMMER-FALLOWING  AND  LIMING.  349 

and  terminating  at  the  opposite  one  :  the  plow  making  the  drill  in  one 
bout,  the  cart  depositing  the  manure  for  3  drills,  4  women  spreading  it 
immediately  after  the  cart,  and  the  plow  following  and  covering  up  the 
dung  in  one  drill  in  another  bout  (exactly  as  represented  in  potato- 
planting,  fig.  344),  is  a  process  which  so  quickly  and  completely  covers 
in  the  dung,  while  in  possession  of  its  moisture,  that  it  should  be  univer- 
sally adopted.  The  land  remains  in  the  drilled  state  until  prepared  for 
the  wheat  seed  in  autumn. 

(2156.)  Fallow  land  is  not  dunged  so  heavily  as  that  for  green  crops,  not 
so  much  from  fallowed  soils  not  bearing  heavy  manuring,  as  from  want  of 
manure.  From  12  to  15  tons  the  imperial  acre  is  an  ordinary  manuring 
for  fallow.  The  manure  need  not  be  so  well  fermented  as  for  green  crops, 
as  there  is  usually  sufficient  time  for  its  fermentation  in  the  gi'ound  before 
the  wheat  is  sown.  If  there  is  not  sufficient  time,  it  should  be  fermented 
before  its  application,  as  it  is  not  expedient  to  sow  wheat  to  stand  the  win- 
ter in  soil  rendered  hollow  by  rough  dung.  In  strong  carse  clay,  the  ma- 
nure is  often  applied  in  a  state  little  removed  from  wet  straw ,  and  yet  it 
seems  to  answer  well  in  such  a  soil. 

(2157.)  While  treating  of  fallow,  it  is  necessary  to  notice  the  liming  of 
land,  as  lime  is  commonly  applied  at  that  period  of  the  rotation  of  crops, 
though  by  no  means  applied  every  time  the  land  is  fallowed.  It  has  al- 
ways been  a  favorite  practice  with  farmers  to  apply  lime  in  as  caustic  a 
state  as  practicable  ;  because,  perhaps,  it  is  then  in  the  state  of  finest  pow- 
der, and  easily  commixes  with  every  species  of  soil.  When  obtained  from 
the  kiln  or  from  shipboard,  it  is  in  lumps,  light  in  weight,  and  is  techni- 
cally called  lime-shells.  There  is  a  difference  in  the  practice  of  disposino- 
of  lime-shells  while  in  preparation  for  the  soil.  Some  lay  down  the  shells 
in  small  heaps  upon  the  feered  ridges,  while  others  lay  them  in  large 
heaps  along  a  head-ridge.  It  is  clear  that  shells  cannot  be  laid  at  once 
upon  the  land,  unless  the  land  had  previously  been  sufficiently  fallowed  ; 
and  as  land  occupies  a  considerable  time  in  being  fallowed  in  a  proper 
mannei",  it  is  also  clear  that  no  considerable  quantity  of  lime  can  be  driven, 
after  the  fallow  is  ready,  unless  the  kilns  are  situate  very  near;  and,  at 
any  rate,  it  is  unnecessary  to  lay  the  lime  upon  the  land,  but  at  a  short 
period  before  the  wheat  is  sown.  Besides,  when  shells  are  placed  in  heaps 
on  the  ridges,  they  must  remain  a  considerable  time  there  till  reduced  to 
powder  by  the  air,  when  the  lime  will  have  lost  a  considerable  portion  of 
its  causticity  by  union  with  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  air,  unless  a  good  deal 
of  rain  shall  have  fallen  to  hasten  its  slaking.  To  preserve  the  shells 
intact,  till  needed,  they  should  be  put  in  large  heaps,  the  outer  surface  of 
which  may  become  neutralized  by  the  action  of  the  air,  but  the  interior  of 
which  will  not  be  so  affected.  Meantime  the  land  is  worked  as  opportu- 
nity offers,  while  the  heaps  occupy  a  head-ridge, 

(2158.)  A  week  or  so  before  the  lime  is  applied,  water  is  poured  on  the 
large  heaps  of  shells,  in  order  to  reduce  them  to  a  state  of  impalpable 
powder.  The  water  will  all  be  absorbed  by  the  lime,  which  will,  never- 
theless, continue  quite  dry,  thereby  indicating  that  the  water  has  disap- 
peared by  reason  of  its  chemical  union  with  the  lime.  A  great  quantity 
of  heat  is  evolved  during  the  time  the  lime  takes  to  fall  to  powder ;  and 
when  that  last  has  been  accomplished,  the  heaps  will  have  swelled  to  more 
than  three  times  their  former  size,  when  the  lime  is  said  to  be  slaked,  and 
is  then  in  its  most  caustic  state.  While  the  slaking  is  proceeding,  the 
land  that  was  manured  in  drills  is  cross-haiTOwed  a  double  tine,  to  make 
it  flat ;  after  which  the  ridges  are  feered  ;  and  the  lime  is  then  spread 
along  the  feered  ridges.     The  lime  is  spread  in  this  way  :     The  frying-pan 


350  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

shovels,  fig.  176,  are  the  best  implements  for  filling  carts  with,  and  spread- 
ing lime  on  land.  A  calm  day  should  be  chosen  for  the  purpose,  but 
should  there  be  an  air  of  wind,  the  single-horse  carts  should  be  so  placed 
at  the  heaps  as  that  the  lime-powder  which  floats  in  air  should  be  blown 
awav  fi"om  the  horses  and  men.  P<jwdered  lime  is  heavy,  but  all  that  can 
lie  upon  a  shovel  is  so  light  that  one  plowman  takes  a  heap,  and  with 
one  of  his  horses  in  a  cart,  for  a  yoking  at  a  time,  fills  his  own  cart,  and 
spreads  the  lime  from  it  upon  the  land,  with  the  shovel.  The  liming  should 
be  conducted  against  the  wind  ;  and  when  a  number  of  men  take  from  dif- 
ferent heaps,  they  should  so  aiTange  themselves  along  the  feered  ridges  as 
that  the  cart  farthest  down  the  wind  takes  the  lead  in  spreading.  In 
spreading  lime,  the  man  walks  along  the  middle  of  the  feered  ridge,  and 
casts  the  shovelsfull  right  and  left  from  the  middle  toward  the  feering  fur- 
rows, which  will,  of  course,  become,  by  plowing,  the  crowns  of  the  future 
lidges.  The  man  who  can  cast  the  shovelsfull  with  either  hand  will 
spread  lime  better  than  one  who  is  light  or  left  handed  only.  The  lime 
should  be  spread  eienhj  over  the  surface,  but  it  may  be  spread  thicker  on 
one  part  of  the  field  than  another,  accfirding  to  the  nature  of  the  soil. 
On  light  knolls  it  may  be  spread  thinner  than  in  hollows,  where  the  soil 
is  either  deeper  or  stronger.  Progressively  as  the  lime  is  spread,  ridge 
after  ridge,  it  is  harrowed  in  and  mixed  with  the  soil  ;  and  immediately 
on  the  entire  field  being  limed,  the  ridges  are  plowed  with  a  light  furrow, 
to  bury  the  lime  as  little  as  possible,  and  which  constitutes  the  seed-fuiTow 
of  the  future  crop.  It  will  be  observed,  from  what  has  been  said  on  the 
manuring  and  liming  of  fallow  land,  that  the  liine  is  spread  alcove  the 
dung,  and  some  time  after  its  application.  This  relation  between  the 
two  substances  is  held,  because  it  is  conceived  that,  as  dung  has  a  natu- 
ral tendency  to  rise  to  the  surface,  and  lime  to  descend,  this  is  the  proper 
relation  they  should  bear  ia  the  soil.  Whenever  rain  falls,  the  liming 
should  be  discontinued. 

(21.59.)  It  is  proper  to  put  a  cloth  over  the  horse's  back  and  the  harness, 
and  the  men  may  cover  their  face  with  crape,  to  save  its  orifices  being  cau- 
terized bv  the  quicklime.  The  horses,  when  loosened  frc>m  work,  should 
be  thorousjlily  wisped  down  and  brushed,  to  free  them  of  every  particle 
of  lime  that  may  have  found  its  way  among  the  hair  ;  and,  should  the  men 
feel  a  smarting  in  their  eyes  or  nose,  a  little  sweet  thick  cream  will  l>e  felt 
as  an  agreeable  emollient ;  and  the  same  application  will  prove  useful  to 
the  hoi-ses'  eyes  and  nose. 

(2160.)  The  quantity  of  lime  that  should  applied  depends  on  the  nature 
of  the  soil,  the  lighter  soils  requiring  the  less,  and  the  stronjier  soils  the 
greater  quantity.  On  light  turnip-soils,  some  think  120  bushels  to  the  im- 
perial acre  sufficient,  while  I  have  used  150  bushels  with  benefit.  I  have 
seen  as  much  as  .510  bushels  applied  to  the  impeiial  acre,  wheat-land,  with 
manifest  advantage.  But  perhaps  from  150  to  240  bushels  may  be  con- 
sidered fair  average  quantities,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil.  On 
weak  moory  soils,  75  bushels  are,  perhaps,  enough  to  commence  its  im- 
provement with.  The  sort  of  lime  should  determine  the  quantity  applied, 
the  stronger  being  used  in  less  quantity  than  the  weak.  The  English  lime 
is  much  more  caustic  than  the  Scotch.  It  is  not  customary  to  apply  lime 
often  to  land,  a  farmer  not  thinking  it  expedient  to  apply  it  oftener  than 
once  in  a  lease  of  19  years,  on  account  of  its  expense.  Its  common  price 
is  3s.  per  boll  of  6  bushels;  consequently  its  entire  cost,  at  those  quantities, 
will  be  from  c£3  15s.  to  ^6  per  acre  for  the  best  sea-borne  English  lime, 
exclusive  of  carriage  ;  the  Scotch  sells  for  10s.  per  cart-load  of  4  bolls, 
including  carriage  for  10  miles. 

("10) 


SUMMER-FALLOWING  AND  LIMING.  35] 

(2161.)  Lime  is  applied  at  different  periods  of  the  year,  accordino-  to 
the  state  of  the  land.  On  summer-fallow  it  is  applied  immediately  before 
the  Avheat  is  sown  in  autumn.  It  is  also  used  immediately  after  taking 
up  the  potato  crop  in  autumn.  It  is  applied  to  the  land  cleared  of 
turnips  by  sheep,  just  before  the  sowing  of  the  barley-seed  in  spring. 
It  is  also  applied  before  the  turnip-seed  is  sown  in  the  beginning  of  sum- 
mer ;  and  it  may  be  applied  to  lea  immediately  before  being  plowed 
for  oats  in  early  spring.  I  do  not  say  that  it  is  immaterial  to  the  proper 
use  of  lime  to  choose  the  season  in  which  it  is  applied,  convenience  often 
determining  that  point  as  much  as  propriety  ;  but  experience  has  taught 
that  it  is  used  to  manifest  advantage  when  spread  on  land  in  summer- 
fallow,  and  for  barley-seed  immediately  after  the  ground  has  been  cleared 
of  turnips  by  sheep. 

(2162.)  Lime  is  usually  procured  in  summer  and  autumn,  as  the  kilns 
are  only  kept  in  activity  in  those  seasons,  so  when  it  is  intended  to  apply 
it  in  spring,  it  is  necessary  to  procure  it  in  autumn,  and  keep  it  all  winter ; 
and  to  preserve  it  in  the  desirable  state  in  winter,  the  heaps  of  shells  should 
be  covered  with  a  thick  coating  of  earth,  and  every  crevice  that  appears 
in  it  should  be  immediately  filled  up.  I  am  quite  aware  of  the  opinion  of 
some  farmers  that  lime  is  equally  efficacious  in  the  soil  in  the  effete  as  in 
the  caustic  state,  and  Lord  Kames  was  of  that  opinion ;  and,  therefore, 
precautions  to  presei-ve  it  in  a  caustic  state  in  winter  may,  by  them,  be 
deemed  unnecessary  ;  but  as  the  general  opinion  runs  in  favor  of  quick- 
lime, and  which  opinion  I  support,  I  have  treated  the  subject  accordingly, 
until  experience  shall  instruct  us  better.  There  is  this  advantage,  how- 
ever, in  using  quicklime,  that  it  is  much  moi'e  easily  spread  upon,  plowed 
into,  and  mixed  with  the  soil  than  effete  lime. 

(2163  )  It  is  supposed  that  light  and  heat,  together  with  cleansing  and  •working,  have  a  benefi- 
cial effect  upon  soil.  That  these  agencies  promote  fertility  in  some  way,  perhaps  by  affording 
facil'ty  to  the  union  of  oxygen  witli  the  soil,  appears  certain,  for  a  smaller  quantity  of  manure 
will  raise  as  large  a  crop  with  bare-fallow  as  a  greater  quantity  without  it ;  and  yet  this  particular 
result  is  only  obtained  from  a  peculiar  class  of  soils — namely,  the  strong  clays,  for  all  turnip-soils 
actually  become  more  fertile  by  the  overshadowing  of  a  luxuriant  crop  of  leaves  than  by  bare- 
fallowing. 

(0164.)  The  action  of  lime  upon  land  seems  generally  well  understood  by  farmers.  They  con- 
ceive that  lime  operates  in  tuo  ways  upon  soil,  namely,  mechanically  and  chemically.  Mechani- 
cally/, it  subdivides  the  adbe.sive  portions  of  obdurate  clay  ;  hence  it  was  customary  in  the  Carse 
of  Gowrie,  when  the  high  price  of  grain  remunerated  the  outlay,  to  apply  lime  to  the  land  every 
time  it  was  bare- fallowed,  that  is,  every  6  or  8  years,  according  to  the  rotation  of  crops  pursued. 
I  suspect  that  liming  is  not  now  so  frequent  there  as  it  was  wont  to  be.  Chemically,  lime  unites 
with  vegetable  matter,  and  a'^sists  in  its  decomposition  ;  hence  it  has  been  found  to  act  very  bcne- 
ficiallj  on  all  (few/' soils.  It  renders  loose  soils  more  firm.  In  strictly  chemical  language,  quick- 
lime acts  as  an  alkali,  and  this  property  has  led  some  writers  to  assert  that  green  vegetables  are 
not  decomposed,  but  rather  j)reserved,  by  caustic  lime — a  result  which  cannot  be  experienced  by 
the  practical  farmer  in  the  soil;  because,  as  caustic*  lime  very  soon  becomes  a  compound  of  a 
hydrate  and  a  carbonate  in  the  soil,  the  properly  of  this  latter  state  is  to  accelerate  rather  than 
retard  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter.  As  the  consideration  of  this  subject  would  lead  us 
into  a  long  discussion,  I  must  content  myself  with  quoting  only  a  part  of  the  account  of  the  theory 
of  its  action  by  Professor  Johnston,  in  order  to  show  that  the  opinions  of  farmers  is  not  far  astray 
on  this  subject,  which,  in  some  respects,  is  yet  but  obscurely  understood.  ''Lime  acts  in  two 
ways  on  the  soil,"  says  the  Professor.  "  It  produces  a  mechanical  alteration,  which  is  simple 
and  easily  understood,  and  is  the  cause  of  a  series  of  chemical  changes,  which  are  really  obscure, 
and  are  as  yet  susceptible  of  only  partial  explanation.  In  the  finely  divided  state  of  quicklime, 
of  slaked  lime,  or  of  soft  and  crumbling  chalk,  it  stiffens  very  loose  soils,  and  opens  the  stiffer 
clays  ;  while  in  the  form  of  limestone  gravel,  or  of  shell-sand,  it  may  be  employed  either  for  open- 
ing a  clay  soil,  or  for  giving  body  and  firmness  to  boggy  land.  These  effects  and  their  explana- 
tion are  so  obvious  to  you  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  upon  them.  The  purpo.ses  served  by 
lime,  as  a  chemical  constituent  of  the  soil,  are  at  least  of  four  distinct  kinds.  1.  It  supplies  a  kind 
of  inorganic  food,  which  appears  to  be  necessary  to  the  healthy  growth  of  all  our  cultivated  plants. 
2.  It  neutralizes  acid  substances  which  are  naturally  formed  fn'the  soil,  and  decomposes,  or  ren- 
ders harmless,  other  noxious  compounds  which  are  not  unfrequently  within  reach  of  the  roots  of 
plants.  3.  It  changes  the  inert  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil,  so  as  gradually  to  render  it  useful  to 
vegetation.  4.  It  causes,  facilitates,  or  enables  other  useful  compounds,  both  organic  and  inor- 
ganic, to  be  produced  in  the  soil,  or  so  promotes  the  decomposition  of  existing  compounds  as  to 

(711) 


352 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


prepare  them  more  8pceilily  for  entering  into  the  circulation  of  plants."*  In  conclusion  on  this  sub- 
ject, when  we  consider  lliat  1  ton  of  limestone  is  reduced  in  wcif,'ht  to  a  little  more  than  1 1  cwts  of 
shells  hy  bnrnintr,  we  cannot  hut  admire  the  8imi)le  art  which  renders  so  valuable  a  material  avail- 
able to  the  purposes  of  the  farmer,  even  when  it  i.s  situate  at  a  considerable  distance  from  his  farm. 

(2105.)  As  fiillowed  land  is  usually  ni.auurL-d  alonu'  the  foercd  ridges  by  depoi^iting  the  loads  into 
heaps.  I  might  here  give  a  Table  sfiowingihc  number  of  heaps  each  cart  should  affoni  in  manur- 
ing an  acre  with  a  given  number  of  cartloads;  but  as  heaps  of  manure  are  so  indeiiiiite  a  stan- 
dard of  measure,  such  a  table  wduld  practically  prove  of  little  service.  A  much  more  accurate 
plan  is  to  number  tln>  ridges  on  an  acre  in  each  field,  and  at  evcrj-  i>art  of  a  Hold  where  the  ridL'es 
are  changed  in  Icnirth,  as  I  liave  recommended  before  (3P6).  and  try  and  lay  down  the  manure 
on  the  first  ridge  in  the  proportion  it  is  proposed  to  manure  the  acre,  and  by  the  time  the  second 
ridge  is  gained,  the  man  who  hawks  out  the  dung,  fig.  34."},  will  have  found  out  how  close  the 
bawksfull  shoulil  be  laid  down,  and  how  large  the  heap.s,  if  any,  should  be  made. 

(2166.)  (Of  the  pulverizing  implements  used  at  all  seasons,  there  have  been  already  described 
the  grubber,  Plates  XXIX  and  XXX,  brake  (1797),  and  the  common  land  roller,  tig.  327  ;  but 
U>ere  remains  a  cla.ss  of  implements  of  the  same  nature,  which,  though  not  numerous,  are  yet  of 
considerable  importance  :  they  come  al.«o  under  the  denomination  of  rollers,  but  are  peculiar  in 
their  con.struction,  and  are  particularly  adapted  for  being  used  in  summer-fallowing.  The  object 
of  Uiese  machines  being  to  break  down  the  more  indurated  clods  in  clay  soils,  they  are  fitted  to 
act  either  by  abrasion,  or  by  disintegration,  or  both  combined.  One  of' the  simplest  of  them  is 
the  common  plain  roller,  armed  with  strong  and  broad  iron  spikes,  the  latter  splitting  the  clods, 
while  the  weight  of  the  roller  produces  tlwir  farther  abrasion  :  this  implement,  however,  stands 
low  in  the  scale  of  efficiency  when  compared  with  others  which  I  have  to  notice. 

(2167.)  Crosskill's  clodcrnshine  roller  is  one  of  the  most  efficient  implements  of  this  class,  and 
is  here  represented  in  fig.  402,  which  is  a  view  of  the  machine  in  the  working  state  ;  but  to  cou- 

Fig.  402 


crosskill's  clod-crushing  roller. 
yey  any  idea  of  its  construction  we  mast  exhibit  it  somewhat  in  detail.  With  this  view,  fig.  403 
is  a  side  elevation  of  one  of  the  individual  wheels  or  plates  that  go  to  form  the  body  of  the  roller, 
and  consists  of  a  ring  or  web  of  30  inches  diameter  over  the 
extreme  points;  the  web  is 2J  inches  broad  and  |-inch  thick, 
formed  into  angular-pointed  teeth.  The  ring  is  supported  on 
the  four  feathered  arms,  and  an  eye  formed  in  the  center  3 
inches  in  depth  and  2J  inches  diameter,  fitted  to  move  easily 
on  the  axle  of  the  roller.  Corresponding  to  each  tooth  of  the 
wheel,  8tad.s  are  cast  on  each  side  of  the  web,  which  project 
1  inch  from  it,  as  seen  in  fig.  404,  an  edge  view  of  the  wheel. 
where  a  a  a  a  are  the  projecting  studs,  and  b  the  ej-e,  show- 
ing also  the  feathers  of  the  arms.  The  wheels  thus  formed 
are  threaded,  to  the  number  of  28,  upon  %  round  axle.  2J 
inches  diameter,  upon  which  they  are  at  liberty  to  turn  sepa- 
rately, making  up  the  body  of  the  body  of  the" roller  a  a,  fig. 
402,  to  a  length  of  6  feet.  A  ca.st-iron  end-frame  b  is  then 
placed  on  each  end  of  the  axle,  and  these  are  bolted  to  the 
wooden  transverse  bars  c  c,  and  to  these  last  also  the  horse- 
Bbafts  d  (/are  bolted.  The  a.\le  is  pnilonged  at  each  end  e  to 
an  extent  of  4  or  .1  inches,  forming  the  arm  on  which  the  car- 
riace-whcels  are  filaced  for  the  removal  of  the  mller  from  one 
field  to  another.  The  carriage-wheels  are  also  of  ca.st-iron,  3 
feet  diameter,  plain  of  course  on  the  sole ;  and  when  these 
ore  to  be  placed  or  removed,  a  hole  is  dug  in  the  soil  under 
each  wheel,  until  the  wheel  turns  freely  round  and  can  be 
moved  on  or  off  the  axle,  the  roller  then  resting  on  the  ground  ; 
but  when  the  caiTiagewheoIs  are  shipt  on  the  axle  and 
bronchi  on  level  ground,  the  whole  weight  is  borne  by  them, 
■while  the  body  is  3  inches  clear  of  the  surface.  In  this  state 
it  is  traveled  from  field  to  fitdd,  and.  when  about  to  be 
worked,  the  carriage-wheels  are  removed  by  the  process  just  described. 

"  See  the  whole  of  the  xviiih  Lecture  of  Johnston'*  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Cbcmisti-y,  for  a  careful 
exnminRiion  of  the  pniperties  of  Lime  in  reference  to  its  eWects  on  the  soil.  This,  in  my  opinion,  is  the  most 
valuable  monograph  on  Lime,  ae  a  material  used  in  Agriculture,  that  baa  ever  appeared. 
(712) 


SIDE  VIEW  OF  O.NE  WHEEL   OF 
THE  CLOD-CRUSHER. 


Fic.  404. 
'  6 


EDGE  VIEW  OF  THE  WHEEL. 


EIJILDI.NG    STOiNE-DYKES.  353 


(2168.)  The  effect  of  such  a  roller  uimn  ronyli  clay  land  may  be  easily  conceived,  and  that 
where  such  a  great  number  o(  poiiU^  are  l)roiit:lit  into  covitiut  with  the  indurated  clods'  the  result 
must  be  their  reduction  to  a  state  approaoliiiii:  to  the  srranular,  especially  if  the  operation  is  re- 
peated. The  etlect  is  entirely  different  tVoin  that  of  the  |)lain  roller,  for  with  it,  if  a  clod  does 
not  crumble  at  once  with  its  pressure,  it  i.s  forced  downward  into  the  soil  in  a  still  solid  state  • 
whereas,  with  the  one  now  described,  the  numerous  points,  acting  like  so  many  wedges,  will 
almo.st  infalhbly  split  such  a  clod  into  numcrou.s  fragments,  and  repetitions  of  the  process  will 
produce  a  well  pulverized  surface.* 


31.    BUILDING  STONE-DYKES. 

"  It  ifl  by  artificial  calms  that  fields 
Are  wanned  ;  and  walls  but  slightly  check 
The  sweeping  blast." 

Gbahaji. 

(2169.)  After  the  general  principles  upon  which  inclosures  should  he 
made  have  been  explained,  it  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  on  the  subject  of" 
field-fences  when  treating  of  stone-dykes,  but  describe  at  once  the  best  mode 
of  constructing  them.  It  may  be  premised  that  many  dry  stone-dykes  in 
fhis  country  are  constructed  on  erroneous  principles,  the  stones  being  laid 
in  an  irregular  manner,  and  more  with  a  view  to  give  a  smooth  face  than 
a  substantial  hearting  to  the  wall.  The  coping,  too,  is  often  disproportion- 
ately large  for  the  body  of  the  wall,  which  is  not  unfrequently  too  narrow 
for  its  bight.  I  suspect  that  many  dry  stone-dykes  are  built  by  ordinarv 
masons,  who,  being  accustomed  to  the  use  of  lime-mortar,  become  regard- 
less of  bedding  the  loose  stones  of  a  dry  dyke  as  firmly  as  they  should  be, 
and,  of  course,  are  unfitted  to  build  one.  It  is  true  that  a  proper  form  of 
stones  is  a  great  assistance  to  the  builder  of  stone-dykes — flat,  thin  stones 
being  the  best:  but  flatness  and  thinness  are  not  the  only  I'ecjuisites ;  thev 
should  also  have  a  rough  surface,  by  which  they  may  adhere  to  one  an- 
other in  the  wall  ;  and  no  material,  on  this  account,  is  so  well  adapted  for 
the  purpose  as  those  derived  from  sandstone-boulders  of  gravel  deposits, 
which  split  with  the  pick  into  flat  stones  of  requisite  thickness  when  first 
taken  from  their  matrix,  and,  on  being  exposed  to  the  air,  become  dry  and 
hard.  A  builder  of  dry  stone-dykes  should,  therefore,  be  brought  up  to 
the  profession  ;  and,  when  he  has  acquired  dexterity,  he  will  build  a  sub- 
stantial wall,  at  a  moderate  cost,  which  will  stand  upright  for  many  years. 

(2170.)  Dry  stone-dykes  are  measured  by  quarters,  that  is,  quarters  of 
a  yard  of  9  inches  each.  A  5-quarter  dyke  is  tlie  usual  bight  of  a  field- 
fence — that  is,  45  inches,  or  3  feet  9  inches  to  the  under  side  of  the  cover 
upon  which  the  cope-stones  stand — the  cover  and  cope-stones  usually 
measuring  12  inches,  so  that  the  dyke  stands  altogether  4  feet  9  inches  in 
hight.  The  dyke,  when  finished,  is  measured  by  the  rood  of  36  square 
yards  upon  its  face  under  the  cover,  so  that  every  30  yards  of  a  5-quarter 
dyke  will  be  1  rood  in  length.  The  usual  thickness  of  such  a  dyke  is  2 
feet  at  the  base,  and  15  inches  under  the  cover.  But  the  best  way  to  con- 
tract for  the  erection  of  stone-dykes  is  by  the  rood  of  36  cubic  yards,  when 
every  temptation  on  the  part  of  the  builder  to  contract  the  breadth,  and 

[*  A  very  simple  and  most  useful  contrivance,  not  generally  known,  for  pulverizing  cloddy  land 
is  a  "drag-log"  of  say  12  or  14  inches  square,  according  to  the  hight  of  the  wood  and  the  work 
to  be  done,  and  5  feet  long,  more  or  less,  with  tongue  or  shafts  fastened  on  the  top  of  it.  This, 
dragged  over  the  surface  by  a  yoke  of  oxen  or  other  suitable  force,  will  at  one  operation  produce 
a  degree  of  pulverization  of  which  few  would  have  any  idea  who  had  not  witnessed  its  effect. 
Any,  the  roughest  carpenter  can  make  it  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

(713) 33 


354  THE  KOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 

make  the  heart  of  the  dyke  hollow,  will  be  removed.  A  dyke  that  has  2 
plain  faces  is  called  a  double-faced  dyke  ;  and  one  with  1  face,  as  when 
built  against  a  sunk-fence,  is  called  a  single-faced  dyke.  A  double-faced 
5-quarter  dyke  recjuircs  I  ton  of  stones  for  every  stjuare  yard  of  its  face — 
so  that  36  tons  of  stones  are  reciuired  for  every  rood  of  30  yards  long. — 
The  expense  of  quarrying  that  (juantity  of  stones  is  about  10s.  the  rood; 
the  carriage  of  them  at  a  reasonable  distance  beyond  1  mile  is  also  lOs. 
the  rood  ;  and  the  building  is  commonly  undertaken,  when  the  stones  are 
good,  at  lOs.  a  rood  also ;  so  that  such  a  dyke  costs  30s.  the  30  yards,  or 
Is.  for  every  yard  in  length.  The  tools  of  a  dry-stone  dyker  are  few  and 
inexpensive,  consisting  only  of  a  mason's  hammer,  a  fi-ame  as  a  gauge  for 
the  size  of  the  dyke,  and  cords  as  guides  for  the  straightness  and  thickness 
of  the  dyke.  A  dyker  cannot  continue  to  work  in  wet  or  in  very  cold 
weather,  as  handling  stones  in  a  state  of  wetness  is  injurious  to  the  bare 
hand;   on  which  accounts,  dry  stone-dykes  are  commonly  built  in  summer. 

(2171.)  The  line  of  fence  being  determined  on,  it  is  marked  off'  with  a 
row  of  stakes  driven  firmly  into  the  ground.  The  upper  soil,  to  the  depth 
it  has  been  plowed,  is  removed  from  the  line  to  form  the  foundation  of  the 
dyke,  and  it  may  be  driven  away,  or  formed  into  a  compost  with  lime  near 
the  spot  for  top-dressing  grass.  When  driven  away,  it  should  l)e  so  imme- 
diately, and  not  lie  to  annoy  the  builder.  When  the  surface  consists  of  old 
firm  sward,  especially  of  moory  turf,  the  dyke  may  be  founded  upon  it ; 
but,  in  forming  foundations,  it  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  dykes 
are  apt  to  sink  into  soft,  earth  of  every  kind  to  the  injury  of  the  dyke,  not 
merely  in  curtailing  its  hight  as  a  fence,  but  in  twisting  its  structure  and 
causing  it  ultimately  to  fall  :  so,  when  the  soil  consists  of  vegetable  mould, 
it  sliould  be  removed  altogether,  and  its  intrinsic  value  in  a  compost  will 
amply  repay  the  trouble  of  removing  it.  After  the  foundation  has  been 
formed  by  the  removal  of  the  earth,  the  stones  should  be  laid  down  on 
both  sides  as  near  the  line  of  foundation  as  jiracticable,  for  it  is  of  consid- 
eral)le  importance  to  the  builder  that  the  stones  be  near  at  hand.  Indeed, 
when  stones  are  laid  even  as  far  as  2  yards  from  the  foundation,  the  builder 
incurs  loss  of  time  in  throwing  them  nearer ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  no 
stones  should  be  thrown  into  the  foundation,  as  they  will  have  to  be  re- 
moved by  the  builder  before  he  commences  operations.  Where  hirge 
boulder-stones  exist,  they  form  excellent  material  for  the  foundation  of 
stone-dykes,  and  should  be  laid  close  to  the  foundation  before  the  building 
stones  are  brought.  The  simplest  mode  of  conveying  large  boulders  is 
upon  a  sledge,  shod  with  iron  ;  and  it  is  better  for  putting  on  and  taking 
out  than  a  common  cart,  the  bottom  and  sidt>s  of  which  are  apt  to  be  in- 
jured by  such  boulders.  Indeed,  when  many  stones  (if  ordinary  kinds  are 
intended  to  l)e  driven  for  buildings,  the  carts  should  receive  an  extra  tem- 
porary bottoming  and  lining  with  deals  of  common  Scots  fir,  or  deals  of 
willow,  which  are  better,  as  being  softer  and  less  liable  to  split.  A  pair 
of  horses,  yoked  as  in  a  plow,  will  draw  a  very  heavy  boulder  upon  such 
a  sledge. 

(2172.)  Every  preparation  being  thus  made,  the  builder  proceeds  to  his 
work — or  rather  3  builders  together,  as  they  make  the  best  work,  and  as- 
sist each  other  with  stones  which  one  would  be  unable  to  manage.  They 
begin  by  settinj^  up  the  frame  a,  fig.  405,  in  the  foundation  of  the  proposed 
line  of  dyke.  The  frame  is  made  of  the  breadth  and  hight  of  the  proposed 
dyke  under  the  cover  ;  and  it  is  set  in  a  perpendicular  position  by  the 
plummet  c,  attached  to  it.  A  corresponding  frame  should  be  placed  be- 
yond the  point  at  which  the  dyke  commences  ;  or  2  stakes,  such  as  d  and 
e,  driven  into  the  ground,  having  the  same  inclination  as  the  aides  of  the 


BUILDING  STONE-DYKES. 


355 


frame,  answer  the  temporary  purpose  of  an  auxiliary  frame.  In  uneven 
ground,  a  space  of  ^  a  rood,  or  15  yards,  between  the  frames,  is  a  sufficient 
^♦^retch  of  building  at  a  time  ;  but,  on  even  gi'ound,  a  rood  may  safely  be 


Fig.  405. 


Fie.  406. 


THE  FRAME  AST)  COMMENCEMENT  OF  BUILDING  A  STOSE-DYKE. 

taken  in.  The  cords  ^g  and  l.  i  are  then  stretched  along  the  space  be- 
tween the  frames,  and  fastened  tn  each  frame  respectively,  to  guide,  as 
lines,  the  side  of  the  dyke  straight,  and  to  gauge  its  breadth.  The  frame 
is  held  upright  and  steady  by  a  stiff  rail  I:,  having  the  nail  projecting 
through  one  of  its  ends  /,  being  hooked  on  to  the  top-bar  of  the  frame,  and 
a  stone  w  laid  upon  its  other  end. 

(2173.)  When  the  dyke  has  a  scuncheon  for  its  end,  a  large  boulder, 
such  as  n,  should  be  chosen  as  the  foundation-stone ;  and  if  no  boulders 
exist,  a  large  stone  should  be  selected  for  the  purpose  ;  for  no  better  pro- 
tection can  be  afforded  to  the  end  of  a  dyke  than  such  a  foundation,  espe- 
cially if  the  scuncheon  forms  at  the  same  time  one  side  of  a  gateway  to  a 
field.  Another  boulder,  or  large  stone,  should  be  placed  at  a  little  distance 
from  the  first,  as  at  o,  and  the  smaller  stones  are  used  to  fill  up  the  space 
between  them,  until  the  space  is  raised  to  the  hight  of  the  boulders.  There 
is  a  great  art  in  laying  small  stones  ;  and  it  is,  in  fact,  this  part  of  dyke- 
building  which  detects  the  difference  between  a  good  and  bad  builder. — 
In  good  dry  building,  the  stones  are  laid  with  an  inclination  downward, 
from  the  middle  of  the  dyke,  toward  each  face,  as  seen  at  a  to  a,  and  h  to 
h,  fig.  406.  This  conti'ivance  causes  the  rain 
which  may  have  found  its  way  down  through 
the  top  of  the  dyke  to  be  thrown  off  by  both 
sides  ;  and,  to  susta. "  the  inclination  of  the 
stones,  small  stones  tJiu^  be  packed  firmly  un- 
der their  ends  in  the  very  heart  of  the  dyke  ; 
whereas  stones,  when  laid  tlat,  require  no 
hearting  to  place  them  so,  and  may  receive 
none,  to  the  risk  of  the  dyke  bulging  out  in 
both  faces.  It  tends  much  to  the  stability  of  a 
dyke  to  have  what  is  called  a  thorough-band 
stone  c  d,  placed  across  it  at  such  a  hight  from 
the  ground  as  represented  in  the  figure.  In 
like  manner  the  cover  e  f  acts  as  a  thorough- 
band  at  the  top  of  the  dyke  ;  but  in  laying  the 
cover,  the  leveling  of  the  dyke  to  form  its  bed 
should  not  be  made  of  very   small  and  very 

thin  stones,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  as  these  have  little  stability,  being  ea- 
sily shifted  from  their  position,  easily  broken,  and,  of  course,  constantly 
endanger  the  safety  of  both  cover  and  cope.  Thorough-band  stones  are 
frequently  left  projecting  from  one  or  both  sides  of  the  dyke  by  some  build- 
ers, merely  to  indicate  that  they  are  thorough-bands ;  but  the  practice  is 
objectionable,  inasmuch  as  projections  serve  as  stepping-stones  for  tres- 
passers to  climb  over  the  dj^ke.  Fig.  407  shows  how  a  scuncheon  should 
be  formed  of  in-band  a  a  a,  and  of  out-band  stones  bbb,  hammer-dressed, 

(715) 


SECTION    OF    STONE-DYKES,    SHOWING 
HOW  THE  STONES  SHOULD  BE  LAID. 


356 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


Fig.  407. 


SCUNCHEO.N,  COVERS,  AND  COPE  OF  A  STO.SE-DTKI. 


and  firmly  bedded  upon  one  another.  The  covers  c  should  project  1  or  2 
inches  beyond  the  face  of  the  dyke,  to  protoct  the  top.  They  should  be  2 
inches  in  thickness,  and  without  a  flaw  throughout  their  length,  which 
should  be  2  feet  at  least,  that 
their  weight  may  keep  them 
firm,  and  their  size  cover  a 
large  space  of  building.  In 
forming  the  cope,  a  large  stone 
should  be  placed  at  tlie  end,  as 
d,  in  order  to  keep  down  the 
cover,  and  act  as  an  abutment 
against  which  the  smaller  cope- 
stones  may  be  wedged.  Other 
large  stones,  such  as  c,  should 
be  placed  at  short  distances 
from  each  other,  and  upon  the 
joining  of  two  covers,  to  keep 
them  both  secure.  Thinner 
stones  should  then  be  plf^ced 
between  these  on  edge,  and 
wedged  firmly,  with  small 
stones  driven  between  them 
with  a  hammer  ;  but  the  wedg- 
ing should  be  delayed  until  a 
considerable  length  of  coping 
is  finished,  which  will  be  the  better  able  to  resist  its  force.  Fig.  407 
shows  how  the  stones  should  be  laid  in  the  body  of  the  dyke,  those  placed 
uppermost  covering  the  joinings  of  those  beneath  them  ;  and  small,  thin 
stones  are  introduced  here  and  there  in  the  finishing  to  act  as  wedges  be- 
tween the  large  ones.  The  cope-stones  should  be  nearly  all  of  the  same 
bight. 

(2174.)  In  building  a  stretch  of  dyke,  such  as  the  rood  above  referred 
to,  it  is  customary  to  can-y  up  the  building  at  both  ends,  as  well  as  at  the 
middle,  of  the  stretch  to  the  leveling  of  the  top,  before  the  intermediate 
spaces  are  built  up,  because  those  parts  being  built  almost  independently, 
act  as  pillars  in  the  dyke  to  support  the  intermediate  building  plumb  ;  and 
they  are  convenient  for  pinning  the  cords  into  while  the  intermediate 
spaces  are  being  builL 

(2175.)  When  a  few  stretches  of  a  dyke  have  thus  been  finished,  the 
surplus  stones,  if  any,  should  be  removed,  and  laid  where  they  are  wanted; 
but  should  there  be  a  deficiency,  stones  should  be  immediately  brought, 
to  allow  the  builder  to  fini.sh  one  stretch  before  he  proceeds  to  another. 
The  debris  of  stones  caused  by  the  hammer  should  be  removed  either  to 
drains  or  roads. 

(2176.)  These  are  all  the  particulars  to  be  attended  to  in  building  dykes 
for  ordinary  purposes ;  but  there  are  a  few  modifications  which  require 
attention  in  order  to  render  dykes,  as  a  fence,  convenient.  1.  The  first  I 
shall  mention  is  an  opening  left  for  the  passage  of  sheep  from  one  field  to 
another,  where  the  access  between  them  by  road  is  at  a  distance.  Fig.  408, 
though  a  mere  elevation,  obviously  shows  how  such  an  opening  is  made. 
A  bunch  of  thorns  or  whins,  or  a  board,  closes  the  opening  when  no  longer 
needed.  iSuch  an  opening  gives  sheep  access  to  pasture  banks,  or  to  a 
grass-field  from  their  turnip-breaks  in  wet  weather  in  winter,  and  it  allows 
ewes  to  go  to  a  turnip-break  for  a  few  hours  every  day  from  the  g^ass- 
field  they  are  grazing  in.     For  such  purposes,  an  opening  of  from  3  feet 

(716) 


BUILDING  STONE-DYKES. 


357 


to  3^  feet  will   suffice 


2.  Another  convenience  is  seen  in  fig.  409,  con- 
sisting of  a  gap  near  the  top  of  the  dyke,  which  map  be  useful  as  a  stile  in 
the  line  of  a  foot-path,  or  a  gap  at  the  side  of  a  cover,  for  hounds  and 


fHE  OPENING  IN   DYKES   FOR  SHEEP. 


huntsmen  to  enter  with  ease ;  and  here  tlie  whipper-in  may  stand  on  the 
out-look  for'"^a  burst.  "When  not  constantly  in  use,  such  a  gap  is  easily 
fenced  with  a  bunch  of  thorns  or  whins. 


Fig.  409. 


THE  STILE  OR  GAP  IN  A  DYKE. 


(2177.)  Dykes  such  as  I  have  been  describing,  namely,  of  5  quarters  in 
hight,  will  fence  horsey. and  cattle,  and  Leicester  sheep,  but  will  not  con- 
fine Black-faced  she^^'  For  these,  higher  walls  must  be  built,  or  expe- 
dients used  to  make  ordinary  dykes  confine  them.  Some  of  these  expe- 
dients are  shown  in  fig.  410,  where  part  of  an  ordinary  dyke  with  its  cope 

Fig.  410. 


SOME  EXPEDIENTS   FOR  INCREASING  THE  HIGHT  OF  STONE-DYKES. 

is  seen ;  and  the  expedients  consist,  1.  Of  cope-stones  a,  b,  c,  d,  and  e,  set 
on  edge  to  a  considerable  hight,  say  9  inches  or  1  foot,  above  the  ordinary 
cope-stones.  In  one  case,  such  as  that  of  the  stones  a,  h,  c,  fillets  of  wood 
are  laid  along  notches  formed  on  their  top,  and  wedged  into  them.  In  the 
case  of  the  stones  c,  d,  e,  a  strong  rope  of  straw,  laid  somewhat  loosely 
over  the  notches,  and  danoflinor   occasionally  with   the   wind,  form    a  suffi- 

(717)  ^       °  *' 


358 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM SUMMER. 


cient  scai*e  to  sheep.  2.  Another  expedient,  where  the  dyke  is  built 
against  rising  gi'ouna,  consisting  of  plantation  or  of  cultivated  land,  is  to 
sow  a  few  seeds  of  whin  or  broom  in  the  soil  behind  the  dyke,  and  cause 
their  shoots  to  push  forth  between  the  cope-stones,  and  grow  into  bushes, 
/*  and  ^,  in  front  of  them.  3.  Where  good  stones  for  covers  are  scarce, 
and  where  turf  is  tough  and  heathery,  thick  turfs  cut  of  the  size  of  the  top 
of  the  dyke,  and  laid  firmly  and  neatly  on,  make  very  good  covers,  and 
will  last  a  long  time.  Cope-stones  are  placed  upon  the  turfs,  which  afford 
them  a  fimi  bed ;  and  as  heath  and  other  wild  plants,  including  the  grasses, 
continue  to  grow  in  the  turf,  they  serve  to  raise  the  hight  of  the  dyke, 
and  enhance  its  appearance  as  a  fence. 

(2178.)  When  dykes  run  at  right  angles  into  one  another,  and  are 
erected  simultaneously,  they  should  be  built  in  connection;  but  where  a 
new  dyke  comes  against  an  old  one,  the  old  one  should  not  be  touched, 
and  the  new  built  firmly  beside  it.  Where  2  dykes  cross  and  the  place  is 
naturally  wet,  or  water  may  be  easily  brought  to  it,  a  watering-pool  to 
serve  4  fields  may  be  easily  foi'med ;  and  there  are  two  ways  of  making 
such  a  pond  : — When  the  ground  is  firm,  and  the  water  shallow,  the  2 
dykes  may  cross,  as  in  fig.  411,  and  allow  the  water  to  pass  through  them, 
and  form  a  watering-pool  in  each  field,  such  as  a,  b,  c,  and  d  out  of  a  sin- 
gle pond.     Where  a  pond  e,  fig.  412,  already  exists,  and   its  water  is  too 


Fig.  411. 


Fig.  412. 


Fig.  413. 


UOW  TO    FORM  A  WATKBINO- 
POOL  TO  FOUB  FIELDS. 


BOW  TO  FORM  A  WATERING-POOL 
COMMON  TO  FOCB  FIELDS. 


A  CLUMP  OF  TREES  AT  THE 
MEETING  OF  DTKES. 


deep  for  dykes  to  traverse,  the  dykes  must  terminate  at  its  edge  and  con- 
vert the  pond  into  a  watering-pool  common  to  4  fields.  When  the  pond 
is  used  by  only  1  field  at  a  time,  it  should  be  fencec^Jrom  the  other  3  fields 
by  means  of  hurdles,  as  J",  g,  and  h  ;  but  when  it  i^Tsed  by  more  than  1 
field  at  a  time,  a  fence  should  be  nin  across  the  pond,  beside  the  hurdles 
in  the  fields  not  occu])ied  by  stock.  Where  the  ground  is  firm,  and  there 
is  no  prospect  of  obtaining  a  site  for  a  watering-/>oo/,  the  dykes  should  be 
made  to  cif)ss,  and  a  well  sunk  in  a  corner  of  one  of  the  fields,  with  a  pump 
in  it  of  such  hight  as  to  supply  all  the  fields  with  water  in  tanks  by  means 
of  a  spout.  This  expedient  I  used  successfully  on  one  occasion.  Where 
the  ground  is  firm,  and  no  water  wanted  at  that  spot,  the  dyke  should  be 
built  curved,  as  from  /,  to  k,  from  k  to  I,  from  /  to  m,  and  from  7n  to  ?',  fig. 
413,  and  the  space  included  between  them  planted  with  trees  for  orna- 
ment and  shelter.  There  will  be  here  little  waste  of  land,  even  should  it 
be  of  the  finest  quality,  as  the  corners  of  4  adjoining  fields  always  contain 
ground  that  cannot  be  reached  by  the  plow,  while  the  plow  can  pass  along 
such  curves  as  near  as  to  a  straiijht  fence.  In  building  cm-vatures  in  dykes, 
builders  charge  ^  more  per  rood  than  for  plain  work. 

(2179.)  A  stone-dyke  is  in  the  highest  perfection  as  a  fence  immediately 
from  the  hands  of  the  builder;  but  every  day  thereafter  the  effect  of  the 
atmosphere  upon  the  stones,   at  all  seasons,  and  the  accidents  to  which 

(718j 


BREAKING  IN  YOUNG  SADDLE-HORSES.  359 


they  are  liable  by  trespasses  of  individuals,  and  the  violence  of  stock,  ren- 
der it  necessary  to  uphold  their  repairs  frequently  ;  and  this  consideration 
should  cause  the  best  suited  materials  to  be  selected  for  their  original 


erection. 


32.    BREAKING-IN  YOUNG  SADDLE-HORSES. 

"  Which  with  a  snaffle  you  may  pace  easy." 

Antonv  and  Cleopatra. 

(2180.)  As  I  have  mentioned  how  your  saddle-horse  should  be  groomed 
(1398)   i  would  wish  to  say  a  few  words  on  breaking  him  in.     And,  in  the 
first  place,  I  may   remark  that,  judging  by  the   conduct  of  roadsters  one 
meetB  with  every  day  on  the  public  roads,  we  may  fairly  conclude  that  the 
profession  of  horse-breaking  is  not  well  understood   in  this  country ;  and 
the  conclusion  need  create  no  surprise,   when  we  observe  those  who  be- 
come horse-breakers  to  be  generally  cast-off  grooms  unable  to  procure  a 
permanent  situation,  just   as  we   occasionally  see   a  discarded  plowman 
become  a  spadesman,  to  save  himself  from  starving  ;  but  it  ought  to  excit^e 
even  wonder  to  see  farmers,  who  ought  to  be   somewhat  acquainted  with 
the  nature  of  horses,  employ  such  persons  to  break-m  their  saddle-horses, 
merely  because  they  demand  a  small  fee,  and  undertake  to  finish  a  horse 
in  all  his  paces  in  the  course  of  2  or  3  weeks.     In  fact,  the  farmer  grudges 
the  time  beyond  a  few  days,  any  horse  requires  to  be  broke-in,  and  acts 
as  if  he  conceived  the  animal  should  know  the  art  of  carrying  him  by  in- 
stinct when  he  himself  may  have  been  practicing  horsemanship  all  his 
days  'and  never  perhaps  become  a  horseman  after  all.     Notwithstanding 
the  folly  of  employing  inexperienced    men,  I  am  convinced  were  men  of 
experience,  address,   and  character  to  undertake  horse-breaking  m  a  per- 
fect manner  they  would  receive   encouragement  from  the  farmer.     Mo 
miracle  is  required  to  break-in  a  horse  ;  he  is  naturally  docile,  and  may  be 
tawrht  to  do  anything,  as  those  who  have  witnessed  the  evolutions  of  the 
late'^Ducrow's  stud  with  wonder  and  delight  can  believe ;   but  the  horse 
is  naturally  fearful,  and,  endowed  with  an  undying  memory,  he  never  for- 
gets any  circumstance,  however  trivial,  which  may  have  aroused  his  fears. 
If  the  breaker,  therefore,  proceeds  on  the   principle  of  subduing  what  he 
calls  the  horse's  temper,  by  a  constant  endeavor  to  curb  him,  he  may  tame 
him  for  a  time,  but  will  never  break  him  in  ;  and  even  this  subjection  will 
only  last  as  lono-  as  the  horse  finds  he  cannot   obtain  the  mastery  over  his 
rider  who,  on  some  occasion,   may   be   a  timid    one  ;    whereas,  were  it 
shown  to  the  horse  that  no  imtation  awaits  him  m  the  stable,  or  on  being 
ridden  he  will  place  confidence  in  his  rider,  will  regard  him  with  attach- 
ment, and  will  take  him  everywhere,  even  through  danger  by  the  gentlest 
touch  of  the  rein,  or  exhortation  of  the  vo'ce.     Why  should    the  Red  In- 
dian of  North  America  never  put  a  bridle  on  his  horse  s  head,  and  only 
have  a  piece  of  cord  round  the  under  jaw,  by  which  to  pull  him  up  m  a 
gallop,  and  guide  him,  with  the  greatest  nicety,  in  the  hottest  pursuit  alter 
buffaloes,  by  the  palm  of  the  hand  against  the  side  of  the  head  ;  as  much 
so  as  to  enable  him  to  point  the  arrow  with  unerring  aim  into  the  heait  ot 
his  prey  ]     Why  should  the  Arab's  horse  come  into  his  tent  Jike  one  ol 
his  family,  lie  down  and  rest,  and  never  think  of  running  away  from  his 
master  when  his  services  are  required  1     Does  the  horse   of  the   accom- 
plished European  display  the  least  degree  of  such  confidence  m  his  rider  ? 

(719) 


360  THE   nOOK  OF   TIIK   FARM SUMMER. 


Is  it  possible  that  a  savay;-e  knows  better  how  to  break-in  a  horse  than  an 
European  1  The  <liffei  ence  between  the  cases  can  be  explained  in  a  few 
words;  the  savai^e  makes  his  horse  his  companion  and  friend,  the  civihzed 
man  treats  his  as  his  slave.  And  can  any  doubt,  were  the  same  gentle- 
ness, kindness,  attention  to  his  wants,  which  secure  to  the  savage  the  will- 
ing assistance  of  his  horse,  bestowed  by  the  civilized  man  on  his  horse 
when  young,  would  also  inspire  him  with  confidence  1  Every  one  has  felt 
the  satisfaction  ui'  riding  a  horse  one  knows  thorougldy.  It  should  also  be 
borne  in  mind  as  an  incentive  to  kind  treatment,  that  were  horses  gene- 
rally well  broke-in,  they  could  not  be  spoiled  by  even  bad  riders,  for  their 
paces  would  be  so  jileasant  the  rider  would  have  no  inducement  to  try 
and  mend  them. 

(21S1.)  The  age  of  3  ycais  seems  an  excellent  one  for  breaking-iu  a 
saddle-horse.  The  colt  .should  be  set  to  grass  in  the  end  of  May,  and 
taken  in  to  break  by  August  at  latest,  by  which  time  the  grass  will  have 
operated  beneficially  upon  him  as  medicine,  and  there  will  be  sufficient 
time  to  teach  him  his  paces  and  put  him  in  working  condition  before 
the  fall  of  the  year,  when  horses  are  apt  to  become  soft,  and  catch 
cold;  but  were  he  kept  longer  at  grass,  his  conditiun  might  become  so  fat 
as  to  endanger  his  constitution,  were  it  suddenly  reduced  to  working  order. 

(2182.)  The  first  thing,  in  bringing  a  horse  into  the  stable,  to  which 
he  should  have  been  accustomed  from  his  foalhood,  is  to  give  a  gentle 
dose  of  medicine  to  clear  the  bowels  of  a  load  of  grass.  A  second  dose 
may  be  repeated  in  a  week.  A  little  new-made  hay  with  oats  is  the  best 
food  as  a  transition  from  gi'ass  to  hard  food.  The  first  treatment  with  the 
cavesson  and  bridle  being  the  same  as  that  described  from  (1909)  to 
(1911)  for  breaking-in  the  draught-horse,  I  need  not  repeat  it  here.  I 
may  mention,  however,  that  much  lunging  in  a  circle  is  not  advisable  for 
a  young  riding-horse,  though  horse-breakers  are  very  fond  of  giving  him 
this  sort  of  exercise,  because  it  saves  themselves  a  good  deal  of  traveling; 
the  motion  round  the  circle  being  apt  to  cause  the  colt  to  contract  a  long 
step  and  a  short.  The  circle  is  of  most  use  in  training  to  canter,  when  a 
leading  foot  is  requisite  to  be  used  in  that  sort  of  action.  The  first  tuition 
should  be  a  straight-forward  pace,  as  on  a  lea-field,  and  the  only  pace  a 
walk,  which  should  be  taught  to  be  both  free  with  an  easy  head,  and  short 
with  a  tight  rein.  During  the  period  of  the  walking-tuition,  a  great  many 
useful  lessons  should  be  taught  the  colt,  such  as  turning  off  you  and  to 
you — backing,  whether  quickly  or  slowly — leading,  whether  by  the  side 
of  the  head  with  the  hand  on  the  bridle-bit,  or  in  front  with  a  slack  rein — 
standing  still,  whether  for  a  short  or  long  time — suffering  to  be  tied  to  any 
object,  such  as  a  gate  or  tree — passing  objects  of  terror,  or  of  uncertainty, 
causing  tlie  animal  to  become  acquainted  with  everything  it  does  not  seem 
to  recognize — becoming  accustomed  with  the  crack  of  the  long,  and  the 
touch  of  the  shoit  whip — lifting  the  fore  and  hind  legs  when  desired — and 
suffering  the  groom  to  go  about  him  and  arrange  the  breaking-Harness. 
With  all  these  matters  the  young  colt  will  become  much  sooner  fo/niliar- 
ized,  by  the  breaker  going  constantly  about  with  him  on  foot  as  a  compan- 
ion on  the  road  and  the  field,  than  when  mounted  on  his  back.  In  the 
stable,  too,  the  same  system  of  tuition  should  be  followed  out,  such  as  suf- 
fering a  person  to  go  up  on  either  side,  and  in  any  way — suffering  to  be 
groomed,  and  rather  liking  it  than  ojiposing  it,  as  is  too  often  the  case — 
drinking  out  of  a  pail  in  the  stable  and  at  the  pump,  or  out  of  a  trousfh  or  a 
brook — taking  up  with  a  dog  in  the  stable  or  on  the  road — bearing,  without 
a  startle,  the  fall  of  the  pail-handle,  the  broom,  or  anything  else — lifting  the 
feet  at  the  pail  to  be  washed — being  led  by  the  forelock  to  the  door,   or 

(720) 


BREAKING  IN  YOUNG  SADDLE-HORSES.  361 


the  pump,  or  anywhere.  These  and  many  other  things,  the  colt  can  be 
taught  to  know  in  and  out  of  the  stable  before  he  is  mounted  at  all.  Thus 
familiarized,  he  will  allow  himself  to  be  mounted  without  any  trouble  ;  and 
all  the  assistance  of  boys  with  whips,  and  of  men  to  hold  down  the  oppo- 
site stirrup,  recommended  by  Mr.  Youatt,  dispensed  with.  *  Tom  Mid- 
dlemiss,  the  horse-breaker  whose  name  I  mentioned  before  (1910),  never 
required  any  assistance  to  mount  a  young  horse,  nor  did  any  person 
ever  see  him  mount  one  for  the  first  time.  The  truth  is,  no  fuss  should 
be  made  about  the  colt ;  but  when  a  number  of  persons  are  about  him 
when  anything  is  done,  there  cannot  be  but  fuss,  and  he  cannot  fail  to  be- 
come apprehensive.  He  will  soon  confide  in  one  person,  the  breaker  who 
is  constantly  about  him,  but  he  will  not  confide  in  a  number  of  persons  al 
the  same  time,  nor  will  he  confide  even  in  his  breaker,  when  others  are 
eno-aged  along  with  him  ;  and  hence  no  considerate  horse-breaker  will 
permit  any  one  to  be  near  him,  to  distract  the  attention  of  the  colt,  when 
he  is  subjecting  him  to  tuition  of  any  kind.  When  mounted,  the  colt 
should  bear  his^rider  in  standing  for  some  time  before  he  is  urged  to  walk, 
as  it  will  habituate  him  to  stand  at  all  times  when  mounted  until  his  rider 
is  ready  to  move.  Every  one  must  have  felt  the  annoyance  of  mounting 
a  horse"  that  will  not  stand.  His  first  pace  should  again  be  a  walk,  which 
havino-  accomplished  well  with  a  rider,  the  trot  should  be  taught.  It  is 
said  that  trotting  is  not  a  natural  pace  for  a  horse,  he  either  walks  or  starts 
off  at  a  canter.  However  this  may  be,  trotting  is  an  indispensable  pace 
on  our  roads.  On  teaching  trotting,  horse-breakers  are  very  apt  to  de- 
generate the  pace  into  a  jog,  the  most  dangerous  of  all  paces  for  a  young 
horse  in  causing  him  to  trip,  and  the  most  difficult  to  break  a  horse  from, 
when  contracted,  A  short,  hitching  walk,  ready  to  break  into  the  jog  allu- 
ded to,  is  as  bad  as  the  jog  itself,  and  is  a  favorite  pace  with  horse-breakers 
in  chewing  off  their  wards  as  fast  walkers ;  but  in  such  a  pace  a  young 
horse  is  almost  sure  to  dig  a  toe  into  the  ground,  and  if  a  stumble  is  not 
the  consequence,  it  is  not  the  man's  fault.  Let  the  walk  be  a  sound  walk, 
and  a  trot  a  fair  trot,  and  let  no  bastard  pace  be  permitted  to  spoil  both. 
It  is  not  easy  to  teach  a  young  horse  to  canter  from  a  trot  in  a  straight 
line,  as  he  is  more  apt  to  start  off  to  the  gallop  ;  but  a  few  lessons  in  the 
circle  will  give  him  an  idea  of  a  canter,  as  he  will  there  learn  to  point  the 
leadino-  foot.  There  is  some  risk  at  first  in  making  a  young  horse  reduce 
a  canter  into  a  trot,  the  actions  being  so  very  different,  he  seems  at  a  loss 
what  to  do,  and  would  rather  halt.  The  tightening  of  the  rein  by  degrees 
is  the  only  way  of  reducing  the  pace  in  safety,  as  it  likewise  is  from  a  fast 
to  a  slow  trot.  A  sudden  halt  might  throw  the  colt  upon  his  haunches, 
and  irrecoverably  bring  him  over  upon  his  back,  and  such  an  accident  as 
this  the  colt  will  never  forget,  and,  in  fear  of  it,  may  become  restive  when 
pulled  up  suddenly  at  any  time  afterward.  Every  maneuver  that  may 
occasion  any  sort  of  accident  to  the  colt  should  be  avoided  by  the  rider 
with  care,  and  counteracted  with  firmness.  Thus  day  by  day  the  young 
horse  acquires  experience  in  the  management  of  himself  on  the  road,  or 
in  the  field,  but  this  series  of  experiences  is  a  work  of  much  time  to  both 
man  and  horse — of  much  patience  and. perseverance  to  the  man — of  much 
endurance  and  irksomeness  to  the  horse  ;  and  more  than  all  this,  much  of 
the  benefit  derived  from  the  horse-breaker  will  be  in  a  manner  lost,  if  the 
future  rider  of  the  horse  does  not  guide  him  in  a  similar  manner,  and  with 
equal  care  for  some  time  to  come.  If  considerations  such  as  these  do 
not  induce  the  owners  of  horses  to  employ  only  men  of  skill  and  character 
in  breaking  them  in,  I  do  n't  know  what  stronger  motive  can   be   placed 

before  them  to  do  it.  *  Youatt  on  the  Horse,  edition  of  1843. 

(777) 


362  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 


AUTUMN. 


"  Ye  balmy  breezes !  wave  the  verdant  field  ; 
Autumn  I  aU  your  bounties,  all  your  lustre  yield  ; 
That  fruits  and  herbage  may  our  farms  adorn, 
And  furrowed  ridges  teem  with  loaded  corn." 

Fbrgusson. 

In  contemplating  the  nature  of  the  different  seasons,  we  have  seen 
"Winter  the  season  of  dormancy,  in  which  all  Nature  desires  to  be  in  a 
state  of  repose — Spring,  the  season  of  revival,  in  which  the  returning 
power  of  Nature  inspires  every  created  being  with  new  vigor — Summer, 
the  season  of  j>fogress,  in  which  Nature  puts  forth  all  her  energies  to  in- 
crease and  multiply  her  various  productions — and,  now,  we  see  Autumn, 
the  season  of  completion  and  of  consequent  decay,  in  which  Nature,  in 
bringing  the  individual  to  perfection,  makes  provision  for  the  future  pres- 
ervation of  the  kind.  While,  therefore,  the  natural  action  of  spring  and 
summer  is  single,  that  of  autumn  is  of  a  compound  character.  "  Thus,  if 
we  follow  out  the  study  of  the  autumn  in  a  proper  manner,  it  leads  us  to 
all  the  revolutions  that  have  taken  place  in  the  surface  of  our  planet;  and 
in  this  way,  a  plant  of  which  we  can,  in  a  few  months,  see  the  beginning, 
the  perfection,  and  the  decay,  becomes  to  us  an  epitome  of  the  system  of 
gi'owing  Nature  in  its  widest  extent,  and  through  its  most  prolonged  dura- 
tion. This  is  the  grand  advantage  while  studying  the  productions  of 
Nature  in  their  connection,  and  the  events  and  occurrences  of  Nature  in 
their  succession,  has  over  the  mere  observations  of  the  individual  substance 
and  the  passing  momeut ;  and  it  is  this  which  gives  to  the  law  of  the  sea- 
sons so  high  a  value  above  all  the  beauties  of  the  seasons  taken  in  their 
individual  character." 

Autumn  brings  fruition,  in  which  the  toilsome  labors  of  the  husbandman, 
for  the  preceding  twelve  months,  find  their  reward.  It  is  the  season  in 
which  hope  is  lost  in  the  possession  of  the  thing  hoped  for,  and  because 
of  a  harvest  of  plenty,  it  is  the  season  of  gratitude.  "  It  is  this  which 
makes  tlie  principles  of  seasonal  action  thicken  upon  us  as  the  year  ad- 
vances, and  the  autumn  to  become  the  harvest  of  knowledge,  as  well  as 
the  fruits  of  the  earth.  Nor  can  one  help  admiring  that  bountiful  and 
beautiful  Wisdom  which  has  laid  the  elements  of  instruction  most  abun- 
dantly in  the  grand  season  of  plenty  and  gratitude."  But  grateful  as  the 
husbandman  must  always  feel  for  the  bounties  of  Providence,  so  much 
labor  is  bestowed,  so  much  anxiety  is  felt  by  him,  as  regards  the  effects  of 
the  vicissitudes  of  the  seasons,  before  "  he  gathers  his  wheat  into  the 
gamer,"  that  the  reflections  which  the  consummation  of  harvest  is  calcu- 
lated to  give  rise  to  are,  I  fear,  narrow,  and  even  selfish.  "  For  as  the 
annual  harvest  which  we  obtain  from  the  earth  is  received  by  us  as  result- 
ing from  that  in  which  we  have  a  right  of  property,  a  merit  in  labor,  or 
both  united,  we  are  apt  to  forget  the  part  which  Nature  has  in  the  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  year,  and  look  upon  the  whole  produce  as  the  return 
of  our  own  capital  and  our  own  skill,  just  as  we  do  in  any  mechanical 
work  or  mercantile  speculation.  That  this  is  the  true  state  of  the  case  is 
proved  by  the  habitually  proverbial  fact  that  the  cultivators  of  the  ground, 
for  what  purpose  soever  they  may  cultivate,  are  always  complaining  of 

(778) 


AUTUMN.  363 


the  weather,  as  the  grand  enemy  by  which  all  their  labors  are  frustrated, 
and  all  their  products  diminished.  They  are  nowise  at  fault  themselves 
but  the  '  weary  weather  '  never  will  be  obedient  to  their  dictates.  What 
with  rain,  what  with  drouth,  what  with  heat,  what  with  cold,  each  thrust- 
ing itself  forward  at  the  time  when  its  opposite  would  have  been  by  far 
the  more  beneficial,  the  crop  they  get  is  always  'below  a  fair  averao-e,' 
and  what  they  do  get  is  got  in  in  spite  of  the  weather,  and  not  by  means 
of  its  cooperation.  It  is  in  vain  that  the  fable  of  the  farmer — into  whose 
hands  Jupiter  gave  the  management  of  the  weather,  and  who,  by  having 
rain,  and  drouth,  and  sunshine,  and  snow,  when  and  where  he  wished, 
brought  his  land  into  a  state  of  such  utter  sterility,  that  he  was  fain  to 
plead  more  earnestly  than  ever  that  so  dangerous  a  power  might  be  taken 
out  of  his  hands — has  stood  On  the  record  against  them  from  remote  anti- 
quity; for  the  majority  contend  stubbornly  that  all  the  merit  is  their  own, 
and  that  all  the  blame  falls  upon  the  weather,  which,  notwithstanding  all 
the  examples  which  have  been  set  before  it,  and  all  the  experience  it  must 
have  had,  '  will  not  understand  and  obey  the  rules  of  good  Husbandry.'  "* 
The  colors  displayed  by  the  autumnal  setting  sun  are  exceedingly  rich  ; 
one  form  of  the  phenomenon  not  uncommon  at  that  period  is  attempted 
to  be  penciled  in  Plate  XIV  ;  but  a  far  finer  picture  is  to  be  seen  in  these 
words  of  a  revered  bard,  who  can  feel  intensely  as  he  can  describe  beau- 
tifully : 

'•  A  cloud  lay  cradled  near  the  setting  sun  ; 

A  gleam  of  crimson  tinged  its  braided  snow.  ^ 

Long  had  I  watched  the  glory  moving  on 

O'er  the  soft  radiance  of  the  lake  below. 

Tranquil  its  spirit  seemed,  and  floated  slow  ; 
E'en  in  its  very  motion  there  was  rest ; 

While  every  breath  of  eve  that  chanced  to  blow 
Wafted  the  traveler  to  the  beauteous  West. 

Emblem,  methought,  of  the  departed  soul, 
To  whose  white  robe  the  gleam  of  light  is  given ; 

And,  by  the  breath  of  Mercy,  made  to  roll 
Right  onward  to  the  golden  gates  of  Heaven, 

Where  to  the  eye  of  Faith  it  peaceful  lies, 

And  tells  to  Man  his  glorious  destinies." 

Wilson. 

Objects  in  the  horizon — trees,  houses,  and  ruins — are  projected  in  bold 
relief  against  the  clear,  deep  sky  of  a  calm  autumnal  evening  at  sunset. 
Such  a  scene  as  this — if  gemmed,  moreover,  with  the  radiant  and  lustrous 
evening  star — affects  the  mind  to  thoughtful  meditation,  not  untinged  with 
melancholy. 

The  temperature  of  autumn  is  high — August,  in  Scotland,  affcirdino-  the 
highest  average  of  the  year,  on  account  of  warmth  in  the  night  as  well  as 
the  day,  though  the  sun  is  not  more  hours  above  the  horizon  than  in 
March — but  Autumn  follows  the  radiance  of  Summer,  while  Sprints  just 
escapes  from  the  frigidity  of  Winter.  Such  is  the  heat  that  it  is  no  un- 
common occurrence  for  reapers  to  be  seriously  affected  by  it  in  the  harvest- 
field. 

The  labors  of  the  field  partake  of  the  compound  character  of  the  season 
itself.  Just  as  one  crop  is  reaped  from  the  ground,  part  of  the  succeeding 
one  is  committed  to  the  earth  ;  the  autumnal  wheat  of  two  successive 
years  being  sown  and  reaped  about  the  same  time.  The  toil  endured  in 
harvest  is  almost  incredible.  Only  conceive  the  entire  bread-corn  sufficient 
to  support  the  population  of  such  a  kingdom  as  this  to  be  cut  down  and 
carried,  in  minute  portio-  j,  in  the  course  of  a  single  month  !  The  usual 
season  of  reproduction  among  the  animals  of  the  farm  is  spring ;  but  the 
most  useful  animal  of  all,  the  sheep,  forms  an  exception  to  the  rule,  Autumn 
being  the  season  in  which  the  ewes  are  drafted,  and  the  tup  is  allowed  to 

*  Mudie's  Autumn. 
(779J 


364  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN, 


go  with  them.  There  seems  in  autumn  a  tendency  in  the  animal  frame  to 
disease  ;  sheep  are  liable  to  hepatitis,  calves  to  quarter-ill,  the  horse  to 
colic  and  even  inflammation  in  the  bowels,  and  stallions  and  geldings  be- 
come dull  in  spirit.  Perhaps  the  feeding  nature  of  aftermath,  on  which 
all  animals  live  in  autumn,  may  cause  a  tendency,  in  the  animal  system,  to 
predominant  secretion  of  one  of  the  fluids,  and  thereby  predispose  the  sys- 
tem to  particular  complaints.  If  there  is  probability  of  truth  in  this  sur- 
mise, preventive  measures  should  be  sought  for  and  obtained  ;  and  oil-cake 
seems  to  possess  this  property.  One  preventive  remedy  against  annoy- 
ance from  parasitic  insects  and  from  cold  to  sheep,  is  bathing  or  smearing. 

The  sports  of  the  field  all  commence  in  autumn.  The  long-contem- 
plated gatherings  in  the  hills,  on  the  noted  12th  of  August,  in  quest  of 
grouse — game,  par  excellence,  of  which  our  country  should  be  proud  as  its 
only  indigene — cause  every  shelling  to  afford  shelter  to  many  who,  at 
other  seasons,  indulge  in  the  far  different  enjoyments  of  urban  luxuries. 
Parti-idge-shooting  comes  in  September,  sometimes  even  before  the  com 
is  cut  down,  and  is  followed  by  hare-hunting  in  October  ;  and  after  all  the 
fields  are  cleared  of  their  valuable  produce,  the  inspiring  "  music  "  of  the 
pack  is  heard  to  resound  through  hill  and  dale. 

The  great  event  of  autumn — the  hai'vest — naturally  claims  a  prepon- 
derating share  of  the  husbandman's  solicitude  ;  and  until  this  important 
issue  of  all  his  toil  is  secured  beyond  danger,  he  cannot  rest  in  quiet.  He 
looks  around  him,  night  and  day,  regarding  the  "  face  of  the  sky,"  and 
acts  with  circumspection.  He  sees  his  whole  year's  bread  at  stake,  and 
feels  that  its  safety  depends  on  his  own  skill ;  and  should  he  fail  to  exer- 
cise this  alight,  he  would  never  cease  to  blame  himself.  None  is  more 
anxious  to  follow  this  advice  than  he  : 

"The  wind,  the  rain,  the  sun, 
Their  eenial  task  have  done. 

Wouldst  thou  be  fed, 
Man,  to  thy  labor  bow, 
Thrust  in  thy  sickle  now. 
Reap  where  thou  once  didst  plow — 

God  sends  thee  bread.'" 

MONTGOMEBT. 

When  every  straw  is  safe  in  the  stack-yard,  and  the  stack-yard  gate  closed 
for  the  season,  then,  and  not  till  then,  is  he  satisfied  of  his  task  being  fin- 
ished, and  enjoys  undisturbed  repose. 

Now  that  we  have  surveyed  all  the  seasons  as  they  present  themselves 
in  this  country,  we  must  own  our  climate  to  be  anything  but  genial.  The 
frequent  changes  to  which  it  is  daily  susceptible  render  the  culture  of  the 
soil  always  a  difficult,  and  not  unfrequently  an  irksome  occupation.  Those 
vicissitudes,  no  doubt,  sharpen  the  intellect  of  the  farmer,  and  perhaps 
have  been  the  chief  means  of  eliciting  the  high  skill  which  is  so  universally 
acknovyledged  to  be  exercised  in  the  Agriculture  of  this  kingdom.  Such 
skill  will  always  have  a  field  for  exercise,  for  our  insular  position  will  sub- 
ject our  atmosphere  to  perpetual  changes  dependent  on  different  condi- 
tions of  heat  and  moisture  produced  by  the  state  of  the  sunrounding  ocean. 
Notwithstanding  the  farmer  is  held  to  his  task  by  a  frowning  climate,  he 
would  rather  wish  to  have  a  smiling  one,  and  sometimes  envies  the  bright 
skies  which  lie  hears  illumine  the  Continent.  There  is  much  truth  in  the 
desire  expressed  in  the  following  obsei-vations,  lightly  as  they  are  put  to- 
gether, for  no  one  but  enjoys  fine  weather,  which  is,  indeed,  always  the 
source  of  gratulation  when  it  occurs :  "  It  may  be  very  well  for  a  lover  to 
declare  in  the  presence  of  his  mistress  that 

"  All  seasons  and  their  change 
All  please  alike ;" 
(780) 


PULLING  FLAX  AND  HEMP,  AND  THE  HOP.        365 

but  to  common  mortals,  occupied  with  the  ordinary  affairs  of  life,  there  is 
no  truth  in  it.  Who  in  his  senses  ever  affirmed  that  the  fogs  of  Novem- 
ber were  as  delightful  to  him  as  the  balmy  breath  of  May  1  If  any  one 
has,  as  I  have,  a  horror  of  icicles,  and  who  would  never  have  the  mild 
temperature  of  the  air  interrupted  by  the  presence  of  a  hoar-frost,  let  him 
migrate  with  the  climate.  Let  him  spend  the  month  of  January  in  Portu- 
gal ;  February  in  the  Madeiras  ;  March  in  Spain  ;  April  in  Sicily ;  May 
in  Lapland  ;  June  in  Italy ;  July  in  Switzerland  ;  August  in  France  ; 
September  in  England  ;  October  among  the  forests  of  America  ;  Novem- 
ber in  Crete  ;  and  December  in  the  islands  of  the  Cape  de  Verd.  By  this 
rotatory  motion  he  may  enjoy  a  delicious  temperature,  and  revel  in  honey- 
suckles and  roses  all  the  year  round."* 


33.  PULLING  FLAX  AND  HEMP,  AND  THE  HOP. 

"  Now  pluck  up  thy  flax,  for  thy  maidens  to  spin  ;  "  Lo !  on  auxiliary  poles,  the  hops, 

First  see  it  dried,  and  timely  got  in."  Ascending  spiral,  ranged  in  meet  array  I" 

TussEB.  Phillips. 

(2183.)  I  propose  here  merely  to  speak  of  flax  as  to  its  treatment 
in  suminer,  and  the  mode  of  harvesting  it ;  for  as  to  its  treatment  after- 
ward as  an  article  of  manufacture,  that  is  beyond  my  province.  The 
only  care  required  by  the  growing  crops  of  flax  in  summer  is  weeding, 
and  in  its  early  stage  of  growth  it  will  be  much  injured  if  weeds  obtain 
the  mastery.  To  obviate  this  inconvenience,  and,  indeed,  to  save  alto- 
gether the  trouble  of  weeding,  it  has  been  recommended  to  sow  the 
land  at  the  time  of  sowing  the  flax-seed  wath  grass-seeds,  or  to  sow  the 
flax-seed  in  di'ills ;  but  neither  expedient  is  so  suitable  for  flax  itself  as 
land  kept  clean  by  weeding  a  broadcast  crop  ;  for  as  equality  of  fibre  is 
of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  value  of  flax,  sowing  it  in  drills  admits  the 
air  unequally  to  the  crop,  and  the  fibre  of  the  plants  on  the  oxitside  of  the 
drills  would  thereby  be  much  coarser  than  that  of  those  in  the  interior. — 
And  as  to  sowing  grass-seeds,  even  the  low-growing  white  clover  among 
flax,  it  should  make  no  difference  to  the  flax-plant  whether  it  was  choked 
by  a  valuable  or  a  worthless  plant,  since  both  would  equally  be  weeds  in 
reference  to  it. 

(2184.)  Besides  the  common  weeds  which  infest  the  soil,  according  to 
its  nature,  thei'e  are  others  specially  found  among  flax ;  of  these,  one  is 
the  common  gold-of-pleasure,  Camelina  sativa,  the  seed  of  which  is  im- 
ported among  flax-seed  ;  and  the  plant  may  be  known  by  its  attaining 
from  2  to  3  feet  in  bight,  having  small  yellow  flowers,  and  very  large 
pouches  on  long  stalks.  But  a  more  troublesome  weed  than  this  is  the 
flax-dodder,  Cuscuta  Europoea,  inasmuch  as  it  adheres  parasitically  to  the 
flax  plant,  and,  of  course,  injures  its  fibre ;  while  the  gold-of-pleasure  may 
be  pulled  out  before  the  flax  is  ready.  The  habits  of  the  flax-dodder  are 
these  :  "  It  is  a  plan*  which  germinates  in  the  gi'ound,  and  sends  up  a  slen- 
der, thread-like  stem,  which,  twisting  itself  about,  soon  touches  one  of  the 
stems  of  the  flax  among  which  it  is  growing.  As  soon  as  this  takes  place, 
the  dodder  twists  itself  round  the  flax,  and  throws  out  from  the  side  next 


*  Note-Book  of  an  Oxonian— JoAn  BuU,  for  5th  August,  1843. 
(781) 


366  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 

to  its  victim  several  small  processes,  which  penetrate  the  outer  coat  or  cu- 
ticle of  the  flax,  and  act  as  suckers,  by  which  the  parasitical  dodder  appro- 
priates to  its  own  use  the  sup  which  has  been  prepared  in  the  Jlax,  upon 
which  the  growth  of  the  Jlax  depends.  The  tlodder  then  separates  itself 
from  the  ground,  and  relies  solely  upon  the  flax  for  its  nourishment,  pro- 
ducing long,  slender,  leafless  stems,  which  attach  themselves  to  each  stem 
of  flax  that  comes  in  their  way.  Thus  large  masses  of  the  crop  are  matted 
together,  and  so  much  weakened  as  to  become  almost  useless.  This  plant 
produces  great  quantities  of  seed,  which  is  usually  threshed  with  the  flax- 
seed, and  sown  again  with  it  in  the  succeeding  year.  Several  years  since 
I  took  considerable  trouble  to  ascertain  if  all  foreign  flax-seed  was  mixed 
with  that  of  the  dodder,  and  was  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  American 
flax-seed  is  nearly  free  from  this  pest,  and  that  thai  from  Russia,  and  espe- 
cially Odessa,  is  peculiarly  infested  with  it."*  The  weeds,  when  very 
young,  are  picked  out  by  hand  from  the  flax  by  field-workers ;  and,  in  do- 
ing this,  the  kneeling  down  upon  the  flax  does  it  no  harm.  If  weeding  be 
once  effectually  and  timeously  done,  the  weeds  will  not  again  much  trouble 
the  crop  ;  and,  though  it  should  cost  several  shillings  the  acre,  the  increased 
value  of  the  crop  will  repay  it  all.  Before  leaving  the  subject  of  weeding, 
I  may  remark  that,  though  the  American  flax-seed  be  free  from  dodder- 
seed,  it  is  far  inferior  in  giving  a  crop  to  that  imported  from  Riga,  the 
Riga-kind,  which  also  bears  the  name  of  Belgian  seed,  from  the  Belgians 
sowing  it.  And  I  may  also  remark  that  sowing  flax  on  clean  land  will 
save  much  of  the  cost  of  weeding — that  is,  after  a  green  crop,  as  turnips 
and  potatoes,  the  cleansing  of  which  will  have  rendered  the  soil  compara- 
tively clean  for  flax.  If  flax  be  thus  cultivated  in  lieu  of  a  corn-crop,  its 
culture  may  be  practiced  without  much  deterioration  to  the  land  ;  but  if  it 
is  determined  to  regard  flax  as  a  green  ci'op,  and  cause  a  corn-crop  to  fol- 
low it,  the  land  will  in  time  assuredly  feel  the  scourging  effects  of  such  a 
system,  and  oblige  its  cultivators  to  abandon  it  altogether. 

(2185.)  The  pulling,  steeping  and  drying  of  flax  are  simple  enough,  and 
are  pi'ocesses  generally  well  understood ;  but  Mr.  Henderson's  account  of 
managing  the  crop,  whose  sample  of  Irish  flax  obtained  a  gold  medal  from 
the  Agricultural  Improvement  Society  of  Ireland,  at  their  meeting  at  Bel- 
fast, in  August,  1843,  being  the  most  practical,  and  at  the  same  time  suc- 
cinct, I  have  met  with,  I  shall  transcribe  it.  1.  And,  fii'st,  as  to  test  of 
ripeness,  Mr.  Henderson  says  :  *'  I  have  found  the  test  recommended  by 
Mr.  Boss  to  ascertain  the  degree  of  ripeness  that  gives  the  best  produce, 
with  the  finest  fibre,  perfect.  It  is  this  :  Try  the  flax  every  day  Avhen  ap- 
proaching ri])eness,  by  cutting  the  ripest  capsule  on  an  average  stalk  across 
(horizontally),  and  when  the  seeds  have  changed  from  the  white,  milky 
substance  which  they  first  show  to  a  greenish  color,  pretty  firm,  then  is 
the  time  to  pull.  1  he  old  prejudice  in  favor  o^  much  ripening  is  most  inju- 
rious, even  as  regards  quantity ;  and  the  usual  test  of  the  stalk  stripping 
Kt  the  root  and  turning  yellow  sliould  not  be  depended  on.  Where  there 
is  one  man  that  pulls  too  green,  five  hundred  over-ripen."  2.  When  prop- 
erly ripened,  flax  should  be  pulled  in  this  way :  "  I  use  the  Dutch  method 
— say,  catching  the  flax  close  below  the  boles  ;  this  allows  the  shortest  of 
the  flax  to  escape.  With  the  next  handful  the  puller  draws  the  short  flax, 
and  so  keeps  the  short  and  the  long  each  by  itself,  to  be  steeped  in  sepa- 
rate ponds.  It  is  most  essential  to  keep  the  flax  even  at  the  root  end,  and 
this  cannot  be  done  without  time  and  care,  but  it  can  be  done,  and  should 
always  be  done.     The  beets  should  always  be  small,  evenly  sized,  straight, 

*  Gardeners'  Chronicle  and  Agricultural  Gazette  for  10th  Fchruary,  1844. 
(782) 


PULLING  FLAX  AND  HEMP,  AND  THE  HOP.  367 

and  even,  and  should  never  be  put  up  in  stocks  or  windrows,  but  taken  to 
the  pond  the  day  they  are  pulled,  or  the  day  after  at  longest,  especially  in 
bright  weather  ;  for  tht  discoloration  produced  hy  the  sun  on  green  flax  will 
n-ver  he  removed  till  it  goes  to  the  bleacher,  and  will  give  him  some  trouble 
also."  3.  Next  comes  the  steeping,  which  is  a  most  important  process, 
and  is  the  one  least  understood  by  growers  of  flax  in  this  country.  You, 
perhaps,  require  to  be  informed  of  the  object  of  steeping  the  flax-plant. — 
The  stem  of  flax  consists  of  two  parts  possessing  very  different  properties  : 
the  one,  the  outer,  is  fibrous,  and  affords  the  substance  of  flax ;  the  other, 
the  interior,  is  pithy,  and  is  got  rid  of  by  fermentation  in  steeping,  loosen- 
ing its  hold  of  the  fibre.  There  is  also  much  mucilage  to  be  got  quit  of ; 
and  the  sooner  flax  is  put  into  steep  after  being  pulled,  the  more  mucilage 
will  be  dissolved  from  il.  If  steeping  is  so  long  continued  as  to  affect  the 
texture  of  the  fibrous  coating,  the  flax  will  be  injured  ;  and  should  it  not 
be  as  long  applied  as  the  pithy  matter  may  be  easily  loosened,  much  labor 
will  be  afterward  incurred  in  getting  quit  of  it.  Proper  steeping,  then,  is 
an  essential  and  delicate  process,  and  on  this  account  Mr.  Henderson's  in- 
structions are  valuable  :  "  Flax  is  subject  to  injury  from  neglect  in  every 
process,  but  in  this  especially.  The  water  brought  to  the  pond  should  be 
pure  from  all  mineral  substances,  clean  and  clear.  The  water  of  large 
rivers  is  generally  to  be  preferred  ;  but  spring-water,  which  has  run  some 
hundred  yards,  becomes  soft;,  and  will  have  deposited  any  mineral  impuri- 
ties it  contained  ;  immediately  from  the  spring  it  seldom  does  well.  If  the 
water  be  good  and  soft,  it  is  injurious  to  allow  it  to  stagnate  in  the  pond 
before  steeping.  I  put  in  two  layers,  each  somewhat  sloped,  with  the 
root-end  of  each  downward  :  one  layer  at  a  time  is  said  to  be  safer,  and, 
perhaps,  is  so,  though  I  have  tried  both  and  seen  no  difference.  The  flax 
should  be  placed  rather  loose  than  crowded  in  the  pond,  and  laid  carefully 
straight  and  regular.  Having  an  abundant  supply  of  water,  I  do  not  let 
any  into  the  pond  till  the  first  layer  is  in.  I  cover  with  moss-sods  (from 
the  turf-banks)  laid  perfectly  close,  the  shear  of  each  fitted  to  the  other. — 
Thus  covered,  it  never  sinks  to  the  bottom,  nor  is  it  affected  by  air  or  light. 
It  is  generally  watered  in  11  or  13  days.  A  good  stream  should,  if  possi- 
ble, always  pass  over  the  pond — it  carries  off  impurities,  and  does  not  at 
all  impede  due  fermentation ;  flood  and  all  impure  water  should  be  care- 
fully kept  off.  The  Dutch  test  of  being  sufliciently  watered  is  certain  and 
perfect ;  at  least,  I  never  found  it  otherwise.  It  is  this  :  Try  some  stalks 
of  average  fineness,  by  breaking  the  woody  part  in  two  places,  about  3 
inches  apart,  at  the  middle  of  the  length  ;  catch  the  wood  at  the  lower  end, 
and  if  it  will  pull  (downward)  for  those  3  inches  freely,  without  breaking 
or  tearing  the  fibre,  it  is  I'eady  to  take  out.  This  trial  should  be  made  ev- 
ery day  after  fermentation  subsides,  for  sometimes  the  change  is  rapid. — 
Flax  is  more  frequently  injured  by  too  little  than  too  much  of  the  water. 
Great  care  and  neatness  are  necessary  in  taking  it  out.  Broken  or  crum- 
pled flax  will  never  reach  the  market.  Spread  the  day  it  is  taken  out,  un- 
less it  is  heavy  rain — light  rain  does  little  harm  ;  but,  in  any  case,  spread 
the  next  day,  for  it  will  heat  in  the  pile,  and  that  heating  is  destructive. — 
The  most  particular  cause  of  injury  in  steeping  is  exudation  of  water  from 
the  sides  or  bottoms  of  the  pond.  Stripe  and  discoloration  are  mostly  im- 
puted to  the  quality  of  the  water  brought  to  the  pond ;  while,  in  9  cases 
out  of  every  10,  the  water  oozing  from  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  pond 
itself  is  the  cause.  Even  if  such  water  were  pure,  which  it  seldorn  is,  it 
is  injurious  ;  but  when  impregnated  with  iron  or  other  materials,  it  does 
immense  harm.  If  such  ponds  must  continue  to  be  used,  the  injury  may 
be  partially  amended  by  draining  around  the  sides  and  ends,  at  6  or  8  feet 

(783) 


368  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 

distance,  and  18  inches  deeper  than  the  bottom  of  the  pond,  and  filling  the 
drains  with  stones.  No  other  thing  I  know  of  does  such  extensive  injury 
as  this  springing  of  water  within  the  pond."  4.  Flax  "  should  be  spread 
even,  straight  at  its  length,  not  too  thick,  and  well  shaken,  so  that  there 
shall  be  no  clots  ;  indeed,  if  possible,  no  2  stalks  should  adhere.  I  have 
ever  found  it  injurious  to  keep  it  long  on  the  grass ;  it  is  in  the  steep  the 
wood  is  decomposed;  on  the  grass  the  fibre  is  softened,  and  the  wood  lit- 
tle, if  at  all,  affected.  I  rarely  let  it  lie  more  than  5  days,  sometimes  only 
3 ;  this  year  it  had  only  3  days,  and  I  never  had  better  flax.  It  should 
never,  if  possible,  be  spread  on  the  ground  flax  grows  on — it  claps  down, 
and  the  clay  and  weeds  discolor  it ;  clean  lea,  or  lately  cut  meadow,  is  the 
best."  5.  "  Lifting,  like  all  other  operations,  requires  care  and  neatness 
to  keep  it  straight  to  its  length,  and  even  at  the  roots.  This  operation  is 
too  frequently  hurried  and  coarsely  done."  6.  If  the  steeping  and  grass- 
ing have  been  perfect,  flax  should  require  no  fire ;  and,  to  make  it  ready 
for  breaking  and  scutching,  exposure  to  the  sun  should  be  sufficient ;  but 
if  the  weather  be  damp,  the  flax  tough,  and  must  be  wrought  off",  then  it 
must  be  fire-dried.  Such  drying  is  always  more  or  less  injurious  ;  but,  if 
it  be  put  on  the  kiln  in  a  damp  state,  it  is  ruinous — it  is  absolutely  burnt 
before  it  is  dry.  All  who  can  afford  it  should  keep  such  flax  over  to  the 
ensuing  spring  or  summer,  putting  it  dry  into  stacks — then  it  will  work 
freely  without  fire-heat."  7.  In  the  concluding  remarks  of  Mr.  Hender- 
son, there  is  much  good  sense  :  "  The  proper  culture  and  preparation  of 
flax  require  more  care,  exertion  and  expense  than  the  old,  slovenly  meth- 
od ;  and  those  who  will  not  give  those  requisites  would  do  wisely  to  abstain 
from  growing  flax  altogether.  Any  other  crop  will  abide  more  negligence. 
So  much  has  been  said  and  written  of  late  of  the  advantage  of  flax-culture, 
that  it  is  to  be  feared  some  may  be  led  to  carry  it  to  an  undue  extent,  and 
sow  it  on  land  not  fitted  for  it ;  indeed,  this  is  already  often  done,  and  I 
know  of  nothing  more  injurious  to  the  farmer.  Flax  is  proverbially  either 
the  very  best  or  the  very  worst  crop  a  farmer  can  gi'ow."* 

(2186.)  The  crop  of  flax,  after  it  is  dried,  is  bulky  for  its  weight;  and 
yields  from  3  to  10  cwt.  per  imperial  acre  of  dried  plants.  From  30  to  40 
stones,  of  14  lbs.  each,  the  acre,  o?  dressed  flax,  is  considered  a  fair  crop, 
and  \i  fine  quality,  will  fetch  perhaps  c£90  a  ton  ;  that  is,  from  4  to  5  acres 
are  rotjuired  to  furnish  1  ton  of  flax,  and  a  return  obtained  of  from  <:£18 
to  c£22  ])er  acre,  exclusive  of  the  expense  of  preparing  it  by  beetling, 
scutching,  and  hackling,  and  may  still  leave  from  ^10  to  cfIS  an  acre  of 
profit,  which  is  a  large  one  ;  but  should  the  flax  prove  coarse  by  improper 
management,  or  be  injured  in  drying,  much  waste  will  be  occasioned  in 
dressing  it,  and  the  profit  reduced  to  perhaps  ^  of  these  amounts.  So  the 
obsen-ation  of  Mr.  Henderson,  of  flax  being  either  the  best  or  worst  crop 
for  the  farmer,  thus  receives  corroboration  ;  and  it  should  also  be  borne 
in  mind  that  flax,  like  the  potato  crop,  leaves  no  straw  for  manure  to  the 
land. 

(2187.)  Hemp  is  a  crop  scarcely  cultivated  in  Scotland,  and  its  culture 
in  England  is  confined  to  the  southern  counties,  being  a  plant  indigen- 
ous to  the  south  of  Europe  and  India.  Being  tall  of  growth  in  com- 
parison to  flax,  it  receives  no  injury  from  weeds,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
smothers  by  overtop])ing  them.  This  plant  is  best  cultivated  in  drills. 
The  crop  is  pulled  and  watered,  and  dried  like  flax,  the  weight  of  pro- 
duce dressed  being  little  more  than  flax,  from  40  to  45  stones  the  impe- 
rial acre,  and  the  profit  derived  from  it,  after  deducting  expenses,  seems 

•  Dublin  Farmers'  Gazette. 
(784) 


PULLING   FLAX  AND  HEMP,  AND  THE  HOP.  369 

to  be  from  =£5  to  <£6  per  acre,  though  Lord  Somerville,  in  sanguine 
expectation  of  extending  the  culture  of  this  plant  in  England,  estimated 
it  at  d£8.  The  dried  refuse  of  the  stems  of  hemp,  after  the  fibre  has 
been  separated,  is  used  as  fuel,  and  may  be  converted  into  chaicoal  fit 
for  gunpowder.  The  seed  yields  about  3  quarters  per  acre,  and  from 
it  is  expressed  an  oil  "  employed  with  great  advantage  in  the  lamp,  and 
in  coarse  painting.  They  give  a  paste  made  of  it  to  hogs  and  horses 
to  fatten  them ;  it  enters  into  the  composition  of  black-soap,  the  use  of 
which  is  very  common  in  the  manufactux'e  of  stuffs  and  felts  ;  and  it  is 
also  used  for  tanning  nets."  The  common  hemp  is  raised  in  India,  not 
for  the  sake  of  its  fibre,  but  for  the  intoxicating  quality  of  its  seeds  when 
eaten  green  and  fresh  ;  the  hemj)  of  commerce  of  that  country  is  derived 
from  a  different  plant.* 

(2188.)   The  hop  is  not  cultivated  in  Scotland  but  as  an  ornamental  plant 
in  the  shrubbery,  because  the  climate   is  not  sufficiently  warm  to  develop 
its  cones,  constituting  the  ripe  fruit,  which  is  its  useful  part.      The  culture 
of  the  hop  is  confined  to  the  south  of  England,  where,  in  1835,  the  extent 
of  ground  occupied  by  it  was  53,816  acres  ;    and  its  culture  is  very  differ- 
ent from  that  of  usual  field-ci'ops.     When  a  new  hop-garden  is  formed, 
the  ground  is  t7enched  to  the  depth  of  2  feet ;   and   as  the   plants  occupy 
the  ground  several  years,  their  roots  strike  to  a  considerable  depth,  where 
the  more  of  better  soil  they  find  near  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  the  better 
they  grow,  for  as  to  the  surface  soil,  it  can  be  manured  at  any  time,  and 
in  many  ways.     The  plants,  previously  raised  from  seed,   as  being  more 
hardy  in  constitution  than  raised  by  cuttings,  are  placed  in  quincunx  order, 
at  5i  feet  distance  each  way,  which  give  1,440  plants  to  the  imp.  acre.   The 
hop-plant  being  diceclous  in  its  nature,  that  is,  having  different  sexes  on  dif- 
ferent plants,  1  male  is  planted  among  every  10  female  plants.     The  female 
plants  only  bear  fruit,  which  has  the  form  of  solitary  cones  or  strobiles,  ovate 
and  pendulous,  composed  of  membraneous  scales  of  a  pale-green  colour,  each 
containing  one  round  flattish  seed  of  a  bay -brown  color,  surrounded  with  a 
sharp  rim,  and  compressed  at  the  top.     Being  climbers,  as  the  plants  shoot 
up,  they  are  tied  to  and  trained  along  poles  pushed  endwise  into  the  ground 
beside  them ;  and  in  the  first  year's  growth  of  the  bine  the  poles  used 
may  be  short ;  but  afterward,  when  shoots  spring  from   the  old  stock,  3 
bines  are  preserved  from  each  shoot  and  trained  up  upon  3  poles  placed 
around  each  plant-hill,  with  their  upper  ends  divergent,  that  the  air  and 
sun  may  find  their  way  into  the  centre  of  each  cluster  of  plants ;   and  the 
poles  are,  besides,  so  set  as  to  allow  the  forenoon  sun  to  reach  the  plants, 
and  also  to  receive  as  little  injury  as  possible  from   the  prevailing  wind  of 
the  district.     The  poles  are  from   16  to   18  feet  the  longest,   and  14  the 
shortest;   and  as  3   are  required  for  every  hill,  4,320  are  wanted  for  every 
acre.     The  best  poles  are  of  yew,  next  of  chestnut,  then  larch,  ash,  willow, 
oak  cut  in  winter,  Scots  fir,  birch    alder,  beech,   in   the  order  enumerated. 
They  last  from  3  to  5  years,  according  to  the  wood,    and    cost  Is.  per  foot 
per  100  poles  ;  that  is,  poles  18  feet  long  will  cost  18s.  the  100,  or  nearly 
<^39  per  acre ;   and  as  about  500  poles  are  wanted  every  year  to  keep  up 
the  stock,  their  wear  and   tear  costs  about  c£4  1  Os.  the  acre.     In  order  to 
lessen  this  great  annual  expense,   it  has  lately  been  suggested  to  stretch  a 
stout    wire   along   each  alley,  to  which  the  poles  should  be  fastened.     The 
advantages  of  this  plan  are  said  to  be,  that  poles   of  much  less  value  than 
those  usually  employed  may  be  used,  injury  from  gales  of  wind  avoided, 
and  the  alleys  being  open  to  the  influence  of  the  sun  and  air,  the  mould, 

*  See  Wisset's  Treatise  on  Hemp,  which  contains  all  that  can  be  said  on  the  subject.    Quarto  edition, 
1808. 

(785) 84 


370         THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 

that  fatal  disease  of  the  hop,  prevented;  and  it  is  said  that  a  garden  of  9 
acres  at  Hailing,  near  Rochester,  is  cultivated  in  this  way.  Poles  are 
carefully  laid  aside  at  the  end  of  every  hop-season.  The  bines,  as  they 
slioot  up,  are  tied  to  the  poles  by  women,  who  use  dried  rushes  for  the 
purpose.  The  ground  receives  culture  to  keep  it  clean  and  open  till  the 
season  of  picking  or  gathering  the  flowers  anive,  which  is  commonly  the 
first  week  of  September.  The  hop  properly  so  called,  is  picked  from 
the  bine  by  the  hand;  and,  to  facilitate  that  process,  the  bines  are 
cut  over  at  3  feet  from  the  gioundj  and  the  poles  raised  and  laid  on 
their  side  in  a  convenient  position  and  place  for  the  pickers.  Whole  fam- 
ilies of  laborers  are  employed  at  picking,  i-eceiving  l^d.  per  bushel,  at 
which  rate  a  family  of  5  will  earn  from  7s.  to  10s.  a-day.  There  being 
1,440  hills  in  the  acre,  and  allowing  1  bushel  of  hops  to  each  hill,  and  1^  lbs. 
to  each  bushel,  the  acre  will  yield  19  cwt.  32  lbs.;  but  the  crop  is  some- 
times not  i  of  that  quantity.  Indeed,  so  precarious  is  the  crop  of  hops, 
that,  at  Binstead,  in  Hampshire,  a  farmer  gi-ew  4^  cwt.  on  10  acres,  in  the 
year  lS2o,  and  in  the  following  year,  1826,  he  realized  9  tons  from  the 
same  land  !  This  diversity  of  crop  is  greatly  owing  to  the  effects  of  in- 
sects, of  which  a  considerable  variety  and  in  great  numbers  affect  the  hop- 
plant,  and  also  of  blight  or  mould,  occasioned  by  damp  or  confined  air. 
When  ripe  for  picking,  the  hop  is  of  a  lightish-green  color,  and  gummy  to 
the  feel  when  in  the  highest  perfection.  In  a  few  days  longer  it  becomes 
brown  and  strong-tasted.  At  Farnham,  in  Kent,  the  hops  are  always 
picked  in  the  perfect  state,  and  every  injured  flower  is  put  into  a  separate 
basket;  and,  on  this  account,  the  Farnham  hops  always  command  the 
highest  price  in  the  ^narket.  This  hop  is  eagerly  sought  after  by  pale-ale 
brewers ;  while  the  brown,  stronger-tasted  hop  is  better  liked  by  porter- 
brewers.  After  bein?  picked,  hops  are  immediately  subjected  to  artificial 
heat  in  a  kiln  to  be  dried,  so  that  they  may  keep;  and  to  show  the  value 
of  a  delicate-colored  article  in  the  market,  the  brown  samples  are  strongly 
fumigated  with  sulphur,  to  give  them  a  fairer  and  more  equal  appearance. 
It  is  surprising  that  purchasers  who  are  judges  of  hops,  and  aware  of  such 
a  practice,  submit  to  it,  unless  they  themselves  employ  it  as  a  means  of 
deceiving  customers  who  never  saw  hops  gi-owing,  and  know  not  how  they 
are  treated.  What  would  be  thought  of  a  corn-farmer,  were  he  to  fumi- 
gate the  barley  he  had  to  dispose  of  with  sulphur,  in  order  to  make  the 
bright-colored,  overripened,  and  stained  samples  look  all  alike  1  If  light- 
colored  hops  are  indispensable  to  the  brewer,  let  I/ijn  manufacture  his  com- 
modities as  he  ])lcase8,  but  let  the  farmer  deal  only  in  the  genuine  produce 
of  the  soil.  If  he  must  have  fair-colored  hops,  let  him  pick  them  in  due 
season,  and  exercise  his  skill  in  a  legitimate  way,  and  eschew  every  spe- 
cies of  deception.  The  drying  is  effected  with  coke  and  some  charcoal, 
the  drying  heat  being  112^  Fahrenheit ;  and  costs,  including  every  ex- 
pense, 14s.  the  cwt.  After  being  dried,  hops  are  laid  in  a  heap,  to  sweat 
and  grow  tough,  and  there  they  lie  longer  than  merely  to  cool  ;  for  they 
must  feel  moist  and  clammy,  and  be  squeezable  in  the  hand,  before  they 
are  bagged,  when  5  lbs.  of  fresh  hops  will  weigh  only  1  lb.  when  taken 
from  the  kiln.  A  Z»rt^  of  hops  weighs  2i  cwt. ;  and  is  fixed  by  statute  4 
feet  wide,  7^  feet  long,  and  to  contain  51  yards  of  cloth,  weighing  51  lbs., 
which  usually  costs  6d.  per  yard.  A  Kent  poc/;et  is  3  feet  wide,  71  feet 
long,  weighs  4  lbs.,  and  contains  usually  11  cwt.,  but  2  cwt.  of  Farnham 
hops.  Such  a  pocket  will  occupy  a  man  from  3  to  4  hours  to  tread  the 
hops  into  firmly  ;  and  to  tread  4  of  them  in  a  day,  at  9d.  per  cwt.,  is  a  vei7 
good  day's  work ;  and  in  doing  which  he  becomes  covered  with  vellow 
dust,  to  which  powder  Dr.  Ives  asciibed  the   whole  virtue   of  the* plant. 

(786) 


PULLING   FLAX  AND   HEMP,  AND   THE   HOP.  371 

Hops  cannot  be  tread  too  firmly  into  the  bags,  for  the  more  the  air  is  ex- 
cluded the  better  ;  and,  for  this  end,  the  use  of  the  Bramah  hydraulic  press 
is  recommended.  It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  keep  hops  when  they  shrink 
in  the  bags,  and  the  air  finds  admission  to  them,  and  they  then  lose  from 
5  to  10  lbs.  per  cwt. ;  but  the  greater  quantity  of  sulphur  and  saltpetre 
employed  in  the  drying,  the  worse  will  hops  keep.  Damp  is  ruinous  to 
them.  In  most  cases,  the  price  of  old  hops  drops  down  to  the  half  of 
that  of  new.  Hops  containing  the  most  seed  will  retain  their  weight  the 
longest. 

(2189.)  The  [excise]  duty  on  hops  is  2d.  per  lb.,  and  it  amounted  to 
de409,055  in  1835,  on  the  produce  of  53,816  acres,  being  49,086,600  lbs., 
or  Si-  cwt.  per  acre.  Small  as  this  impost  appears,  it  made  that  year  a 
direct  tax  upon  the  land  on  which  the  hop  grew,  of  ^£7  19s.  6ld.  per  acre ! 
I  never  could  understand  why  hops  should  be  subjected  to  direct  taxation, 
when  all  other  agricultural  productions  are  exempt  from  it.  I  can  see  the 
plea  upon  which  a  duty  on  malt  may  be  urged,  of  its  truly  being  a  manu- 
factured article  ;  but  the  tax  on  hops  is  a  direct  impost  on  the  produce  of 
the  soil.  Whatever  benefit  is  derived  from  this  impost  to  the  revenue, 
from  which  nearly  =£4,000  a  year  must  be  deducted  for  its  collection,  is 
more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  spirit  of  gambling  engendered  in  specu- 
lators, who  make  purchases  solely  in  accordance  with  the  palpable  amount 
of  duty  to  be  exacted.  Offers  made  to  farmers,  resting  on  this  contin- 
p-ency,  lure  them  also  into  that  vice,  and  frequently  make  them  suffer;  and 
they  cannot  avoid  the  temptation,  for  the  casualties  affecting  hops  are  so 
iincertain,  that  the  prospects  of  a  crop  may  be  blighted  or  secured  in  the 
course  of  a  few  days.  Thus,  in  1834,  the  hop  was  so  much  affected  by 
the  aphis,  that  the  whole  amount  of  duty  was  struck  at  about  c£100,000 
over  all  the  districts  ;  but  on  thunder-showers  falling  and  destroying  the 
insects  jMs;'  in  time,  and  the  weather  afterward  proving  very  favorable  to 
the  gi'owth  of  the  plant,  actually  raised  the  duty,  which  was  paid,  to 
c£329,936,  thus  indicating  an  increase  in  the  value  of  the  apprehended 
crop  of  more  than  3  times.  Were  there  no  duty,  the  farmer  would  dis- 
pose of  his  hops,  when  he  realized  them,  as  he  does  any  other  crop.  The 
expense  of  forming  a  new  hop- garden  is  =€15  13s.  per  acre,  including  a 
half-year's  rent.  The  yearly  expense  of  maintaining  an  acre  of  hops  is, 
up  to  picking  time,  including  rent,  &c.,  c£17  8s.;  picking,  drying,  and  in- 
cluding duty  on  6  cvvts.,  .^15  2s. ;  together,  =£32  10s.  It  is  not  an  uncom- 
mon practice  to  let  the  working  of  the  ground,  the  poling  of  the  hills,  and 
the  tying  of  the  bines  to  the  time  of  picking,  to  laborers  at  .£3  JOs.  per 
acre.* 

(2190.)  Flax  (Linum  nsifatissimumj,  from  ihe  Celtic  L!in,  a  thread,  in  the  class  and  order 
P^^ntandria  Pentasrynia.  of  Linnffius,  and  in  the  natural  order  of  Linete,  is  a  native  of  many  parts 
of  Europe,  as  well  as  of  Nepaul  and  North  America,  in  corn-fields,  and  is  said  to  be  originally 
from  Egypt.  It  has  been  cultivated  for  an  unknown  length  of  time  in  Britain,  of  which  it  is  now 
considered  a  naturalized  inhabitant ;  and  it  is  cultivated  both  for  its  fibre  and  oil,  and  the  husk 
of  the  seed,  after  the  oil  has  been  extracted  from  it,  is  employed  in  the  fattening  of  live-.stock. 

(2191.)  "Mr.  James  Thomson  and  Mr.  Bauer,"  relates  Dr.  Thomson,  "have  shown  that  the 
Jibres  of  flax  are  transparent  cylindrical  tubes,  articulated,  and  pointed  like  a  cane  ;  while  the 
filaments  of  cotton  are  transparent  glassy  tubes,  flattened,  and  twisted  round  their  own  axis.  A 
section  of  a  filament  resembles,  in  some  degree,  the  figure  8,  the  tube,  originally  cylindrical,  hav- 
ing collapsed  most  in  the  middle,  forming  semi-tubes  on  each  side,  which  give  to  the  fibre,  when 
viewed  in  a  certain  light,  the  appearance  of  a  flat  ribbon,  with  a  hem  or  border  on  each  edge. 
The  uniform  transparency  of  the  filament  is  impaired  by  small  irregular  fissures,  probably  wrin- 
kles arising  from  the  desiccation  of  the  tube.  In  consequence  of  this  difference  between  the 
structure  of  linen  and  cotton  fibres,  Mr.  Thomson  and  Mr.  Bauer  were  enabled  to  ascertain  that 
the  cloth  in  which  the  Egyptian  mummies  are  wrapped  is  always  linen,  and  never  cotton.  It  is 
clear  from  this,  that  the  opinion  entertained  by  some,  that  what  is  called  in  our  translation  of  the 
Old  Testament/fte  linen  of  Egypt,  ought  to  be  the  cotton  cloth  of  Egypt,  is  erroneous.  We  have 

"^  See  Lance's  Hop-Farmer,  edition  of  1838,  for  a  great  deal  of  information  regarding  the  culture  of  this 
interesting  plant. 
(787) 


372  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARxM AUTUMN. 


no  evidence  from  the  cloth  wrapped  about  aacient  mummies,  that  the  Egyptians  \u  those  earij 
times  were  acquainted  with  cotton."  ' 

(2192.)  Large  qnanlities  of  flax-seed,  commonly  called  linseed,  are  annually  imported  into  this 
country.  It  is  imported  for  the  purposes  of  growing  the  flax  crop,  and  for  crushing  into  oil.  Vi- 
tality not  being  certain  in  the  flaxseed  raised  in  this  country,  it  is  necessary  to  receive  a  supply 
from  abroad,  and  of  all  foreitrn  kinds,  that  from  Holland  i.«  the  preferable  for  seed,  while  our  own 
answers  for  crushins  into  oil.  '-Crushing-seed  is  principally  imported  from  Russia,  but  consid- 
erable quantities  are  also  broiii.'ht  from  Italy  and  Egypt.  Of  2.7.59,103  bushels  of  linseed  imjiorted 
in  1S31.  2,210.702  were  brousht  from  Ru.s.sia,  172.099  from  Prussi.i,  106.294  from  the  United  States. 
105,448  from  Italy,  98,847  from  Egypt.  .=»3.738  from  the  Netherland.«,'t  &c.  By  the  New  Tarifl, 
the  duly  on  forcien  linseed,  and  that  from  British  possessions,  is  only  nominal,  being  Id.  per  quar- 
ter. T^e  prices  by  the  quotations  in  February,  1844,  are  from  50s.  to  608.  per  quarter  for  English 
sowine.  ami  from  2.")S.  to  37s.  for  Baltic  crushing. 

(2193.)  Linseed  contains  a  great  proportion  of  mucilage,  and.  when  converted  into  jelly,  con- 
stitutes an  excellent  nutriment  for  Slock.  The  process  of  making  the  jelly  is  this:  "The  pro- 
portion of  water  to  seed  is  about  7  to  1.  Having  been  steeped  in  water  48  hours  previous 
to  boiling,  the  remainder  is  added  cold,  and  the  whole  boiled  gently  for  2  hours,  keeping 
it  in  motion  during  the  operation,  to  prevent  its  burning  to  the  boiler,  thus  reducing  the  whole 
to  a  jelly-like,  or  rather  a  gluey  or  ropy  consistence.  After  being  cooled  in  tubs,  it  is  given  with 
a  mixture  of  barley-meal,  bran,  and  cut  chaft';  a  bullock  being  allowed  about  2  quarts  of  the  jelly 
per  dav,  or  .wmewhai  more  than  1  quart  of  seed  in  4  days ;  tliat  is,  about  1-16  of  the  medium 
allowed  of  oil-cake."t 

(2194.)  The  mucilage  of  linseed  does  not  belong  to  any  of  the  genera  of  gums  ;  but  its  nature 
has  not  yet  been  ascertained.  Its  general  composition  and  elementary  constituents  were  ascer- 
tained to  be  these,  by  Gnerin-Varry  : 

General  'Composition.  I  ElemetOary  ConstituenU. 

Soluble  gum 53-70  1  Carbon 34-30 

Insoluble 2989  t  Azote 7-27 

Ashes 711     Hydrogen 5-65 

Water 10-30     Oxygen 52-78 

Total.. 10000         Total 10000 

The  ashes  contained  carbonates  of  potash  and  lime,  phosphate  of  lime,  chloride  of  potassium,  sul- 
phate of  i»otash,  oxide  of  iron,  alumina,  and  silica.|| 

(2195.1  The  oil  aff"orded  by  linseed  is  in  the  proportion  of  22  per  cent.,  that  is,  about  15  gallons 
of  oil  from  1  quarter  of  seed,  at  a  weight  of  7i  lbs.  to  the  gallon  ;  the  remainder  is  oilcake.  The 
best  oil  is  that  which  is  cold-drawn  ;  and  I  suppose  that  the  best  oilcake  is  obtained  from  this 
process,  as  having  most  oil  in  it.  The  warm-drawn  oil  is  obtained  by  healing  the  seed  by  steam 
to  a  temperature  ef^O-  P"ahrenheit ;  and  as  the  heat  liquefies  the  oil,  no  doubt  more  is  expressed 
from  the  seed,  and  the  oil-cake  cannot  be  so  rich.  Both  the  cold  and  heated  seed  are  put  into 
woolen  bags,  and  pressed  by  means  of  the  hydraulic-engine  or  a  wedge,  and  the  cake,  on  being 
taken  out  of  the  bag.  is  alreadj-  quite  firm  ;  its  weight  at  most  is  8  lbs.,  and  sells  for  £9  10s.  to 
XlO  per  1.000,  or  1 J  farthings  per  lb.,  and  the  foreign  from  £5  to  £6  10.S.  per  ton,  or  2J  fanhingi 
per  lb.  From  ihis  difference  in  the  price,  it  would  appear  that  the  foreign  is  the  more  valuable 
oil-cake,  owing,  perhaps,  to  its  being  manufactured  by  imperfect  machinery,  which  cannot  extract 
so  much  of  the  oil  out  of  it  as  our  own  ;  but  be  this  as  it  may,  I  am  not  aware  that  any  experi- 
ments have  ever  been  made  on  tbeir  comparative  fattening  powers.  A  substitute  for  oilcake,  or 
what  is  called  Hutchinson's  patent  oil-cake,  is  compounded,  I  understand,  of  3  cwts.  of  linseed-oil 
and  1  ton  of  barley-meal,  and  is  sold  at  Xl2  per  ton.  1  have  given  the  proportions  of  Mr.  Warnes's 
compound,  which  is  similar,  in  (1264). 

(2196.)  Oilcake,  independently  as  an  article  of  food,  is  an  excellent  medicine  for  live-stock, 
preventing  constipation  in  the  bov^-ela  and  giving  to  the  hide  a  siceetness  of  coal  unattainable  by 
otlier  means.  Mr.  Wilson  of  Edington  Mains,  in  Berwickshire,  tells  me  that  ever  since  he  has 
given  oilcake  to  his  calves  aAer  beinir  weaned,  they  have  not  been  affected  with  that  fatal  com- 
plaint the  quarter-ill.  already  described  in  the  latter  part  of  (2001),  and  he  has  experienced  this 
beneficial  effect  for  6  years  without  any  external  application  of  setons.  By  administering  oil-cake 
to  my  cows  after  calving.  I  certainly  prevented  tbeir  being  affected  with  red-water  (1699). 

(2197.)  Hemp  f  Cannihi*  RnHvn f  is  in  the  cla.ss  and  order  Dicecia  Pentnndria  of  the  Linnapan 
system,  and  of  the  natural  order  Urliraceir,  or  nettle  tribe.  Being  a  dioecious  plant — that  is,  hav- 
ing the  sexes  in  different  plants — it  is  necessary  to  have  a  mixture  of  both  sexes  in  the  same  plot 
of  ground,  if  seed  is  desired  to  be  raised  and  collected;  though,  I  presume,  for  the*  purpose  of 
raising  the  fibre  merely,  that  condition  is  not  Tequisite;  but  as  apparently  similar  seed  produces 
plants  of  different  sexes,  a  mixture  of  the  sexes  cannot  well  be  avoided  in  practice.  The  male 
plant  is  more  slender  and  delicate  in  appearance  than  the  female,  which  bears  the  seed ;  and, 
though  this  is  the  usual  distinction  of  sexes  in  plants,  yet,  strange  to  say  that,  in  speaking  of  the 
hemp-plant,  most  writers  denominate  the  plant  which  I/ears  the  seed  the  male — owing,  perhaps, 
to  its  more  robust  appearance,  in  comparison  of  the  tnie  male,  which  is,  of  course,  barren  of  seed. 
On  this  misapplication  of  the  sexes,  it  has  been  well  remarked  :  •'  We  are  the  more  surprised  that 
botanical  writers  should  fall  into  the  error,  or  rather  copy  this  blunder  from  one  work  into  another, 
for  so  many  ages,  without  correcting  a  mistake  that  inverts  the  order  of  Nature."^ 

(2198.)  the' principal  use  to  which  hemp  is  applied  is  the  making  of  cordage  of  all  kinds,  the 
fibre  being  both  strong  and  durable.     A  first-rate  man-of-war  is  said  to  require  80  tons  of  rough 

•  Thomson's  Organic  Chemistry  of  Vegetables.        t  McCulloch's  Dictionary  of  Commerce,  art.  FUu. 
X  Don's  General  Dictionary  of  Hotany  and  Gardening,  art.  Linum,  vol.  i. 
II  Thomson'*  Organic  Chemistry  of  Vt-gt-tahles. 
\  Phillips's  History  of  Cultivated  Vegetables,  voL  i. 
1768) 


REAPING  RYE,  WHEAT,  BARLEY,  OATS,  PEASE,  &C.  373 

hemp  to  supply  her  witli  her  necessary  tackle.  Taking;  40  stones  the  imperial  acre  as  a  good 
crop,  4  acres  are  requii-ed,  at  that  rate,  to  raise  1  ton ;  so  that  a  man-of  war  cousiimes  at  least  one 
year's  produce  of  3Q0  acres  of  hemp  for  au  outfit  of  cordasre  !  ••  By  this  cordage."  savs  Coles, 
quaintly,  in  his  Paradise  of  Plants.  "  ships  are  g'uided,  bells  are  rung,  beds  are  corded,  and  rosues 
kept  in  awe."     Old  cordage  is  converted  into  paper,  and  should,  tlierefore.  never  be  destroved. 

(2199.)  The  Hop  (Humtihis  Inpdhisj,  like  hemp,  stands  in  the  class  and  order  of  Linnaeus, 
Diacia  Pentandria,  and  natural  order  Urticacea.  It  is  not  a  native  of  Britain,  nor  was  its  use 
known  in  this  country  till  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII..  in  15-24.*  when  it  was  used  in  the  composi- 
tion of  malt  liquor — tlius  franking  tlie  truth  of  au  old  English  distich,  that 

"  Hops,  Reformation,  Buys,  and  Beer, 
Came  into  England  all  in  one  year." 

It  had  not  become  a  favorite  with  the  people  for  many  years  after  that  period  ;  for  Walter  Blith 
records,  in  16.53.  this  remarkable  popular  error,  only  000  years  ago — and  such  errors  are  rife  in  all 
ages  of  the  world  —that  "  it  is  not  many  years  since  the  famous  city  of  London  petitioned  the  Par- 
liament of  England  against  two  nuisances  ;  and  these  were,  Newcastle  coals,  in  regard  of  their 
stench.  &c.,  and  hops,  in  regard  they  would  spoil  the  taste  of  drink,  and  endanger  the  people.'t 
It  would  appear  that  this  public  expression  of  dislike  against  hops  had  prevailedln  hish  quarters, 
for  their  use  was  forbidden  by  act  of  Parliament  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  though  the  mandate  was 
little  attended  to  ;  and,  by  the  time  of  Anne,  public  opinion  had  so  entirelychanged,  that  hops 
were  considered  so  superior  to  all  other  bitter  principle,  that  brewers  were  prohibited  from  using 
any  other,  under  a  peualtj-  of  £20.  Hops  had  not  thriven  for  some  time  after  their  introduction 
iute  England  ;  and,  even  so  lately  as  169.i.  enough  svas  not  grown  to  serve  the  countrv,  for  510 
cwt.  were  tliat  year  imported  from  Flauders  and  Holland.  For  many  years  past  this  country  has 
been  able  not  only  to  supply  itself,  bnt  to  export  hops,  and  few  foreign  hops  are  imported.  In 
1832  there  were  703,153  lbs.  exported,  and  only  11.167  lbs.  foreign  imported  ;  but  even  this  small 
importation  was  aot  required  for  home  consumption,  for  in  the  same  year  the  much  ereater  quan- 
tity of  50,113  lbs.  of  foreign  were  exported.  The  English  hop  is  accounted  the  best  in  the  world. 
Hops  may  be  used  medicinally :  a  hop-pillow  will  insure  sleep  to  a  patient  in  fever,  when  all 
other  expedients  will  prove  ineffective.  The  tender  shoots  of  the  hop  in  spring  maj'  be  used  as 
a  pleasant,  bitter  salad. 

(2200.)  The  yellow  powder  of  hops  was  named  Inpnlin  by  Dr.  Ives,  which  Messrs.  Paven  and 
Cbavallier  found,  by  analysis,  to  contain  the  following  substances:  Volatile  oil  2,  bitter  principle 
12.5.  resin  52.5,  silica  4,  and  of  di-acetate  of  ammonia,  gum,  bi-malate  of  lime,  traces  of  fatty  matter, 
and  some  salts,  unascertained  portions  of  each.  In  another  analysis,  they  found  it  to  contain  13 
per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  cones,  but,  deducting  4  per  cent,  of  foreign  "matter,  there  was  left  9 
per  cent,  of  lupulin.  When  distilled  with  water,  it  gives  about  2  per  cent,  of  its  weight  of  color- 
less volatile  oil,  to  which  hops  owe  their  peculiar  smeD.  This  oil  dissolves  in  considerable  quan- 
tity in  water,  and  it  seems  to  contain  sulphur.^ 


34.  REAPING  RYE,  WHEAT,  BARLEY,  OATS,  BEANS,  AND  PEASE. 

"  Here,  stretched  in  ranks,  the  swelled  swarths  are  found 
Sheaves  heaped  on  sheaves  here  thicken  up  the  ground. 
With  sweeping  stroke  the  mowers  strew  the  lands — 
The  gatherers  fuUow  and  collect  in  bands ; 
The  rustic  monarch  of  the  field  descries. 
With  silent  glee,  the  heaps  around  him  rise." 

Pope's  Homeb, 

(2201.)  We  are  now  amved  at  the  most  important  of  all  field  opera- 
tions— that  for  which  every  other  that  has  hitherto  been  described  has 
been  merely  preparatory — the  grand  result,  to  attain  which  the  farmer 
feels  the  gi-eatest  anxiety,  and  which,  when  attained,  yields  him  the  great- 
est happiness,  because  it  bestows  upon  him  the  fruit  of  all  his  labor ;  but 
the  fruit  will  be  gi-eat  or  small,  in  proportion — all  other  things  being  alike 
— to  the  skill  and  industry  he  has  displayed  during  the  course  of  the  pre- 
paratory year ;  for  no  adage  conveys  a  stronger  truth  than  this,  when  ap- 
plied to  the  farmer,  "  As  he  has  sown,  so  shall  he  reap."  If  he  have  dealt 
with  the  land  in  a  penuiious  spirit,  laboring  with  inadequate  means,  stint- 
ing manure,  and  grudging  seed,  he  will  reap  a  scanty  produce,  a  deceitful 
crop,  and  grievous  disappointment ;  but  should  he  have  done  all  that  skill, 

*  Beckmann'g  History  of  Inventions,  vol.  iv.  f  BUth's  Improver  Improved. 

X  Ihomson  s  Organic  Chemistry  of  Vegetables. 

(789) 


374  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 


industry  and  liberality  could  effect,  he  will  assuredly  reap  a  bountiful  re- 
ward, for  the  earth  is  ever  grateful  of  kindness.  Not  having  yet  experi- 
enced it,  you  can  hardly  conceive  the  difi'erence  between  these  two  posi- 
tions of  the  farmer ;  in  the  latter  case,  the  very  rustling  of  exuberant  straw, 
while  the  crop  is  handling,  is  delightful  to  his  ear,  and  his  heart  is  made 
glad  when  he  sees  every  one  bestowing  with  heartiness  the  severe  labor 
required  in  cutting  down  and  carrying  in  a  heavy  crop.  In  the  former 
case,  on  the  contrary,  the  boneless  straw  is  easily  squeezed  in  the  hand  of 
the  reaper — tlie  light,  scanty-grained  heads  are  almost  disregarded  by  him, 
and  a  single  cart-load  clears  a  large  space  of  the  field.  Such  a  contrast  is 
indeed  lamentable,  and  unfortunately  may  be  made  every  hai^vest ;  but  it 
is  true,  nevertheless,  that  the  contrast  is  becoming  less  striking  yearly — 
for  it  is  within  my  own  recollection  that  9  bolls,  or  54  bushels,  barley  are 
now  as  easily  raised  ;is  7  bolls,  or  42  bushels,  were  20  years  ago  ;  and 
should  the  present  spirit  of  inquiry  continue,  and  lead  to  still  more  amend- 
ed practice,  it  is  certain  that  the  range  of  comparison  between  former  and 
present  croj)s  will  be  still  more  naiTowed  ;  and  to  the  furtherance  of  this 
there  is,  besides,  this  great  stimulus  to  improvement  of  poor  soils,  that  the 
effect  of  amended  practice  is  far  more  apparent  on  them  than  on  better 
soils.* 

(2202.)  As  harvest-work  requires  a  greater  number  of  laborers  than  usu- 
ally live  on  a  farm,  it  is  requisite  you  should  hire  beforehand  a  band  of 
reapers  on  whom  you  can  rely  on  remaining  with  you  all  harvest,  and  not 
tioist  to  the  chance  of  a  casual  supply.  No  doubt  farms  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  large  towns  can  obtain  a  great  number  of  reapei'S  daily,  who  go 
to  their  own  lodgings  in  town  at  night ;  and  the  convenience  of  obtaining 
a  day's  work  at  good  wages,  within  a  few  minutes'  walk  of  their  own 
homes,  will  tempt  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  towns  to  prefer  farms  near 
them  ;  and  this  being  the  case,  farms  so  situate  may  not  require  a  hired 
band,  but  depend  on  the  chance  of  finding  reapers  from  day  to  day. — 
When  harvest-work  goes  on  in  a  regular  manner  through  the  country,  this 
is  an  easy  and  simple  mode  of  conducting  harvest-work  ;  but  should  a 
great  proportion  of  the  crop  become  sooner  ripened  than  was  expected,  or 
the  weather  endanger  the  safety  of  the  standing  crop  everywhere,  the  gen- 
eral demand  for  hands  renders  the  farmers  near  towns  no  better  off  tlian 
those  at  a  distance,  for  town  reapers  will  then  go  anywhere  for  higher 
wages.  The  farmers  near  towns  may,  no  doubt,  then  give  higher  wages 
as  well  as  others  ;  but  the  excitement  of  raising  wages  renders  reapers  un- 
settled, and  their  chief  anxiety  then  is  to  inquire  where  the  highest  wages 
are  to  be  obtained,  not  who  the  ])ossessor  is  of  the  nearest  farm.  In  such 
circumstances,  the  farmers  near  towns  must  put  up  with  the  services  of  the 
infirm,  the  young,  and  tliose  who  are  burdened  with  household  cares.  The 
safest  plan,  therefiire,  for  ci-enj  farmer  to  follow,  is  to  hire  a  band  of  reap- 
ers, proportioned  to  the  extent  of  work  to  be  performed,  to  remain  with 
him  all  harvest,  and  to  obtain  auxiliary  hands,  as  he  wants  them,  on  any 
hiring-day  in  the  ntigliborinfj  town. 

(2203.)  Rcopina-sriithcs  being  of  different  forms,  and  having  to  be 
mounted  in  a  peculiar  nianner,  are  figured  and  described  hereafter,  and  the 
mode  of  using  them  I  shall  soon  describe. 

[*  The  aarae  spirit  of  inquiry  'i«  producing  like  results  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States  ;  but 
there  is  no  sort  of  industry  that  experiences  as  much  difficulty  in  commanding  the  use  of  the  cap- 
ital necessarj-  for  its  advancement — except  it  he  in  the  New-Enpland  States,  where  facititics  exist 
for  the  incorporation  and  loaning  out  of  capital,  and  where  consumers  employed  in  every  trade 
are  close  alongside  the  producers,  ready  to  demand  and  pay  for  every  species  of  tlie  fruit  of  agri- 
cultural industry,  from  an  onion  to  an  ox.  Ed.  Farm  Lib  1 
(T'JO)  ■        ■■■ 


REAPING   RYE,  WHEAT,  BARLEY,  OATS,  PEASE,  &C.  375 


'  (2204.)  Before  proceeding  to  employ  reapers  in  the  field,  it  is  requisite 
you  should  know  when  corn  is  fit  to  be  cut ;  for  if  cut  down  too  soon   or 
allowed  to  stand  too  long,  loss  of  produce   will   be   incurred.     It  may  be 
laid  down,  as  a  general  rule,  that  corn  in  a  healthy  state  comes  to  maturity 
first  in  the  ear,  and  then  in  the  straw  ;  and  when  it  does  not,  that  is,  when 
the  straw  becomes  matured  first  at  the  root,  then,  of  course,  the  grain  suf- 
fers premature  decay.     Whenever  a  crop  is   observed  to  be  in  the  latter 
state,  it  need  not  be  allowed  to  stand  longer  on  the  ground,  as  it  can  de- 
rive no  more  benefit  from  the  soil,    and    its    grain   will    won   as  readily  in 
the  stook  as  on  foot ;   and  so,  in  like  7T)anner,  whenever  the  ear  is  observed 
to  be  sufficiently  ripe,  the  crop  should  be  cut  down,  as  the  straw  will  won 
more  rapidly  in  the  stook  than  standing  on  the  gi-ound.      The  only  matter 
of  doubt,  then,  in  the  case  is,  when  the  ear  is  sufficiently  ripe.     The  most 
ready  way  of  judging  of  this,  in  wheat  and   oats,  is  the  state  of  the  chaff", 
and  of  2  or  3  inches  of  the  top  of  the  straw  under  the  ear ;  if  all  these  are 
of  a  uniform  straw-yellow  colour,  and  feel   somewhat  hard  in  the  ear,  in 
the  oat,  and  absolutely  pi-ickly  to  the   hand,  in  the  wheat,  when  grasped, 
they  are  ripe  ;  or  the  grain  itself  may  be  examined,  and  should  it  feel  firm 
under  pressure  between  the  finger  and  thumb,  it  is  ready  for  reapinp^ ;   or 
should  the  neck  of  the  straw  yield  no  juice  when  twisted  round  by  the  fin- 
ger and  thumb.     Barley  should  be  of  uniform  yellow   color  in  the  grain 
and  awns,  and  the  rachis   somewhat  rigid;  for  as  long  as  it  moves  freely 
by  a  shake  of  the  hand,  the  gi-ain  is  not  suflficiently  ripe,   nor  will   it  be  ol 
uniform  color.     It  is  not  equally  prudent  to  reaj)  all  sorts  of  o-rain  in  the 
same  degree  of  maturity.     When  wheat  is  reaped  before  it  is  suflficiently 
ripe,  it  is  apt  to  shrink,  and  have  a  bluish  tint  in  the  sample  ;  and  when  too 
ripe,  the  chaff"  opens  from  the  grain,  which  is  apt  to  be  thrown   out  by  the 
least  agitation  of  the  air ;  and  some  sorts  of  white  wheat  are  very  subject 
to  be  thrown  out  by  the  wind,  even  before  reaching  the  point  of  maturity. 
When  very  ripe,  wheat  bends  down  its  ear,  opening  the  chaff",  and  becomes 
stiff"  in  the  neck  of  the  straw,  indicating  that  Nature  intends  the  grain  to  be 
shaken  out.     Red  wheat  is  less  liable  to  be  shaken  than  white ;  but  any 
kind  will  shake  out  when  too  ripe,   provided  the   plant  is  in  good  health, 
and  the  grain  of  good  quality ;  for   as   to  immature  grain,  it  is  difficult  to 
make  it  leave  the  chaff"  even  when  hardened,  and  the   spelt  wheat  has  so 
tenacious  hold  of  its  capsule,  that  it  is  difficult    to   be   disengaged  from  it 
even  by  the  blows  of  the  flail,  fig.  401.     It  may  be  supposed  that,  when- 
ever the  ear  and  the  entire  straw  ai-e  of  uniform  yellow  colour,  the  plant 
is  no  more  than  ripe,  and  so  it  is ;  but  by  the  time  the  straw  has   fully  ri- 
pened to  the  root,  the  ear  will  be  rigidly  bent,  and  ready  to  cast  its  seeds 
with  the  slightest  violence.      The  same  rule  may  be   applied  to  barley  as 
to  wheat,  that  is,  whenever  the  neck  of  the  straw  is  ripe,  it  is  time  to  cut, 
for  when  too  ripe,  the  ear  bends  itself  down,  diverging  the  outward  row 
of  awns  nearly  at  right  angles  with  the  rachis,  and  is  apt  to  be  snapped 
off*  altogether  by  the  wind.     In  regard  to  oats,  the  same  rule  also  applies ; 
but  there  is  much  less  risk  of  cutting  oats  unripe,   in  comparison  to  al- 
lowing them  to  stand  till  perfectly  ripe,   as   they  are  easily  shaken  out 
by  the  wind, — the  chaff"   standing  apart  from  the    grain.      When  bean- 
straw  turns  black,  it  is  fit  to  cut,   and  so  is  pease-straw,  when  the  pease 
become  firm  in  the  pod.     In    every  case  it  is  much  safer  for  the  crop  to 
be  cut  before  it  is  ripe  than  after  it  has  become  too  ripe,  as  I  shall  show 
below. 

(2205.)  With  all  these  preliminaries  aiTanged,  and  with  your  mind  satis- 
fied that  the  crops  ai'e  in  a  fit  state  for  reaping,  proceed  with  the  reapers 
to  the  harvest  field,  and  conduct  the   reaping  in  the   best  manner  for  each 
(791)  ^      ^ 


376  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 

respective  sort  of  grain.  And,  in  regar*!  to  this,  I  should  remark  that  the 
harvest-field  will  not  be  properly  conducted  unless  a  person  is  appointed 
to  superintend  the  reapers  ;  for  to  none  of  the  reapers  can  such  a  task  be 
deputed,  as  his  own  occupation  is  sufficient  to  occupy  all  his  attention. 
The  steward  is  the  person  who  should  undertake  this  duty,  unless  you  un- 
dertake it  yourself  It  is  his  duty  to  mark  the  time  to  commence  work, 
and  to  leave  it,  and  of  the  hours  of  meals  and  of  rest ;  it  is  his  duty  to  re- 
strain the  impetuous,  to  urge  the  slow  worker,  and  to  keep  every  one  in 
the  best  spirit  for  work  ;  and  it  is  his  duty  to  see  the  ground  neatly  cleared 
of  the  crop,  and  the  crop  itself  judiciously  handled.  The  man  who  flilfills 
all  these  duties  as  they  should  be  dunng  the  entire  harvest,  accomplishes 
no  easy  task,  either  of  body  or  mind.  He  should  not  be  mounted  on 
horseback,  but  be  on  foot,  ready  to  keep  everything  right ;  for  it  should 
be  remembered  that  a  single  minute's  loss  of  work  of  a  large  band  of  reap- 
ers, causes  a  great  loss  in  the  gross  amount  of  work.  The  farmer  himself, 
when  not  superintending,  may  move  about  on  horseback  ;  but  a  horse  is 
a  troublesome  companion  to  a  man  who  has  to  move  about  close  to  work- 
people in  a  harvest-field. 

(220G.)  Reaping  with  the  scr/the  is  a  nice  operation,  and  requires  consid- 
erable skill.  The  scythes  should  be  mounted  as  figured  hereafter,  and  made 
fit  for  work  some  time  before  being  wanted  in  the  harvest-field.  There 
should  be  a  number  of  small  articles  always  ready  in  the  field  in  case  of 
accident,  the  pi'ocuring  of  which  wastes  much  time,  when  not  at  hand. 
These  are,  a  small  hammer  for  fastening  the  wedges  of  scythe-ferules  and 
of  rake-handles  ;  bits  of  old  sole-leather  for  bedding  the  tines  of  the  scythes 
upon;  pieces  of  cord  for  tying  anything;  small  large-headed  nails  for  fix- 
ing the  stays  to  the  snead  of  the  scythes ;  a  large  coarse  file  for  rubbing  down 
the  turned-up  point  of  a  scythe,  when  it  happens  to  come  against  a  stone; 
a  sharp  knife  for  cutting  bits  of  leather,  and  for  removing  any  raggedness 
upon  the  rakes  or  cradles. 

(2207.)  The  various  forans  of  scythes  are  the  cradle-scythe,  the  straight- 
sneaded  scythe,  and  that  with  the  bent  snead,  fig.  361,  already  described ; 
and  the  greatest  favorite  among  mowers  is  the  cradle-scythe,  because  it  is 
easiest  to  wield  by  the  arms,  and  does  not  twist  the  lumbar  I'egion  of  the 
body  so  mucli  as  the  two  common  scythes;  and  I  may  remark  that  it  is 
this  last  effect  which  forms  the  gi-eat  objection  against  the  scythes  in  ordi- 
nary use.  And  yet  it  is  not  easy  to  see  why  the  use  of  the  cradle-scythe, 
which  is  borne  by  the  arms  alone,  in  front  of  the  body,  and  which  does  not 
admit  of  being  balanced  in  one  hand  like  the  other  scythes,  should  be  less 
fatiguing  to  woik  with;  yet  there  is  no  doubt  of  the  fact,  and  on  that  ac- 
count more  \vork  is  done  with  iL 

(2208.)  In  commencing^  to  cut  a  field  of  corn  with  the  scythe,  that  side 
should  be  chosen  from  which  the  com  happens  to  lie,  if  it  be  laid,  and,  if 
not,  then  the  side  from  which  the  wind  blows.  The  scythe  makes  the  low- 
est and  evenest  stubble  across  the  ridges,  and  then  also  most  easily  passes 
over  the  open-furrows.  Other  things  being  favorable,  it  is  best  to  begin 
at  that  side  of  a  field  which  is  on  the  left  hand  of  the  mowers.  If  all  these 
conveniences  cannot  be  conjoined,  as  many  as  can  should  be  taken  ad- 
vantage of.  The  giound  should  have  been  rolled,  and  all  large  stones 
removed  in  spring,  otherwise  tlie  scythes  will  run  the  risk  of  being  injured 
in  the  face  by  stones,  and  even  by  clods. 

(2209.)  I  have  already  said  that  reaping  with  the  scythe  is  best  exe- 
cuted by  the  mowers  being  in  what  is  called  heads,  namely,  a  head  of 
.3  scythesmen,  3  gatherers,  3  bandstei-s,  and  1  man-raker,  or  of  2  scythes- 
men,  2  gatherers,  2  bandsters,  and  1  woman-raker.     On  a  large  farm  the 


REAPING  RYE,  WHEAT,  BARLEY,  OATS,  PEASE,  &C. 


377 


lieads  may  consist  of  the  former,  and  on  a  small  one  the  latter  number. 
The  best  opening  that  can  be  made  of  a  field  for  scythe-work,  is  to  mow 
along  the  ridge  by  the  side  of  the  fence,  which  is  kept  on  tlie  left  hand, 
from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  field  ;  and  while  one  head  is  doing  this, 
let  another  mow  along  the  bottom  head-ridge,  the  whole  lenglli  of  the  field, 
and  thus  open  up  2  of  its  sides.  After  this,  the  first  head  commences 
mowing  at  the  lowest  corner  of  the  standing  corn,  across  6  ridges,  or  30 
yards,  which  is  as  far  as  a  scythe  will  cut  corn  with  one  sharpening.  Sup- 
pose all  these  preliminaries  settled,  the  scythesman  who  is  to  take  the 
lead  first  sharpens  his  scythe.  In  shaipening  a  scythe  for  cutting  corn, 
the  scythe-stone  has  to  be  put  frequently  into  requisition,  for  unless  the 
edge  is  kept  keen,  the  mowing  will  not  only  be  not  easy  but  bad ;  and 
unless  a  scythesman  can  keep  a  keen  edge  on  his  scythe  he  will  never  be 
a  good  mower,  and  will  always  feel  the  work  fatiguing  to  him.  The 
sharpening  should  always  be  finished  with  the  straik  or  strickle.  The 
stone  need  not  be  used  at  every  landing,  the  strickle  answering  that  pur- 
pose ;  but  whenever  the  scythe  feels  like  a  drag  on  the  arms,  the  stone 
should  be  used.  In  mowing,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  mower  to  lay  the  cut 
corn  or  swath  at  right  angles  to  his  own  line  of  motion,  and  the  straws 
parallel  to  each  other,  as  at  a,  a,  a,  fig.  414,  and  to  maintain  this  essential 

Fig- 414. 


THE  MOWING  OF  CORN  WITH  THE  SCYTHE. 

requisite  in  corn-mowing,  he  should  not  swing  his  anus  too  far  to  the  right 
in  entering  the  sweep  of  his  cut,  for  he  will  not  be  able  to  turn  far  enough 
round  toward  the  left,  and  will  necessarily  lay  the  swath  short  of  the  right 
angle ;  nor  should  he  bring  his  arms  too  far  round  to  the  left,  as  he  will 
lay  the  swath  beyond  the  right  angle  ;  and,  in  either  case,  the  straws  will 
lie  in  the  swath  partly  above  each  other,  and  with  uneven  e7ids,  to  put 
which  even  in  the  sheaf  is  waste  of  time.  He  should  proceed  straight  for- 
ward, with  a  steady  motion  of  arms  and  limbs,  bearing  the  greatest  pai't 
of  the  weight  of  the  body  on  the  right  leg,  which  is  kept  slightly  in  ad- 
vance, as  seen  at  b,  b,  b.  The  sweep  of  the  scythe  will  measure  about  7 
feet  in  length,  and  14  or  15  inches  in  breadth.  The  woman-gatherers 
c,  c,  c,  follow  by  making  a  band  from  the  swath,  and  laying  as  much  of 
the  swath  in  it  as  will  make  a  suitable  sheaf,  such  as  d,  d.     The  gatherer 

(793)  ^ 


378 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 


is  required  to  be  an  active  person,  as  she  will  have  as  much  to  do  as  she 
can  oveitake.  The  bandster  e  follows  her,  and  binds  the  sheaves  in  the 
manner  already  described,  and  any  2  of  the  3  l)andsters,^yi  set  the  stooks 
g  together,  so  that  a  stook  is  easily  made  up  among  them  ;  and  in  setting 
them,  while  crossing  the  ridges,  they  should  be  placed  on  the  same  ridge, 
to  give  the  people  who  remove  them  with  the  cart  the  least  troulile.  Last 
of  all  comes  the  raker  //,  who  clears  the  ground  between  the  stooks  with 
his  large  rake  ?',  described  below,  of  all  loose  straws,  and  brings  them  to 
a  bandster,  who  binds  them  together  by  themselves,  and  sets  them  in  bun- 
dles beside  the  stooks.  This  is  better  than  putting  the  rakings  into  the 
heart  of  a  sheaf,  where  they  will  not  thresh  clean  with  the  rest  of  the  corn  ; 
and,  moreover,  as  they  may  contain  earth  and  small  stones,  and  also  infe- 
rior grain,  from  straws  which  may  have  fallen  down  before  the  mo\ving,  it 
is  better  to  thresh  bundles  of  rakings  by  themselves.  The  figure  exhibits 
the  3  kinds  of  scythes  in  operation. 

(2210.)  A  scythesman  will  cut  fully  more  than  1  imperial  acre  of  wheat 
in  a  day.  Many  farmers  affect  to  believe  that  the  scythe  is  an  unsuitable 
instrument  for  cutting  wheat ;  but  I  can  assure  them,  from  experience, 
that  it  is  as  suitable  as  the  sickle,  and  that  mown  sheaves  may  be  made  to 
look  as  well  as  reaped.  No  doubt  mowing  wheat  is  severe  work,  but  so 
is  reaping  it.  Of  oats,  1  scythesman  will  mow  fully  2  acres  with  ease. 
The  oat  crop  is  remarkably  pleasant  to  handle  in  every  way  ;  its  crisp 
straw  is  easily  cut  by  the  scythe,  and  being  hard  and  fiee,  and  generally 
not  too  long,  is  easily  bound  in  sheaf  and  set  in  stook.  Nearly  2  acres 
may  be  mown  of  barley;  but  the  gummy  matter  in  the  straw,  which  gives 
it  a  malty  smell,  causes  the  stone  to  be  frequently  used  in  mowing  barley, 
and  the  straw  being  always  free,  the  bands  are  apt  to  break  when  rashly 
handled  in  binding  the  sheaves. 

(2211.)  One  mode  of  setting  up  com 
to  dry  quickly  is  in  gaits,  tliat  is,  the 
band  of  the  sheaf  is  tied  loosely  round 
the  straw,  just  under  the  corn,  as  at  a, 
fig.  415,  and  the  loose  sheaf  is  made  to 
Btand  upon  the  lower  end  of  its  straw 
being  sjiread  out  in  a  circular  form,  as  h 
to  c,  and  they  are  set  upon  every  ridge. 
The  wind  whistles  thiough  the  open 
sheaf,  and  even  the  rain  passes  through, 
and  docs  not  hang  upon  it.  The  expe- 
dient of  gaiting,  however,  is  only  prac- 
ticed in  wet  weather,  and  even  then  only 
should  the  crop,  if  allowed  to  stand,  be 
endangered  by  a  shaking  wind.  It  is 
confined  also  to  a  particular  kind  of  crop, 
namely,  oats — wheat  and  barley  never 
being  gaited,  because  when  wheat  gets 
dry,  after  being  cut  in  a  wet  state,  it  is 
apt  to  shake  out  in  binding  the  gaits; 
and  when  barley  is  subjected  to  the  rough 
usage  of  binding,  after  being  won,  the  heads  are  apt  to  snap  off  altogether, 
and,  besides,  exposure  in  gaits  would  injure  its  color,  and  render  it  unfit 
for  the  maltster,  Oats  are  protected  by  a  thick  husk,  and  the  grain  is  not 
very  apt  to  shake  out  in  handling,  excepting  potato-oats,  which  are  seldom 
gaited,  the  common  kinds  only  being  so  treated.  But,  for  my  part,  I 
would  not  hesitate  to  gait  any  sort  of  oats  when  wet  with  dew  in  the  morn- 

(794) 


Fig.  415. 


7 


A  OAIT  OF  OATS. 


REAPING  RYE,  WHEAT^BARLEY,  OATS,  PEASE,  &C.       _379 

.— r;;;;^;;!;;^^^^  with  rain,  rather  than  lose  a  few  hours'  woik  of 
f;ino-  everT^orning,  or   at  nightfall.     Gaits,  it  is  true,  are  very  apt  to 

set  against  each  other     but  ^^^  ^^^^  ground,  and  it  will  be 

■.    taw  bri";  ian'  and  Li,  does  rot  vequive  long  exposure  .n  the 
Md  and  on  .fat  acconnt  the  stooks  "-<>  ".°;l«^''°°t  ^'by  „„,„,  ^ek- 

?l?aili,f.T  ^aruXtSeVat^nd  'Seve'.^  -m  thvou.h 
ward    akm|  the  salKsu  ^^^  ^^^^^       ,l,emselves  straw- 

Tones  a^eCuiredlorbanis ,  bn,  when  n,ixed  with  pease  the  pea-straw 

whi.?™::r4  IrcfwSS'laid  i,,  bu„a,ef.  not  bound  in  sheaves,  unt„ 

"fi,'r)''1t"S;t:btred:rnr1,°ff:iroingstatenrents.tbat™^^^^^^^ 
i.  it  !n„rh  the  cheapest  mode  of  cutting  down  corn,  and  on  that  account 
lou'ld  be  nleSy  adopted  ;  for  the  itetn  of  harvest  expenses  ,s  a  heavy 
snouiu  ue  u  1*;^  1,/  „„A  pverv  legitimate   means  should  be  used  to 

one  tn  the  5™''',:„''°^tr'w„uU  deprive^he  inhabitants  of  a  farm  of  work, 
iTould  hetoet  re  Imend  ;  bSt  when  the  farmer,  as  a.  present  sttua- 
Lris  very  dependent  on  the  public  market  of  labor  t°  secure  h,s  whole 
'yt-:  ro^uc^e  is  justified  in  the  ende^^^  to  -^^^^^^ 
Ll'p-e  i:nrrtt  mlXr^Su?  throwing  his  horses  idle  fo,^^  a  long 

ISitrdTrTtroiS^^^^^^^^^ 
=,trfca,;rrfere.!;r"&^^^^^ 

crnincr  to  state  bv  his  own  experience,  that  that  is  no  detriment  to  tlie  corn 
f^fhrob;:t!;rSsappears^s  woi^-people  become   ^^^^^^J^ 
implement.     Such  a    roughness  would  not  f^'\^''l^.ZT'^^^^^^^ 
lay  the  swathes  at  right  angles  to  their  hne  of  ^'^''^^' .^""^ ^^^' ^^XnAs- 
to  lift  the  swathes  efen,  and  lay  them  down  m  armsfull  even  ^-^l^l^f^^ 
and  though  it  is  scarcely  possible  for  work-people  to  bestow  utmost  atten 

l^there  not,  in  .any  of  the  United  Stat.,  an  opening  for  -pe"-^^^^^^^^^^^  1^^ 

valion  of  the  bean  and  pea  crops?     Indian  corn,  n  ,s  true,  P^^'^^^'^-XCnty  of  beans  and 
crops  much  relied  onin  Europe  ;  but  when  we  consider  the  -^ --^^'^"^  '^..J^  ,„  ,,  ,,e  de- 
peas,  we  have  room  for  surprise  that  neither  should  be  even  enumerated       a^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^ 
cennial  return  of  our  agricultural  produce. 
(795) 


380  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 

tion  at  all  times,  yet  pi-actice  makes  great  proficiency  in  this  matter,  which 
compensates,  in  a  gi-eat  measure,  for  want  of  constant  attention.  I  found 
this  effect  produced  after  em])loyinf^  the  same  hands  at  the  same  work  for 
successive  years,  and  who  at  leui^th  became  as  neat  and  clever  at  their 
respective  works  as  I  could  wish  them.  Besides  the  actual  economy  in  em- 
ployinn^  mowers,  only  conceive  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  carry  in  the 
corn  after  it  has  been  exposed  in  the  air  to  win  only  half  the  usual  time. 
Reaped  oats  require  to  stand  in  the  stook  a  fortnight  before  they  will  keep 
in  the  stack  ;  mown  oats,  in  the  same  weather,  may  be  carried  in  a  week.* 
Barley,  when  reaped,  is  scarcely  fit  for  leading  in  less  than  3  weeks  ;  when 
mown,  it  may  be  put  into  the  stack  in  safety  in  10  days.  And  as  for  mown 
wheat,  about  3  days  will  suffice  to  win  it.  It  is  an  eiTor  to  suppose,  as  is 
too  commonly  imagined,  that  a  mown  stook  takes  in  rain:  on  the  contra- 
ly,  I  have  frequently  ascertained  that  it  takes  in  rain  less  than  a  reaped 
one.  In  one  instance  I  remember  of  a  field  of  potato-oats  being  finished 
cutting,  that  heavy  rain  fell  the  next  day,  and  continued  without  intermis- 
sion for  3  days,  the  last  of  which  was  very  windy,  and  the  wind  had  changed 
from  E.  to  W.,  when  it  faired.  About  ^  of  this  field  had  been  reaped  with 
the  sickle,  and  the  reason  that  implement  was  used  in  it  all,  was  to  give  a 
little  harvest-work  at  threaving  to  a  few  elderly  men  and  women,  cotters, 
and  hinds'  wives  who,  having  to  attend  to  young  children,  could  not  un- 
dertake the  regular  work  of  a  harvest-field.  Impressed  with  the  common 
belief  that  a  mown  sheaf  must  take  in  rain,  I  went  to  the  field  after  the 
rain  had  ceased,  to  ascertain  the  state  the  stooks  were  in,  never  dimbting 
they  would  be  soaked,  while  the  reaped  ones  would  be  comparatively  dry  ; 
but  judge  of  my  surprise  when  the  fact  was  the  very  opposite,  the  mown 
sheaves  not  being  wetted  to  the  heart,  while  the  east  side  of  the  reaped 
sheaves  were  soaking  to  the  bands.  On  consideration,  1  accounted  for  the 
difference  of  the  phenomena  in  this  way  :  [n  reaped  sheaves,  and  espe- 
cially when  cut  by  threave,  the  straws  are  straight  and  hard  pressed,  be- 
tween which  the  rain  finds  its  way  into  the  heart  of  the  sheaves ;  while 
the  straws  in  the  mown  stooks,  being  somewhat  bent  and  broken  and  in- 
terlaced on  the  surface,  this  texture  prevents  the  rain  penetrating,  and  is 
rather  serviceable  in  throwing  it  off.  Besides  this  property,  mown  sheaves 
are  evidently  more  pervious  to  air  than  reaped, 

(2215.)  An  advantage  of  another  kind  obtained  in  mowing  corn  should 
not  be  overlooked,  which  is  the  veiy  short  stubble  left  in  the  field,  and  the 
larger  quantity  of  straw  carried  to  the  stack-yard.  The  following  state- 
ment may  be  depended  on,  as  being  the  result  of  experiment : 

Cm.  qr.  Ibft. 

Weight  of  straw  per  acre,  when  cut  to  0  inches  of  the  ground 26    1    0 

8  ..  ..  23     1     6 

12  ..  ..  21     0     2 

So  that  ^  cwt.  of  Straw  is  left  per  acre  on  every  field  by  every  1  inch  of 
stubble.  When  we  know  that  the  value  of  straw  is  commonly  about  28s. 
per  ton,  or  15s.  per  load  of  3G  trusses,  we  cannot  but  feel  surprised  at  the 
barbarous  mode  of  using  the  wheat-straw  in  some  places  of  England — in 
first  reaping  the  ears  of  com,  and  then  mowing  the  straw. 

(2216.)  It  is  not  easy  to  state,  with  sufficient  accuracy,  the  proportion 
which  the  straw  and  grain  bear  to  each  other — nor,  of  course,  the  ratio 
realized  by  the  farmer,  which  must  depend  on  the  mode  of  cutting  adopt- 
ed by  him.  I  have  received  the  following  statement  of  their  relative 
weights  in  the  neighborhood  of  Edinburgh,  from   Mr.  Andrew  Gibson,  of 


[*  Depending,  of  course,  on  climate  and  weather.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

(796) 


REAPING  RYE,  WHEAT,  BARLEY,  OATS,  PEASE,  &C.  381 

the  Dean  Farm,  whose  good  farming  is  well  known  :  From  a  crop  of 
wheat,  of  40  bushels  to  the  acre,  or  of  2,600  lbs.,  at  65  lbs.  per  bushel,  the 
straw  will  weigh  9  kemples  of  440  lbs.  each,  or  3,960  lbs.,  affoi-ding  just  ^ 
more  weight  of  straw  than  of  grain.  From  a  crop  of  barley  of  60  bushels, 
weighing  56  lbs.  per  bushel,  or  3,360  lbs.  per  acre,  the  weight  of  straw  is 
7  kemples,  or  3,080  lbs.,  being  jL  more  weight  of  grain  than  of  straw. — 
From  a  crop  of  60  bushels  of  oats,  at  45  lbs.  per  bushel,  or  2,700  lbs.  per 
acre,  the  weight  of  straw  is  8  kemples,  or  3,520  lbs.,  being  ^  more  weight 
of  straw  than  of  grain.  These  are  all  average  quantities.  In  ordinary 
crops  at  a  distance  from  towns,  the  proportion  between  the  grain  and  the 
straw  is  supposed  to  be — for,  I  believe,  it  has  not  been  satisfactorily  ascer- 
tained by  experiment — the  grain  ^  and  the  straw  ^  of  the  entire  weight 
of  the  crop.* 

(2217.)  There  is  another  curious  inquiry  connected  with  this  subject — 
namely,  the  proportionate  weight  of  roots  and  stubhle  left  in  the  field  after 
the  crop  is  reaped.  In  reference  to  the  roots  of  natural  grasses  left  in  the 
soil  acting  as  manure.  Professor  Johnston  observes  that  "  the  same  is  the 
case,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  with  all  the  artificial  corn,  grass,  and  le- 
guminous crops  we  grow.  They  all  leave  their  roots  in  the  soil ;  and,  if 
the  quantity  of  organic  matter  which  these  roots  contain  be  greater  than 
that  which  the  crop  we  carry  off  has  derived  from  the  soil,  then,  instead  of 
exhausting,  the  growth  of  this  crop  will  actually  enrich  the  soil,  in  so  far 
as  the  presence  of  organic  matter  is  concerned.  No  crops,  perhaps,  the 
whole  produce  of  which  is  carried  off  the  field,  leave  a  sufficient  mass  of 
roots  behind  them  to  effect  this  end  ;  but  many  plants,  when  in  whole  or 
in  part  eaten  upon  the  field,  leave  enough  in  the  soil  materially  to  improve 
the  condition  of  the  land — while,  in  all  cases,  those  are  considered  as  the 
least  exhausting  to  which  are  naturally  attached  the  largest  weight  of  roots. 
Hence  the  main  reason  why  poor  lands  are  so  much  benefited  by  being 
laid  down  to  grass,  and  why  an  intermediate  crop  of  clover  is  often  as 
beneficial  to  the  after-crop  of  corn  as  if  the  land  had  lain  in  naked  fallow." 
The  remarks  here  given  are  not  all  connected  with  our  present  subject, 
but  they  show  the  partial  compensation  which  white  crops  return  to  the 
soil  by  means  of  their  roots.  The  Professor  then  gives  the  results  of  some 
experiments  of  Hlubek,  conducted  on  a  small  scale,  with  a  view  to  ascer- 
tain the  quantity  of  roots  left  in  the  soil  by  plants  after  their  parts  above 
ground  had  been  removed  ;  and  though  the  experiments  were  made  with 
a  few  of  the  natural  grasses,  after  they  had  been  made  into  hay,  I  shall 
transcribe  them,  as  the  results  give  the  proportion  between  the  roots  and 
stems  of  gi'amineous  plants. 

[*  Obvious  as  is  the  usefulness  of  facts  thus  exactly  ascertained,  how  few  farmers  in  our 
country  have  been  at  the  pains  to  inquire  after  them  for  his  own  government.  The  relative 
weight  of  grain  and  straw  will  depend  on  various  circumstances.  On  the  fertile  lands  of  Prince 
George's  and  other  counties,  where  the  soil  is  deficient  in  clay,  and  yields  heavy  crops,  say 
from  40  to  60  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  you  hear  them  complain  that  their  wheat  runs  to  straw. 
In  such  cases  the  proportion  of  straw  to  grain  would  probably  be  much  larger  than  is  here  desig- 
nated. It  is,  however,  obvious  that  every  farmer  should,  in  the  commencement  of  his  career, 
ascertam  these  matters  for  his  future  government.  Every  farmer  can  make  a  near  approach  to 
the  quantity  oi  grain  he  makes  on  his  estate  ;  and  having  done  that  he  will  have  the  satisfaction 
to  know  how  much  provender  he  has  for  his  stock,  and  how  much  .of  the  fertilizing  properties  of  his 
land  has  been  carried  and  sold  off  in  the  grain  crop,  and  how  much  remains  to  be  returned  to  the 
land.  This  relative  weight  of  grain  and  of  fodder  needs  to  be  nicely  and  thoroughly  ascertained 
aa  to  Indian  corn.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.\ 

(797; 


382 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 


English  and  SciEirrinc  Najus  of  Grasses. 


Tall  fescue — Fesfuea  datior 

Sl)eep'8  fescue — Fesfuea  ovina 

Timothy — PUeum  pralenite 

Roach  cock's  foot — Dartyhit  glomerata 

Pei^nnial  rj-e-prass — I.olium  peremie 

Meadow  fox-tail — Alopecuru*  pratetuU 

Couch —  Tntim m  repem 

Annual  meadow-grass — Poa  annua 

Soft  and  smooth  brome-grass — Bromu$  mollis  and  racemosut. 
Sweet-scented  vemal-g^rass — Antkoxanthum  odoratum 


Graas. 


124 
90 
90 

202 
50 

106 

120 


Fr«b.J    Ury. 


of  dry 
Rnolx  to 
ion  lb*, 
ol  Hay. 


56 

22 

.. 

80 

56 

17 

2-2lf 

50 

24 

70 

-- 

Iba. 

61 
266 

60 

33 
300  I 

70 
116 
111 
105 

93  I 

I 


"  The  fourth  column  of  the  above  Table,"  observes  Professor  Johnston, 
"  shows  how  large  a  quantity  of  vegetable  matter  some  of  the  grasses  im- 
part to  the  soil,  and  yet  how  unlike  the  different  grasses  are  in  this  respect. 
The  sheep's  fescue  and  perennial  rye-grass — besides  the  dead  roots  which 
detach  themselves  fi-om  time  to  time — leave  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  year 
a  weight  of  living  roots  in  tbe  soil,  which  is  equal  to  3  times  the  produce 
of  that  year  in  hay-  If  we  take  the  mean  of  all  the  above  grasses  as  an 
average  of  what  we  may  fairly  expect  in  a  grass-field,  then  the  amount  of 
living  roots  left  in  the  soil  when  a  4-year  old  giass-field  is  plowed  up,  will 
be  equal  to  i  more  than  the  weight  of  that  year's  crop."  The  mean  of  the 
Table  gives  a  weight  of  121  lbs.  for  every  100  lbs.  of  crop  ;  and  if  we  take 
this  as  a  rule  for  estimating  the  weight  of  roots  left  in  the  ground  by  the 
cereal  crops  mentioned  above  in  reference  to  their  weight  of  sfraw,  and  if 
we  take  their  respective  weights  of  grain  and  straw  as  given  above,  the 
following  will  be  the  entire  weights  gi'own  of  those  crops  : 


(Gi^in 2.600  lbs. 

Of  Wheat  J  Straw 3,960  .. 

(Roots 4,779  .. 


Tons.  cwl.  qrs,  !be. 


(■Grain 3,360 

Of  Barley,  ^  Straw 3,080  .. 

(Roou 3,726  .. 


11,339  lbs.  =  5       1     0  17 


Of  Oats, 


(■Grain 2.700 

^  Straw 3.520 

(Roots 4.259 


10,166  lbs.  =  4     10     3     2 


10,479  lbs. 


4     13     2     7 


(2218.)  Although  it  is  perfectly  true  •what  Professor  Johnston  says  in 
his  concluding  remarks  on  this  head,  that  "  this  burying  of  recent  vegeta- 
ble matter  in  the  soil,  in  the  form  of  li\'ing  and  dead  roots  of  plants,  is 
one  of  those  important  ameliorating  operations  of  Nature  which  is  always, 
to  some  extent,  going  on  where  vegetation  proceeds  :  it  is  one  by  which 
the  practical  man  is  often  benefited  unawares,  and  of  which — too  often 
without  understanding  the  source  whence  the  advantage  comes — he 
systematically  avails  himself  in  some  of  the  most  skillful  steps  he  takes 
with  a  view  to  the  improvement  of  his  land,"*  it  is,  nevertheless,  of  greater 
benefit  to  the  farmer  to  cut  his  crops  as  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  as 
possible,  thereby  putting  it  in  his  own  power  to  return  the  straw  to  the 
soil  in  a  state  of  manure  best  suited  to  the  wants  of  the  crop,  than  to  cut 
the  stubble  high,  merely  because  the  soil  will  derive  benefit  from  it,  as  an 
organic  substance,  when  it  happens  to  become  decomposed  in  the  soil, 

(2219.)  That  one  period  of  their  age  is  better  than  Another  for  reaping  grain  crops,  has  been 

proved  by  very  careful  experiments  made  by  Mr.  John  Hannam,  North  Deighton,  Yorkshire. 

Without  entering  into  the  details  of  these  experiments,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  give  only  their  re- 
sults. Of  wheat  reaped  at  various  times,  the  following  were  the  advantages  and  disadvantages 
derived : 


Jobnfton'8  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry  and  Geology. 

(798) 


REAPING   RYE,  WHEAT,  OATS,  BARLEY,  PEASE,  &C.  383 


No.  1,  reaped  quite  green  on  12th  August,  and  stacked  26th  August,  gave  a  return  of  £11  17s. 

No.  2,  reap^^'^reeft  on  19th  August,  and  stacked   31st  August,  gave  a  return  of  £13  Gs.  per 

No.  3,  reap^cTraw  on  26th  August,  and   stacked   5th  September,  gave  a  return  of  £14  18s. 

No.  4.  re&^ednot  quite  so  raw  on  30th  August,  and  stacked  9th  September,  gave  a  return  of  £14 

No.  5,  reaped"  «>e^on  9th  September,  and  stacked  16th  September,  gave  a  return  of  £13  lis. 
8d.  per  acre. 

Hence  a  loss  of  £l  14    8  per  acre  upon  No.  1  as  compared  with  No.  5. 

0     5     8  ..  No.  2  ..  No.  5. 

!!       earn  of    16     4  -  No.  3  ..  No.  5. 

*  15     8  ..  No.  4  ..  No.  5. 

"  "         3     10  .-  No.  3  ..  No.  1. 

Hence,  also,  wheat  reaped  a  fortnight  before  it  is  ripe  gives  an  advantage  on  every  point,  viz : 

In  weight  of  gross  produce,  of 13  1-5  per  cent. 

equal  measures,  nearly 2 

equal  number  of  grains,  nearly 2^ 

In  quality  and  value,  above ^5 

In  weight  of  straw,  above 5 

Besides  these  other  advantages  are,  straw  of  better  quality,  a  better  chance  of  securing  the  crop, 
and  a  savins  in  securing  it.  On  the  other  hand,  wheat,  reaped  a  vwnth  before  it  is  ripe,  gives  an 
advantage  of  20  per  cent,  in  weight  of  straw  compared  with  the  ripe,  but  suffers  disadvantage  in 
every  other  point,  namely : 

In  weight  of  gross  produce H  5-13  percent. 

equal  measures,  above 1-3 

equal  number  of  grains,  above 13  1-6 

In  quality  and  value,  above 4-5 

(onoQ )  These  mav  seem  trivial  advantages  and  disadvantages,  when  confined  to  the  area  of  a 


4  000  000  acres  of  wheat  grown  annually,  producing  12,000,000  quarters  of  grain,  of  which  |  are 
allowed  to  become  ripe  ;  when  we  consider  that  by  cutting  this  sooner  we  should  produce  an  in- 
crease of  15  1-7  per  cent,  of  flour,  and  realize  an  increased  value  of  7s.  6id.  upon  every  quarter 
nroduced-  and  that  we  should  produce  food  for  1,362,857  persons  over  and  above  what  we  now 
produce  and  an  extra  annual  income  of  £512,491 :  and  when  we  consider  that  this  increase  would 
be  so  much  added  to  the  wealth  of  the  country,  that  it  is  equal  to  the  proceeds,  at  3  per  cent.,  of 
an  estate  worth  £17.083.033  :  and  that  the  increase  of  our  population  demands  an  increased  sup- 
ply of  food,  I  would  ask.  what  is  our  duty  in  this  case  ?"*  _  ,  .  r  11 
"(-looi  ^  Upon  one  occasion  I  cut  down  a  few  stocks  of  potato-oats  when  quite  green,  though  tuli 
in  the  ear  to  allow  carts  to  pass  to  a  place  destined  for  the  site  of  a  hay-stack ;  and,  after  standing 
till  the  rest  of  the  field  was  broutrht  in,  thev  were  threshed  with  the  flail  by  themselves,  and  the 
sample  thev  produced  was  the  most  beautifully  silvery  grain  I  ever  saw ;  but.  not  having  made 
the  experiment  with  any  view  to  the  crop.  I  pursued  the  investigation  no  farther,  and  cannot  say 
what  effect  so  ver%-  early  reaping  had  produced  upon  the  quantity  and  quality  of  meal. 

l.-,^o■^  )  [The  first  and"  most  important  operation  of  the  harvest  season  being  the  reaping  ot  the 
crop~~I  have  now  to  proceed  with  the  description  of  the  machines  and  implements  used  in  that 
iutere^tiuT  operation.  It  is  more  than  probable  that,  in  the  dawn  of  Agriculture,  the  tmy  crop  of 
<Taiu  was^plucked  bv  the  roots  from  the  earth  without  the  aid  of  any  instrument  other  than  that 
most  comprehensive"  one,  the  human  hand ;  but  the  inconveniences  attending  this  mode  must 
have  been  soon  superseded  bv  the  adoption  of  the  reaping-hook,  or  sickle,  which  is  coeval  with 
the  most  remote  history.  It  is" believed  that  instruments  or  machines  of  a  more  complicated  form 
than  the  sickle  have  been  resorted  to  by  some  of  the  nations  of  antiquity ;  but  of  these  we  have 
no  certain  historical  iufonnation  :  and  when  it  is  considered  that,  even  in  modern  times,  with  all 
our  advantages  of  mechanical  knowledire,  and  the  numerous  appliances  of  mechanical  experience 
and  skill  we  have,  as  vet,  failed  in  producing  a  really  effective  reaping-machine,  we  are  led  to 
the  conclusion  that  nothing  of  the  sort  in  a  perfect  form  had  ever  been  achieved  by  the  ancients. 
Durinff  the  last  sixty  years,  many  attempts  have  been  made  to  produce  a  perfect  reaping-ma- 
chine "but,  with  few  exceptions,  they  have  proved  abortive,  and  the  problem,  in  its  ful|«'^t  extent, 
remains  j-et  unsolved;  but,  nevertheless,  several  of  these  attempts  have  been  attended  with  at 
least  partial  success— a  success  which  has  extended  to  the  reaping  of  grain  when  it  stands  erect, 
or  even  slightly  inclined,  if  all  in  one  direction— but  have  all  failed  in  making  satistactory  worK 
when  the  crop  has  been  lodsed  by  rains,  or  contorted  by  winds.  The  step  which  has  been  maae 
in  achieving  even  this  muclfis.  however,  of  importance,  and  holds  out  a  prospect  ot  the  pioDaDU- 
ity  that  we  shall  yet  see  a  reaping-machine  adapted  to  the  reaping  of  at  least  a  very  large  propor- 
ti"on  of  our  fields,  in  the  situation^in  which  they  are  found  in  general,  when  ready  tor  tne  sicKie. 
But  as  none  of  these  machines  can  be  considered  perfect  in  their  present  state,  1  deem  it  unneces- 
sary to  enter  into  any  minute  details  of  their  construction  here,  and  will  only  give  a  summary 

*  See  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vols.  xii.  and  xiii.,  for  the  detailed  particulars  of  Mr.  Hannam's 
interesting  experiments. 
(799) 


384  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 


view  of  their  principles,  and  liie  Icadinp;  features  of  their  ronstroction.  with  a  reference  to  writers 
\\ho8e  more  detailed  information  may  be  obtained  bj-  those  who  desire  to  prosecute  the  subject 

(2223.)  The  first  reapins-machine  that  came  before  the  public  with  any  claim  to  efficiency  was 
that  of  Mr.  Smith,  of  Deanmon,  about  the  year  1814-1.5.  when  it  was  tried  before  a. joint-committee 
of  the  Highland  and  Aexicultural  Society,  and  of  the  Dalkeith  Farming  Society,  the  latter  having 
previously  ottered  a  premium  of  X500  for  a  perfect  reaping-machine.*  On  that  trial,  the  machine 
operated  with  very  considerable  effect ;  but  though  much  approved  ol,  in  a  general  view,  was 
not  considered  so  complete  as  to  warrant  the  committee  to  award  the  premium.  Mr.  Smith's  ma- 
chine continued  for  a  number  of  years  to  be  the  only  one  at  all  effective  ;  but.  as  it  did  not  pos.'W'ss 
all  the  requisite  qualities  for  perfect  reaping,  it  did  not  come  into  actual  use  beyond  a  very  limited 
extent.  The  cutting  principle  in  Smith's  original  machine  is  beautifully  simple,  being  a  plain, 
Bmooth  edired,  annular  knife,  of  about  6  feet  diameter,  and  6  inches  broad,  attached  by  arms  to  an 
axle,  with  which  it  revolves  with  a  velocity  that  makes  one  revolution  for  every  2  that  the  ma- 
chine travels  over  the  ground.  The  cutter  was  .surmounted  by  a  light  sheet-iron  drum,  or  rather 
frustum,  of  an  invertedcone.  about  3  feet  in  hight,  which  serves  as  the  collector  or  gatherer  of  the 
machine  ;  and  this  was  attached  to.  and  revolved  along  with,  the  cutter  and  its  axle.  The  motion 
of  the  cutter  and  gatherer  was  derived  from  a  pair  of  carriage- wheels  fixed  upon  an  axle,  which 
carries  a  toothed  bevel-wheel,  and  from  this  last  by  a  pinion  and  horizontal  shaft,  at:d  second  pair 
of  bevel- wheels,  the  last  of  which  was  fixed  upon,  and  gave  motion  to.  the  cutter-shaft.  The  car- 
riage-wheels, with  their  axle,  bore  all  the  framework  and  gearing  of  the  machine,  with  a  slight 
preponderance  forward  ;  and  this  preponderance  was  borne  by  a  small  roller,  placed  under  the 
ftjre-part  of  the  framework,  near  the  center  of  the  cutter,  serving  to  preserve  the  uniform  bight 
of  the  cutter  from  the  ground — a  pole  projected  backward  from  the  body  of  the  machine,  to  which 
two  horses  were  yoked,  one  on  each  side,  by  a  splinter  bar,  pushing  the  machine  before  them  ; 
and,  as  the  pole  projected  a  few  feet  behind  the  horses,  it  served  as  a  rudder  to  the  machine  in 
the  hands  of  the  driver.  The  circular  cutter  here  adopted  is,  perhaps,  the  most  perfect  method 
of  performing  the  act  of  cutting  the  grain,  which  is  done  by  it  in  a  very  successful  manner — the 
machine  being  provided  with  apparatus  for  cutting  higher  or  lower,  as  the  crop  may  require. — 
The  gathering  process  is  less  perfect — the  cut  grain  is  carried  round  hy  the  motion  of  the  drum 
to  the  left  side,  where,  as  soon  as  it  is  clear  of  the  standing  corn  in  front,  it  falls  outward,  forming 
a  continuous  swath  at  one  side  of  the  track  over  which  the  machine  has  passed. 

(2224.)  At  a  subsequent  period,  Mr.  Smith  effected  various  improvements  on  his  reaping-ma- 
chine :  and  in  1837  it  was  exhibited  in  operation  at  Ayr,  before  a  committee  of  the  Highland  and 
Agricultural  Society,  where  it  performed  to  the  satisfaction  of  all  present,  both  in  cutting  and 
gathering ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  it  showed  marks  of  unwieldiness,  especially  from  its  great 
length,  which  is  about  20  feet,  that  still  rendered  its  general  application  doubtful.  The  chief  point 
of  its  improve  nent.  at  this  trial,  lay  in  the  gathering-drum  being  now  adapted  to  revolve  separate 
from  the  cutter,  with  a  velocity  at  its  periphery  equal  to  the  progressive  velocity  of  the  machine; 
and  in  the  drum  also  being  armed  with  rake.s.  or  wooden  teeth  inserted  all  over  its  circumference, 
which  supported  and  carried  the  cut  grain  round  to  the  proper  point  of  discharge. 

(2225.)  The  next  machine  of  importance,  in  the  order  of  time,  is  that  of  Rev.  Patrick  Bell, 
DOW  minister  of  the  parish  of  Carmylie,  in  the  coantj'  of  Forfar.  It  appeared  in  operation  in 
1827-8,  and  received  the  sanction  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  in  1829.  by  a  premium 
ofi;.50.t  For  several  years  thereafter  this  machine  retained  considerable  repute,  and  a  consid- 
erable number  of  them  were  made,  and  successfully  applied  in  the  counties  of  Fife  and  Angus, 
but  after  all  this  apparent  success,  it  has  also  fallen  into  disuse,  like  its  predecessor.  Mr.  Bell's 
machine  acts  upon  the  clipping  principle,  the  cutter  being  a  series  of  scissors,  the  upper  blades 
of  which  are  immovable,  and  of  the  form  of  isoceles  triangles,  whose  bights  are  10  inches,  and 
bases  about  4  inches,  adapted  to  cut  on  both  edges.  The  lower  blades  are  of  a  similar  form,  each 
jointed  upon  a  pin,  in  a  position  corresponding  to  the  space  between  the  upper  blades,  and  their 
ehank  or  bandies  are  all  jointed  to  a  traversing  bar,  put  in  motion  by  a  crank:  there  are  ten  pairs 
of  such  scissors,  and  by  the  above  arrangement,  the  whole  are  made  to  cut  simultaneously  right 
or  left.  The  motion  of  the  cutter  is  communicated  from  the  carriage  wheels,  as  in  Smith's  ma- 
chine, there  being  two  principal  wheels  for  that  purpose,  and  two  minor  wheels  to  bear  up  the 
cutters  and  fore  part  of  the  machine.  The  gathering  process  is  accomplished  by  an  endless  web, 
which  is  placed  above  and  behind  the  cutter,  revolving  either  to  right  or  left ;  it  receives  the  grain 
as  it  falls  from  the  cutter,  and  is  repularly  carried  to  one  side,  and  dropped  in  a  continuous  swath, 
as  before.  To  insure  the  falling  of  the  cut  grain  upon  the  web,  there  is  a  light  four-leaved  vane 
placed  in  front  of  the  machine,  and  is  made  to  revolve  by  means  of  a  band  ;  the  leaves  of  tliis  vane 
jiress  gently  upon  the  yet  uncut  grain,  gathering  it  toward  the  web,  until  it  is  .severed  below  by 
the  scissors,  when  the  web  carries  it  off'.  For  several  years  this  machine  bid  fair  to  become  a 
favorite ;  the  work  was  well  performed  wherever  the  com  stood  upright,  and  that  it  would  work 
among  laid  corn  was  not  expected  of  it ;  yet  it  is  now  seldom  seen  in  the  field,  and  the  only  cause 
to  which  its  failure  can  be  attributed,  is  the  complicated  structure  of  the  cutter.  A  cutter  con- 
sisting of  such  a  number  of  parts,  each  of  which  requires  the  most  perfect  adjustment  to  render  it 
effective,  being,  besides,  liable  to  unequal  wear,  renders  it  yet  more  liable  to  derangement  ;  and. 
fariher,  as  the  derangement  of  a  smgle  blade  of  the  cutter  is  sufficient  to  destroy  the  usefulness 
of  the  machine:  and  the  rectification  of  the  defective  blade  requiring  a  workman  of  superior  tal- 
ent, it  must  have  become  both  troublesome  and  expensive  to  effect  such  repairs;  and  this,  added 
to  the  risks  of  delay  in  an  important  eeason,  Beem  to  have  contributed  to  the  gradual  disuse  of 
the  machine. 

(2226.)  Soon  after  the  introduction  of  Mr.  Bell's  reaping-machine,  there  appeared  another  com- 
petitor, Mr.  Joseph  Mann,  Raby,  near  Wigton,  Cumberland.}  Mr.  Mann's  machine  appears  to 
have  been  constructed,  after  many  years'  labor,  so  early  as  1826,  but  it  was  not  exhibited  in  Scot- 

*  Prize  Essays  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  x.  Preliminary  Notice, 
t  Quarterly  Jouraal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  i.  }  Ibid.,  vol.  iv. 

f800) 


REAPING-MACHINES.  385 

land  till  1832,  at  tbe  Highland  Society's  Show  in  Kelso,  where  it  was  tried  before  a  Committee 
with  a  success  verv  similar  to  those  that  had  gone  before  it.  Though  not  affording  entire  satisfac- 
tion it  nevertheless  possessed  some  points  of  considerable  importance.  In  construction  it  was 
more  compact  than  some  of  the  previous  machines  ;  and,  from  the  simplicity  of  its  movements, 
■would  be  less  expensive.  It  was  drawn  by  one  horse,  walking  before  the  machine,  and  by  the 
side  of  the  standing  corn,  cutting  a  breadth'of  from  3^  to  4  feet,  and  would,  therefore,  cut  nearly 
10  acres  in  10  hours.  The  cutter  was  on  the  revolving  principle,  but  instead  of  being  circular,  it 
formed  a  polygon  of  12  sides,  each  side  of  the  polygon  being  a  separate  blade,  ea.sily  removed 
and  changed  The  gatherer  was  the  revolving  cylindrical  drum  with  rakes,  afterward  adopted 
by  Mr  Smitli  of  Deanston.  before  alluded  to;  but  in  Mr.  Mann's  machine  the  drum  revolves  at  a 
considerably  higher  velocity,  making  26  revolutions  in  a  minute,  while  the  cutter  makes  about 
^00  In  this  nfachine,  therefore,  the  velocity  of  the  rake  teeth  is  400  feet  per  minute,  or  nearly 
double  that  in  Mr.  Smith's  improved  form.  This  high  velocity  of  the  rake  carries  away  the  cut 
grain  in  a  thinner  layer  upon  the  rakes,  but  it  requires  the  application  ot  a  comb  to  strip  the  com 
from  the  rakes,  and  thus  secures  its  being  always  dropped  at  one  point  m  the  machine.  The  mo- 
tion of  the  cutter  and  rake  were  obtained  from  one  of  the  carnage-wheels  as  m  the  others ;  but 
here  they  were  communicated  by  pitch-chains,  and  the  front  part  of  the  machine  was  supported 
by  a  ca.stor-wheel,  to  the  stem  of  which  the  horse-shafts  were  attached,  the  castor-wheel  runumg 
by  the  side  of  the 'standing  corn.  I  am  not  aware  of  this  machine  having  ever  made  farther  pro- 
gress ;  though  1  do  consider  that  it  possesses  some  advantages  over  any  that  have  yet  been  tried, 
and  if  fully  matured,  might  have  superseded  its  competitors. 

(0007  )  In  viewing  the  subject  of  the  reaping-machine,  three  things  have  to  be  specially  consid- 
erecf"  'The  expense  of  the  machine,  the  expedition  it  may  eflect  in  reaping  the  crop,  and  the 
saving  in  expense  that  may  be  effected  by  it.  The  last  described  machine  could  certainly  be 
procured  at  a  price  not  exceeding  £30.  The  same  machine  was.  perhaps,  not  capable  of  reaping 
an  acre  per  hour  consecutively  ;  its  effect  may,  therefore,  be  restricted  to  8  acres  per  day,  bemg 
about  I'^i  days  to  every  100  acres.  It  will  follow,  therefore,  that  on  a  large  larm  two  machines 
might  be'requisite,  making  an  outlay  of  £60.  To  qualify  this  outlay,  the  expense  of  reaping  fas 
ascertained  by  Bell's  machine,)  has  been  estimated,  including  the  expense  of  bmding  up  the 
sheaves  at  as  per  acre  ;  while  the  minimum  expense  of  reaping  by  the  hand  is  taken  at  78.  per 
acre  and  the  maximum  may  run  to  12s.,*  but  taking  the  mean  at  9s.,  gives  three  times  the  ex- 
pense of  machine-reaping.  For  100  acres,  therefore,  cut  by  hand,  the  expense  would  be  ±45, 
while  that  by  the  machine  is  only  £15,  giving  a  saving  of  the  entire  price  of  the  machme  in  one 
year  But  suppose  the  price  of  a  machine  could  be  saved  even  in  two  years,  the  advantages 
would  be  very  great,  under  the  supposition  that  an  effective  machine  could  be  procured  for  £30. 
It  is  de.serviu''  of  consideration,  also,  that  although  no  reaping  macliine  is  to  be  expected  capable 
of  cutting  down  the  crops  in  every  possible  state,  yet  we  may  infer  that,  even  on  a  farm  of  or- 
dinary extent  such  a  breadth  of  crop  may  be  found,  in  almost  any  season,  capable  of  being  cut 
by  a  machine,  as  would  save  half  the  expense  of  its  purchase.  To  obtain  an  effective  and  durable 
reaping-machine  i.s,  therefore,  yet  an  important  object  to  the  farming  interest.!  •    ,       , 

(22''8  )  In  the  present  times,  it  may  be  safely  averre.l  that  the  only  means  of  reaping  is  by  the 
sickle  and  the  sc]/the.     The  first  is  a  very  simple,  but,  at  the  same  time,  so  far  as  it  goes,  a  very 
efficient  in.strument.     It  is  employed  in  various  states,  not  differing 
much  in  general  form,  though  exhibiting  marked  differences  in  the  Hg-  4ib. 

detail ;  but  these  varieties  are  confined  under  two  very  distinct  — 

forms,  the  toothed  and  the  smooth-edged  sickles.  Fig.  416  repre- 
sents the  toothed  sickle,  an  instrument  so  well  known  that  it  re- 
quires little  de.?cription  here.  The  blade,  in  the  common  toothed 
sickle,  is  principally  made  of  iron,  but  with  an  edging  of  steel ;  the 
teeth  are  formed  by  striking  with  a  chisel  and  hammer,  in  the  man- 
ner of  file-cutting,  the  cutting  being  only  on  the  lower  side  ;  but 
when  the  blade  has  been  bent  to  the  proper  form,  tempered,  and 
ground  on  the  smooth  side,  the  serratures  are  brought  prominently 
out  on  the  edge  of  the  blade ;  and  as  the  striking  of  the  teeth  is 
performed  in  a  position  ubiique  to  the  edge  of  the  blade,  at  an  angle 
of  about  70"^,  the  .serratures  on  the  edge  acquire  what  is  called  a 
hook  toward  the  helve,  thus  causing  the  instrument  to  cut  keenly  in 
that  direction  when  drawn  through  the  standing  corn.  When  the 
blade  has  been  thus  finished,  a  wooden  helve  of  the  simplest  form 
is  fitted  upon  the  pointed  tine  formed  at  its  root  for  that  purpose. 
The  toothed  sickle  is  made  with  various  degrees  of  curvature  and 
of  weight,  but  chielly  as  represented  in  the  figure,  and  it  has  been  the  toothed  sickle. 
the  subject  of  several  patents,  chiefly  depending  on  the  formation 

of  the  blade.  One  of  these  is  only  of  two  or  three  years'  standing,  and  promises  to  be  an  i™" 
portant  one.  Messrs.  Sorbv  &  Son,  of  Sheffield,  are  the  patentees  ;  and  the  principle  upon  which 
their  patent  is  based  is  a  blade  of  rolled  cast-steel  swedged  into  a  form  that  gives  a  sufficient  de- 
gree of  stiffness  to  the  blade,  without  the  increase  of  weight  that  accompanies  the  thick-backed 
or  the  other  patent  ribbed-back  sickles.  In  the  new  patent,  the  advantage  of  a  small  quantity  ot 
the  very  best  material— cast-steel— ia  combined  with  extreme  lightness  and  a  due  degree  ot 
strength  and  stiffness,  the  latter  arising  from  the  swedged  or  moulded  back. 

(2229.)  The  smooth-edged  sickle,  or  scythe-hook,  as  sometimes  called,  differs  from  the  tormer 

[t  For  practical  remarks  on  the  two  most  promising  machines  in  use  in  the  United  States,  see 
the  letter  from  Mr.  Bowling,  of  Virginia,  in  the  present  (March)  Number  of  the  Monthly  Journal  of 
Agriculture.  ^^^  ^«'-"'-  ^^■'\ 

»  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  iv. 
(801) '*5 


386 


THE  BOOK  OP  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 


Fig.  4]  7. 


in  being  broader  in  the  blade,  and  longer  wiihal,  but  in  curvature  it  resembles  the  former ;  and 
its  chief  difference  lies  in  being  ground  on  both  sides,  to  form  a  fine  and  thin  sharp  edge.  Like 
the  toothed  sickle,  the  blade  has  undergone  various  improvements;  and  Mr.  Sorby's  cast-steel 
Bwedge-blade  is  also  extended  to  the  sniooth-edgcd  sickle. 

(2230.)  In  the  formation  of  the  sickle,  the  curvature  of  the  blade  is  a  point  of  more  importance 
than  to  a  careless  observer  may  appear;  and  though  the  ordinary  reaper  is  seldom  qualified  to 
judge  in  this  matter,  he  may  feel  pleased  to  be  informed  that  there  is  a  certain  curvature  that  will 
give  to  the  muscles  of  his  right  arm  the  least  possible  cau.se  for  exertion,  while  there  are  other 
curves  that,  if  given  to  the  blade  of  the  sickle,  would  cause  him  to  expend  a  great  amount  of  un 
necessary  exertion  in  the  arm,  and  a  consequent  unnecessary  fatigue  would  follow.  Fig.  417 
which  represents  the  smooth-edged  sickle,  has  a  curvature  ap- 
proaching very  near  to  that  which,  in  tliix  in.«trument,  may  be 
termed  the  curve  of  lenxl  exertion  ;  and  throughout  that  portion 
of  the  sickle  that  performs  the  cutting  process,  it  pos.scsscs  this 
peculiar  |>roperty,  from  the  following  circumstance,  that  lines 
diverging  from  the  center  of  the  handle  of  the  sickle  at  <?,  and 
intersecting  the  curve  of  the  cutting-edge,  all  the  diverging  lines 
will  form  equal  angles  with  the  tangents  to  the  curve  at  the 
points  of  intersection.  This  property  gives  to  the  cutting-edge 
a  uniform  tendency  to  cut  at  every  point  in  its  length,  without 
any  other  exertion  than  a  direct  ptt/l  upon  the  helve  ;  were  the 
curvature  less  at  any  point,  a  pressure  of  the  hand  would  be  re- 
quired to  keep  the  edge  to  the  work,  and  were  the  curvature 
greater  at  any  point,  or  on  the  whole,  the  exertion  to  make  the 
cut  would  be  greater,  as  it  would  then  become  more  direct,  in- 
stead of  the  oblique  drawing  or  sawing  cut,  which,  in  all  cases, 
is  the  most  etFectivc.  and  productive  of  least  resistance. 

(2231.)  A  moile  of  using  the  smooth-edged  sickle  has  of  late 
years  come  into  some  repute,  known  in  Scotland  by  the  provin- 
cial temi  dinging-in  (striking-in).  In  this  process  the  sickle  is 
not  drawn  through  the  straw,  but  is  struck  against  it,  somewhat 
in  the  manner  of  using  a  scythe  ;  indeed,  the  practice  originated  the  smooth-edged  sickle. 
in  the  attempt  that  was  made  some  years  ago  to  introduce  the 

Hainault  scythe  in  the  harvest  operations  of  this  country,  but  without  success.  In  the  (dinging- 
in)  practice,  the  left  hand  is  employed,  with  its  back  toward  the  right,  in  slightly  bending  down 
the  grain,  and  holding  it  to  the  blow  of  the  sickle.  A  man  practiced  in  this  mode  of  working 
will  do  one-half  more  work  than  is  usually  done  in  the  common  way  ;  but  the  stubble  is  left  less 
regular,  and,  except  by  very  expert  hands,  there  is  a  want  of  tidiness  in  the  process. 

(2232.)  The  scythe  is  also  extensively  used  as  a  reaping  instrument,  but  more  especially  in  Eng- 
land, and  in  some  of  the  northern  counties  of  Scotland,  chiefly  for  the  barley  and  oat  crops, 
though  in  some  localities,  also,  for  wheat.  The  common  hay-scythe  is  used  for  this  purpose,  in 
most  cases,  with  the  addition  only  of  a  very  light  rail  or  cradle,  sometimes  attached  to  the  handle, 
and  in  other  cases  to  the  heel  of  the  blade,  as  in  the  annexed  cat,  fig.  418,  which  is  the  common 


Fig.  418. 


Fig.  419. 


THE  COMMO.S  REAPINO-SCrTHE. 


THE  CRADI.E-SCVl  Hi:   KlIU  i;e.\1'ing. 


Bcy  the,  fitted  for  reaping.  In  the  scythe  mounted  in  this  manner,  the  use  of  the  rail  or  cradle 
will  be  obvious,  being  the  collecting  of  the  swath  into  a  compact  body,  and  depositing  the  same 
in  as  regular  a  manner  as  possible,  preparatory  to  the  binding  of  it  into  a  sheaf. 

(2233.)  For  a  considerable  period,  a  scythe  mounted  in  a  diflerent  form  has  been  in  nse  for  the 
purpose  of  reaping,  and  it  is  believed  that  its  introduction  can  be  traced  to  Banffshire  or  Aber- 
(802) 


REAPING-MACHINES.  387 


deenshire,  where  the  scythe  is  rather  extensively  used  for  reaping.  About  ten  years  ago  this 
form  of  scythe  came  more  prominently  before  the  public,*  and,  for  a  time,  gained  considerable 
repute  under  the  name  of  the  Cradle-scythe.  Of  this  form  of  mounting  a  reaping-ecythe,  there 
are  many  varieties;  bat  they  all  agree  in  one  point,  that  of  having  two  short  helves,  the  one 
branching  out  of  the  other,  instead  of  the  common  long  helve  or  snead.  Fig.  419  is  a  view  of  the 
cradle-scythe  in  one  of  its  most  approved  forms,  wherein  a  is  the  scythe-blade,  b  the  principal 
helve,  to  which  the  blade  is  attached  in  the  usual  way,  the  hook  of  the  tine  being  sunk  into  the 
wood,  and  an  iron  ferule  brought  down  over  the  tine,  binding  it  firmly  to  the  wood  ;  but  the  blade 
is  farther  supported  by  the  addition  of  the  liglit  .stay  c.  termed  by  mowers  the  grass-nail.  The 
minor  helve  d  is  tenoned  into  the  former,  and  the  two  handles  ef  wee  adjusted  by  wedges  in  the 
usual  way,  to  the  bight  and  mode  of  working  of  the  mower.  The  cradle  or  rake  consists  of  a 
little  wooden  standard  g,  about  8  inches  high,  jointed  to  the  heel  of  the  blade,  so  as  to  fold  a  little 
up  or  down  across  the  blade  ;  into  this  are  inserted  three  slender  teeth,  following  the  direction  of 
the  blade,  and  may  be  from  6  to  15  inches  long ;  the  head  of  the  standard  is  supported  by  a  slen- 
der rod  of  iron,  which  stretches  about  18  inches  up  the  handle,  where  it  is  secured  by  a  small 
screw-nut,  capable  of  being  .shifted  up  or  down  to  alter  the  position  of  the  standard  and  its  teeth 
to  suit  the  lay  of  the  corn.  The  standard  or  rake-head  was  at  one  time  recommended  to  be  made 
in  the  segment  of  a  circle, t  for  which  there  seems  no  good  reason,  either  practical  or  philosoph- 
ical ;  but  the  idea  was  seized  upon,  and  the  cradle-scythe  mounted  in  that  form  was  widely  dis- 
tributed ;  but  instead  of  this  supposed  improvement  tending  to  increase  the  favorable  opinion  of 
scythe-reaping,  the  practice  seems  rather  on  the  decline  ;  and  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that 
this  malformation  of  the  rake  may  have  had  no  small  share  in  producing  a  dista.ste  for  scythe- 
reaping  as  a  practice  ;  whereas,  under  proper  management,  and  a  judicious  choice  of  imple- 
ments, there  can  be  no  doubt  of  considerable  advantages  being  attainable  from  scvthe-reapitog, 
as  compared  with  the  sickle. 

(2234.)  It  is  believed  by  very  competent  judges,  that  the  figure  here  given  of  the  cradle-scythe 
possesses  all  the  advantages  that  are  derivable  from  using  this  instrument;  and,  in  addition  to  the 
details  already  given,  I  may  add  that  the  length  of  the  blade  is  from  3  feet  4  inches  to  3  feet  6 
inches ;  the  left  or  principal  helve  is  about  4  feet,  the  other  3  feet,  measuring  direct  from  the  heel 
in  both  cases ;  the  distance  between  the  helves,  where  the  handles  are  applied,  is  24  inches ;  and 
in  setting  the  blade  the  following  rule  is  to  be  ob.served  :  When  the  framed  helves  are  laid  flat 
on  a  level  surface,  the  point  of  the  blade  should  be  from  18  to  20  inches  above  that  surface,  and 
measuring  from  a  point  on  the  left  helve,  3  feet  distant  from  the  heel  of  the  blade  in  a  straight 
line,  as  at  b,  the  extremity  of  the  blade  should  be  also  3  feet  di.stant  from  the  point  b.  Iron  has, 
in  many  cases,  been  substituted  for  wood  in  the  construction  of  the  helves ;  but  it  does  not,  by 
any  means,  appear  to  be  so  well  adapted  to  the  purpose  as  the  wooden  helves;  when  construct- 
ed of  iron,  if  they  are  made  sufficiently  light,  there  is  too  much  elasticity  in  the  fabric,  which  is 
fatiguing  to  the  workman,  by  reason  of  the  tremor  produced  at  every  stroke  of  the  scythe. 

(2235.)  As  essential  appendages  of  the  scythe,there  must  be  kept  in  view  the  scythe-stone,  with 
which  it  is  kept  in  proper  cutting  order:  a  soft,  fine-grained  sandstone  is  the  proper  material  from 
which  it  should  be  selected;  and  as  for  applying  it,  it  were  difficult  in  words  to  describe  the 
proper  mode  of  doing  so,  but  the  following  may  suffice  to  give  the  uninitiated  some  notion  of  the 
process.  The  scythe  is  placed  on  the  left  side  of  the  mower,  with  the  point  of  the  blade  resting 
on  a  small  stone  on  the  ground,  the  heel  of  the  blade  and  helve  being  supported  by  the  left  hand  ; 
the  scythe-stone,  which  is  about  10  inches  long,  is  grasped  by  one  end  in  the  right  hand,  and  is 
thus  applied,  crossing  the  blade.  The  effect  of  the  sharpening  is  produced  by  makins  sliding  strokes 
with  the  stone  along  the  blade  on  each  side  alternately,  upward  and  downward  f  but  the  down- 
ward strokes  only,  or  those  toward  the  point  of  the  blade,  should  be  the  effective  ones,  the  return- 
ing stroke  of  the  stone  touching  the  blade  but  lightly.  The  object  of  this  mode  of  treatment  is 
based  on  the  principle  that  the  scythe  cuts  after  the  manner  of  a  saw ;  though  the  teeth  are  not 
very  prominent,  still  the  fine  serrature  is  there  ;  and,  to  make  it  cut  with  the  best  effect,  it  must  be 
hooked  toward  the  point  of  the  blade,  or  in  the  direction  of  its  motion,  when  cutting ;  and  the  ap- 
plication of  the  stone,  as  above  described,  produces  this  direction  of  the  minute  teeth  in  the  cutting- 
edge.  The  strokes  of  the  stone  cannot  conveniently  be  carried  over  the  whole  length  of  the  blade 
at  one  throw  of  the  hand,  hence  the  sharpening  begins  at  the  heel,  and  proceeds  downward  ;  but, 
from  the  position  described,  there  still  remain  a  few  inches  at  the  point  untouched  ;  and,  to  reach 
this  part  with  the  stone,  the  mower  lifts  up  the  blade,  by  seizing  it  about  the  middle  with  the  left 
hand,  and  bringing  it  to  a  horizontal  po.sition — the  helve  still  resting  partly  on  the  ground,  and 
partly  against  his  body,  he  is  enabled  to  complete  the  process  of  sharpening.  Throughout  this  oper- 
ation, it  is  to  be  specially  observed  that,  in  applying  the  stone,  it  must  always  be  held  flat  upon 
both  sides  of  the  blade ;  if  this  is  not  attended  to,  either  the  edge  will  not  be  improved,  or  it  will 
be  rounded  off.  and  the  consequence  of  this  last  effect  will  be  that  the  scythe  will  speedily  be  unfit 
for  cutting  until  it  be  re-ground. 

(2236.)  The  strike  or  strickle,  which  is  also  used  in  the  sharpening  of  the  scythe,  principally  for 
giving  it  a  finer  edge — though  this  is  very  frequently  a  mistaken  notion — is  formed  of  a  piece  of 
hard  wood,  about  15  inches  long,  one  end  of  which  is  shaped  into  a  handle  ;  the  body  of  it  is  some- 
times IJ  inches  square,  but  in  most  cases  it  is  about  2  inches  broad,  by  |  inch  thick.  It  is  coated 
over  with  granulated  emery,  imbedded  in  a  cement  such  as  glue  ;  and,  to  produce  the  best  effects, 
the  emery  should  be  of  a  medium  degree  of  fineness.  The  strickle  being  a  light  instrument,  it  is 
always  attached  to  the  helve  of  the  scythe,  and  is,  therefore,  always  at  hand,  ready  to  be  applied 
in  the  event  of  any  accidental  injury  to  the  edge  of  the  scythe  being  sustained  ;  while  the  stone, 
from  its  greater  weight,  can  only  be  resorted  to  at  the  landings,  where  it  lies  in  readiness. 

(2237.)  The  hand  stublile-rake. — The  gleanings  of  the  stubble  is  an  object  of  considera- 
ble value,  and,  to  secure  it  for  the  benefit  of  the  farmer,  different  implements  are  employed. 

*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  v.  t  Ibid.,  vol.  yi. 

(8031 


388 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 


The  principal  and  the  most  effective  of  them  is  the  horse-rake ;  bat,  in  the  absence  of 
that  machine,  the  hamlrake  is  found  to  serve  a  very  good  purpose.  Fig.  420  is  a  representa- 
tion of  this  rake,  and  it  is  of  very 

simple  construction,  the  form  be-  Fig.  420. 

ing  precisely  that  of  the  hay-rake, 
but  of  enlarsjed  dimensions.  The 
head,  a  ^.  is  5  feet  long,  and  should 
be  made  of  good,  tough  ash,  '-' j  by 
2  inches ;  the  helve  c  d  may  be  6 
feet  in  hight,  of  the  same  material, 
and  furnished  with  a  handle  e  that 
can  be  fixed  in  any  desired  posi- 
tion, by  means  of  a  ferule  and 
wedge.  The  helve  is  tenoned  in- 
to the  head,  and  supported  by  the 
iron  brace  /,  c,  ^.  The  teeth  are 
of  iron,  7  inches  in  length,  and  set 
at  4  inches  apart,  but  formed  in 
the  lower  part  so  that  the  bend 
rests  on  the  ground,  preventing 
the  points  of  the  teeth  penetrating 
and  mixing  the  earth  with  the 
gleanings.  The  best  method  of 
fixing  the  teeth  is  by  a  screw-nut, 
as  in  the  horse-rake,  as  they  are 

thereby  easily  removed  in  the  case  of  being  broken,  without  risk  of  injuring  the  head, 
advisable  to  have  the  ends  of  the  head  hooped,  to  prevent  splitting. — J.  S.] 


THE  HAND  STUBBLE-RAKE. 


It  is  also 


35.    CARRYING  IN    AND    STACKING  WHEAT,  BARLEY,  OATS,  BEANS, 
AND  PEASE  ;    AND  THE   CONSTRUCTION  OF  CARTS. 

"  Inwardly  emiling,  the  proud  farmer  views 
The  risine  pjTamids  that  grace  his  yard, 
And  counts  his  large  increase  ;  his  bams  are  stored, 
And  groaning  staddles  bend  beneath  their  load." 

SOMEBVILLE. 


(2238.)  It  is  necessary  that  reaped  com  remain  for  some  time  in  stock 
in  the  field,  before  it  will  keep  in  large  quantities  in  the  stack  or  barn. — 
The  length  of  time  will,  of  course,  depend  entirely  on  the  state  of  the 
weather;  for  if  the  air  is  dry,  sharp,  and  windy,  the  corn  will  be  ready  in 
the  shortest  time — while  in  close,  misty  damp,  it  will  require  the  longest 
time  ;  but,  on  an  average,  for  wheat  ]  week,  and  for  barley  and  oats  2 
weeks,  will  suffice.  In  this  respect,  the  superiority  of  the  mown  over 
reaped  corn  manifests  itself — mown  wheat  being  ready  for  the  stack  in  4 
or  5  days,  and  bailey  and  oats  in  8  or  10 — the  chief  cause  of  the  difference 
being  the  loose  and  open  state  in  which  mowing  leaves  the  straw  in  the 
sheaf. 

(2<J.39.)  Mere  dryness  to  the  feel  does  not  constitute  all  the  qualities  re- 
quisite for  making  new  cut  corn  keep  in  the  stack.  The  natural  sap  of  the 
plant  must  not  only  be  evaporated  from  its  outside,  but  also  from  its  inte- 
rior ;  and  the  outside  may  feel  quite  dry,  while  the  interior  may  be  far 
from  it;  and  the  knowledge  of  the  latter  property  constitutes  the  whole 
difficulty  of  judging  whether  or  not  corn  will  keep  in  the  stack.  There  is 
one  criterion  by  which  whether  or  not  a  sheaf  is  fit  to  keep  may  be  ascer- 
tained with  almost  certain  success,  which  is,  that  if  the  sheaf  feel  quite  dry, 
the  straws  be  loose  and  easily  yield  to  the  fingers,  and  the  entix-e  sheaf  feel 
light  when  lifted  off  the  ground  by  the  hand  thrust  through  the  middle  of 
the  hand,  the  sheaf  is  ready  ;  for  if  it  present  all  these  qualities  at  the  band, 
where  it  is  most  compressed,  the  rest  will  be  sure  to  be  won.    While  vnn- 

(804) 


CARRYING  IN  AND  STACKING  CORN. 


389 


nincr  it  is  as  probable  that  the  sap  of  the  cereal   grams  is  come  ted  into 
woody  fibre,  as  that  of  clover  on  being  converted  into  hay  (21o9). 

r204oTThe  winning  of  corn  is  comparatively  an  easy  matter,  when  the 
wiathe'"is  d  J;  but,  in  windy  and  showery  weathei  the  stooks  are  apt  o 
be  blown  down  and  become  wet,  and  incur  the  trouble  of  setting  up  again 

sniead  olt  even  in  dry  weather,  when  a  large  proportion  of  young  grass 
spiead  out,  e^en  "J     /        ^      ,^j^       ^1       i^  ^o,vn   it  is  quite  practica- 

lui:t:ZZ-':^T^egZsZon,  l  by  ..,e  g^thejevs  shaking  the 

to  cut  the  stubble  as  high  as  the  grass  would  be  preposterous.  An  extia 
W  t-ft,  would^e  i-equire=d  for  this  P-P-— ^^^  ^^P^^  «"  ^^- 
ery  2  ridges.     Corn  wins  in  no  way  so  quickly  a.  in  gait.,  hg  4  0 

(2241  f  While  the  first  reaped  corn  is  wmnmg  in  the  field,  the   stack 
vard  should   be  put  in  order  to  receive  the  new  crop,  by  removing  every- 

*o  dinl  spLe  o*;-  .round  is  appropriated  to  t.  "■■<  - '-""^traw  ope", 
every  2  rows  of  statbels,  as  already  commented  on  a  (,0).  '""'"  "P*' 
Zuld  also  be  provided  for  covering  tbe  barley-stacks,  m  case  of  thieat- 

""S^rThe  description  of  ^  HatAel  or  staddlei.  given  in  (70)   and  a 
perspe     ve  view  in  fig.  24,  which  is  a  fram.ng  "f"""^.?"  Vans     a  sola 
remain  in  a  permanent  form  upon  stone  props,  made  up  of  3  parts— a  sole 
r  a  pHla"  c  and  bonnet  d.     It  has  been  brought  to  my  notice  that  a  better 
tm'oJ'tShel  would  be  to  have  the  frame  in  2  p.eces  to  remove  mo  a 
<,bpd  and  be  protected  from  the  weather,  when  not  m  u^e.     buch  a  mova 
Se  frame  ^o'uld   answer  the  purpose   as  well  as  a  pernianent  one ;   but 
when  removed,  the  props  should  require  to  be  ^•^"^°?;^5J^\^°' "^^^^^^^^^^ 
they  will  be  driven  over,  and   perhaps  broken    or  a    ^".7^^"^^^^^^^.^^'  '/d 
and  their  replacement  would  create  a  good  deal  ^^.^'^f  ;!^  "  ^^^^"  ^y  of 
and  this  is  i  species  of  trouble,  perhaps   more  «^^;;5"^^  ^^^^^  ^^^.e 'X^^ 
the  wood  of  a  frame  1  year  or  2  sooner  than  it  would  othei  wi=e  ^^^-  J        ' 
the  props  could  be  made  of  one  piece  of  cast-iron,  ^^^-^^.^^^^f^^     ™uT, 
are  ;  and,  where  stones  are  scarce,  this  material  seems  ^"^b^;Pf  ";^.''^^^/^  1 
where  stones  are  plenty,  they  make  cheaper  P^ops  than  ca.t-uon     and  al 
though  cast-iron  ones  would   be  easily  removed,  the  ^^^^'   ll^^'^^  ^^^ 
rest  would  still  be  liable  to  be  broken,  and  the  setting  ^^^"^  ^S^^^  °^^ 
Lvel  would  impose  considerable   trouble  and  expense.     So  that,  on  tbe 


390 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 


whole,  such  a  slathel  as  is  shown  in  fig.  24  will,  in  my  opinion,  answer  well 
for  ordinary  farms.  The  framing  is  made  heavy,  the  scantlings  being  9 
inches  in  the  side — a  size  which  the  Scots  fir  easily  attains,  because  it  is 
to  be  permanent  in  its  position,  and  to  last  a  long  time,  remaining  service- 
able for  a  lease  of  20  years  ;  but,  of  course,  where  larch  is  abundant, 
smaller  scantlings  will  be  handier,  equally  strong,  and  last  perhaps  longer. 
Stathels  require  no  straw  to  render  them  fit  for  building  stacks  upon. 

(2243.)  A  stool  of  straw  for  a  stack  is  made  in  this  way  :  Stick  a  fork  a, 
fig.  421,  upright  in  the   ground  in  the   center  of  the  intended  site  of  the 

Fig.  421. 


THE  FORMING  OF  A  STOOL  FOR  A  STACK  ;     THE  LOADING  OF  A  CART  WITH  SHEAVES 

BUILDING  OF  A  STACK. 


AND  THE 


Stack.  Put  a  quantity  of  dry  straw  around  the  fork,  and  shake  it  up  as 
you  would  do  the  litter  of  a  horse,  spreading  it  out  to  about  the  size  and 
form  the  stack  should  occupy  on  the  ground.  Take  a  long  fork  h,  with  the 
radius  of  the  stack  marked  upon  its  shaft — embrace  the  upright  fork  a  be- 
tween its  prongs,  and,  holding  its  shaft  at  the  specified  distance  of  the  ra- 
dius, push  in  or  pull  out  the  straw  with  your  feet,  as  seen  from  c  to  d,  into 
the  shape  of  the  circle  described  by  youi-self  in  walking  round  the  circum- 
ference cf  the  stool. 

(2244.)  Having  made  these  preparations,  on  the  supposition  that  the 
corn  is  ready  to  be  carried  in  and  stacked,  the  fir*t  thing  is  to  provide  an 
efficient  person  to  fork  the  corn  in  the  field  to  the  carts — a  man  being  the 
best  for  the  work,  as  he  is  able  not  only  to  wield  the  sheaves  with  ease, 
but  possesses  dexterity  to  ])lace  the  sheaves  in  the  position  most  convenient 
for  the  plowman  to  build  them  on  the  cart;  for,  throwing  sheaves  in  any 
manner  upon  the  cart  makes  the  forking  no  easier  for  the  forker,  while  ii 
gives  the  plowman  much  additional  trouble  to  turn  the  sheaves  upon  the 
load,  where  his  footing  is  not  very  secure.  A  loss  of  2  or  3  minutes  in- 
cun-ed  in  this  way  in  loading  each  cart  makes  a  considerable  loss  upon  the 
day's  work.  The  steward  should  build  the  stacks,  unless  he  is  specially 
engaged  with  the  reapers  in  the  field,  when  another  man  should   be  hired 

(806) 


CARRYING  IN  AND  STACKING  CORN.  39] 

to  stack  ;  but  on  a  large  farm  more  than  1  stacker  may  frequently  be  re- 
quired at  a  time.  When  more  than  1  stacker  is  employed,  each  should 
have  the  same  head  of  carts  leading  to  him,  even  when  both  heads  are 
leading  from  the  same  field,  that  the  corn  may  be  regularly  supplied  to 
him. 

(2245.)  The  cart  is  the  vehicle  employed  in  caiTying  in  corn.  The 
common  cart,  mounted  with  a  framing  called  tops,  is  used  in  some  parts 
of  the  country ;  while,  in  others,  the  corw-cart,  different  forms  of  which 
^re  represented  and  described  below  by  Mr.  Slight,  is  employed,  the 
body  of  which  is  put  on  the  axle  and  wheels  of  the  common  cart,  and 
provided  with  ropes  to  hold  on  the  load.  Of  the  two  sorts  of  carts  for 
this  purpose,  I  prefer  the  corn-cart,  as  it  carries  the  load  lower  to  the 
line  of  draught ;  and  it  is  provided  with  a  plank,  called  the  lead-tree, 
for  the  plowman  to  stand  upon  when  forking  off  the  lower  part  of  the 
load. 

(2246.)  The  horses  are  usually  yoked  double  in  leading  time,  as  there  is 
only  one  man  to  each  pair  of  horses  ;  and  there  may  be  inequalities  in  the 
fields  and  roads  which  require  the  force  of  2  horses  to  surmount.  As  I 
have  had  occasion  to  mention  the  price  of  the  harness  required  for  the 
plow,  I  may  here  enumerate  those  for  the  cart.  In  addition  to  tlie  collar 
and  bridle,  there  are — 

Saddle  and  girth 22  lbs.  weight,  worth  £1     2    0 

Breeching 10         ..  ..100 

Two  back-bands  and  girth 8         ..  ..         0  16    0 

Cart-chains 14         ..  at  7d.  per  lb.  0     8     2 

Stretcher. ..-         0    3     0 

Total 54  lbs.  £3     9     2 

In  Forfarshire  the  trace-horse  is  harnessed  in  a  different  manner.  A 
broad  strap  is  hooked  to  the  back  of  the  upper  part  of  the  collar,  and  ter- 
minates at  the  other  end  in  a  crupper,  and  a  haunch-strap  passes  down  in 
each  side  to  support  the  trace-chain.  This  plan  supports  the  stretcher 
well,  and  prevents  it  falling  so  low  as  the  hocks  of  the  horse  in  the  turn- 
ings, but  it  confines  the  action  of  the  horse  by  buckling  the  shoulder  and 
tail  together,  and  when  the  bearing-rein  is  passed  over  the  harness,  the 
horse's  head  is  very  much  confined.  Hai-ness  leather  is  best,  in  the  long 
run,  though  dearest  at  first.  Double  cart-ropes  measure  24  yards,  single 
12  yards,  and  cost  4-^d.  per  lb.  Hemp  and  Manilla  reins  cost  51d.  per  lb. 
There  should  always  be  double  reins  used  with  the  cart,  whether  the 
horses  be  yoked  single  or  double.  The  double  reins  ai'e  connected  at  the 
end  with  a  tie  and  loop  to  hang  on  any  hook,  or  slip  below  any  part  of 
the  harness.  With  the  collar  and  bridle,  the  shaft-horse  carries  5S-1- lbs. 
of  harness,  and  the  trace-horse  34^  lbs. 

(2247.)  In  carrying  the  crop  off  the  ground,  the  object  is  to  do  as  little 
injury  as  possible  to  the  land  with  the  cart-wheels,  especially  to  young 
grass  ;  and  for  this  reason,  as  well  as  forming  an  excellent  guide,  the 
horses  should  walk  in  the  open  furrow  between  the  ridges  in  every  alter- 
nate furrow,  while  the  wheels  pass  along  the  furrow-brow  of  the  ridge  on 
each  side.  When  corn  is  cut  with  band-won  reapers,  the  stooks  of  2 
ridges  being  placed  on  1,  the  cart  clears  the  produce  of  2  ridges,  and  the 
same  may  be  the  case  with  mown  corn,  provided  the  bandsters  are  in- 
Btructed  to  set  the  stooks  in  the  same  manner  upon  the  ridges  while  work- 
ing across  them.  In  threaving,  the  stooks  being  set  on  every  ridge,  the 
former  is  obliged  to  go  from  one  ridge  to  another  to  clear  2  ridges,  which 
occasions  much  loss  of  time. 

(807) 


392  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 

(224S.)  A  corn-cart  is  loaded  with  sheaves  in  this  way  :  The  body  e, 
fitr,  421,  is  first  filled  with  the  sheaves  lying  with  their  butt-ends  toward 
the  shaft-horse's  rump  at  one  end,  and  the  back  end  of  the  cart  at  the 
other.  When  the  com  is  on  a  level  with  the  frame  or  shilments  of  the  cart, 
the  sheaves  are  then  laid  across  the  body  of  the  cart  in  a  row  along  both 
sides  of  the  frame,  with  the  butt-ends  projecting  as  far  beyond  the  frame 
as  the  band,  as  at  f  and  g ;  the  sheaf  on  each  corner  of  the  frame  being 
held  in  its  place  by  being  transfixed  upon  a  spike  attached  to  it.  Another 
row  of  sheaves  is  placed  above  the  fin-^t,  and  the  comer  ones  kept  in  their 
places  by  a  \%-isp  of  corn,  held  fast  by  the  band  being  placed  under  the 
adioining  sheaf  Sheaves  are  then  placed  along  the  cart  with  their  butt- 
ends  to  both  its  ends,  in  order  to  hold  in  the  first  laid  sheaves,  and  to  fill 
up  the  hollow  in  the  middle  of  the  Icjad.  Thus  row  after  row  is  placed, 
and  the  middle  of  the  load  filled  up  till  as  much  is  built  on  as  the  horses 
can  conveniently  draw,  12  large  stooks  being  a  good  load.  It  should  be 
ascertained  that  the  load  is  neither  back-laden  nor  too  heavy  upon  the 
horse's  back  ;  and,  indeed,  if  the  cart  has  been  evenly  laden  according  to 
its  form,  there  is  no  risk  of  either  inconvenience  being  felt  by  the  shaft- 
horse.  A  load  thus  built  will  have  the  butt  ends  of  all  the  sheaves  on  the 
outside,  and  the  corn-ends  in  the  inside. 

(2249.)  The  roj)es  are  then  thrown  over  the  load  to  keep  it  from  jolting 
off  the  cart  upon  the  road,  and  in  necessarily  crossing  gaw-cuts  in  the  fields. 
There  is  usually  a  rinsr  in  the  back-bar  of  the  cart  to  which  the  rope  is 
fastened  by  the  middle,  whence  it  is  wound  round  each  back-stay ; 
but  fastening  the  rope  round  the  back-stays  will  answer  without  a  ring. 
The  ropes  are  then  thrown  across  the  load  diagonally  to  the  opposite  an- 
gles in  the  front  of  the  cart,  and  one  end  is  made  fast  to  each  shaft,  with 
as  much  force  as  the  forker  can  exert  on  the  ground,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  plowman  on  the  top  of  the  load.  The  crossing  of  the  ropes  pre- 
vents the  load  splitting  asunder  over  the  sides  of  the  cart,  while  it  is  jolted 
along  the  road.  Some  plowmen  profess  to  show  their  dexterity  in  build- 
ing loads  of  com,  and  of  bringing  them  to  the  stack-yard  without  the  as- 
sistance of  ropes;  but  there  is  no  use  of  running  the  risk  of  losinertime 
by  breaking  the  load  and  strewing  the  road  with  sheaves.  Such  a  fate  at- 
tended the  first  load  I  tried  to  build  even  with  the  assistance  of  ropes. 
When  the  com  is  mown,  a  woman  is  usually  employed  to  rake  the  ground 
on  which  the  stooks  stood,  because  they  were  set  upon  the  giound  at  the 
time  of  mowing  before  it  was  raked. 

(2250.)  When  com  is  fit  for  stacking,  the  canning  is  continued  from 
break  of  day  to  twilight,  provided  there  be  no  heavy  dew  at  morning  or 
night.  From  a  little  after  sunrise  to  a  little  after  sunset,  the  corn  may  be 
taken  in  with  great  safety.  It  is  customaiy,  in  some  parts  of  the  country, 
to  keep  the  horses  in  the  yoke  when  employed  at  leading,  and  feed  them 
with  com  from  nose-bags,  while  the  carter  is  taking  his  cinner,  and  to 
g^ve  them  green  food,  such  as  tares,  while  the  cart  is  unloading  at  the 
stack.  .  In  other  parts  the  horses  are  taken  out  of  the  yoke,  watered,  and 
put  into  the  stable,  where  they  receive  their  corn  while  the  men  are  at 
dinner.  This  is  the  best  way  for  the  horses,  though  it  usually  puts  off  one 
hour  of  the  best  part  of  the  day  before  the  horses  again  take  the  road, 
whereas  half  an  hour  in  the  other  case  is  quite  sufficient  for  the  men  to 
dine,  and  the  horses  to  eat  their  feed  of  corn.  Some  horses  are  apt  to 
take  fright,  owing,  no  doubt,  to  the  mode  in  which  they  had  been  broke 
in,  when  the  bridles  are  temporarily  slipped  off  their  head  for  the  pui-pose 
of  taking  the  bit  out  of  their  mouth,  to  allow  them  to  eat  the  tares  with 
freedom  ;  and,  to  avoid  such  an  accident  with  a  horse  known  to  be  easily 

(808J 


CARRYING  IN  AND  STACKING  CORN.  393 

fi-ightened,  its  bit  should  be  made  to  fasten  with  a  small  strap  and  buckle 
to  the  near  side  of  the  biidle. 

(2251.)  A  load  of  tares  is  brought  to  the  steading  fresh  in  the  morning 
for  the  horses.  They  are  not  fit  for  the  use  of  horses  until  the  pods  are 
pretty  well  filled  with  grain,  prior  to  which  state  they  are  apt  to  purge  and 
weaken  them,  when  subjected  to  much  work  in  the  cart,  as  in  the  time  of 
carrying  in  corn.  For  cows  it  matters  not  how  succulent  tares  may  be,  as 
they  yield  much  milk  on  them  ;  and,  indeed,  no  other  green  food  is  so 
productive  of  milk, 

(2252.)  In  setting  a  loaded  cart  to  the  stool  or  stathel  of  a  stack,  it 
should  be  studied  to  let  the  plowman  have  the  advantage  of  any  wind  go- 
ing in  forking  the  sheaves  from  the  cart.  The  stack  should  be  built  in 
this  way  :  Set  up  a  couple  of  sheaves  against  each  other  in  the  center  of 
the  stathel,  and  another  couple  against  them  in  the  other  direction.  Pile 
others  against  these  in  rows  around  the  center,  with  a  slope  downward 
toward  the  circumference  of  the  stathel,  each  row  being  placed  half  the 
length  of  the  sheaf  beyond  the  inner  one,  till  the  circumference  is  com- 
pleted, when  it  should  be  examined,  and  where  any  sheaf  presses  too  hard 
upon  another,  it  should  be  relieved,  and  where  there  is  slackness,  another 
sheaf  should  be  introduced.  Keeping  the  circumference  of  the  stack  on 
the  left  hand,  the  stacker  lays  the  sheaves  upon  the  outside  row  round 
the  stack,  putting  each  sheaf  with  his  hands  as  close  to  the  last  set  one  as 
he  can  get  it,  and  pressing  each  sheaf  with  both  his  knees,  as  represented 
at  h,  fig.  421.  When  the  outside  row  is  thus  laid,  an  inside  one  is  made, 
wdth  the  butt  end  of  the  sheaves  resting  on  the  bands  of  the  outside  row, 
thereby  securing  the  outside  sheaves  in  their  places,  and  at  the  same  time 
filling  up  the  body  of  the  stack  firmly  with  sheaves,  as  seen  at  i.  A  few 
more  sheaves  may  be  required  as  an  inmost  row  still,  to  fill  up  and  make 
the  heart  of  the  stack  its  highest  part.  It  is  of  immense  benefit  to  a  stack 
to  have  its  center  well  filled  with  sheaves,  as  it  is  the  heart-sheaves  which 
retain  the  outside  ones  in  their  places  with  an  inclination  downward  froni 
the  center  to  the  circumference  ;  and  this  position  of  the  outside  sheaves 
is  necessary  to  prevent  the  rain  finding  a  passage  along  the  straw  into  the 
very  heart  of  the  stack,  where,  of  course,  it  would  find  its  way  easily, 
were  the  sheaves  to  lie  with  an  inclination  downward  to  the  center  of  the 
stack,  and  where  it  would  soon  spoil  the  corn.  The  sheaves  are  then  said 
to  take  in  j>en-wet.  The  number  of  rows  required  to  fill  the  body  of  a 
stack  depends  on  the  length  of  the  straw  and  the  diameter  of  the  stack. 
In  crops  of  ordinary  length  of  straw,  such  as  from  4^  to  5  feet,  a  stack  of 
15  feet  diameter  is  well  adapted;  and  1  inside  row,  along  the  bands  of  the 
outside  one,  with  a  few  sheaves  laid  across  one  another  in  the  center,  will 
make  the  stack  completely  hearted.  AVhere  much  wheat  is  raised,  and 
which  often  reaches  from  5  to  6  feet  in  length,  the  stack  should  be  18  feet 
in  diameter,  to  give  room  for  hearting.  In  a  stack  of  15  feet,  the  breadth 
is  rather  too  much  for  the  plowman  to  fork  heavy  sheaves  across  to  the 
stacker,  when  the  stack  attains  a  certain  hight,  and  when  the  load  in  the 
cart  becomes  low ;  and  the  stacker  should  always  receive  the  sheaves 
within  his  reach,  as  he  cannot  rise  from  his  knees  to  take  them  without 
much  loss  of  time,  and  risk  of  making  bad  work.  To  expedite  the  build- 
ing, a  field-worker  h  should  stand  on  the  stack,  to  pitch  the  sheaves  with 
a  short  fork  to  the  stacker  in  the  position  they  are  wanted  by  him,  to  save 
him  the  trouble  of  turning  them,  as  the  sheaf  Z  is  shown  in  the  cut.  By  a 
little  management,  the  field-worker  may  receive  every  sheaf  as  the  plow- 
man pitches  it  from  his  fork  upon  her  fork,  and  prevent  it  falling  upon  the 
stack  until  she  throws  it  in  its  proper  position  beside  the  right  hand  of 

(809) 


394  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 


the  stacker ;  and  in  doing  this  she  should  not  give  him  more  sheaves  than 
1  by  1  as  he  builds  them  ;  nor  should  she  receive  them  faster  from  the 
plowman  than  the  stacker  can  build  them,  for  no  time  is  gained,  but  lost, 
in  piling  more  sheaves  upon  the  stack  than  the  stacker  can  dispose  of. 
The  proper  relative  })(isitioiis  of  the  plowman  m  and  the  field-worker  /,  for 
thus  giving  and  receiving  the  sheaves,  are  endeavored  to  be  represented 
by  those  figures  in  the  cut, 

(2253.)  As  every  cart  is  unloaded,  the  stacker  descends  to  the  ground, 
by  means  of  a  ladder,  and  trims  the  stack,  by  pushing  in  with  a  fork  the 
end  of  any  sheaf  that  projects  farther  than  the  rest,  and  by  pulling  out  any 
that  may  have  been  j)laced  too  far  in.  It  seems  to  be  considered  necessaiy 
to  make  the  stack  swell  out  as  it  proceeds  in  higlit,  if  we  may  judge  from 
common  practice  ;  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  swell  it  out  in  the  building,  in 
order  to  throw  ofl"  the  drops  of  rain  from  the  eaves — for  the  spreading  of 
the  eaves  by  the  stack  itself,  in  settling  down  after  it  has  been  built  for  a 
few  days,  is  quite  sufficient  to  throw  off  the  drops.  The  leg  of  the  stack 
may,  therefore,  be  carried  up  nearly  perpendicular. 

(2254.)  As  the  stack  rises  in  bight  with  cart-load  after  cart-load,  the 
ti'imming  cannot  conveniently  be  done  with  a  fork  ;  a  thin,  flat  board,  about 
20  inches  in  length  and  10  inches  broad,  nailed  firmly  to  a  long  shaft,  is  an 
appropriate  instrument  for  beating  in  the  projecting  ends  of  the  sheaves, 
and  giving  the  body  of  the  stack  a  unifoi-m  roundness.  A  stack  of  15  feet 
in  diameter  should  ultimately  stand  12  feet  high  in  the  leg;  andan  allow- 
ance of  1  foot,  or  1^  feet,  for  subsidence,  after  the  top  is  finished,  accord- 
ing to  the  firmness  of  its  building,  is  generally  made.  The  bight  is  meas- 
ured with  the  ladder,  and,  allowing  2  feet  for  the  bight  of  the  stathcl,  a  15- 
feet  ladder  will  just  give  the  required  measure  of  the  bight  of  the  leg  be- 
fore the  top  is  set  on.  The  eaves  of  the  stack  are  formed  according  to  the 
mode  in  which  it  is  to  be  thatched.  If  the  ropes  are  to  be  placed  lozenge- 
shaped,  the  row  of  sheaves  which  forms  the  eaves  is  placed  a  little  within 
the  topmost  outside  row ;  and,  after  the  top  is  fully  finished,  its  slope  will 
be  the  same  as  that  of  a  roof — namely,  1  foot  less  of  pei-pendicular  hight 
than  half  the  diameter.  In  finishing  the  top,  every  successive  row  of 
sheaves  is  taken  as  much  farther  in  as  to  give  this  requisite  slope  ;  and  the 
beveled  bottoms  of  sheaves,  as  they  stand  in  the  stook,  answer  this  purpose 
well — the  hearting  being  particularly  attended  to  in  every  row,  till  the 
space  in  the  center  of  the  stack  is  limited  to  an  area  upon  which  4  sheaves 
can  stand  with  their  tops  uniting,  and  their  butt-ends  spreading  out  to  give 
a  conical  form  to  the  top ;  and  these  sheaves  are  kept  firm  in  their  place 
against  gusts  of  wind  with  a  straw-rope  wound  round  them  and  fastened 
to  the  sheaves  below.  If  the  thatching  is  made  with  heavy  ropes,  running 
from  the  rop  of  the  stack  to  its  eaves,  the  eaves-row  of  sheaves  is  made  to 
project  2  or  3  inches  beyond  the  upper  rbw  of  the  body  of  the  stack,  and 
the  slope  of  the  top  is  foiTned  from  the  point  of  projection  of  the  eaves, 
and  the  top  finished  as  in  the  other  mode.  The  field-worker  remains  on 
the  top  as  long  as  she  has  footing  to  hand  the  sheaves  to  the  stacker. — 
Thus,  as  one  stack  is  finished,  another  is  founded  on  the  adjoining  stathel, 
and,  as  one  is  finished  on  a  stool  of  straw,  another  stool  should  be  ready  to 
have  another  founded  upon  it. 

(2255.)  There  is  seldom  leisure  to  thatch  stacks  as  long  as  there  is  com 
to  carry  in,  and  the  finer  the  weather  the  less  leisure  will  be  found.  A 
damp  day,  however,  which  prevents  leading,  answers  very  well  for  thatch- 
ing, as  the  straw  is  not  the  worse  of  being  a  little  damp  ;  but  in  heavy  rain 
it  would  be  improper  to  thatch  and  cover  up  so  many  wet  ends  of  sheaves 
as  the  top  of  a  stack  contains.     But,  before  thatching  can  be  carried  on, 

(810) 


CARRYING  IN  AND  STACKING  CORN.  395 

preparations  should  be  made  for  it  some  time  before — that  is,  straw  should 
be  drawn  in  bundles,  and  ropes  twisted  ready  to  be  used  ;  and  a  rainy  day 
in  harvest  cannot  be  better  appropriated  than  to  such  purposes.  The  straw 
is  drawn  in  handsful  out  of  one  another,  till  the  individual  straws  become 
parallel,  when  the  handsful  are  carefully  laid  together  till  as  much  as  a 
thick  bundle  is  drawn,  and  the  bundle  is  then  tied  in  the  middle  with  a 
piece  of  straw-rope,  which  is  the  quickest  mode,  or  with  a  thumb-rope. 

(2:^56.)  Straw  is  twisted  into  rope  with  different  instruments  and  in  dif- 
ferent styles.  The  simplest  instrument  is  the  old-fashioned  throw-crook. 
It  is  used  in  this  way  :  The  left  hand  holds  by  the  ring  at  the  end  of  the 
shank,  and  round  the  point  of  the  head  is  received  a  wisp  of  straw  from 
the  person  who  is  to  let  it  out  to  be  spun.  The  right  hand  holds  the 
middle  of  the  shank  loosely,  and  causes  the  head  to  revolve  round  an 
axis,  formed  by  the  imaginary  line  between  the  head  and  ring,  and  the 
twister  walks  backward  while  operating  with  the  instrument.  The  person 
who  lets  out  the  straw  sits  still  on  a  stool,  or  on  bundles  of  straw,  and, 
using  the  left  hand  nearly  closed,  restrains  the  straw  in  it  till  sufficiently 
twisted,  and  then  lets  it  out  gradually,  while  the  right  hand  supplies  the 
straw  in  equal  and  sufficient  quantities  to  make  the  rope  equal  throughout, 
the  twister  taking  away  the  rope  to  the  requisite  length  as  fast  as  the  spin- 
ner lets  it  out.  The  spinner  then  winds  the  rope  firmly  on  his  left  hand 
in  an  ovoidal  ball,  the  twister  advancing  toward  him,  as  fast  as  the  spinner 
coils  the  rope,  with  a  hold  of  the  end  which  secures  the  ball  firm.  In  the 
Borders  the  spinner  lets  out  the  straw  with  both  hands,  while  stooping 
with  his  head  down  and  his  back  turned  to  the  twister ;  but  the  I'ope  made 
in  this  manner  is  always  thick  and  rough,  compared  to  the  other  mode. — 
A  woman  is  usually  employed  as  the  twister,  and  a  man  as  the  spinner. 
It  is  great  ease  to  the  left  hand  of  the  twister  to  have  the  crook  fastened 
round  her  middle  with  a  piece  of  stout  straw-rope.  The  best  sort  of  straw 
for  rope  is  that  of  the  common  or  Angus  oat,  being  soft  and  pliable,  and  it 
makes  a  firm,  smooth,  small  rope.  An  ordinary  length  of  a  straw-rope 
may  be  taken  at  30  feet.  Counting  every  interruption,  a  straw-rope  of 
this  length  may  take  5  minutes  in  the  making — that  is,  120  ropes  in  10 
hours:  a  man's  wages  20d.,  and  a  woman's  lOd.,  making  together  2s.  6d., 
will  make  the  cost  of  twisting  a  single  rope  just  1  farthing.  Straw-ropes 
are  twisted  in  quite  a  different  way,  with  a  machine  similar  to  the  one  used 
by  rope-makers  to  twist  their  cords.  In  using  it  the  twister  sits  still, 
while  the  spinners  carry  the  straw  under  their  arm,  and  move  backward 
as  they  let  out  the  straw.  The  spinners  then  wind  the  rope  upon 
the  left  hand,  and  advance,  during  the  winding,  toward  the  machine, 
where  they  are  ready  to  begin  to  spin  again.  Usually  3  spinners  let 
out  to  1  twister,  and  as  they  can  spin  as  fast  with  this  machine  as  with 
the  crook,  the  cost  of  making  each  rope  will  be  less  than  that  given 
above ;  but  an  inconvenience  attends  the  use  of  this  twister — when  one 
of  the  spinners  breaks  his  rope,  he  is  thrown  out  of  work  till  the  others 
begin  a  new  rope  ;  and  all  the  spinners  must  let  out  with  the  same  ve- 
locity, otherwise  one  will  make  a  longer  or  a  harder-twisted  rope  than 
the  other. 

(2258.)  It  is  the  duty  of  field-workers  to  fetch  bundles  of  straw  and 
straw-ropes  to  the  thatchers  as  they  are  wanted. 

(2259.)  Having  the  materials  ready — drawn  straw  and  straw-ropes — the 
covering  or  thatching  of  a  stack  is  done  in  this  manner :  On  the  thatcher 
ascending  to  the  top  of  the  stack  by  means  of  a  ladder,  which  is  immedi- 
ately taken  away,  a  bundle  or  two  of  straw  is  forked  up  to  him  by  his  as- 
sistant, a  field-worker,  and  which  he  keeps  beside  him  behind  a  graip,  as 

(811) 


396 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 


noticed  in  covering  the  hay-stack  (2134).  The  straw  is  first  laid  upon  the 
eaves,  beyond  whicli  it  projects  a  few  inches,  and  then  in  an  overlapping 
manner  upward  to  tlie  top.  Where  a  butt-end  of  a  sheaf  projects,  it  should 
he  beaten  in,  and,  where  a  hollow  occurs,  it  should  be  filled  up  with  a  lit- 
tle additional  straw.  In  this  manner  the  straw  is  evenly  laid  all  round  the 
top  of  the  stack,  to  the  spot  where  the  thatcher  began.  Suppose  he  has 
laid  the  covering  on  the  top  of  the  stack,  fig.  422,  all  round  to  the  line  from 
a  to  h,  before  closing  up 

which  he  makes  the  top  f^'S-  422. 

a,  consisting  of  a  small 
bundle  of  well-drawn  long 
straw,  tied  firmly  at  one 
end  with  a  piece  of  cord ; 
the  tied  end  is  cut  square 
with  a  knife,  as  shown  at 
a,  and  the  loose  end  is 
spread  upon  the  covering 
and  forms  the  finishing  to 
it.  To  secure  the  top  in 
its  place,  a  straw-rope 
is  thrown  down  by  the 
thatcher  from  a  to  d,  the 
end  of  which  his  assistant 
on  the  ground  fastens  to 
the  side  of  the  stack. — 
After  passing  the  other 
end  of  the  same  rope 
round  the  top,  he  throws 
it  downin  the  same  direc- 
tion, where  it  is  also  fast- 
ened to  the  stack.  In  like 
manner,  he  throws  down  the  lozenge  mode  of  roping  the  covering  of  a  stack. 
both  the  ends  of  a  rope 

from  a  to  c,  where  they  are  also  fastened  hy  the  assistant.  These  2  ropes 
are  seen  at  e  and  f.  Having  thus  secured  the  top,  the  thatcher  closes  in 
the  covering  from  a  to  h,  when  the  ladder  is  placed  to  receive  him.  Tak- 
ing the  ladder  to  c,  he  inclines  its  top  over  the  covering  of  the  stack,  and 
secures  its  lower  end  from  slipping  outward  by  a  graip  thrust  against  it 
into  the  ground,  He  then  mounts  and  stands  upon  the  ladder  at  the  re- 
quisite hight  above  the  eaves  at  c,  and  there  receives  a  number  of  ropes 
from  his  assistant,  which  he  keeps  beside  him,  between  the  ladder  and  the 
stack.  Holding  on  by  the  end  of  a  coil  of  rope,  he  throws  the  coil  from 
where  he  stands  at  c  down  in  the  direction  of  d,  to  his  assistant,  who,  tak- 
ing it  in  hand,  allows  the  thatcher  to  coil  it  up  again  upon  his  hand,  with- 
out ruffling  the  covering  of  the  stack,  till  of  sufficient  length  to  be  fastened 
to  the  side  of  the  stack.  The  thatcher  then  throws  the  other  newly  coiled 
end  in  the  same  direction  of  d,  where,  on  his  assistant  taking  hold  of  it, 
the  thatcher  retains  the  rope  in  his  hands  by  the  double,  and  places  it  in 
its  position  at  g,  a  little  way  below  e,  and  keeps  it  in  its  place  till  the  as- 
sistant pulls  it  tightly  down  and  makes  it  fast  to  the  stack  like  the  other 
end.  Thus  the  thatcher  puts  on  every  rope  below  g,  till  the  last  one  on 
that  side  has  reached  h.  He  then  takes  the  ladder  to  d,  where  he  puts  on 
every  rope  below  f,  till  they  reach  the  last  one,  i.  Ropes  thus  placed  fi-om 
opposite  sides  of  a  stack  cross  e^ch  other  in  the  diamond  or  lozenge  shape 
represented  in  the  figure.     It  will  be  seen  that  a  windy  day  will  not  an- 

(812) 


CARRYING  IN  AND  STACKING  CORN.  397 

8wer  for  laying  on  the  covering  of  stacks.  To  give  the  thatch-straw  a 
smoothness,  it  should  be  stroked  dowoa  v\dth  a  long,  supple  rod  of  willow ; 
and  to  give  the  ropes  a  firm  hold,  they  should  receive  a  tap  here  and  there 
with  the  fork,  while  the  assistant  is  pulhng  the  last  end  tight.  The  thatch- 
er  is  obliged  to  throw  down  the  rope  at  first  coiled,  and  to  coil  up  again 
the  second  end  before  it  is  thrown  down,  because  the  loose  ends  of  straw- 
ropes  would  not  descend  within  reach  of  the  assistant.  The  ends  of  the 
ropes  are  fastened  to  the  stack  by  pulling  a  handful  of  straw  from  a  sheaf 
a  little  out  of  the  stack,  and  winding  the  rope  round  it ;  and  the  knot  thus 
formed  is  pushed  between  the  rope  and  stack,  and  keeps  the  rope  tight. — 
On  such  a  stack,  which  is  15  feet  diameter  at  the  base,  17  feet  diameter  at 
the  eaves,  12  feet  high  in  the  leg,  and  6^  feet  high  in  the  top,  10  ropes  on 
each  side  are  quite  sufficient  to  rope  it. 

(2260.)  It  is  seldom  that  the  covering  of  a  stack  is  finished  when  the 
straw  and  ropes  are  first  put  on — the  stack  being  placed  beyond  danger, 
others  are  covered  to  the  same  state,  and  the  finishing  is  left  till  more  leis- 
ure is  found  ;  and,  indeed,  all  the  stacks  to  be  early  threshed  seldom  re- 
ceive the  finishing  work  at  all.  Many  farmers  only  finish  the  outside  rows 
of  stacks.  However,  as  I  am  speaking  of  the  subject  just  now,  I  shall  de- 
scribe the  finishing  process  at  once.  An  eaves-rope,  k  I,  fig.  422,  is  spun 
long  and  strong  enough  to  go  round  the  stack.  Wherever  2  ropes  from 
opposite  directions  cross  at  the  eaves-rope,  they  are  passed  round  it,  and, 
being  cut  short  with  a  knife,  are  fastened  to  the  stack,  immediately  below 
the  projecting  part  of  the  thatch  over  the  eaves.  Thus  the  2  ends  of  all 
the  20  ropes  are  fastened  to  the  stack,  and  the  thatch  is  cut  with  a  knife 
round  the  eaves,  in  the  form  shown  from  dhy  b  to  c. 

(2261.)  Another  mode  of  roping  the  covering  of  a  stack  is  shown  in  fig. 
423,  where  the  covering  being  put  as  described  above,  ropes  are  put  over 
the  crown  of  the  stack  all  round, 
from  a  to  h,  a  to  c,  a  to  d,  &c. — 
These  ropes,  at  their  crossing  over 
the  top,  are  fastened  together  by  a 
rope,  which  is  tied  above  them,  and 
cut  off  in  the  form  of  a  rosette,  as 
at  a.  The  ropes  which  cross  these 
are  either  put  on  spirally  from  the 
top  a,  till  they  terminate  at  d,  or 
put  on  separately  in  bands,  paral- 
lel to  the  eaves-rope  ef.  In  either 
case  they  are  twisted  round  each 
crown-rope,  from  the  top  to  the 
eaves,  as  h  is  seen  twisted  round, 
a  d,  a  c,  and  a  b,  by  g,  till  it  reach- 
es the  point  h  again.  The  crown-  a  stack. 
ropes,  such  as  a  b,  a  c,  and  d  d,  are 
made  to  pass  round  the  eaves-rope  ef,  and  fastened  to  the  stack  under  the 
projecting  covering ;  and  the  covering  is  cut  short  round  the  eaves,  from 
€  to  f,  in  the  manner  desciibed  above.  This  mode  of  roping,  though  re- 
quiring fully  more  ropes  than  the  last,  perfectly  secures  the  thatch  against 
the  strongest  winds  ;  though  the  crown-ropes  may  be  fewer  in  number  than 
shown  in  the  figure. 

(2262.)  There  is  still  another  mode  of  roping  the  covering  of  a  stack, 
and  it  is  applicable  to  the  heads  of  all  stacks  whose  eaves  are  formed  of  a 
row  of  sheaves  projecting  beyond  the  body  of  the  stack.  It  is  shown  in 
fig.  424,  and  is  in  common  use   in  Berwickshire.     The  first  thing  done  is 

(813) 


Fig.  423. 


THE  NET  WORK  MODE  OF  COVERING  AND  ROPING 


398  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 

to  put  a  strong  eaves-rope  round  the  stack,  below  the  projecting  row  of 
slieaves  from  a  to  b.  The  straw  is  then  put  on  much  the  same  way  as  be- 
fore described,  but  rather  thicker,  and  it  projects  farther  beyond  the  eaves. 
The  tops  of  the  finishing  sheaves 

of  the  stack   are   pressed   down,  ^^^-  ^~*- 

and  a  rather  hirge,  hard  bundle 
of  short  straw  is  placed  upon 
them,  to  serve  as  a  cushion  for 
the  ropes  to  rest  upon,  and  which 
is  put  on  after  most  of  the  cover- 
ing has  been  laid  on.  The  thatch- 
er  then  perches  himself  upon  the 
top  of  the  hard  bundle,  where  he 
receives  the  ropes  as  they  are 
wanted,  and,  on  being  thrown  to 
him,  he  catches  them  readily  on 
the  point  of  a  long  fork.  Some  the  border  method  of  covering  and  roping 
dexterity  is  required  to  throw  a  ^  corn-stack. 

coil  of  straw-rope  to  the  top  of  a 

stack.  The  best  position  to  do  it  is  to  stand  as  far  from  the  stack  as  to  see 
the  thatcher  fully  in  the  face,  and  clear  of  the  head  of  the  stack ;  then,  lo 
take  the  coil  by  the  small  end,  pitch  it  upward  with  a  full  swing  of  the  arm 
toward  the  thatcher's  feet,  and  he  will  catch  it  firmly  on  the  prongs  of  the 
fork ;  if  aimed  to  a  higher  level,  the  fork  will  be  almost  certain  of  missing 
it — the  critical  position  of  the  thatcher  not  allowing  him  to  turn  his  body, 
but  only  to  move  his  arms.  Uncoiling  the  half  of  a  rope,  the  thatcher 
throws  it  past  the  eaves  to  his  assistant,  who  fastens  that  end,  and  while 
this  is  doing  he  throws  the  other  half  of  the  coil  down  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection, across  the  top  of  the  stack,  to  another  assistant,  who  fastens  it  to 
the  stack  at  ihe  opposite  side  :  1  assistant  may  suffice,  by  tying  first  one 
end  of  the  rope,  and  then  the  other ;  but,  with  2  assistants,  this  mode  of 
roping  is  conducted  with  great  celerity.  Thus,  rope  after  rope  is  thrown, 
to  the  number  of  30,  before  the  top  of  stack  is  sufficiently  roped,  as  seen 
in  the  figure,  from  c  to  d,  e,  f,  &c.  The  n.pes,  where  they  cross  at  the 
top,  are  tied  together  with  a  piece  of  straw-rope,  to  prevent  their  slipping 
offi  The  difficult  part  of  this  mode  of  roping  is  in  finishing  the  eaves — 
which,  if  well  done,  looks  remarkably  neat,  but,  if  otherwise,  is  apt  lo  have 
a  slovenly  appearancie.  In  finishing,  the  ends  of  the  ropes  are  loosened 
from  the  stack,  and  passed  between  the  eaves-rope  and  stack,  and,  on  be- 
ing bro.ught  upward,  are  passed  behind  the  ropes  themselves,  about  8  or  9 
inches  above  the  eaves-rope.  The  end  of  the  first  rope,  suppose  c  d  thus 
fastened,  with  the  part  of  the  covering  which  projects  beyond  the  eaves, 
are  brought  along  the  face  of  the  eaves,  and  the  second  rope  r  f  is  placed 
over  them  before  it  is  passed  below  the  eaves-rope  and  turned  upward,  and 
passed  behind  itself  The  end  of  the  first  rope,  that  of  the  second,  and  the 
projecting  covering,  are  then  all  brought  along  the  face  of  the  eaves,  and 
the  third  rope  c  y  is  placed  over  them,  and  treated  like  the  2  preceding, 
and  thus  all  the  way  round  the  stack  with  both  ends  of  the  30  ropes.  The 
last  finish  is  made  by  bringing  the  ends  of  the  2  or  3  last  ropes  along  the 
face  of  the  eaves,  behind  the  2  or  3  first  ropes.  It  will  be  observed  that, 
while  the  end  of  one  rope  fails  to  go  beyond  its  length,  the  end  of  another 
rope  is  gained,  so  that  the  band  of  ropes  along  the  face  of  the  eaves  re- 
mains about  the  same  breadth  round  the  stack.  The  ropes  between  the 
eaves  and  top  are  held  down  by  4  or  8  ropes,  a  h  b,  g  i,  k  i,  which  are  80 

(814) 


CARRYING  IN  AND  STACKING  CORN.  399 


thrown  across  as  to  quarter  the  top  of  the  stack,  and  their  ends  are  fastened 
to  the  eaves-rope. 

(2264.)  There  are  still  other  modes  of  thatching  stacks,  such  as  sticking 
in  handsful  of  straw  into  the  butt-end  of  the  sheaves,  and  keeping  them 
down  with  stobs  of  willow,  or  with  tarred  twine,  both  in  imitation  of  the 
thatching  of  cottages  ;  and  they  are  modes  in  which  the  use  of  straw-ropes 
are  dispensed  with  altogether.  Whichever  may  be  the  plan  adopted,  the 
chief  object  should  be  to  secure  the  corn  in  the  stack  in  a  dry  state,  with 
the  least  trouble  and  expense.  Of  all  the  modes  in  practice,  I  see  none 
more  efficient  and  better-looking  than  the  lozenge-shaped  ropino- of  fio- 
421.  o  r  1     o  o- 

(2264.)  Where  rough  grass  is  found  on  a  farm,  such  as  on  a  bog  which 
is  partially  dry  in  summer,  I  would  suggest  its  being  mown  and  sheafed, 
for  covering  stacks.  A  day  or  two  spent  in  mowing  such  grass,  after  the' 
harvest  is  over,  are  well  spent,  even  at  the  rate  of  wages  and  food  of  ordi- 
nary harvest-work.  Not  only  does  this  stuff  save  the  drawing  of  good 
straw  where  it  is  scarce,  but  of  itself  forms  good  covering  for  stacks  which 
are  sooQ  to  be  threshed;  and,  by  the  time  it  has  serve°d  the  purpose  of 
thatch,  it  will  be  dry  enough  to  litter  courts,  and  thereby  add  to  the  ma- 
nure-heap. Reeds  might  be  used  in  the  same  way,  where  they  do  not  find 
a  profitable  market  as  thatch  for  cottages. 

(2265.)  These  are  the  usual  modes  of  stacking  and  covering  stacks  of 
vvheat,  barley  and  oats,  in  good  weather ;  but  in  wet  weather  many  expe- 
dients in  stacking  are  tried  to  preserve  the  corn  from  heating,  and  it  is  ne- 
cessary you  should  be  made  acquainted  with  them  to  put  them  in  practice 
when  required.  The  most  common  expedient  is  to  erect  a  pyramid  of  3 
small  trees  or  weedlngs  of  larch  or  Scots  fir,  tied  together  at  the  top,  and 
fastened  together  by  the  sides  with  thin  fillets  of  wood.  Around  this'pyr- 
amid  is  the  stack  built,  and  its  use  is  to  form  a  hollow  space  in  the  center 
of  the  stack,  into  which  the  air  may  have  access.  These  structures  are 
commonly  called  bosses.  When  placed  on  a  stathel,  the  air  enters  them 
directly  from  below,  but,  when  on  the  ground,  it  is  requisite  to  form  an 
opening  from  the  outside  of  the  stack  to  the  boss,  by  means  of  a  low  tres- 
sle ;  and  if  a  tressle  is  placed  on  each  side  of  a  stack,  and  the  position  of 
both  chosen  with  regard  to  the  direction  from  which  the  wind  most  pre- 
yails,  a  complete  circulation  of  air  may  be  maintained  through  the  stack. 
The  greatest  inconvenience  felt  in  the  use  of  this  form  of  boss  is  that,  on 
the  stack  subsiding,  its  sharp  point  is  apt  to  pass  to  one  side  of  the  center 
of  the  top,  and  thereby  to  give  a  high  shoulder  to  the  stack ;  and  it  is  well 
known  that  rain  is  almost  certain  of  entering  a  stack  by  such  a  shoulder. 

(2265.)  In  wet  weather  corn  is  built  in  small  stacks  even  in  the  stack- 
yard ;  and  should  the  weather  prove  settled  wet,  a  dry  moment  should  be 
seized  to  put  2  or  3  stooks  into  what  are  called  hand-huts  in  the  field,  that 
IS,  small  stacks  built  by  hand,  by  a  person  standing  on  the  ground.  Some- 
times corn  is  built  on  a  head-ridge  of  the  field,  instead  of  being  carried  to 
the  stack-yard,  as  the  same  strength  of  men  and  horses  will  stack  more 
corn  in  this  way  in  a  single  fine  day,  than  carry  it  to  the  stack-yard ;  and 
the  stacks  derive  more  benefit  from  the  air  in  the  field  than  in  the  yard. 
Ihese  stacks  are_  also  thatched  in  the  field,  and  carried  to  the  threshing- 
niachine  some  time  during  the  winter.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  practice 
of  some  farmers  to  build  a  portion  of  their  crop  in  the  field  every  year ; 
but  the  practice  is  not  commendable,  for,  besides  the  trouble  and  dirt 
created  in  can-ying  straw  for  thatch  to  the  field,  as  much  confusion  and 
dirt  are  created  in  carrying  the  corn  to  the  steading  in  winter,  when  some 
of  it  cannot  fail  to  be  shaken  out  of  the  sheaves,  and  when  the   stacks 

(815) 


400  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 


wanted  cannot,  perhaps,  be  brought  in  for  a  track  of  bad  \yeather  ox 
throui^h  deep  snow.  A  scheme  may  bo  justifiable  under  pecuhar  circum- 
stances, which  would  be  wrong  in  ordinary  practice ;  and  this  is  one  of 
them. 

(2266.)  Of  the  3  species  of  cereal  grains,  barley  is  most  liable  to  heat  in 
the  stack,  partly  owinj^  to  the  soft  and  moist  quality  of  its  straw,  and 
partly  because  clover  is  always  mixed  with  it ;  and,  on  these  accounts,  it 
is  advisable,  in  most  seasons,  to  make  barley-stacks  smaller  than  others, 
both  in  diameter  and  bight,  and  always  to  support  them  with  prismatic 
bosses.  Much  care  should  be  bestowed,  not  only  by  the  use  of  these  ex- 
pedients, but  on  building  barley-stacks  safely  with  proper  hearting,  to 
prevent  heating;  for  the  least  touch  of  heat  spoils  it  for  malting  purposes, 
and  mailing  barley  always  carries  the  highest  price  in  the  market.  Be- 
sides injuring  the  grain,  heating  compresses  barley-straw  very  firmly  to- 
gether, and,  in  fact,  soon  rots  it.  When  a  single  stack  only  is  seen  to 
heat,  it  may  be  instantly  carried  into  the  barn  and  threshed,  the  air  attend- 
ing which  will  cool  both  grain  and  straw  ;  but  when  a  number  show  symp- 
toms of  leaning  on  one  side,  about  24  hours  after  being  built,  or  exhibit  a 
depression  in  the  top,  a  little  above  the  eaves,  you  may  suspect  heating 
not  only  to  have  commenced,  but  to  have  proceeded  to  a  serious  degree. 
An  incipient  symptom  of  heating  is  when  moisture  is  observed  on  any  part 
of  the  top  of  a  stack  early  in  the  morning,  delicately  indicated  by  cob- 
webs, before  the  sun  has  evaporated  it ;  and,  when  heated  air  is  felt,  or 
steam  seen  to  rise  from  the  top  of  a  stack,  the  symptom  is  unequivocal. 
Heated  barley  lubricates  the  parts  of  the  threshing-machine  with  a  gummy 
matter.  Oats  are  less  apt  to  heat  than  barley,  though  their  heat  is  stronger. 
If  there  is  the  least  sap  remaining  in  the  joints  of  the  straw,  oats  will  be 
sure  to  heat  in  the  stalk.  Heating  gives  to  oat  straw  and  grain  a  reddish 
tinge,  and  renders  the  stravv  quite  unfit  for  fodder,  and  the  grain  bitter 
and  unpalatable,  both  to  horses,  in  the  shape  of  corn,  and  the  people  in 
that  of  meal.  Wheat  seldom  heats,  but,  when  it  does,  the  heat  is  most 
violent.  I  never  saw  stacks  of  wheat  heated  but  once,  when  it  was  fool- 
ishly led  into  the  stack-yard  the  day  after  it  was  reaped.  Partial  heating 
will  be  induced  in  stacks  by  leaning  over  after  being  finished  in  building," 
when  the  compressed  part  may  be  expected  to  heat ;  and  to  avoid  the 
tendency  of  a  stack  leaning  to  one  side  or  another,  a  safe  practice  is  to 
set  props  loosely  round  a  stack,  to  guide  it  in  its  subsidence,  especially  if 
it  has  been  rapidly  built ;  but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  if  one  prop 
is  pushed  harder  in  than  the  others,  it  will  cause  the  stack  to  swerve  from 
it.  Some  stacks  begin  to  sway  the  moment  the  top  is  put  on,  and  such 
should  be  supported  with  props  to  keep  them,  right. 

(22G7.)  Tn  filling  a  stack-yard,  respect  should  be  had  to  the  convenience 
of  taking  in  the  stacks  to  be  threshed  as  they  are  wanted.  As  barley  is 
the  sort  of  grain  first  disposed  of  in  the  market,  the  barley-stacks  should 
be  built  nearest  the  barn,  except  those  intended  for  seed.  Wheat,  except 
in  very  fine  seasons,  is  seldom  firm  enough  to  be  presented  to  market  till 
the  spring,  and  on  that  account  may  be  built  on  the  outside  of  the  stack- 
yard, and  wheat-stacks  grace  a  stack-yard  well.  Oats  are  wanted  at  all 
times,  for  horses  and  fodder,  and  should,  therefore,  be  always  at  hand,  as 
the  stack-yard  becomes  cleared.  Consideration  in  these  particulars  saves 
a  great  deal  of  trouble  and  confusion  in  bringing  in  stacks  to  be  threshed. 

(2268.)  With  regard  to  the  carrying  of  beans  and  pease,  they  are  usu- 
ally the  last  of  being  brought  into  the  stack-yard,  and  particularly  beans. 
The  bundles  of  pease  are  turned  in  the  field  till  they  are  won,  when  they 
are  rolled  up  in  smaller  bundles,  and  tied  by  a  wisp  of  their  own  straw. 
(ei6) 


TWISTING   STRAW-HOPE.  401 

Pease-Straw  is  very  apt  to  compress  in  the  stack,  and,  of  course,  to  beat, 
and  should  therefore  be  built  with  bosses,  either  in  round  stacks  or  oblong 
ones,  like  a  hay-stack.  The  largest  stack  of  corn  I  ever  saw  was  one  of 
pease,  which  was  150  yards  in  length  ;  but  there  was  an  opening  in  it,  in 
which  any  person  could  have  walked  upright  through  the  entire  length  of 
the  stack.  When  pease  become  very  dry  in  the  field  before  they  are  led, 
the  pods  are  apt  to  open  and  spill  the  corn,  particularly  in  sunny  weather; 
and  to  avoid  this  loss,  the  crop  is  usually  brought  quickly  into  the  stack- 
yard, and  built  in  ventilated  stacks.  Beans  are  a  long  time  of  winning 
in  the  field  in  calm  weather.  As  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  land  they 
grf)W  on  plowed  up  for  wheat,  they  are  not  unfrequently  carried  to  a  lea 
field  and  stodked  upon  it,  till  ready  to  be  stacked.  Being  hard  and  open 
in  the  straw,  they  keep  pretty  well  in  small  stacks,  though  not  quite  won, 
and  the  risk  of  keeping  is  worth  running  in  dry  weather  after  much  rain, 
when  the  pods  are  very  apt  to  burst  and  spill  the  corn  on  the  ground.  In 
building  pease  and  beans,  the  sheaves  are  not  laid  with  nicety,  nor  do  the 
stacks  receive  much  trimming,  the  pease  none  at  all,  the  beans  with  the 
back  of  a  shovel.  Thatching  pease  and  bean  stacks  is  conducted  in  the 
same  manner  as  described  above  ;  but  less  pains  are  bestowed  in  finishing 
them  off.  As,  however,  a  good  deal  of  corn  is  exposed  on  the  outside  of 
those  stacks,  the  thatching  is  not  unfrequently  brought  down  their  legs, 
and  kept  on  by  rcfpes. 

(2269.)  In  connection  with  this  latter  subject,  I  may  mention  that  when 
corn  is  mown  in  a  slovenly  manner,  a  good  deal  of  heads  of  grain  may  be 
observed  exposed  to  the  air  on  the  outside  of  the  stacks  ;  and  to  save  these, 
the  stacks  are  shaved  down  with  the  blade  of  a  scythe,  fastened  length- 
wise on  a  shaft,  upon  the  barn-sheet  laid  upon  the  ground  to  receive  the 
shaved-off  corn.  This  process  not  only  saves  the  grain,  but  gives  a  smooth- 
ness to  the  appearance  of  the  stack,  and  prevents  the  mixing  of  sprouted 
grain  among  good  samples  from  the  body  of  the  stack,  and  which  mix- 
ture would  inevitably  occur  were  the  grain  on  the  outside  allowed  to  be 
exposed  to  the  weather.  The  shaving,  it  is  obvious,  should  be  done  im- 
,  mediately  after  the  stack  has  subsided,  and  even  before,  if  there  is  ap- 
pearance of  rain  ;  and  it  is  easily  done,  and  does  not  occupy  much  time.. 

(2270.)  These  are  all  the  particulars  which  occur  to  me  to  say  on  bring- 
ing in  the  crop.  In  conclusion,  I  may  advise  you  not  to  imitate  those 
farmers  who,  because  they  are  gratified  on  having  their  crop  safe  in  the 
stack-yard,  seem  regardless  of  the  state  of  the  stack-yard  itself,  and  leave 
it  for  a  lonp^  time  littered  with  the  refuse  of  the  thatching  straw,  which, 
when  it  becomes  wetted  with  rain,  is  not  only  useless  as  litter  elsewhere, 
but  soon  heats,  and  causes  an  unpleasant  odor  around  the  stacks.  The 
spare  straw  should  be  removed  immediately  after  it  is  of  no  use  in.  the 
stack-yard,  either  to  the  straw-barn,  if  it  is  drawn  and  bundled,  or,  if  loose-, 
into  the  sheds  of  the  hammels,  where  it  will  be  I'eady  for  littering  the  cat- 
tle that  may  soon  be  expected  to  occupy  the  hammels  for  their  winter 
quarters.  The  ground  should  be  raked  clean;  the  air  will  then  become 
sweet,  the  stacks  have  free  circulation  of  it  among  them,  and  the  poultry 
will  have  the  opportunity  to  pick  up  every  particle  of  grain  that  had  fallen 
upon  the  ground.  This  act  of  cleanliness  being  done,  the  stack-yard  gates 
may  be  shut,  and  the  labors  of  the  farm,  in  so  far  as  they  concern  the 
crop,  may  be  said  to  have  been  brought  to  a  termination. 

(2271.)  [The  tkrmecrook,  fig.  425,  is  an  instrument  that  has  been  long  in  use  for  the  purpose  of 
spinning  or  twisting  straw-ropes,  and  is  one  of  those  primitive  inventions  that  required  only  the 
cutting  of  the  first  crooked  sapling  that  might  come  to  hand  :  for  though  our  figure  represents  an 
artificially  formed  implement,  any  piece  of  bent  material  will  answer  equally  well,  all  that  is  re- 
quired being  such  a  form  as  will  give  it  the  character  of  what  we  now  denominate  a  crank,  and 
(873) 36 


402 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 


to  have  a  swivel-joint  at  the  end,  to  allow  it  to  turn  freely  and  independent  of  that  appendaee  by 
which  it  is  attached  to  the  body,  or  to  the  left  hand  of  the  person  who  turns  it  The  implement 
represented  in  fie.  425  is  made  of  a  piece  of  toa^h  ash,  about  3J  feet  lone;  the  beut  part  is 
thinned  off  until  it  is  capable  of  being  bent  to  the  curve,  and  is  there  retained  by  the  iron  stay  a, 
the  part  b  being  left  projecting  beyond  the  stay,  for  the  attachment  of  the  first  end  of  the  rope 
that  is  to  be  made.  The  end  c  is  fumislied  with  ferule  and  swivel-ring,  by  which  it  is  attached 
to  the  peracm,  by  a  cord  passed  round  the  waist  In  using  the  implement,  the  rope-maker  is  sta- 
donar}',  usually  sitting  beside  the  straw,  and  the  spinner  moves  backward  as  the  rope  extends. 


Pig.  425. 


Fig.  426. 


THE  THKOW-CROOK. 


THE  STRAW-ROPE  SPINNER. 


(0272.)  The  straic-rope  spinner,  fig.  426,  is  a  machine  of  recent  introduction  to  the  operations 
of  the  harvest  season,  and  is  of  considerable  importance  in  facilitating  the  process  of  straw-rope 
making.  Comparing  it  with  the  old  instrument,  the  throw-crook,  the  advantage  is  considerable  ; 
for  with  that  two  people  must  be  occupied  in  the  making  of  one  rope,  whereas  with  the  spinner 
four  people  only  are  required  to  make  three  ropes,  being  a  saving  of  one-third  of  the  time  occu- 
pied by  the  old  practice.  The  spinner  has  been  constructed  in  various  forms,  though  exhibiting 
but  two  distinct  varieties  of  the  machine — the  first  distinguished  by  the  spinner  being  stationarj-, 
and  the  rope-maker  moving  away  from  it :  the  second  by  the  rope-maker  being  stationary,  and 
the  spinner  moving  away  fi-om  him.  The  first  kind  is  found  to  be  the  best  in  practice,  and  I  have 
therefore  chosen  an  example  of  it  for  illustration.  Fig.  426  is  a  view  of  the  machine,  consisting 
of  a  sole-frame,  o,  a,  measuring  about  2  feet  each  way.  with  an  upright  post  b  tenoned  into  tlii 
sole,  and  carrj-ing  the  cross-head  c  d.  The  cross-head  is  a  hollow  box  or  case,  adapted  to  contain 
the  machinerj-  of  the  spinner,  consisting  of  5  light  spur-wheels,  about  6  inches  diameter,  placed  as 
Been  in  the  case  c  d.  Of  these,  the  central  and  the  two  extreme  wheels  are  mounted  npon  axles, 
which  terminate  in  the  hooks  e,  e,  e ;  tlie  other  two  wheels  being  merely  placed  intermediate,  to 
produce  revolution  in  the  three  principals  in  one  direction.  A  winch-handle,  f,  is  fixed  upon  the 
axle  of  the  central  wheel,  on  the  side  opposite  to  the  hooks;  and,  to  prevent  the  machine  from 
moving  with  the  strain  of  the  ropes,  a  few  stones,  or  other  weichty  substances,  are  laid  upon  the 
Bole-firaroe.  The  machine  is  then  put  in  operation  by  the  driver  turning  the  handle,  and  the  three 
rope-makers,  each  with  a  quantity  of  straw  under  his  arm.  commences  his  rope  by  binding  a  few 
Mraws  round  the  hook  appropriated  to  him.<!elf.  He  then  proceeds  backward,  letting  out  the 
straw  as  ha  advances,  and  the  rope  takes  the  twist,  until  the  length  required  is  completed,  when 
each  man  coils  up  his  rope  into  an  oval  ball. 

(2273.)  Some  machines  of  this  form  are  mounted  on  wheels,  thereby  coming  under  the  charac- 
ter of  the  second  kind,  when  the  rope-maker  is  stationan.- ;  but  great  inconvenience  must  attend 
any  attempt  at  working  in  this  manner.  Another  form  of  the  machine  adapted  to  work,  as  one 
•f  the  second  kind,  is  that  which  is  strapped  to  the  body  of  the  driver,  he  moving  away  from  the 
stationary  rope-niakers.  This  method  also  is  attended  with  inconvenience,  especially  to  the  driv- 
er, who,  baving  tiie  machine  strapped  in  front  of  his  body,  the  handle  being  at  the  end.  and  the 
machinery  consisting  of  bevel-gear,  having  the  external  form  of  the  cross-head  alone  of  fig.  426, 
the  handle  is  brought  so  near  to  his  bo<iy  that  much  of  tlie  muscular  force  of  the  arm  is  lost  by  this 
misapplication.  By  using  a  well  constructed  machine  for  straw-rope  spinning,  not  only  is  there  a 
saving  of  expense  efiected.  but  the  ropes  are  much  better  twisted,  and.  of  course,  stronger  than 
those  made  by  the  old  implement.     The  price  is  from  .12  5s,  to  X2  10s. — J.  S.] 

(2274.)  Cart-ropes  last  according  to  tlie  care  bestowed  on  them.  When  used  with  the  corn- 
cart  they  should  never  be  allowed  to  touch  the  ground,  as  earthy  matter,  of  whatever  kind,  soon 
causes  them  to  rot  On  being  loosened  when  the  load  of  com  is  to  be  delivered  to  the  stacker, 
they  should  be  coiled  up  before  the  load  is  disposed  of,  and  the  coil  suspended  from  the  back  part 
of  the  cart  quite  clear  of  the  ground.  A  soft  rope  holds  much  more  firmly,  and  is  less  apt  to  eat, 
than  a  hard  one. 
1874) 


DRAFTING  EWES  AND  GIMMERS.  403 


36.    DRAFTING  EWES  AND  GIMMERS,  TUPPING  EWES,  AND  BATHING 
AND  SMEARING  SHEEP. 

"  But  rather  these,  the  feeble  of  thy  flock. 
Banish  before  the  autumnal  months  :  even  age  "  The  ewes,  being  rank, 

Forbear  too  much  to  favor ;  oft  renew.  In  the  end  of  autumn  turned  to  the  rams." 

And  through  thy  fold  let  joyous  youth  appear." 

Dyer.  Merchant  op  Venice. 

(2275.)  When  last  speaking  of  sheep,  the  lambs  were  weaned  and  buist- 
ed.  One  of  the  processes  among  sheep  in  early  autumn,  in  the  beginning 
of  August,  is  drafting  ewes  and,  ghnmers — that  is,  separating  those  to  be 
disposed  of  from  those  to  be  kept.  Drafting,  however,  applies  only  to  a 
standing  flock  of  ewes,  By  a  standing  flock  is  meant  a  fixed  number  of 
ewes,  which  are  made  to  rear  their  lamb  year  after  year.  Instead  of  hav- 
ing a  standing  flock,  some  farmers  are  in  the  custom  of  buying  every  year 
a  flock  of  ewes  big  with  lamb,  receiving  the  lambs  from  them,  and  dispos- 
ing of  both  ewe  and  lamb  at  such  a  season  as  best  suits  the  market  for 
those  respective  sorts  of  stock.  The  ewes  ai-e  sold  in  autumn  to  be  fed  on 
turnips,  and  the  lambs  are  disposed  of,  after  being  weaned,  to  rearers  of 
sheep  who  breed  none.  Such  a  one  is  called  a  flying-jiock.  Of  course, 
flying-stock  require  no  drafting ;  where  all  are  disposed  of,  none  obtain 
the  preference  of  being  kept. 

(2276.)   There  are  various  marks  of  deterioration  which  determine  the 
drafting  o^  ewes.     Bareness  of  hair  on  the  croicn  of  the  head,  which  makes 
them  obnoxious  to  the   attacks  of  fly  in   summer — deficiency  in  eyesight, 
which   prevents   them  keeping  with  the  flock,  and   choosing  out  the  best 
parts  of  pasture  and  best  points  of  shelter — ill-shaped  teeth  and  jaws,  which 
disable  them  from  masticating  their  food  so  well  as  they  should — loant  of 
teeth  from  old  age,  when,  of  course,  they  cannot  rope  sufficient  food  to  sup- 
port their  lambs — hollow  neck,  which  indicates  breeding  too  near  akin — 
hollow  hack,  which  implies  weakness  in  the  vertebral  column,  thereby  ren- 
dering them  unfit  to  bear  lambs  to  advantage— ^/?ai!  ribs,  which  confine  the 
space  for  the  foetus  within  the  abdominal   region — a  drooping  tail-head, 
which  affects  the  length  of  the  hind-quarter,  a  space  occupied  by  superior 
flesh — had  feet,  which  prevent  traveling  with  ease  along  with  their  com- 
panions— roimd  and  coarse  hone,  which  indicates  coarseness  of  flesh — thin 
or  short  coat  of  wool,  which  lessens  the  clip  and  the   profit  of  wool — dis- 
eased teat  or  udder,  which  diminishes  the  supply  of  milk  for  the   future 
progeny — scarcity  of  viilk,  by  which  lambs,  not  obtaining   sufficient  nour- 
ishment in  the  early  period  of  their  existence,  are  stinted  in  growth,  and 
weakened  in  constitution — carelessness  of  disposition,  which  induces  neglect 
of  the  lamb,  particularly  one  of  twins,  which  is  in  consequence  ill-nursed — 
producing  worthless  lamh,  by  which  profits  are  much  diminished — missing 
being  in  lamh,  a  failing  which  is  apt  to  recur  in  any  future  year — casting 
lamb,  a  propensity  likely  to  recur  every  year — rottenness,  which  is,  of 
course,  objectionable  in  every  animal   that  produces  young — shortness  of 
breath,  which  prevents  them  seeking  their  food,  and  eating  so  much  of  it 
as  they  should — tendency  to  scouring,  or  the  opposite,  the  former  imposing, 
weakness,  the  latter  inducing  inflammation — delicacy  of  constitution,  which 
disables  them  from  withstanding  the  ordinary  changes  of  the  weather — 
diminutitje  stature,  or  inordinate  size,  which  destroys  the  uniformity  of  the 

(875) 


404  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 

flock.  This  is  a  long  list  of  faults  incidental  to  ewes,  and  yet  every  one 
may  be  observed,  and  which  every  breeder  of  sheep  is  desirous  to  get  rid  of. 

(2277.)  It  is  not  at  all  probable  that  any  flock  of  ewes  presents  all  these 
objectionable  qualities  in  one  season  ;  but,  notwithstanding  this  favorable 
circumstance,  it  is  not  in  the  power  of  the  breeder  to  draft  every  ewe  hav- 
ing an  objectionable  property  every  year,  because,  the  farm  supporting  a 
stated  number  of  ewes,  the  extent  of  their  draft  depends  on  the  number 
oi good  substitutes  which  may  be  obtained  from  the  gimmers  ;  for  it  is  ob- 
vious no  good  object  is  attained  by  drafting  a  bad  ewe,  and  taking  in  its 
stead  a  bad  gimmer.  The  number  of  gimmers  fit  to  be  transferred  to  the 
ewe  flock  should  therefore  be,  in  the  first  instance,  ascertained,  and  a  cor- 
responding number  of  the  worst  ewes  drafted.* 

(2278.)  In  drafting  gitnmers,  many  of  the  above  faults  may  be  observed 
in  them  also,  though  every  fault  arising  from  lamb-bearing  cannot  possibly 
affect  young  sheep.  The  faults  incidental  to  gimmers  are,  bareness  of  hair 
on  the  crown  of  the  head — ill-shaped  teeth  and  jaws — hollow  neck — hol- 
low back — flat  rib — low  tail-head — bad  feet — round,  coarse  bone — thin 
and  short  fleece — rottenness — shortness  of  breath — tendency  to  scouring, 
or  otherwise — delicacy  of  constitution — and  diminutiveness  of  stature  and 
inordinate  size.  These  faults  are  numerous  enough,  but  not  likely  to  be 
all  observed  in  the  same  year,  and  less  likely  in  the  same  individual. — 
Most  of  them  may  be  got  rid  of  by  rejecting  females  which  have  more  than 
one  of  them,  and  by  employing  tups  free  of  them  all.  When  the  external 
form  is  improved,  the  constitution  is  also  strengthened.  Gimmers,  when 
they  become  ewes,  are  moreover  likely  to  be  deficient  in  milk,  careless  of 
their  young,  and  produce  small  lamb  ;  but  these  faults  disappear  in  the 
succeeding  year — and  should  this  not  be  the  case,  the  ewe,  though  young, 
healthy,  and  fresh,  should  be  drafted.  Thus,  ample  drafting  can  alone  in- 
sure a  sound,  healthy,  well-formed,  young,  and  strong-constitutioned  flock 
of  ewes. 

(2279.)  After  being  drafted,  the  ewes  and  gimmers  are  buisted  [marked] 
with  tar  (2027),  those  to  be  retained,  on  the  near  rib,  and  those  drafted, 
on  the  far. 

(2280.)  Tups  require  but  little  preparation  on  being  put  among  ewes. 
If  their  skin  is  red  in  the  flanks  when  the  sheep  are  turned  up,  they  are 
ready  for  the  ewes,  for  the  natural  desire  is  then  upon  them.  Their  breast, 
between  the  fore  legs,  is  rubbed  with  keil  or  ruddle,  on  being  placed 
among  ewes,  that  they  may  mark  their  rump  on  serving  them.  It  is  the 
duty  of  the  shepherd  to  mark  every  ewe  so  served,  that  he  may  obsei-ve 
whether  or  not  the  season  retui'ns  upon  her,  and  to  be  prepared  for  the 
day  of  her  lambing  when  it  arrives.  The  period  of  gestation  of  the  ewe 
is  5  months,  and  as  the  tup  is  usually  put  among  the  ewes  from  the  8th  to 
the  11th  October,  the  first  lambs  may  be  expected  to  appear  on  the  8th  or 
11th  of  March  following.     A  young,  active  tup,  a  shearling,  will  serve  60 

[*  In  our  Eastern  States,  where  more  care  and  exactness  prevail  in  all  branches  of  hasbandry, 
it  is  probable  thai  flocks  of  sheep  are  periodically  overhauled,  and  all  that  are  defective  from  age, 
or  disorder  of  any  kind,  drafted  and  in  some  way  disposed  of;  but,  in  the  Middle  and  Southern 
States,  very  gross  neglect  is  observable,  almost  universally  on  this  point.  Now,  every  farmer  of 
true  spirit  will  endeavor  to  attain  all  practicable  excellence  in  whatever  he  undertakes — in  the 
quality  of  his  flocks  as  well  as  of  his  implements — in  the  purity  of  his  butter  as  in  the  plumpness 
of  his  grain;  and  nothing  requires  more  searching  vigilance  than  the  health  and  condition  of  his 
eheep.  It  is  with  them,  especially,  that  a  single  rotten  or  diseased  individual  may  infect  the  whole 
flock  ;  and  no  inducement,  no  false  calculation  of  economy,  should  induce  him  to  retain  such  an 
animal,  even  for  a  day,  after  it  is  discovered.    His  character,  aa  well  as  his  interest,  forbids  it 

Ed.  Farm.  Ltd.] 

(876) 


TUPPING  EWES.  405 


ewes,  an  old  one  40  ewes.  Tup-hoggs  are  not  used,  not  having  attained 
maturity nn  any  particular,  though  one  is  sometimes  put  among  ewes  to 
make  an  old  tup  more  active.  When  tups  are  too  fat,  they  are  apt  to  be- 
come lazy,  and  will  only  willingly  serve  a  very  few  ewes  ;  and  when  this 
is  the  case,  it  is  better  to  put  him  in  a  field  by  himself  with  a  few  ewes, 
selected  to  suit  his  particular  qualities,  than  to  urge  him  to  over-exertion 
by  means  of  a  tup-hogg,  because  several  of  the  ewes  served  by  him  in 
such  case  may  miss  being  in  lamb.  A  tup-hogg  so  employed  is  seldom 
allowed  by  the  tup  to  serve  a  single  ewe,  being  driven  off  wherever  he  is 
seen  to  go  with  one;  but  as  a  sure  prevention  of  his  serving,  a  piece  of 
cloth  is  sewed  to  the  wool  on  the  under  part  of  his  belly.  Tups,  when 
too  heavy,  are  apt  to  contract  spavin  in  the  hock  joints,  in  consequence  of 
the  great  weight  of  the  carcass  upon  the  hind  legs,  in  the  act  of  serving 
ewes.  Most  of  the  ewes  will  be  tupped  during  the  second  week  the  tup 
is  among  them  ;  and,  in  the  third,  they  will  all  be  served.  It  is  likely  that 
some  of  the  first  served  ewes  will  retui-n  in  season,  and  these  should  be 
specially  notfced  by  the  shepherd,  as  it  is  not  improbable  they  will  be- 
come tup-eikl.  The  ruddle  requires  to  be  renewed  almost  daily,  and  even 
oftener,  when  the  tupping  is  active. 

(2281.)  Tups  are  not  selected  for  ewes  by  mere  chance,  but  according 
as  their  qualities  may  improve  those  of  the  ewes.  Wlien  ewes  are  nearly 
perfect,  they  may  be  selected  for  breeding-tups.  A  good  ewe  flock  should 
exhibit  these  characteristics  :  strong  bone,  supporting  a  roomy  frame,  af- 
fords space  for  a  large  development  of  flesh — abundance  of  wool  of  good 
qriality,  keeping  the  ewes  warm  in  inclement  weather,  and  insuring  profit 
to  the  breeder — a  disposition  to  fatten  carh/,  which  enables  the  breeder  to 
get  quit  of  his  draft-sheep  readily — and  being  prolific,  which  increases  the 
fiock  rapidly,  and  is  also  a  source  of  profit  Every  one  of  these  proper- 
ties is  advantageous  in  itself,  but  when  all  are  combined  in  the  same  indi- 
viduals of  a  flock,  that  flock  is  in  a  high  state  of  perfection.  Now,  in  se- 
lecting tups,  it  should  be  observed  whether  or  not  they  possess  one  or 
more  of  those  qualities  in  which  the  ewes  may  be  deficient,  in  which  case 
their  union  with  tha  ewes  will  produce  in  the  progeny  a  higher  degree  of 
perfection  than  is  to  be  found  in  the  ewes  themselves,  and  such  a  result 
will  improve  the  state  of  the  future  ewe  flock  ;  .but,  on  the  contrary,  if 
the  ewes  are  superior  in  all  points  to  the  tups,  then,  of  course,  the  use  of 
such  tups  will  only  serve  to  deteriorate  the  future  ewe  flock. 

(2282.)  After  3  weeks  have  elapsed  from  putting  the  tup  among  the 
ewes,  he  should  be  withdrawn  ;  because  lambs  begotten  so  long  after  the 
rest,  will  never  coincide  with  the  flock.  Tups  should,  afi:er  serving,  be 
put  on  good  pastui'e,  as  they  will  have  lost  a  good  deal  of  condition,  being 
indisposed  to  settle  during  the  tupping  season.  The  ewes  and  gimmers 
may  now  be  classed  together,  and  get  such  ordinary  pasture  as  the  farm 
affords.  During  the  autumnal  months,  they  will  find  plenty  of  food  in  the 
pasture  fields,  but  in  winter,  rather  than  be  fed  on  turnips,  a  rough  pasture 
field  should  be  reserved  for  them.  When  they  have  no  such  pasture,  they 
will  require  to  be  put  on  a  break  of  turnips  for  2  or  3  hours  every  day ; 
but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  fat  ewe  always  bears  a  small  lamb, 
and  is  very  subject  to  inflammatory  fever  after  lambing,  from  the  recovery 
of  which,  if  she  ever  recover,  the  probable  result  will  be  scantiness  of 
milk.  Swedish  turnips  will  produce  this  effect  on  ewes  more  readily  than 
other  kinds,  therefore  a  few  white  turnips  should  be  reserved  for  them  as 
long  as  practicable,  should  they  receive  turnips  at  all.* 

*  See  paper  by  me  on  Drafting  Sheep,  in  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  in. 

(877) 


406  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 

(2283.)  Immediately  after  the  arrangements  for  tupping  the  ewes  are 
made,  part  of  the  sheep-stock  undergo  a  preparation  for  being  put  on  tur- 
nip, and  the  preparation  consists  of  bathing  them  with  a  certain  sort  of 
liquid.  Sheep  are  affected  by  a  troublesome  insect,  the  keb  or  ked,  or 
sheep-tick,  which  increase  so  much  in  numbers  as  the  wool  grows, 
toward  autumn,  as  to  become  troublesome  to  sheep  ;  and  were  means 
not  taken  to  remove  them,  the  annoyance  they  occasion  the  sheep 
would  cause  them  to  rub  themselves  upon  every  object  they  can  find,  and 
in  thus  breaking  their  fleece  deteriorate  its  value  to  a  considerable 
extent.  Another  reason  for  bathing  sheep  is,  that  on  experiencing  so  great 
a  change  of  food  as  from  grass  to  tunii])s,  cutaneous  eruptions  are  apt  to 
appear  on  the  skin,  even  to  the  extent  of  the  scab,  which  would  deterio- 
rote  the  fleece  even  more  than  the  rubbing  occasioned  by  the  ked.  The 
liquid,  then,  which  would  be  of  service,  should  combine  the  properties  of 
killing  the  ked  with  certainty,  and  of  preventing  eruptions  on  the  skin, 
without  injury  to  the  staple  of  the  wool ;  and  these  eflects  are  attained  by 
the  use  of  tobacco-liquor  and  spirit  of  tar,  the  former  instantly  destroying 
the  ked,  and  the  latter  acting  as  a  presei-vative  to  the  skin.  The  former 
precaution  is  necessary  to  be  exercised  on  all  classes  of  sheep,  but  the  lat- 
ter is  the  more  necessary  on  sheep  bought  to  fatten  on  turnips,  as  traveled 
sheep  are  almost  always  affected  with  cutaneous  eruptions,  an^  especially 
Black-faced  sheep  direct  from  the  hills,  after  they  have  been  on  turnips 
for  some  time.  As  a  matter  of  safety,  then,  for  your  own  flock,  however 
clean  it  may  be,  every  sheep  that  you  buy  from  another  flock,  whether  in- 
tended for  feeding  on  turnip  or  for  augmenting  your  own  flock,  should  be 
bathed  immediately  on  its  arrival  on  your  farm,  and  before  it  can  possibly 
have  had  time  to  contaminate  your  own  sheep. 

(2284.)  The  materials  used  in  the  bath  are  tobacco,  spirit  of  tar,  soft 
soap,  and  sulphur  vivum.  The  tobacco  is  best  used  in  the  state  of  leaf, 
but  I  understand  it  is  illegal  for  tobacconists  to  sell  tobacco  in  the  leaf. 
Being  used  in  the  proportion  of  1  lb.  of  tobacco  to  every  20  sheep,  it  is 
put  into  a  boiler  with  1  quait  of  water  for  every  1  lb.  of  tobacco,  and 
boiled  gently  for  several  hours.  The  tobacco  is  then  wning  out,  and  re- 
turned again  into  an  empty  boiler  with  -^  quart  of  fresh  water  for  every  1 
lb.,  and  boiled  as  long  as  any  coloring  matter  can  be  obtained  fiom  it, 
when  it  is  wrung  out  and  thrown  away.  The  entire  water  will  have 
boiled  in  to  1  quart  to  1  lb.  of  tobacco.  This  forms  a  decoction  of  tobacco 
which  is  much  better  than  an  infusion.  The  soft  soap  is  used  in  the  pro- 
portion of  1  lb.  lo  every  20  sheep,  and  is  dissolved  thoroughly  in  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  warm  water.  The  sulphur  vivum  is  pounded  fine  and  mixed 
with  the  soap  in  proportion  of  i  lb.  to  20  sheep,  and  it  combines  Avith  the 
soap  in  some  degree,  but  when  both  are  mixed  with  the  tobacco-liquor, 
the  sulphur  is  apt  to  be  thrown  down  in  the  original  state  of  powder.  I 
don't  know  of  what  particular  use  the  sulphur  vivum  is,  for  the  greater 
proportion  of  it  is  certainly  precipitated  to  the  bottom  before  it  is  used, 
unless  its  sulphureous  property  may  serve  to  prevent  the  ked  breeding 
again  for  a  time  ;  but  if  this  is  its  only  use,  the  flour  of  sulphur  should  be 
more  efficacious.  The  tobacco-liquor  is  put  into  a  tub,  and  the  solution 
of  soft  soap  and  sulphur  vivum  are  intimately  mixed  with  it.  The  bath 
thus  made  is  administered  by  means  of  a  tin  flask  capable  of  easily  hold- 
ing 1  quart,  and  provided  with  a  long  spout,  by  which  to  pour  it  along  the 
shedded  wool  of  the  sheep.  The  spirit  of  tar  is  poured  into  the  flask  of  liquor 
when  about  to  be  used,  in  the  proportion  of -^  a  wine-glass  to  1  quart,  and 
stirred.  Some  people  use  stale  urine  over  and  above  these  materials,  for 
the  professed  purpose  of  making  the  bath  stronger,  but  I  cannot  see  how 

(878) 


BATHING  SHEEP. 


407 


it  can  strengthen  any  of  these  ingredients ;  for,  as  to  any  caustic  effect 
upon  the  skin,  a  small  addition  of  the  spirit  of  tar  will  have  a  much  great- 
er effect  than  the  urine.  If  the  urine  is  employed  with  a  view  to  its  am- 
moniacal  vapor  destroying  the  insects,  that  may  be  a  good  plea  for  its  em- 
ployment in  summer  to  prevent  the  extension  of  insect  vermin ;  but  in 
autumn,  when  the  keds  are  entirely  destroyed  by  the  spirit  of  tar,  and  will 
not  again  appear  till  spring  in  a  new  progeny,  the  urine  seems  useless  in 
winter. 

(2285.)  This  is  an  effectual  bath,  and  is  not  expensive  ;  the  tobacco  be- 
ing 3s.  6d.  per  lb.,  a  bottle  of  spirit  of  tar  Is.  6d.,  soft  soap  6d.,  and  sulphur 
vivum  Is.  per  lb.,  give  a  cost  of  5s.  6d.  for  20,  or  3^-d.  per  sheep.  But  it 
should  be  mentioned,  in  regard  to  this  bath,  that,  though  in  very  common 
use,  it  tinges  the  color  of  the  wool,  and  is  more  expensive  than  some  other 
baths  to  be  adverted  to  hereafter. 

(2286.)  An  useful  implement  in  bathing  sheep  is  the  hathing-stool,  fig. 
427,  which  is  made  of  the  best  ash.     It  consists  of  a  seat  a,  for  the  shep- 


Fig.  427. 


THE  BATHING-STOOL  FOR  SHEEP. 


herd  to  sit  on  while  bathing  the 
sheep,  1  foot  square  ;  the  sparred 
part  is  3  feet  long,  and  30  inches 
wide  in  front  from  h  to  c,  its  great- 
est width  being  across  at  d.  The 
legs  e,  e,  &c.,  are  18  inches  high, 
attached  by  means  of  iron  rods 
passed  through  their  upper  part 
and  the  frame  of  the  stool,  and 
secured  with  nut  and  screw. 

(2287.)  The  hathing  is  conduct- 
ed in  this  way  :  A  sheep  is  caught 
and  placed  on  the  stool  on  its  bel- 
ly, with  its  4  legs  through  the 
spars,  and  its  head  toward  the 
seat  a,  on  which  the  shepherd  sits  astride.  The  wool  is  shed  by  the  shep- 
herd, with  the  thumbs  of  both  hands,  from  one  end  of  the  sheep  to  the 
other  ;  and,  when  he  has  reached  the  farthest  end  of  the  shed,  an  assistant, 
a  field-worker,  pours  the  liquor  from  the  flask  equally  along  the  shed,  while 
kept  open  by  the  shepherd  with  both  hands.  The  sheds  made  are  1  along 
each  side  of  the  back-bone,  1  along  the  ribs  on  each  side,  1  along  each  side 
of  the  belly,  1  along  the  nape  of  the  neck,  1  along  each  side  of  the  neck, 
and  1  along  the  counter.  From  these  sheds  the  bath  will  cover  the  whole 
body.  The  sheep  is  turned  on  the  sides  and  back  to  obtain  easy  access  to 
all  these  several  parts.  Additional  liquor  is  put  on  the  tail,  head,  scrotum, 
inside  of  the  thighs,  brisket,  root  of  the  neck,  and  top  of  the  shoulder,  be- 
cause these  are  parts  most  likely  to  be  affected  by  scab,  and  are  chiefly  the 
seats  of  the  nidi  of  insects.  The  shepherd  and  his  assistant  will  bathe  40 
sheep  in  a  day.  Dry  weather  should  be  chosen  for  bathing,  else  the  rain 
will  wash  away  the  newly  applied  bath  ;  and  coarse  clothes  should  be  worn 
by  those  who  administer  the  bath,  as  it  is  a  very  dirty  process.  When  the 
sheep  are  lying  on  their  back  on  the  stool,  their  legs  are  not  tied,  so  the 
assistant  should  be  aware  of  receiving  a  kick  from  the  hind  feet  on  the 
face  or  on  the  flask. 

(2288.)  Shortly  after  bathing,  the  keds  may  be  seen  adhering  to  the 
points  of  the  wool  dead ;  and,  when  sheep  are  much  infested  by  this  ver- 
min, the  fleece  may  be  seen  speckled  thick  with  their  bodies.  Sheep  are 
differently  affected  with  keds ;  and  those  which  recover  from  a  lean  or 
stinted  state  to  one  in  better  condition,  on  a  change  of  food,  are  most  liable 

(879) 


408  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 

to  be  overnin  with  them,  as  cattle  are  with  lice  when  improving  in  condi- 
tion on  turnips.  This  being  the  case,  the  ked  may  be  expected  to  increase 
rapidly  on  sheep  that  have  been  some  time  on  turnips,  and  hence  the  ne- 
cessity of  bathing  sheep  before  being  put  on  turnips.  HoQrgs  are  most  lia- 
ble to  their  attack,  because,  perhaps,  they  get  most  rapidly  into  condition 
after  being  some  time  weaned. 

(2289.)  The  rliseasrs  incident  to  sheep  in  antumn  are  yellows  and  rot.  both  arising:  from  a  disof 
dered  state  of  the  same  organ— the  liver,  and  iiinintr.  Tlie  i/elloirs  is  jaundice,  exhibiting  yellow- 
ness of  the  eye.  the  mucou.s  membranes,  and  the  urine.  Bleeding,  and  purging  with  aloes  and 
calomel,  are  "the  appropriate  remedies.  Fat  draft  ewes  which  have  fed  some  time  upon  aftermath 
are  most  liable  to  the  disease.  Inflammation  of  the  liver  is  the  cause,  in  which  the  pain  of  the 
affected  part  is  very  obscure,  and  the  natural  language  of  the  sufferer  not  very  expressive,  nor  is 
the  symptomatic  fever  marked.  Here  a  striliing  analogy  is  noted  between  the  lower  animals  and 
man.  inasmuch  as  there  is  generally  a  sympathetic  pain  in  the  right  shoulder,  so  strongly  marked 
as  often  to  be  mistaken  fortlie  principal  disorder,  and  treated  acconiingly.  Whenever  j-ou  observe, 
therefore,  a  lameness  of  the  right  Ice  of  any  fat  slwep  on  foggage,  you  may  suspect  the  existence  of 
yellows,  and  examine  the  inside  of  the  eyelid,  and  observe  whether  any  yellowne.«s  exists  there. 

(2290.)  The  tot  la  a  far  more  serious  disease,  causing  the  death  of  numbers  of  a  flock  in  a  very 
short  period.  Deficient  food  in  summer,  and  a  flush  of  rank  wet  grass  in  autumn,  occasion  min 
to  the  health  and  constitution  of  sheep.  In  the  wet  and  cold  season  of  1817,  when  sheep  could 
not  obtain  a  mouthful  of  good  food  in  summer,  and  when  the  autumn  arrived,  accompanied  with  a 
flash  of  wet  herbage,  I  knew  a  farmer  in  Cheviot  who  lost  300  Cheviot  ewes  in  the  course  of  2  or 
3  weeks.  The  early  symptoms  of  rot  are  very  obscure,  a  circumstance  much  to  be  lamented,  as 
in  the  first  stage  alone  does  it  often  admit  of  cure.  '•  The  animal  is  dull,"  observes  Mr.  Youatt ; 
"  lagcing  behind  his  companions,  he  does  not  feed  so  well  as  usual.  If  suspicion  has  been  a  lit- 
tle excited  by  this,  the  truth  of  the  matter  may  easily  be  put  to  the  test ;  for  if  the  wool  is  parted, 
and  especially  about  the  brisket,  the  skin  will  have  a  pale  yellow  hue.  The  eye  of  the  sheep  be- 
ginning to  sicken  with  the  rot,  can  never  be  mistaken  ;  it  is  injected,  but  pale,  the  small  veins  at 
the  corner  of  the  eye  are  tursiid,  but  they  are  filled  with  yellow  serous  fluid,  and  not  with  blood. 
The  caruncle,  or  small  glandular  body  at  the  corner  of  the  eye,  is  also  yellow.  Farmers,  very 
properly,  pay  great  attention  to  this  in  their  examination  or  purchase  of  sheep.  If  the  caruncle 
is  red,  tiicy  have  a  proof,  which  never  fails  them,  that  the  animal  is  healthy.  If  that  body  isrrkttt 
they  have  no  great  objection  or  fear — it  is  generally  so  at  grass ;  but  if  it  is  of  a  yellow  color,  they 
immediately  reject  the  sheep,  although  he  may  otherwise  appear  to  be  in  the  ver}-  best  possible 
condition  ;  for  it  is  a  proof  that  the  liver  is  diseased,  and  the  bile  beginning  to  mingle  with  the 
blood.  There  is  no  loss  of  condition,  but  quite  the  Contrarj';  for  tlie  sheep,  in  the  early  stage  of 
rot,  has  a  great  propensity  to  fatten.  Mr.  Bakewell  was  aware  of  this,  for  he  used  to  overflow 
certain  of  his  pastures,  and  when  the  water  was  run  off,  turn  those  of  his  sheep  upon  them  which 
he  wanted  to  prepare  for  the  market.  They  speedily  became  rotted,  and  in  the  early  stage  of  the 
rot  they  accumulated  flesh  and  fat  with  wonderful  rapidity.  By  this  maneuver  he  used  to  gain  5 
or  6  weeks  on  his  neighbors." 

(2291.)  It  is  alleged,  that  wlien  sheep  have  access  to  salt,  they  are  never  known  to  be  affected 
with  rot;  and  I  have  as  little  doubt  that,  were  oil-cake  put  freely  within  their  power  in  such  a 
season  as  I  have  alluded  as  having  occnred  in  1817,  they  would  escape  the  malady.  Change 
of  pasture  from  a  wet  to  a  dry  situation  may  be  the  means  of  even  curing  the  rot,  when  the  change 
has  been  effected  at  an  early  statre  of  the  disease.  All  land  that  has  been  irrigated  in  sum- 
mer, and  produces  a  rank  growth  of  grass  in  autumn,  should  be  avoided  by  sheep,  as  being  the 
very  pest-house  of  rot.  Some  land,  in  its  natural  state,  will  affect  sheep  with  rot  when 
grazed  upon  it,  such  as  soft,  spongy  soil,  having  a  clayey  tendency,  and  never  free  of 
moisture.  In  so  far  as  this  last  cause  of  rot  is  concerned,  draining  has  had  the  effect  of  rendering 
land  sound  which  was  known  to  have  rotted  sheep  in  a  short  time.  In  the  prospect  of  such  aa 
evil,  when  inevitable,  sheep  cannot  be  long  kept  on  the  same  farm,  but  must  be  sold  in  the  course 
of  a  few  months;  in  short,  tenants,  in  their  fear,  are  obliged  to  keep  a  flying-stock,  especially  of 
ewes,  for  these  are  the  most  easily  affected  portion  of  the  flock.  The  application  of  lime  has  ren- 
dered land  sound  which  was  subject  to  rot,  even  after  it  had  been  drained.  Sudden  frost  and  thaw, 
alternately,  in  spring,  produce  rot,  according  to  the  old  proverb — 

"  Mony  a  froet,  and  mony  a  thow, 
Retaken  mony  a  rotten  yow." 

(2292.)  The  liver  of  rotten  sheep  always  contains  the  well  known  animal  the  Jluke,  so  named 
from  its  striking  resemblance  to  a  flounder.  Its  nature  has  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  examined. 
It  was  named  Fascioln  by  Linnrrns,  and  Distoma  hepaticum  by  Rodolphi.  Its  intestinal  ducts 
contain  great  numbers  of  grains  of  a  pale  red  color  like  sand,  which  are  supposed  to  be  its  eggs  ; 
and  as  no  difference  of  sex  has  been  observed,  it  is  believed  to  be  a  hermaphrodite.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  its  eggs  find  their  way  t6  the  grass,  from  which  sheep  receive  them  into  their  stomach, 
and  thus  are  supposed  to  find  their  way  into  the  liver.  The  eggs  are  found  in  the  biliary  ducts, 
in  the  intestinal  canals,  and  even  in  the  dung  of  healthy  sheep,  and  they  swarm  in  the  dung  of 
rotten  ones.     Much  more  could  be  saiil  on  the  subject  of  rot,  but  I  must  refer  vou  to  authorities.* 

(2293.)  ■'  Pining,"  says  the  Eitrick  Shepherd,  ■  is  a  very  descriptive  Scotticism,  from  the  verb  ; 
for  no  creature  can  have  a  more  languishing  and  miserable  look  than  a  sheep  affected  by  thisma- 
Hgnant  distemper.  Well  may  I  describe  it,  for  in  the  last  9  years  I  have  lost  upward  of  900  sheep 
by  its  ravages.  It  is  quite  a  new  disease  on  the  Border ;  for  I  was  20  years  a  shepherd  and  never 

*  Youatt  on  Sheep,  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  voL  t.  and  vol.  tI.  Parkinson  on  Live  Stock, 
▼ol.  i 

(880) 


LIFTING  AND  PITTING    POTATOES.  409 

eaw  an  instance  that  I  can  remember  of  with  certainty,  nor  did  I  ever  hear  its  name  save  from 
Galloway,  where  it  was  called  the  vinquish,  and  where  it  has  been  prevalent  for  ages.  It  was 
likewise  known  long  ago  in  some  of  the  districts  of  the  middle  Highlands.  It  is  a  strange  dis- 
temper. On  the  genuine  pining  farms,  the  sheep  do  not  take  it  by  ones  or  twos,  but  a  whole 
flock  at  once.  It  is  easily  distinguished  by  a  practiced  eye,  the  first  sjmptoms  being  lassitude  of 
motion,  and  a  heaviness  about  the  pupil  of  the  eye,  indicating  a  species  of  fever.  I  wish  I  had 
science  to  describe  it  in  a  pathological  manner,  which  I  have  not.  and  therefore  shall  not  attempt 
it :  but  at  the  very  first  the  blood  is  thick  and  dark  of  color,  and  cannot  by  any  exertion  be  made 
to  spring:  and  when  the  animal  dies  of  this  distemper,  there  is  apparently  scarcely  one  drop  of 
blood  in  the  carcass.  It  lives  till  there  does  not  seora  to  be  a  drop  remaining:  and  even  the  ven- 
tricles of  the  heart  become  as  dry  and  pale  as  the  skin.  This  simple  fact  may,  I  hope,  enable  men 
of  science  to  comprehend  its  nature.  It  is  mo.st  fatal  in  a  season  of  drouth  ;  and  J uoe  and  Sep- 
tember are  the  most  deadly  months.  If  ever  a  farmer  perceive  a  flock  on  such  a  farm  having  a 
more  than  ordinary  flushed  appearance  by  rapid  thriving,  he  is  gone.  By  that  day  8  days,  when 
he  goes  out  to  look  at  them  again,  he  will  find  them  all  Ij'ing,  hanging  their  ears,  running  at  the 
eyes,  and  looking  at  him  like  so  many  condemned  criminals.  As  the  disease  proceeds,  the  hair 
on  the  animal's  face  becomes  dry,  the  wool  assumes  a  bluish  cast,  and  if  the  shepherd  have  not  the 
means  of  changing  pasture,  all  tho.se  aftected  will  fall  in  the  course  of  a  month."' 

(2'J9-1.)  The  rationale  and  cure  of  this  fatal  disease  are  thus  attempted  to  be  given  by  a  writer. 
"Thedisea.se  called  pining,  seems  to  arise  from  an  enervated  and  costive  habit  of  the  animal, 
which  may  be  produced  by  a  want  of  proper  exercise,  in  conjunction  with  feeding  in  pasturesof 
an  astringent  nature.  The  principal  di-stricts  in  which  this  disease  is  found  to  prevail,  are  the 
green  pasturesof  the  Cheviot  mountains,  the  chain  of  hills  running  through  the  S.  W.  parts  of  Rox- 
burghshire, the  pastoral  districts  of  Selkirk  and  Peebles  shires,  and  some  other  districts  of  Scot- 
land, as  Galloway.  Under  the  old  practice  of  keeping  the  sheep  in  flocks,  as  they  are  termed,  hir- 
«eZs,  of  weaning  the  lambs  in  the  months  of  July  or  August,  and  afterward  of  milking  the  ewes 
for  8  or  10  weeks,  the  pining  was  unknown  in  most  of  these  districts  ;  but  under  this  mode  of 
treatment,  the  sheep  were  frequently  subject  to  diarrhea — a  disease  diametrically  opposed  to 
pining.  The  farmers  oftho.se  pastoral  districts  have  generally  improved  upon  the  older  methods 
of  keeping  their  sheep.  They  find  it  to  be  more  profitable  to  allow  the  whole  flocks  to  pasture 
together  indiscriminately  and  undisturbed.  The  lambs  remain  unweaned,  until  they  wean 
themselves,  which  generally  does  not  take  place  till  the  month  of  December.  By  this  mode  of 
management,  the  ewes  and  lambs  are  found  to  be  of  a  higher  comparative  value  than  all  the  sum 
realized  by  the  sale  of  cheese  made  from  the  milk  of  the  ewes  ;  besides,  the  ewes'are  not  subject 
to  various  accidents  arising  from  so  frequently  collecting  them  together  for  the  purpose  of  milk- 
ing. But  under  this  undisturbed  state  of  management,  in  all  cases  where  dry  astringent  pastures 
are  produced,  such  as  on  the  sienitic  porphyry  of  the  Cheviot  range,  the  pining  made  its  appear- 
ance. That  such  pasture  promotes  this  disease,  is  farther  strengthened  by  the  fact  that  it  is  more 
common  in  dry  than  in  wet  seasons  ;  and  most  so  at  that  season  of  the  year  when,  by  the  influence 
of  the  sun,  the  plants  are  less  juicy:  or  early  in  autumn,  when  the  grasses  which  have  pushed  to 
seed  become  less  succulent.  The  disease  is  not  known  on  the  whole  of  the  clay  slate  range  of  the 
Lammermoor  Hills,  where  heath  prevails,  occasionally  interspersed  with  green  pastures,  and 
where  the  hirsding  practice  is  pursued.  Nor  is  it  known  to  exist  in  general  on  green  succulent 
pastures,  or  even  heaths,  growing  on  calcareous  or  sandstone  grounds,  where  the  nature  of  the 
food  and  the  exertion  of  the  animal  in  procuring  it  appear  to  counteract  the  progress  of  the  dis- 
ease, arising  from  the  inactivity  of  the  digestive  function.  If  we  suppose  these  to  be  the  predis- 
posing causes  of  this  disease,  the  prevention  or  remedy  will  suggest  itself  either  under  the  head 
of  food  or  treatment.  Should  it  be  deemed  inexpedient  to  adopt  the  mode  of  keeping  the  flocks 
in  hir.sel.s,  a  change  of  place,  and,  consequently,  of  food,  is  necessary  to  accomplish  this  purpose. 
The  salutary  effects  of  a  variety  of  food  on  the  animal  system  are  well  known.  When  sheep 
affected  with  this  disease  are  put  upon  a  heath,  it  has  frequently  the  desired  effect;  but  when  the 
animal  is  much  overcome  with  the  disease,  its  state  of  languidness  may  prevent  it  from  taking  such 
a  quantity  of  food  as  will  produce  a  reaction  upon  the  animal  functions.  The  most  effectual  cure, 
therefore,  in  all  cases,  is  a  change  to  a  more  rich  and  succulent  pasture."* 


37.    LIFTING  AND  PITTING  POTATOES. 

"If  planted  in  fair  rows 
They  marshaled  grew,  the  plow  will  best  perform 
The  reaping  task :  amid  the  tumbling  soil 
The  vegetable  mine,  exposed  to  view, 
The  gatherer's  basket  fills." 

GUAHAM. 

(2295.)  The  harvest-work  of  a  farm  cannot  be  said  to  be  completed  un- 
til the  potato  crop  is  taken  out  of  the  ground  and  secured  against  the  win- 
ter's  frost.     By  October  the  potatoes  may  be  expected  to  be  ready  for  lift- 

*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  voL  ii. 

(881) 


410  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 

ing.  The  fitness  of  potatoes  for  lifting  is  indicated  by  the  decay  of  the 
haulms  :  for  as  long  as  these  appear  at  all  green,  you  may  conclude  the 
tubers  have  not  yet  airived  at  maturity.  In  an  early  season  potatoes  will 
ripen  before  October ;  and  though  the  weather  should  continue  fine,  the 
best  plan  is  to  let  them  remain  in  the  ground  till  the  com  crops  are  entire- 
ly harvested.  Immediately  after  the  fields  are  cleared  of  corn,  the  pota- 
toes should  be  taken  up  and  secured,  to  allow  the  land  to  be  plowed  up 
for  wheat  ;  indeed  it  will  happen,  under  all  circumstances  of  weather,  thai 
the  corn  will  be  ready  to  be  cut  down  and  carried  in  before  the  potatoes 
are  fit  to  be  taken  up. 

(229(3.)  'J'here  are  two  modes  of  lifting  potatoes,  namely,  with  the  plow 
and  with  the  potato-graip.  The  plow  is  the  most  expeditious,  though  I 
believe  the  ground  is  best  cleaied  of  tubers  with  the  graip.  With  either 
instrument  a  large  number  of  people  to  gather  the  potatoes  are  required, 
each  of  whom  should  be  provided  with  a  small  semi-spheroidal  shaped 
basket,  with  a  bow-handle,  to  gather  the  potatoes  into,  and  then  to  put 
them  into  sacks  or  close-bodied  carts.  When  a  farmer  lifts  potatoes  on 
his  own  account,  they  are  usually  put  into  a  cart  and  carried  direct  to  the 
pits.  When  he  lifts  them  on  account  of  a  purchaser,  or  a  number  of  pur- 
chasers, they  ai-e  measured  on  the  spot  fi'om  the  basket,  and  put  into 
sacks,  in  which  they  are  easily  delivered.  When  lifted  for  shipment  to 
the  London  market,  they  are  first  riddled  into  sizes,  then  measured  or 
weighed  on  the  spot  and  put  into  carts,  and  taken  to  the  ship's  side.  The 
potato-riddle  is  made  of  wire,  with  meshes  from  1|^  inches  to  1^  inches 
square,  and,  if  rimmed  with  oak,  costs  2s.  6d.  each.  The  riddlings,  or 
small  potatoes,  are  used  on  the  farm.  Potatoes  are  usually  sold  by  weight, 
and  a  given  weight  represents  the  measure  of  a  boll ;  which  boll,  again, 
dififers  in  weight  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  thereby  rendering  the 
imperial  weights  and  measures  act,  in  this  instance,  nugatory.  A  boll  is 
20  stones  of  14  lbs.  to  the  stone,  in  some  parts  of  Scotland,  and  it  is  40 
stones  in  others ;  and,  to  contradistinguish  them,  the  small  boll  is  called  a 
single,  and  the  large  a  double  boll.  The  produce  of  a  crop  of  potatoes 
varies  amazingly — from  30  to  100  single  bolls  per  imperial  acre.  It  is 
singular  that  the  price  does  not  vary  nearly  so  much — from  4s.  6s.  the  sin- 
gle boll,  being  the  limits  between  dear  and  cheap  prices.  Taking  60  bolls 
[16,800  lbs.]  as  the  medium  produce,  and  5s.  as  a  medium  price,  the  gross 
return  from  an  imperial  acre  of  potatoes  will  be  c£15  [$75].  If  the  ex- 
pense of  lifting  the  crop  is  taken  at  30s.  per  acre,  the  return  will  be  t£13 
10s.;  a  large  sum,  certainly,  but  then  it  should  be  remembered  that  pota- 
toes leave  no  straw  for  manure,  and  require,  on  the  contrary,  a  large  quan- 
tity of  manure  to  raise  even  a  tolerable  crop.  They  incur  considerable 
trouble  in  their  delivery  ;  and,  being  a  perishable  commodity,  cannot  be 
kept  beyond  a  given  time. 

(2297.)  In  employing  the  j^^oer  to  take  up  potatoes,  the  common  one, 
witli  2  horses,  answers  well ;  but  as  the  potatoes  run  the  hazard  of  being 
split  by  the  coulter  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  them,  it  should  be  taken 
out,  the  sock  being  sufficient  to  enter  the  plow  below  the  drill,  and  the 
mould-board  to  turn  them  out  of  it.  The  plow  in  going  up  splits  one  diill, 
and  in  returning  splits  the  next,  but  no  faster  than  a  band  of  gatherers,  or 
field-workers,  if  numerous  enough,  but  if  not,  assisted  by  hired  laborers, 
can  clear  the  ground  of  them  into  the  baskets.  In  free  soil,  potatoes  are 
easily  seen  and  picked  up  ;  heavier  soil  is  apt  to  adhere  to  them,  in  which 
case  it  is  a  good  plan  to  make  a  stout  field-worker  shake  those  portions  of 
the  earth  turned  up  by  the  plow,  which  still  adhere  in  lumps,  with  a  po- 
tato-graip, and  expose  the  tubers.     Potato-gathering  should  not  be  con- 

(882j 


Lifting  and  pitting  potatoes. 


411 


tinued  so  late  in  the  evening  as  that  the  tubers  cannot  be  easily  seen  ;  nor 
should  it  be  prosecuted  in  wet  weather,  which  causes  the  earth  to  adhere 
to  them,  and  renders  them  undistinguishable  from  the  earth  itself.  Of 
course  every  one,  the  smallest  tuber,  should  be  taken  off  the  ground,  not 
only  on  the  score  of  economy,  to  realize  the  whole  crop,  but  to  remove 
them  as  a  weed  from  among  the  succeeding  crop.  After  the  field  has 
been  gone  over  in  this  manner,  the  harrows  are  passed  a  double  tine  to 
bring  concealed  tubers  to  the  surface,  when  they  are  gathered  by  the  peo- 
ple, and  to  shake  the  haulms  free  of  soil.  These  after-gathered  potatoes 
are  usually  reserved  for  pigs  and  poultry.  Whenever  the  field  is  cleared 
of  the  crop,  the  haulms  are  gathered  by  the  field-workers  and  carried  to 
the  compost  stance,  to  be  converted  into  manure,  and  these  are  the  only 
return  which  the  potato  crop  makes  to  the  soil. 

(2298.)  A  simple  instrument,  fig.  428,  which  may  be  substituted  in  the 
plow  for  the  mould-board  for  turning 
potatoes  out  of  the  drill  was  contrived 
by  Mr.  John  Lawson,  of  Elgin.  It  con- 
sists of  6  malleable  iron  bars,  the  outer 
ones  |-  of  an  inch  square,  the  inner  ^  an 
inch  in  diameter,  joined  together  in  the 
form  of  a  brander,  26  inches  long  from 
a  to  b  ;  5  inches  in  breadth  from  b  to  c, 
at  the  fore  part,  where  is  a  plate  of  iron ; 
27  inches  in  length  from  c  to  d;  and  18 
inches  in  breadth  from  d  to  a.  This 
brander  is  attached  to  the  right  side  of 
the  head  and  stilt  of  a  plow,  in  lieu  of 
the  mould-board,  by  the  screws  e,  e,  and  the  fore-end,  b  c,  being  placed 
close  behind  the  sock,  as  seen  at  a,  fig.  429,  which  shows  the  plow  mount- 
Fig.  429. 


Fig.  428. 


THE  POTATO-RAISER  OR  BRANDER. 


s  THE  POTATO-RAISER  ATTACHED  TO  THE  PLOW. 

ed  with  the  brander,  having  its  upper  angle  at  a,  fig.  428,  8  inches,  and 
the  plane  of  its  face  so  bent  down  as  to*  have  the  lower  angle  d  only  4 
inches  above  the  sole  of  the  plow.  The  openings  between  the  rods  will 
thus  be  rather  more  than  2^  inches  at  the  widest  end  of  the  brander,  be- 
tween a  and  d.  The  mode  of  operation  of  the  brander  is,  that  while  the 
earth  partly  passes  through  it,  and  is  partly  placed  aside  by  it,  the  potatoes 
are  wholly  laid  aside,  so  there  are  few  of  them  but  are  left  exposed  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground. 

(2299.)  "  This  plow,"  says  Mr.  Lawson,  "  is  drawn  by  one  pair  of  horses, 
m  the  same  manner  as  the  common  plow.  In  working  it,  the  plowman 
inserts  it  into  the  potato-drill  so  as  to  have  the  whole  of  the  potatoes  on 
his  right-hand  side.  He  then  proceeds  along  the  drill,  splitting  it  up  in 
the  common  Avay.  The  earth  is  then  thrown  to  the  right-hand  side,  and 
the  potatoes  lie  scattered  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  behind  the  plow. 
Women  follow,  provided  with  baskets,  into  which  they  gather  the  potatoes, 
and  throw  the  stems  upon  the  drill  which  lies  to  the  right  hand  of  the  one 

(885)  ^  ° 


412  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMW. 

from  vvliich  they  are  gathering  the  potatoes.  The  reason  why  the  potato- 
stems  are  thus  removed  is  tliat  as  soon  as  the  potatoes  which  lie  on  the 
surface  are  gathered,  the  plow  returns,  and  again  proceeds  as  before, 
through  the  part  of  the  drill  in  which  the  potatoes  lay,  still  turning  the 
earth  to  the  right-hand  side.  This  second  operation  raises  to  the  surface 
any  stray  potatoes  which  the  first  may  not  have  turned  up,  and  the  pota- 
toes thus  raised  are  gathered  by  the  women  who  attend  for  that  purpose. 
The  second  operation  may  be  delayed  till  about  12  drills  are  turned  over 
by  the  first  operation,  and  the  j)otaloes  gathered.  The  plow  may  then  be 
put  through  these  12  drills  the  second  time.  liy  this  there  will  be  a  saving 
of  labor,  as  a  smaller  number  of  women  will  gather  the  potatoes  by  the 
second  operation,  while  the  greater  number  of  them  may  remain  with 
another  pUjw  in  its  first  movement.  If  the  stems  of  the  potatoes  be  very 
strong  and  luxuriant,  a  few  of  the  women  might  be  directed  to  go  along 
the  drill  anJ  pull  them  out  of  the  ground,  at  the  same  time  plucking  off 
any  potatoes  that  may  adhere  to  and  come  along  with  the  stems.  If  this 
is  done,  the  plow  will  turn  up  the  greater  part  of  the  potatoes  by  going 
only  ovcc  through  the  drill ;  but,  in  going  twice,  it  will  do  it  in  the  most 
satisfactory  manner.  A  man  with  1  pair  of  horses  will  thus  pass  over  the 
ground  as  quickly  as  with  the  common  plow.  In  light  soils  this  plow  per- 
forms its  work  in  a  very  efficient  manner.  It  pulverizes  the  soil  in  an  ex- 
traordinary degree,  and  scarcely  leaves  a  single  potato  in  the  soil.  I  have 
never  before  been  able  to  clear  my  fields  of  potatoes  so  effectually  as  by 
this  implement,  or  at  nearly  so  small  an  expense."* 

(230U.)  When  potatoes  are  taken  up  by  manual  work,  it  is  done  with 
the  fotato-graip,  fig.  430,  the  prongs  of  which  are  flattened. 
Being  rather  severe  work  to  use  this  graip,  men  are  employed  ^^'s-  ^•'°- 
for  the  purpose,  1  man  taking  1  drill,  close  beside  that  of  his 
fellow-workmen,  while  2  gatherers  to  every  man  are  ready  to 
pick  up  the  potatoes  he  turns  out  into  the  baskets.  In  using 
the  graip,  it  is  inserted  into  the  side  of  the  drill,  and  below 
the  potatoes,  with  a  push  of  the  foot,  and  the  graipful  of  earth 
thus  obtained  is  turned  on  its  back  into  the  hollow  of  the  drill, 
exposing  the  potatoes  to  view  on  the  top  of  the  inverted 
earth,  wheiuce  they  are  gathered.  The  men  then  pass  the 
prongs  of  the  graip  here  and  there  through  the  inverted  graip- 
ful and  the  soil  on  the  drill,  to  detect  and  expose  to  view  every 
tuber  lurking  beneath  the  soil.  In  this  manner,  1  man  and  2 
women  will  take  up,  of  a  good  crop  of  80  bolls  of  20  stones  per 
acre,  20  bolls  a  day,  which  will  cost  3d.  per  boll  at  the  follow- 
ing wages  :  1  man  2s.,  and  2  women  at  Is.  6d.  each  per  day, 
without  food=5s.  per  day,  or  20s.  per  acre.  Such  gi-aips  cost 
28.  3d.,  and  when  handled  38.  each. 

(2301.)  In  regard  to  the  storing  of  potatoes,  there  is  no  dif- 
filculty  in  the  early  part  of  winter,  when  a  low  temperature  pre- 
vails, and  vegetation  is  lulled  into  a  state  of  repose.  Potatoes 
may  therefore  be  kept  in  almost  any  situation  in  the  early  part  of  winter ; 
but  then,  if  damp  is  allowed  to  surround  them  for  a  time,  it  will  inevitably 
rot  them,  and  if  air  finds  easy  access  to  them  at  all  times,  the  germ  of 
vegetation  will  be  awakened  in  them  at  the  first  call  of  spring.  To  place 
potatoes  beyond  the  influence  of  those  elements  as  long  as  convenience 
suits,  they  should  be  stored  in  a  diy  situation,  and  be  covered  up  from  the 
air ;  and  no  mode  of  storing  affords  more  ready  means  for  both  those 
requisites  than  the  ordinary  forms  of  pits  in  dry  soil. 

*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  toI.  viii 
(886; 


THE  POTATO 
GRAIP. 


LIFTING  AND    PITTING  POTATOES. 


413 


(2302.)  Fig.  431  shows  the  two  different  forms  of  the  ordinary  potat(>-])its, 
the  one  being  conical,  the  other  prismatic  in  shape.  The  conical  form  is 
usually  employed  for  pitting  small  quantities  of  potatoes,  and  is  well  suited 
for  small  farmers  and  cotters  ;  the  prismatic  is  the  form  commonly  adapted 
for  storing  large  quantities.  For  both  sorts,  a  situation  sheltered  from  the 
north  wind  should  be  selected,  and  the  ground  should  either  be  so  dry  of 
itself  as  to  absorb  the  rain  as  it  falls,  or  so  inclined  as  to  allow  surface 
water  to  pass  quickly  from  the  site  of  the  pits.  The  site  should  be  conve- 
niently situated  for  opening  the  pits  and  admitting  the  carts  to  them,  and 
so  near  the  corner  or  side  of  a  field  as  not  to  interfere  with  its  being 
wrought  in  winter. 

(2303.)  A  conical  pit  of  potatoes  is  formed  in  this  manner  :  If  the  soil  is 
of  ordinary  texture,  and  not  very  dry,  let  a  small  spot  of  its  surface  be 
smoothened  with  the  spade.  Upon  this  spot  let  the  potatoqs,  as  they  are 
taken  out  of  the  cart,  be  built  by  hand  in  a  conical  heap,  not  exceeding  2 
feet  in  hight ;  and  the  breadth  which  a  cone  of  that  hight  will  occupy,  so 
as  not  to  impose  much  trouble  in  piling  up  the  potatoes,  will  not  be  less 
than  4  feet,  and  is  more  likely  to  be  5  feet.  The  potatoes  are  then  cover- 
ed with  a  thick  thatching  of  dry,  clean  straw.  Earth  is  then  dug  with  a  spade 
from  the  ground  in  the  form  of  a  trench  around  the  pit,  the  inner  edge  a, 
fig.  431,  of  the  trench  being  as  far  from  the  pile  of  potatoes  as  the  thick- 
ness of  the  covering  of  earth  to  be  put  upon  it,  which  is  to  be  considered 
sufficient  at  1  foot.  The  first  spadeful  is  laid  around  the  potatoes  on  the 
ground,  and  the  earth  chopped  fine  and  beaten  down  with  the  spade,  in 
order  to  render  the  earth  as  impervious  to  cold  as  possible,  and  the  drier 
the  earth  is,  the  less  effect  will  frost  have  upon  it,  and  the  less  distance 
will  it  penetrate  through  it.  Thus  spadeful  after  spadeful  of  the  earth  is 
taken  from  the  trench  and  heaped  on  the  straw  above  the  potatoes,  until 

Fig.  431. 


— -.^ 


THE    CONICAL    AND    PRISMATIC    FORMS'  OF  POTATO-PITS. 

the  entire  cone  a  i  c  is  formed,  which  is  then  beaten  smooth  and  round 
with  the  back  of  the  spade.  The  top  of  the  cone  at  b  will  then  be  about 
3  feet  3  inches  in  hight,  and  the  width  of  the  cone  from  c  to  a  about  7i 
feet.  The  trench  round  by  a  c  should  be  cleared  of  earth,  that  no  surface 
water  may  lie  near  the  pit,  and  an  open  cut  should  be  formed  from  the 
lowest  side  of  the  trench  to  allow  the  water  to  go  away  most  freely. 

(2304.)  When  the  soil  is  naturally  thoroughly  dry,  the  site  of  the  pit 
may  be  dug  out  of  the  solid  ground  a  spade  depth,  for  storing  the  potatoes 
into  what  would  then  really  be  a  pit,  and  then  the  apparent  hight  of  the 
pit  above  the  surface  of  the  soil  will  be  small ;  but  unless  the  soil  is  as 
thoroughly  dry  as  sand  or  gravel  can  make  it,  the  potatoes  should  be  piled 
upon  the  natural  surface  of  the  ground. 

"■ »  (885) 


414  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 

(2305.)  The  pritmatic,  or  long  pit,  d  efg,  fig.  431,  is  formed  exactly  in 
the  same  manner,  with  the  exception  that  the  potatoes  in  it  are  piled  in  a 
straisfht  line  along  its  sides  d  h,  instead  of  round,  as  in  the  case  of  the  coni 
cal  pit  ah  c.  The  hight  of  the  pile  of  potatoes  should  not  exceed  2^  feet, 
and  its  breadth  will  spread  out  to  about  7  feet,  and  allowing  1-5  inches  for 
thickness  of  straw  and  earth,  the  hight  of  the  finished  pit  will  be  3  feet  9 
inches,  and  breadth  9  feet  6  inches.  The  direction  of  a  long  pit  should 
always  .be  N.  and  S.,  in  order  to  place  both  its  sidies  within  reach  of  the 
sun's  rays. 

(2306.)  It  is  considered  that  when  fresh  potatoes  are  heaped  together 
in  large  quantities,  a  certain  degree  of  fermentation  ensues,  which 
increases  the  temperature  of  the  mass  so  much  as  to  awaken  vegetation  in 
the  tubei-s,  and  the  existence  of  long  sprouts  so  frequently  found  covering^ 
the  top  of  the  heap  of  potatoes  when  a  pit  is  opened  in  spring,  is  adduced 
as  a  proof  of  the  effects  of  such  an  increase  of  temperature  ;  and  the  thick 
covering  of  dry  straw  usually  placed  above  potatoes  in  pits  is  also  consid- 
ered a  gieat  means  of  retaining  within  the  bounds  of  the  pit  the  heat 
evolved  from  the  potatoes,  and  hence  a  plan  has  been  suggested,  of  having 
openings  left  along  the  upper  parts  of  pits  through  which  such  heated  air 
may  escape.  The  openings  are  left  by  drawing  small  bundles  of  long 
straw,  tied  at  one  end  with  a  piece  of  cord,  and  cut  square  like  a  rosette 
on  the  top  of  a  corn-stack  a,  fiff.  422,  and  which  are  placed  upright,  and 
project  upward  at  short  intervals  along  the  top  of  the  pit,  before  the  earth 
is  thrown  upon  the  straw  near  its  ridging,  and  the  earth  is  put  round,  and 
beaten  down,  and  finished  smoothly,  beside  the  projecting  part  of  each  bun- 
dle.    These  vents  may  be  seen  at  i  and  k,  in  fig.  431 

(2307.)  It  is  truly  remarked  by  Sinclair,  that  "  the  varieties  of  the  potato  are  verj-  numerous,  and 
the  confusion  of  their  names  inextricable."  Without  attempting  to  particularize  any  one  variety, 
I  would  say  generally,  that  as  an  article  of  food,  the  potato  is  now  universally  cultivated,  and  this, 
no  doubt,  chiefly  from  the  facility  with  which  it  may  be  raised,  the  pleasantness  of  its  taste,  the 
simplicity  of  its  cookerj-.  and  the  nourishment  which  it  affords.  According  to  a  statement  of  Sin- 
clair, it  appears  that  in  several  varieties  of  potato  fit  for  human  food,  the  nutritive  matter  varies 
from  two  hundred  to  two  hundred  and  sixty  grains  in  64  drachms ;  that  those  quantities  of  nutritive 
matter  contained  from  169  to  204  grains  of  starch,  and  from  31  to  61  grains  of  albumen,  mucilage, 
and  suear* 

(230^.)  As  compared  with  grain,  "  Cobbett"s  assertion,  that  ■wheat  produces  more  nutritions 
matter  per  acre  than  potatoes,  is  now  completely  disproved.  Later  exi>erimenis  have  sho^vn 
that  it  is  ven.-  near  the  truth  to  estimate  the  proportion  of  the  nutritive  power  of  wheat  to  that  of 
potatoes  as  about  7  to  2  ;  or,  in  other  words,  2  lbs.  of  wheat  afford  as  much  sustenance  as  7  lbs. 
of  potatoes,  though  it  may  be  doubtful  whether  they  afford  so  much  nourishment ;  for.  by  calculating 
the  produce  of  the  two  crops,  it  has  been  determined  that  1  acre  of  wheat  will  produce  sustenance 
for  3  persons  as  long  as  1  acre  of  potatoes  affords  it  to  6  5-6  persons.  This  is  on  the  supposition  that 
the  power  of  nutrition  of  a  plant  is  only  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  farinaceous  and  glutinous 
matter  contained  in  it  But  this  is  by  no  means  certain.  We  have  not  been  able  to  discover  what 
it  is  that  renders  one  substance  more  proper  for  food  than  another.  ...  In  estimating  the  amount 
of  aliment  afforded  by  potatoes  and  grain,  we  sliould  rather  calculate  according  to  the  mass  of 

vegetable  matter  capable  of  satisfying  a  full-grown  person I  may  add  that  potatoes,  from 

some  peculiarity  in  llie  mixture  or  degree  of  condensation  in  their  nutritive  matter,  seem  to  pos- 
sess an  advantaire  over  all  grains  as  constant  food.  It  is  well  known  that  potatoes  and  water 
alone,  with  common  salt,  can  nourish  men  completely  ;  we  have  hundreds  of  instances,  in  many 
parts  of  Ireland,  where  the  people  have  lived  constantly  on  this  diet  from  necessity,  and  yet  have 
been  robust,  healthy,  and  lone  lived  as  persons  fed  plentifully  on  animal  food.  Now,  I  know  of  nc 
meal  derived  from  grain  used  as  the  ^neral  food  of  any  naiiozi,  witboot  being  mixed  with  other 
kinds  of  alimentary  matter,  as  oil,  fruits,  whey,  or  milk.''t 


*  Sinclairs  Hortos  Gramineus  WobnrBensis. 

t  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculttire,  vol.  v^  a  paper  enumerating  the  various  uses  to  which  the  Potato  may 
be  applied. 

(886) 


LIFTING  AND    PITTING  POTATOES. 


415 


(2309.)  The  potato  has  been  subjected  to  careful  analysis  by  different  chemists,  and  these  are  a 
few  of  the  results  : 


Starchy 
Fibrin. 


Starch. 


Vegeta- 1 
ble  Albu-  Gum. 


men. 


Acids 

and     Water. 
Salts. 


Analyst. 


Red  Potato. 


Kidney 
Large  Red. 
Sweet 


germinated . 
sprouts 


Peruvian.. 
English  .. 

Onion 

Voigtland 


I  Paris 


7-00 
6-80 
2-80 
8-80 
6-00 
8-20 

5-25 
6-83 
8-38 
7-13 

6-79 


15-00 
15-20 
0-40 
9-10 
12-90 
15-10 

15-00 
12-91 
18-75 
15-41 

13-30 


1-40 
1-30 
0-40 
0-80 
0-70 
0-80 

1-88 
1-04 
0-90 
1-25 

0-92 


4-1 
3-7 
3-3 


5-1 


75-0 
73-0 
93-0 
81-3 
78-0 
74-3 

760 
77-5 
70-3 
74-3 


Einhoff. 


Lampadius. 


73-12  Henry,  Jr. 


Of  these  constituents  of  the  potato,  it  will  be  obser\'ed  how  large  a  proportion  the  water  bears, 
and  the  remainder  is  chieflv  composed  of  fibrin  and  starch.  Hence,  potato  differs  essentially  from 
wheat  and  barley,  by  containing  no  gluten,  and  approaches  in  some  measure  to  the  nature  of  rje.* 
Of  the  dry  constituents,  starch  is  frequently  used  in  the  manufacture  of  wheaten  bread,  the  potato- 
flour  giving  to  the  loaf  when  stale,  a  tendency  to  excessive  crumbiness.  Potato -flour  does  not 
injure  bread  as  an  article  of  food  ;  but  still  it  is  an  adulteration,  and  its  use  constitutes  a  fraud  on 
the  public,  when  the  same  price  is  demanded  for  the  loaf  partly  made  of  this  cheap  material  as 
for  one  of  wheat  alone. 

(2310.)  Potato-starch  may  be  converted  into  tapioca.  The  tapioca  of  commerce  is  derived  from 
cassava,  a  preparation  made  in  the  We.st  Indies,  the  tropical  regions  of  America,  and  on  the  Afri- 
can coast,  from  the  root  of  tlie  manioc  (Jatropha  manihotj,  an  euphrobaceous  plunt.  "The  cas-^ 
sava  cakes  sent  to  Europe,  which  I  have  eaten  with  pleasure,"  says  Dr.  Ure,  "  are  composed  al- 
most entirely  of  starch,  along  with  a  few  fibres  of  the  ligneous  matter.  It  may  be  purified  by 
diffusion  through  warm  water,  passing  the  milky  mixture  through  linen  cloth,  evaporating  the 
strained  liquid  over  the  fire  with  constant  agitation.  The  starch  dissolved  by  the  heat  thickens 
as  the  water  evaporates;  but,  on  beinir  stirred,  it  becomes  granulated,  and  must  be  finally  dried 
in  a  proper  stove.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1-530— that  of  the  other  species  of  starch.  The  product 
obtained  by  this  treatment  is  known  in  commerce  under  the  name  of  tapioca ;  and  being  starch 
very  nearly  pure,  is  often  prescribed  by  physicians  as  an  aliment  of  easy  digestion.  Atolerably 
good  imitation  of  it  is  made  by  beating,  stirring,  and  drying  potato-starch  in  a  similar  way."+  An 
acquaintance  of  mine,  a  farmer  in  Forfarshire,  Mr.  James  Scott,  Beauchamp,  instead  of  disposing 
of  his  potatoes,  of  which  he  nsed  to  raise  large  quantities  every  year,  converted  them  into  tapioca  ; 
thereby  saving  a  great  deal  of  carriage  which  the  delivery  of  potatoes  occasions,  and  retaining 
the  refuse  of  the  manufactured  potato,  upon  which  he  fed  a  large  number  of  pigs,  and  which, 
moreover,  afforded  a  good  mash  to  the  horses. 

(2311.)  "  When  potatoes  are  boiled,  they  lose  from  1  to  IJ  per  cent,  of  their  weight.  The  juice 
which  may  be  separated  from  them  is  sweet-tasted.  The  meal  is  insoluble  even  in  boiling  water, 
though  potato-starch  forms  a  transparent  solution  with  hot  water.  Thus  it  appears  that  by  boil- 
ing, the  albumen,  fibrous  matter,  and  starch  combine  together,  and  form  an  insoluble  compound." 
Simple  as  the  matter  appears,  it  is  not  every  cook  who  can  boil  a  potato  well. 

(2312.)  "  When  potatoes  are  exposed  to  the  action  of  frost,  it  is  well  known  that  they  become 
soft,  and  acquire  a  sweet  taste.  This  taste  is  succeeded  by  a  sour  taste,  owing  to  the  rapid  evo- 
lution of  acetic  acid,  and  the  root  soon  passes  to  pntrefaction.  From  the  experiments  of  Einhoff, 
we  learn  that  the  sugar  is  formed  at  the  expense  of  the  mucilage  ;  for  the  other  ingredients  were 
found  in  potatoes  sweetened  by  frost,  in  the  usual  proportion.  "He  considers  this  sweetening  pro- 
cess as  connected  with  the  vegetative  powers  of  the  root."  "  Dr.  Peschiez  of  Geneva  has  de- 
scribed the  presence  of  mucous  sugar  and  of  gum  in  the  potato.  This  explains  why  it  is  capable 
of  undergoing  the  vinous  fermentation."  The  acids  contained  in  potatoes  in  the  natural  state 
were  ascertained  by  Einhoff  to  be  a  mixture  of  the  tartaric  and  phosphoric  acids.  He  also  ob- 
tained from  1,820  parts  of  dried  potatoes,  96  parts  of  a  grayish-white  ash.  Of  these,  64  parts  were 
.tolnhle  in  water,  and  35  insolubleX  A  minute  analysis  of  the  ash  of  potatoes  is  given  by  Professor 
Johnston,  including  that  of  the  haulms.  In  10,000  lbs.  there  were  found  of — 
In  the  roots. 

Potash 40-28  lbs. 

Soda 23-34  .. 


Lime 3-31 

Magnesia 3-24  .. 

Alumina 0-50  .. 

Oxide  of  iron 032  .. 


In  the  tops. 
81-9  lbs. 
0-9  .. 
129-7  .. 
17-0  .. 
0-4  .. 
0-2  .. 


In  the  roots. 

Silica 0-84  lbs 

Sulphuric  acid 5-40  .. 

Phosphoric  acid  ..  401    .. 
Chlorine 1-60  .. 


In  the  tops 
89-4  lbs. 

4-2  .. 
19-7   .. 

50   .. 


Total 82-83  lbs. 


308-4  lbs. 


It  wdl  be  observed  what  a  large  proportion  of  potash,  lime  and  silica  the  tops  of  the  potato  plant 
yield.  "  These  roots,"  as  observed  by  Professor  Johnston,  and  the  observation  applies  to  turnips, 
carrots  and  parsnips,  as  well  as  to  the  potato,  "  contain  very  much  water,  so  that,  in  a  dry  state, 
the  proportion  of  inorganic  matter  present'in  them  is  very  much  greater  than  is  represented  by 

*  Thomson's  Organic  Chemistry  of  Vegetables 

t  Ure's  Dictionary  of  the  Arts  and  Manufactures,  art.  Cassava. 

X  Thomson's  Organic  Chemistry  of  Vegetables. 

(887; 


416  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 

the  above  nanibers.  I  have,  however,  given  the  quantities  contained  in  the  crop  as  it  is  carried 
from  the  field,  as  alone  likely  to  be  of  practical  utility.  The  crops  of  tlicite  various  sorts  varv  very 
much  in  different  localities,  being  in  some  pluces  twice,  and  even  thrice  as  much  as  in  ot"ber8 — 
every  10  tons,  however,  which  are  carried  off  the  u'round.  contain  about  9  times  the  weight  of  sa- 
line and  earthy  matters,  indicated  by  the  numbers  in  the  Table."* 

(2'Ji:i.)  6'o/«n//ia  was  discovered  by  M.  Desfiisw.'s  in  the  fruit  of  the  common  potato,  and  M.  Otio 
discovered  it  also  in  the  potato  itself,  after  it  had  been  allowed  to  germinate,  and  this  substance  is 
an  acrid  narcotic  poison.  "  Its  existence  in  the  potato  after  germination,"  says  Dr.  Thomson,  "  is 
an  inierestini;  fact,  and  should  lead  to  the  cautious  use  of  that  important  vegetable  after  germina- 
tion has  commenced." 

('-'314.)  '•  It  is  well  known  that  a  spirit  can  be  extracted  from  potatoes.  From  this  spirit  Me.ssrs. 
Bertillon  and  (Juietand  extracted  a  volatile  oil,  being  a  colorless,  limpid  liquid,  having  a  strong 
imell.  hot.  acrid  tasle,  and  being  very  soluble  in  alcohol."  t 

(231.'''.)  The  particles  of  potato-starch  are  irregular  ellipsoids,  varying  in  size  from  1-300  to  1-3000 
of  an  inch  ;  those  of  wheat  being  separate  spheres  of  1-1000  of  an  inch:  so  that  it  would  be  an 
easy  matter  to  detect  potato-flour  among  wheaten  flour  with  the  microscope. 


38.    SOWING  AUTUMN  WHEAT,  AND  THE   CONSTRUCTION  AND 
PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURAL  WHEEL-CARRIAGES. 

"  now  ceaseless  is  the  round 
Of  rural  labor !  Soon  ns  on  the  field 
The  withered  haulms  and  suckers  crackling  blaze, 
And  with  their  far-extending  volumes  load 
The  wings  of  Autumn's  latest  lingering  breeze. 
The  WHEATEN  SEED-TIME  all  your  care  demands." 

Gbaham. 

(2316.)  How  ceaseless,  indeed,  is  the  round  of  i-ural  labor!  No  sooner 
does  the  farmer  secure  his  crop,  the  progress  of  which  toward  maturity 
has  excited  his  most  lively  solicitude  during  the  course  of  a  whole  year, 
than  he  begins  to  sow  the  succeeding  one,  and  strives  to  prepare  as  much 
land  for  it  before  winter  sets  in  as  he  possibly  can  secure.  The  crop 
usually  sown  in  autumn  is  reheat,  that  plant  being  able  to  bear  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  winter  in  our  latitude,  though  barley  and  tares  are  also  sown  at 
the  same  time  in  some  parts  of  England,  where  they  stand  the  winter  well, 
but  neither  can  withstand  a  Scottish  winter. 

(2317.)  You  have  just  seen  (2312)  that  the  constituent  parts  of  the  haulm 
of  potatoes  consist  of  large  proportions  of  potash,  lime,  and  silica — ingre- 
dients useful  to  many  of  the  crops  which  follow  in  rotation  after  a  summer- 
fallow  ;  and  though  incineration  is  the  means  by  which  the  chemist  discov- 
ered those  substances  in  potato-haulms,  yet  I  \yould  advise  you  to  make  a 
compost  ')f  them,  as  I  did  befoi-e  (1613),  rather  than  convert  them  into  a 
"  crackling  blaze,"  as  described  in  the  motto,  inasmuch  as  their  inorganic 
constituents  can  be  secured  equally  well  by  fcnnentation  as  by  incinera- 
tion, while  their  organic  constituents  are  not  dissipated,  but  thereby  pre- 
served for  use. 

(2318.)  You  will  recollect  that  we  left  off  the  working  of  summer-fallow 
after  the  land  was  dunged  (2155),  and  when  the  land  was  to  receive  no 
lime.  It  is  now  our  business  to  fini.sh  the  summer-fallow,  by  the  sowing 
of  autumn  wheat,  the  crop  for  which  the  land  was  specially  prepared  by 
fallow.  The  first  process  is  the  leveling  of  the  drills  which  cover  the 
dung,  by  harrowing  them  across  a  double  tine ;  and,  unless  the  land  is  of 
very  strong  clay,  1  double  tine  will  be  sufficient  for  the  purpose.  Afler 
the  land  has  been  harrowed  level,  any  root-weeds  that  have  been  brought 

*  Johnston's  Lectures  on  Agricultural  Chemistry  and  Geology. 
f  Thomson's  Organic  Chemistry  of  Vegetables. 
(868) 


SOWING  AUTUMN  WHEAT.  417 

to  the  surface  should  be  removed,  but  the  surface-weeds  will  soon  wither 
in  the  sun  and  air.  The  land  should  now  be  feered,  to  be  gathei-ed  up 
(650),  fig.  133,  into  ridges,  and  if  it  has  been  thorough-drained,  or  is  other- 
wise sufficiently  dry,  1  gathering-up  will  make  a  good  seed-bed  ;  but 
should  it  be  too  wet  for  once  gathered-up  ridges  to  lie  safe  all  winter,  the 
ridges  should  be  twice  gathered-up  (665),  fig.  139.  The  second  gathering- 
up,  however,  should  not  be  done  immediately  after  the  first,  but  after  such 
an  interval  of  time  has  elapsed  between  them  as  to  allow  the  land  to  sub- 
side, and  the  subsidence  will  be  much  hastened  by  a  fall  of  rain.  Should 
the  fallow-land  have  been  dunged  in  the  usual  way,  that  is,  the  dung 
spread  upon  the  surface,  and  plowed  in,  with  feered  ridges,  the  feerings 
should  have  been  so  made  as  to  leave  a  ^  ridge  at  the  side  of  the  field, 
that  now,  when  the  land  is  about  to  be  plowed  for  the  seed-furrow,  the  ^ 
ridge  is  converted  into  a  whole  one,  and  the  field  thereby  made  fit  to  be 
continued  in  that  form. 

(2319.)  But  a  practice  has  come  into  use  since  the  introduction  of  the 
grubber.  Plates  XXIX.  and  XXX.,  which  possesses  some  advantages,  on 
strong  land,  in  certain  circumstances,  which  is  to  cover  in  the  sown  wheat 
Avith  the  grubber,  instead  of  first  plowing  the  land  for  a  seed-fuiTow,  and 
to  finish  the  work  with  a  slight  harrowing.  When  the  grubber  is  contem- 
plated to  be  thus  used,  the  land,  in  summer-fallowing,  should  be  feered  in 
ridges,  as  if  for  the  seed-furrow,  when  covering  in  the  dung,  as  the  subse- 
quent grubbing  will  not  alter  the  form  of  the  ridges  farther  than  to 
reduce  their  crowns,  and  fill  the  open-furrows  a  little.  When  a  tough, 
waxy  clod  is  expected  to  arise  on  plowing  strong  land,  rather  wet  below, 
for  a  seed-furrow,  or  when  there  is  appearance  of  unsettled  weather, 
the  grubber  will  be  found  useful  in  keeping  dry  the  meliorated  soil  on  the 
surface,  and  also  in  getting  quickly  through  with  the  wheat-seed. 

(2320.)  Land  that  has  grown  heans  is  usually  gathered-up  for  the  seed- 
furrow  at  once,  and  sown  immediately,  as  the  season  is  far  advanced  by 
the  time  the  bean-crop  is  carried  in  and  stacked  ;  but  the  seed-bed  would 
certainly  be  in  a  better  state  for  wheat  were  the  land  allowed  to  subside 
for  a  few  days  before  the  seed  is  sown.  Where  the  land  is  strong,  and 
the  ridges  are  sufficiently  rounded,  the  grubber  may  be  used  on  bean- 
stubble,  as  on  fallow-land,  for  covering  in  the  wheat  sown  broadcast  on  it, 
but  for  this  purpose  a  4-inch  grubber  is  required,  the  vsurface  being  fin- 
ished with  a  slight  harrowing.  The  grubber  will  succeed  in  this  very  well, 
in  as  far  as  the  wheat  is  concerned,  and  it  has  a  great  advantage  in  a  late 
autumn  in  getting  through  the  work  expeditiously  ;  but  on  strong  land, 
not  thorough-drained,  and  in  a  comparatively  flat  state,  grubbing  will  not 
succeed  on  bean-stubble;  at  least,  the  wheat-seed  would  incur  consider- 
able risk  of  being  rotted  in  that  state  of  the  soil  all  winter,  and  the 
land  itself  of  becoming  soured  ;  and  the  land  would  not  escape  the 
effects  of  such  an  injury,  even  though  it  should  be  fallowed  the  succeed- 
ing year. 

(2321.)  The  land  which  has  grown  potatoes  should  be  plowed  for  a  seed- 
furrow,  because,  having  been  laid  flat  for  the  culture  of  this  summer  crop, 
the  grubber  cannot  be  employed  with  advantage  in  the  case,  as  that  im- 
plement leaves  the  land  as  flat  as  it  found  it.  The  land  only  receives  1 
furrow  after  potatoes ;  and  it  should  have  time  to  subside  a  little,  though 
the  usual  practice  is  to  sow  the  wheat  upon  it  as  soon  as  plowed.  The 
reason  why  I  have  frequently  recommended  the  subsidence  of  the  land  be- 
fore being  sown  with  seed  is,  that  wheat  thrives  better  in  soil  having  a  lit- 
tle firmness  in  it  than  in  the  loose  state  the  plow  leaves  it. 

(2322.)  When  the  land  is  naturally  strong  enough  to  grow  wheat,  but  is 
(889) «r 


ft 

\ 


418  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 

somewhat  soft,  and  so  wet  below  as  to  make  it  apt  to  throw  out  the  wheat 
plant  in  spring,  the  best  plan  is  to  make  a  seed-bed  by  ribbing  with  the 
small  plow,  fig.  320,  and  (174S).  The  wheat  is  sown  broadcast  over  the 
ribs,  and  hanowed  in  with  a  d()ul)le-tiiie  along  (1769).  The  ribbnig  gives 
the  wheat  a  deeper  bed  in  the  soil  than  mere  harrowing,  and  a  deeper 
hold  of  the  soil  in  spring,  and  it  has  also  the  advantage  of  stirring  only 
the  dry  surface-soil  ft)r  the  seed-bed.  It  can  only  be  practiced,  however, 
on  land  that  has  been  ridged  up  for  a  seed-bed  for  a  considerable  time, 
as  the  small  plow  does  not  make  good  work  on  new-plowed  land,  it, 
small  as  it  is,  going  too  deep,  and  making  the  drills  too  wide  ;  and  it  is 
never  employed  on  land  that  has  not  been  ridged,  being  unfit  to  turn  up 
land  in  a  hardened  state. 

(2323.)  Another  mode  of  preventing  the  throwing  out  of  the  wheat  plant 
in  sj)ring  on  soft  land,  otherwise  well  adapted  for  wheat,  is,  first,  to  feer 
the  land  into  ridges,  sow  the  wheat  broadcast  between  the  feerings,  and 
cover  it  in  with  a  light  seed-furrow,  leaving  the  land  unharrowed  and  rough 
all  winter. 

(2324.)  Whether  harrowed  or  not,  it  is  of  great  importance  to  leave 
wheat  land  rough  all  winter,  that  is,  with  a  round  large  clod  upon  the  sur- 
face. These  clods  afford  shelter  from  wind  and  frost  to  the  young  plants, 
and  when  gradually  mouldered  by  frost,  serve  to  increase  the  depth  of  the 
loose  soil,  and  protect  the  roots  of  the  plants  from  frost.  Indeed,  when- 
ever the  land  is  hanowed  as  fine  as  meal  with  autumn  wheat,  the  rain 
never  fails  to  batter  its  surface  into  a  crust,  and  the  frost  heaves  it  up  in 
spring  like  fermented  dough  ;  and  this  action  raising  the  plants  along  with 
the  soil,  they  are  exposed  on  the  surface  after  the  frozen  earth  has  subsi- 
ded, on  being  thawed  by  sunshine  (1772).  Such  an  effect,  however,  can 
only  occur  where  a  considerable  quantity  of  moisture  exists  under  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil,  ready  to  be  acted  on  by  frost.  Draining,  then,  is  the  only 
safeguard  against  the  young  wheat  plant  being  thrown  out  of  the  earth  in 
spring.  As  the  ground  is  desired  to  be  left  in  a  rough  state  in  autumn,  no 
Uiie  is,  of  course,  then  made  of  the  roller. 

(2325.)  Autumn  wheat  is  almost  always  sown  broadcast  in  Scotland,  ex- 
ept,  perhaps,  in  the  neighborhood  of  large  towns,  where  it  is  sown  with 
tV  drill,  Plate  XXVII.,  figs.  325  and  32G  ;  and  the  reason  why  the  drill  is 
used  ill  that  particular  locality  is  the  facility  afforded  by  the  drilled  rows 
to  hoft  till'  land  free  of  surface  weeds,  which  invariably  make  their  appear- 
ance wWie  the  street  manure  is  used.  In  England  wheat  is  very  gener- 
ally drillajj  for  the  reason  just  given,  and  surface  weeds  seem  more  gener- 
ally numenius  and  troublesome  throughout  England  than  Scotland.  Sow- 
ing broadcast  is  represented  by  fig.  322,  and  is  fully  described  from  (1756)  to 
(1766).  I  he  machines  for  sowing  grain  in  drills  will  be  found  fully  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  SU^ht  from  (1824)  to'(1829). 

(2326.)  Wheat  Vi  j^ic/dcd  at  this  season,  as  well  as  in  spring,  before  it 
is  sown,  and  tlie  reasons  for  treating  it  thus,  as  far  as  they  are  known,  as 
well  as  the  best  method  of  doing  so,  will  be  found  described  in  (1754)  and 
(1755).  -T  6      .  \         J 

(2327.)  Almost  every  year  some  new  variety  of  wheat,  of  great  reputa- 
tion, is  offered  to  public  notice,  and  no  doubt  a  good  variety  may  thus  oc- 
casionally be  obtained.  B>it  the  safe  plan  for  you  to  follow  is'to  adhere 
to  that  variety,  or  those  varieties,  which  have  succeeded  in  the  district  in 
which  you  farm;  because  one  variety  may  succeed  well  in  that  locality, 
and  not  another.  It  is  right  to  try  experiments  in  growing  new  varieties 
which  are  well  recommended,  and  you  should  give  such  experiments  ev- 
ery justice  ;  but  until  the  fact  is  proved  by  yourself  or  your  neiehbors,  that 

(890J  ® 


SOWING  AUTUMN  WHEAT.  419 

the  recommended  wheat  is  a  good  one  for  your  locality,  it  should  not  be 
extensively  cultivated.  The  good  properties  of  wheat  are  :  heavy  weight, 
fine  sample,  prolific  per  acre,  and  plenty  of  clean  straw.  A  good  weight 
is  from  62  lbs.  to  66  lbs.  per  bushel ;  it  is  now,  however,  as  easy  to  obtain 
65  lbs.  as  it  was  a  few  years  ago  to  get  63  lbs.  a  bushel.  Years  ago,  24 
bushels  per  acre  were  considered  a  fair  crop  on  ordinary  wheat  land  ;  it 
is  now  as  easy  on  the  same  soil  to  raise  32  bushels.  The  greatest  differ- 
ence in  these  results  has  been  realized  in  the  course  of  years,  from  the  in- 
ferior, not  the  superior  classes  of  soil. 

(2328.)  There  are  other  modes  than  those  1  have  mentioned  of  sowing  wheat  on  fallow  ground. 
One  of  these  is  dibbling,  and  there  are  various  ways  of  dibbling  wheat.  One  is  to  make  a  hole 
not  exceeding  2^  inches  dee[),  with  a  dibble  not  so  thick  as  that  used  for  planting  potatoes  in  gar- 
dens, to  drop  1  seed  or  2  into  it,  and  to  cover  them  with  earth  with  the  foot;  the  holes  being  made 
4  inches  apart,  and  7  inches  wide  between  the  rows.  But  this  is  a  very  slow  process.  A  more 
expeditious  plan  is  to  use  an  implement  of  a  cylinder  of  wood  6  feet  long,  4  inches  in  diam- 
eter, and  divided  lengthways  by  the  middle,  to  make  into  2  dibbles.  Pins  of  wood  of  a  conical 
form,  3  inches  long,  are  (driven  perpendicularly  at  4  inches  apart  into  the  apex  of  tiie  curved  side 
of  the  split  cylinder.  This  implement  forms  a  number  of  dibbles,  by  being  laid  along  the  ground 
with  the  pins  downward,  wliich  are  pushed  into  the  ground  with  the  pressure  of  the  foot,  to  make 
as  many  holes  as  there  are  pins.  The  implement  being  removed  by  means  of  a  handle  attached 
to  its  flat  side,  boys  or  girls  drop  2  seeds  into  each  hole,  and  cover  them  with  earth.  Ano'her  and 
more  certain  plan  of  dibbling  is  this:  a  flat,  thin  board  of  wood  is  provided  with  holes  4  inches 
apart  in  the  row,  and  the  rows  7  inches  asunder.  This  i.«  laid  flat  on  the  ground,  when  small  dib- 
bles are  pui^hed  through  the  holes  to  the  requisite  depth  of  2i  inches  into  the  soil,  the  depth  being 
determined  by  a  shoulder  on  the  dibble ;  2  seeds  are  then  dropped  into  the  hole  as  each  dilsble  is 
withdrawn  ;  and  when  the  board  is  lifted  up  from  the  space  it  occupies  to  another  space  in  ad- 
vance, the  earth  is  brought  over  the  holes  and  seed  by  the  foot.  It  is  asserted  by  those  who 
have  sown  wheat  by  dibbling,  that  about  one  bushel  is  sufficient  seed  for  one  acre,  and  that 
the  produce  will  be  5^  quarters  per  acre ;  that  is,  the  produce  bears  a  proportion  of  44  to  1  of  the 
seed  sown.* 

(2329.)  Another  mode  of  .sowing  wheat  has  a  similar  effect  in  the  appearance  of  the  growing 
crop  as  ribbing  with  a  small  plow,  and  this  is  accomplished  by  using  the  coynmon  plow  with  a 
single  Iwrse.  and  depositing  the  seed,  and  along  with  it,  if  necessary,  any  species  of  manure  dust, 
such  as  rape-dust,  in  the  furrow.  The  seed  is  dropped  out  of  a  hopper  placed  in  the  bosom  of  the 
plow,  and  the  quantity  is  regulated  by  a  grooved  axle,  made  to  revolve  by  a  small  wheel,  which 
receives  its  motion  by  being  carried  along  the  ground  with  the  plow.  The  immediate  effect  of 
this  operation  is  to  cover  the  seed-wheat  with  the  plow-furrow,  to  prevent  its  being  thrown  out 
by  the  frost  in  spring  in  soft  and  spongy  land,  and  to  cause  the  crop  to  grow  in  rows  9  inches 
asunder.  The  pulverized  manure  is  sown  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  manner  as  the  seed, 
out  of  the  same  hopper  in  which  a  division  is  formed  to  separate  the  seed  from  the  manure,  and 
both  fall  through  spouts,  one  placed  behind  the  other.  Such  a  drill  has  already  been  described  bv 
Mr.  Slight  in  (1770)  and  (1771).  The  advantages  resulting  from  this  mode  of  sowing  wheat  vh 
spongy  clay  soil  are,  that  the  horse  does  not  tread  on  the  seed,  and  the  seed  requires  no  covering 
in  by  the  harrow.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  caution  you  in  the  use  of  rape-du.st  and  guai'O  in 
contact  with  seed,  as  both  are  apt  to  affect  the  vitality  of  seeds,  without  the  intervention  of  a  little 
soil,  or  the  previous  mixture  of  a  little  earth. t 

(2330.)  Another  mode  recommended  for  cultivating  wheat  is  trannplandng.  It  is  proposed  to 
sow  a  small  portion  of  ground  with  seed  early  in  the  season,  and  take  up  the  plants  as 'hey  grow, 
divide  them  into  single  plants,  and  transplant  them.  By  thus  dividing  the  plants  as  tl'cy  tiller  into 
single  plants  at  4  periods  of  the  season,  a  very  small  quantity  of  seed  will  supply  as  many  plants 
as  would  cover  a  large  extent  of  ground.  Though  wheat  no  doubt  bears  transplanting  very  well, 
yet  as  the  scheme  implies  the  use  of  much  manual  labor,  it  is  questionable  if  it  ivill  repay  the  ex- 
pense. The  proposed  method  has  been  tested  by  experiment,  and  the  question  of  comparative  ex- 
pense stands  thus  :  Suppose  440  grains  of  wheat  are  sown  on  the  1st  of  July,  by  the  beginning  of 
August  each  seed  will  afford  4  plants,  or  in  all 1,760  plants. 

At  the  end  of  August  these  will  produce 5,280    .. 

In  September  these  again 14,080    .. 

And  in  November  these  last  will  produce 21,120    .. 

The  time  occupied  in  sowing  the  440  grains,  and  dividing  and  transplanting  the  produce  of  tbem, 
stands  thus : 

"  July,  sowbg 440  grains 

August  (beginning),  taking  up 440  plants 

dividing  into J, 760     .. 

planting 1,760     .. 

Angust  (end) taking  up 1,760     .. 

dividing  into 5,280     .. 

planting 5,280     .. 

September taking  up 5.280     . . 

dividing  into 14,080     .. 

--  planting 14,080     .. 


Hours. 

Minutes. 

0 

20 

0 

20 

1 

10 

3 

30 

1 

28 

3 

30 

10 

33 

4 

24 

9 

23 

28 

9 

•  See  Mark-Lane  Express  for  February,  1843.  t  See  Mark-Lane  Express  for  November  24,  1842. 

(891) 


420  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FAR.M AUTUMN. 


Boun.  Minute*. 

November taXinj?  ap 14,080  plants  11  44 

dividing  into 21,120     ..  14  4 

planting 21,120     ..  42  14 

130  49." 
Nearly  13  days. 

Of  these  13  J  days,  4}  davsniav  be  reckoned  for  women  and  boysoccnpied  in  taking  up  and  divid- 
ing tiie  plants,  wtiicli,  iitlOd.  jiorday,  will  rost  3s.  ltd.  The  remaining  9  days  are  for  men  trans- 
planting at  lOs.  per  week.  Is.  Hd.  a  day.  which  will  coat  15.s.  more;  in  all  188.  9d.  per  acre.  As 
the  saving  of  seed  was  estimated  at  iSs.  f.d.  per  acre,  the  expense  of  transplanting  would  thus 
be  greater  than  the  saving  etlecitd.  It  appear.'*,  besides,  from  Mr.  Palmer's  small  but  well-con- 
ducted experiments,  that  10  plants  out  of  4^  died,  which  is  a  large  proportion,  leavine  more  than 
1-5  of  the  ground  blank,  while  the  return  of  the  produce  does  not  w  arrant  tlie  supposition  that  the 
remainder  would  make  up  the  deficiency  ;  the  2J  lbs.  of  grain  from  the  space  of  ground  experi- 
menied  on  is  not  more  than  20  bushels  per  acre,  and  still,  after  adding  {  to  this  for  the  destruction 
of  seeds  occasioned  by  birds,  the  whole  amount,  only  2.')  bushed  would  not  be  a  full  crop.  Taking 
2d.  an  hour  as  the  fair  cost  of  a  man's  labor,  the  cost  of  transplanting  would  be  £\  128.  9d.,  to  set 
against  the  18s.  6d.  of  seed  saved ;  and  supposing  the  plants  to  be  set  as  far  apart  as  1 J  feet,  the 
cost  would  still  be  £l  48.  8d.  per  acre.  '  In  my  opinion,"  says  the  experimenter.  '■  the  onlv 
way  of  executing  this  plan  is  to  dibble  in  the  seed,  2  grains  in  a  hole,  about  4  inches  from  each 
other,  tlie  plmits  to  be  taken  up  when  they  arc  in  a  proper  slate,  and  divided  into  .5,  which  would 
be  as  nianv  on  an  averase  at  that  time  as  could  skillfully  be  made,  and  then  planted  out  at  once, 
■where  thev  are  to  remain,  thus  fit-tting  rid  of  all  the  intermediate  dividings.  The  number  of 
grains  of  wheat  required  for  1  rood  would  be  42.240.  which  would  not  exceed  1  pint  at  farthest, 
as  I  have  asceilaiued  by  actually  counting  that  quantity  ;  and,  coiisequently,  1  pint  of  wheat  will 
plant  21,120  holes.  If  each  hole  gives  5  plants  on  an  average,  which  may  be  reasonably  expect- 
ed, there  would  be  at  the  dispo.sal  of  the  farmer  105.600  plants,  a  quantity  sufficient  to  plant  5 
acres,  at  17  J  inches  apart.  If  fanners  were  to  adopt  a  system  of  this  kind,  there  is  little  doubt  but 
it  would  soon  gain  ground  in  the  country.  Seed  for  5  acres,  sown  in  the  usual  way.  would  cost 
about  £4  12s.  6d.,  whereas  1  pint  of  wheat  would  only  cost  about  1  penny.  The  plants  may  be 
taken  up,  separated,  and  planted  again  by  50  people  in  one  day  ;  25  taking  up,  dividing,  and  sup- 
plying 25  planters,  allowing  each  to  plant  4,224  per  day,  and  this  might  be  wholly  done  by  boys 
and  girls  at  6d.  per  da5- ;  consequently,  the  farmer's  saving,  exclusive  of  the  original  cost  of  dib- 
bhng  1  rood,  would  be  £3  7s.  5d.  per  every  5  acres,  as  thus : 

"  Cost  of  seed-wheat  for  5  acres £i  12  6 

Cost  of  1  pint  of  seed-wheat £0  0  1 

Dibbling  it  in  i  of  an  acre 0  0  0 

Taking  up  and  planting 1  5  0 

15  1 


£3    7  5  "• 


(2331.)  The  object  of  these  various  modes  of  sowing  wheat  is  the  saving  of  geed — a  great  object 

"  inly,  when  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  1-14  of  the  whole  grain  grown  in  the  country  is  consigrned 
B  earth  in  .seed.     From  the  statemeut  ju.st  given  in  regard  to  the  transplanting  of  wheat,  it 

.  ears  that  4  English  pints  of  wheat  are  capable  of  supplying  a  sufficient  number  of  plants  for  1 
acreVy  By  ordinary  drillintr.  3  pecks  are  enough  seed  for  1  acre,  according  to  a  statement  of  Mr. 
HewlW  Davi.s.  whose  wheat  crops  average  4 J  quarters  per  acre  on  poor  soil,  which  is  manured 
when  tn»  green  crops  are  sown,  and  by  sheep  eating  green  crops  off  the  land.  His  profits  from 
farming  Stem  to  arise  solely  from  the  economical  system  of  management  he  pursues.  "The  soils 
I  culiK-ateX  he  says,  "  are  naturally  vcr^-  poor.  Two  of  my  farms  are  principally  gravel,  and 
most  of  oneVa  moorish,  boggy  gravel,  extremely  spongy  in  winter,  and  very  apt  to  bum  in  sum- 
mer, and  forilWrlv  in  the  slate  of,  and  similar  to.  the  heaths  at  Bagshot  and  Blackheath.  The 
other  is  a  veryliijy  farm,  with  but  few  inches  of  .soil,  on  chalk.  The.se  farms  have  l>een  greatly 
improved  by  ih«rltee  of  the  subsoil  and  trenching  plows  ;  but  they  are  only  kept  in  profitable  till- 
age hy  the  i;eiterol\^Hom  y  of  the  system.''^ 

(2332.)  But  practiWj  has  always  tended  against  the  use  of  a  small  quantity  of  seed  ;  and  the 
practice  is  sanctione(fyy  the  fact  that,  though  large  quantities  of  seed  are  usually  sown,  in  many 
seasons  the  youne  platn^couie  up  rather  scanty.  There  is  a  circumstance  attending  the  germin- 
ation of  seed  which  may  %ccount  lor  much  of  the  .seed  being  destroyed  by  the  insect  tribe,  espe- 
cially if  the  weather  be  stK;h  as  to  cause  its  germination  to  be  tardy.  The  circumstance  I  allude 
to  is  the  nutritive  matter  of  \Jie  s<>e(l,  which  constitutes  its  largest  proportion,  speedily  becoming 
fluid  after  being  sown,  by  abiorption  of  moisture,  then  milky  in  its  aspect  and  sweetish  in  ito 
taste.  In  fact,  a  good  denl  of  stccharine  matter  is  always  evolved  in  the  process  of  germination. 
Now,  as  all  creatures  are  known  to  be  fond  of  suu'nr,  the  germinating  seeds  become  a  ready  prey 
to  hosts  of  insects  constantly  existtng  in  the  soil  ;  and  should  the  jiro^ress  of  frerminaiionbe  re- 
tarded, by  any  cau.se  external  to  iheaeed.  we  can  easily  conceive  ttiat  mjurj-  derived  from  insects 
may  soon  render  the  seed  u.«eless  for  the  purposes  of  vegetation  ;  for,  if  the  nutritive  matter  be 
extracted,  there  is  nothin?  to  nourish  the  rudimentary  plant,  as  it  is  not  then  sufficiently  devel- 
oped to  draw  nourishment  from  the  soil. 

(2333.)  Fig.  432  represents  a  grain  of  whent  maLrnified,  and  so  dissected  as  to  show  its  compo- 
nent parts.  It  consists  of  2  skins,  an  outer  and  an  inner — a  a  the  outer,  and  h  the  inner,  skin  ;  b 
is  where  the  nutritive  matter,  called  the  albumen,  is  situate,  and  it  constitutes  the  whole  seed,  and 

*  The  Gnrdener's  Chronicle  for  October,  1843. 

t  Bell's  Weekly  Messenger  for  Sept.  1S43 ;  and  see  also  Mr.  Davia'i  pamphlet  on  the  same  subject 

(892) 


SOWING  AUTUMN  WHEAT. 


421 


Fig.  433. 


is  mostly  hid  beneath  the  skins ;  c  is  the  little  scale  or  cotyledon  through  which  the  nutritive  mat- 
ter passes  in  the  sweetish  state,  when  the  grain  is  germinating,  and  by  which  it  is  rendered  most 
fit  for  the  nourishment  of  the  little  plant ;  d  is  the  rudimentary  plant,  at 
the  base  of  which  3  tubers  may  be  seen,  from  which  as  many  roots  or 
stems,  or  both,  will  afterward  proceed  ;  and  e  is  the  point  where  all  the 
3 — the  nutritive  matter,  the  little  scale,  and  the  rudimentary  plant — are 
united.  All  these  parts  are  essential  to  the  growth  of  the  .seed  ;  for, 
when  any  one  of  them  is  absent  by  accident  or  design,  the  seed  fails  to 
spring. 

(2334.)  The  seeds  of  almost  every  species  of  plant  naturally  possess 
such  a  structure  that  only  1  stem  can  prc.ceed  from  them  ;  but  in  the 
grasses,  and  more  particularly  in  the  cereal  gras.ses — that  is.  those  w^hich 
yield  corn — there  is  observed  a  remarkable  departure  from  this  form  of 
parts.  In  them  the  embryo  plant  is  usuall3'  thickened  toward  its  base, 
and  so  organized  that,  instead  of  1  stem.  3  or  4  usuallj'  spring  from  1 
grain  ;  awl.  in  other  cases,  a  number  of  stems  so  great  has  issued  as  al- 
most to  exceed  belief  The  peculiarity  mentioned  may  be  observed  at 
d.  fig.  432,  which  is  the  rudimentary  plant,  having  3  projectious  in  the 
lower  part,  while  in  another  seed  there  would  have  only  been  1  ;  and 
from  each  of  these  a  rootlet  or  a  stem,  or  both,  will  proceed  when  the 
grain  is  placed  in  the  soil.  Fig.  433  represents  the  grain  in  a  state  of  the  compo.vent  parts 
germination,  1  shoot  a  having  left  the  sheath,  another  b  is  just  evolved,  of  a  grain  of  wheat. 
and  a  third  c  remains  unevulved  ;  and  d  d  ai'e  the   rootlets.     It  is  this 

peculiarity  of  structure  which  compensates,  in  some  degree,  for  the  loss  arising  from  the  destruc- 
tion of  seed.  The  germination  of  autumn  wheat  takes  place  in  about  17  or  19  days.  The  force 
of  the  vegetation  of  a  single  seed  is  so  great  as  to  be  able  to  raise 
a  weight  of  200  lbs.,  as  has  been  proved  by  the  process  being 
made  to  split  hollow  balls,  in  the  .same  manner  as  the  Florentine 
academicians  measured  the  expansive  force  of  freezing  water. 

(2335.)  There  is  a  valuable  property  in  the  gron  th  of  wheat 
which  I  must  not  omit  to  mention,  which  is,  that  the  wheat  plant 
pushes  out  2  sets  of  roots,  the  one  from  the  seed,  and  the  other 
from  the  crown  of  the  plant,  from  which  the  leaves  originate. — 
The  seminal  roots  asd,  fig.  433,  pu.sh  out  from  the  seed  wherever 
it  may  have  been  sown,  provided  the  depth  does  not  exceed  7 
inches:  but  the  coronal  roots  always  push  out  as  at  a,  Mg.  433, 
very  near  the  surface  of  the  soil,  not  much  exceeding  1  inch  be- 
low it.  The  existence  of  those  2  sorts  of  roots  clearly  indicates 
the  nature  of  the  plant  to  bear  sowing  both  in  winter  and  spring ; 
and  the  relative  position  of  the  roots  indicates  the  differences  of 
culture  which  should  be  given  to  the  plant  in  winter  and  spring. 
In  winter,  wheat-seed  should  be  pretty  well  covered  with  soil, 
say  4  inches,  in  order  to  be  placed  beyond  the  influence  of  frost, 
but  in  spring  it  should  be  sown  nearer  the  surface  "  The  first 
or  seminal  root,"  says  a  writer  in  the  Georgical  Essays,  quoted 
by  Colonel  Le  Couteur,  "is  pushed  out  at  the  same  time  with  the 
germ — which,  together  with  the  farina,  nourishes  the  plant  until 
it  has  formed  its  crown."  "  In  the  spring,  when  the  crown  has 
become  sufficiently  large,  it  detaches  a  number  of  strong  fibres, 
which  push  themselves  obliquely  downward.  These  are  the 
coronal  roots.  A  small  pipe  preserves  the  communication  be- 
tween them  and  the  seminal  roots,  and  it  makes  an  essential  part 
of  the  plant :  and  is  observed  to  be  longer  or  shorter,  according 
to  the  depth  that  the  seed  has  been  buried.  It  is  remarkable, 
however,  that  the  crown  is  always  formed  just  within  the  sur- 
face ;  its  place  is  the  same,  whether  the  grain  has  been  sown 
deep  or  superficial.  I  believe  I  do  not  err  when  I  call  this  vege- 
table instinct.  As  the  increase  and  fructification  of  the  plant'depend  upon  the  vigoroas  absorp- 
tion of  the  coronal  roots,  it  is  no  wonder  that  they  should  fix  themselves  so  near  the  surface,  where 
the  soil  is  always  the  richest.  From  an  attention  to  this  circumstance,  we  are  led  to  explain  the 
operation  of  lopdressijigs:'  .  .  .  .  "  Wheat  sown  superficially,"  continues  the  same  writer, 
"must  be  exposed  to  the  severity  of  the  frost,  from  the  shortness  of  the  pipe  of  communication. 
The  plant  in  that  situation  has  no  benefit  from  its  double  root.  On  the  contrary,  when  the  graiu 
has  been  perfectly  covered,  the  seminal  and  coronal  roots  are  kept  at  a  reasonable  distance.  The 
'^^°'^^9'  oemg  well  nourished  during  the  winter,  sends  up  numerous  stalks  in  the  spring.  On  the 
tdlering  of  the  corn,  the  goodness  of  the  crop  principally  depends."  Spring-sown  wheat,  having 
no  time  to  tiller,  may  therefore  be  sown  nearer  the  surrace.  and  also  thicker  than  autumn  sown. 
Viewed  in  this  light,  drilled  wheat  in  spring  should  grow  more  equally  than  seed  covered  in  with 
the  harrow  ;  for,  as  this  writer  justly  observes,  "a  field  of  wheat,  dibbled,  or  sown  in  equidistant 
rows  by  the  drill-plow,  always  makes  a  better  appearance  than  one  soM'n  with  tiie  harrow.  In 
the  one,  the  pipe  of  communication  is  regularly  of  the  same  length,  but  in  the  other  it  is  irregu- 
lar, being  eifher  too  long  or  too  short."  I  would  say,  with  Colonel  Le  Couteur.  that  the  exact 
depth  at  which  wheat  should  be  sown  is  a  question  of  local  experience,  bearing  relation  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil  and  climate. 

(2336.)  As  to  the  natural  tillering  of  wheat,  some  varieties  evince  extraordinary  powers  in  that 
respect.     Colonel  Le  Couteur  mentions  that  "  one  plant  from  a  single  grain  of  a  downy  variety,  in 
1633,  threw  out  32  tillers ;  all  produced  ears,  with  an  average  of  50  grains  to  each,  or  ]  600  grains 
(893)  '  o  6  o 


A  PLANT    OF  WHEAT    IN  THE 
STATE  OF  GERMINATION. 


422  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 


from  1 — an  enormous  produce,''  as  the  Colonel  regards  it,  bat  judiciously  adds,  "  which  no  field 
cultivation  could  be  fairly  expected  to  attain,  as  it  is  not  the  extraordinarj-  quantities  which  art 
may  produce,  either  by  extreme  care,  tubdivifion,  and  trantplantatian.  that  should  be  brought 
under  the  consideration  of  farmers  ;  but  the  Jair  and  legitimate  mode  of  husbandry,  attainable  to 
all  who  will  devote  to  its  pursuit  that  industry  and  inquiry  without  which  their  art  is  a  mere  me- 
chanical o[H.'ration,  throwing  in  a  little  seed  into  the  ground,  and  leaving  Nature  to  do  the  rest."* 
(2337.)  Early  sown  wheat,  when  growing  luxuriantly  in  autumn,  is  (Sometimes  affected  by  slugs 
in  damp  weather.  Mr.  Wentworih.  of  Harlow,  gives  this  recipe  for  doctroying  them  :  '•  Provide, 
fresh  from  the  kiln,  as  much  lime  as  will  allow  5  bushels  to  the  acre.  Slake  it  2  days  before  sow- 
ing; choose  a  calm  and  mild  morning:  commence  sowing  early  enough  to  finish  before  daylight; 
and  1  man  can  sow  1  acre  per  hour,  sowing  2  yards  at  a  cast."  Turnip-leaves  have  been  recom- 
mended to  be  laiil  upon  wheat,  and,  as  slugs  readily  take  shelter  under  them,  they  can  thus  be 
collected  and  destroyed.  Of  the  2  modes  of  desu^ction,  1  should  conceive  the  quicklime  to  be 
the  more  efficacioas,  especially  in  moist  weather. 


39.    EGGS. 


•'  Mine  honest  friend. 
Will  you  take  eggs  for  money  ? '' 

Winter's  Tale. 


(2338.)  The  treatment  which  every  kind  of  poultiy  should  receive  in 
autumn  is  that  recommended  in  spnng  (1939),  to  be  followed  in  summer. 
Geese,  ducks  and  turkeys  should  only  hatch  in  spring  and  the  early  part 
of  summer;  for  late  hatchings  of  these  never  produce  birds  worth  rearing, 
as  they  cannot  attain  in  the  same  season  a  tolerable  size  and  degree  of 
fatness.  But  common  fowls  may  be  hatched  throughout  the  summer,  and 
even  to  a  late  period  in  autumn,  and  the  chicks  be  reared  to  a  useful  state. 
What  can  constitute  a  more  delicate  dish  than  a  chicken,  boiled,  roasted  or 
broiled,  at  any  season,  but  especially  when  the  productions  of  the  garden 
are  in  the  highest  state  of  perfection,  in  summer  and  autumn  1 

(2339.)  Hens  are  fond  of  making  their  own  nests  and  bringing  out  broods 
in  corn-fields,  and  at  the  roots  of  hedges  and  shrubs  ;  and  u-hen  hens  have 
their  libert)/  during  the  day,  it  is  impossible  to  prevent  their  following  this 
inclination,  which  is  common  to  all,  under  the  best  regulated  system  ;  and 
80  high  a  value  do  I  set  upon  liberty  to  these  creatures,  on  the  score  of 
health  and  strength  of  body,  and  flavor  in  flesh,  that  1  would  rather  run 
the  risk  of  losing  a  few  broods  in  the  year,  by  the  fox  and  polecat  making 
free  with  a  self-set  hen  or  two  upon  nests  of  their  own  seeking  in  corn- 
fields, than  see  them  cribbed  in  summer  within  a  court  of  the  largest  di- 
mensions. 

(2340.)  One  of  the  daily  cares  of  the  hen-wife  in  summer  and  autumn 
is  the  gathering  of  eggs.  Whenever  a  hen  is  obsen-ed  to  show  a  desire 
to  lay,  a  nest  should  be  provided  for  her  in  a  quiet  and  convenient  place, 
and  if  she  is  directed  to  it  at  the  commencement  of  her  laying,  she  will 
continue  to  frequent  it  ever  after,  if  undisturbed  ;  but  a  nest  is  not  re- 
quired for  every  laying  hen,  as  several  will  lay  in  succession  in  the  same 
nest,  some  hens  laying  earlier  in  the  day  than  others  ;  and  so  tenacious  are 
they  of  their  right  to  particular  nests,  that  two  hens  will  not  unfrequently 
occupy  the  same  nest  at  the  same  time. 

(2341.)  Every  place  is  not  equally  suitable  for  a  hen's  nest.  In  other 
places  than  the  hen-house,  hens  are  not  fond  of  laying  their  eggs  on  a 
level  with  the  ground,  though  a  quiet  corner  in  a  shed  under  some  shelter 
is  not   unfrequently  selected   by  themselves   for  the   purpose  ;    but  they 

*  Le  Couteur  on  Wheat ;  and  it  is  but  justice  to  Mr.  Lawson.  of  Elgin,  to  state  that  he  detected  this  pe- 
culiarity in  the  germination  of  wheat,  when  too  deep  gown,  so  long  ago  as  1827— as  may  be  seen  by  refer- 
ring to  No.  VI.  of  the  Old  Series  of  the  British  Farmers'  Magazine. 
(894) 


EGGS.  423 

usually  prefer  to  be  elevated  above  the  ground,  such  as  in  the  mangers  of 
stables,  or  in  a  trough  of  a  shed  or  hammel,  or  upon  the  top  of  the  wall 
of  a  stable,  byre,  or  outhouse,  immediately  below  the  roof.  When  nests 
are  'made  in  such  places  as  hens  would  themselves  prefer,  they  are  much 
more  likely  to  be  frequented  than  when  an  opposite  determination  is  taken. 
One  reason,  perhaps,  for  their  preference  to  the  manger  of  the  work-horse 
stable  is  that  in  daily  picking  up  morsels  of  food  dropped  there  by  the 
hoi'ses,  while  the  latter  are  at  work  in  the  field,  the  manger  presents  a 
convenient  place  on  the  spot  when  the  pressure  for  laying  overcomes  them. 

(2342.)  Ducks  are  very  careless  layers,  dropping  their  eggs  whei'ever 
they  seek  for  food,  and  these,  when  discovered  by  the  pigs,  are  champed 
up  as  the  most  delicate  morsels  that  fall  in  their  way.  Common  rooks 
watch  for  such  stray  eggs,  and  carry  them  off  even  out  of  the  courts  of 
the  steading.  To  secure  the  eggs  of  ducks,  the  birds  should  be  examined 
before  being  let  out  in  the  morning,  and  those  indicating  hard  with  egg 
should  be  confined  in  the  hen-house  till  they  have  laid,  and  afterward  let 
at  large. 

(2343.)  It  should  be  the  hen-wife's  duty  to  visit  every  nest  and  collect 
the  eggs  from  them  every  day,  and  the  period  of  creating  the  least  dis- 
turbance to  the  poultry  in  this  duty  is  the  afternoon,  say  between  2  and  3 
o'clock,  before  the  birds  begin  to  retire  to  roost.  A  nest-egg  should  be 
left  in  every  nest ;  because  it  is  an  old  established  fact,  that  all  domestic 
birds,  at  least,  prefer  to  lay  in  nests  containing  eggs  to  those  which  are 
empty.  Eggs  are  most  conveniently  collected  in  small  hand-baskets  ;  and 
a  short,  light  ladder  will  give  easy  access  to  all  nests  elevated  above  reach 
fi'om  the  ground. 

(2344.)  Whether  eggs  are  retained  for  use  at  home,  or  disposed  of  to 
the  egg-merchant,  it  is  of  importance  to  keep  them  in  a  fresh  state  for 
some  time.  This  end  may  be  attained  by  preventing  the  air  penetrating 
the  pores  of  the  shell,  and  the  yolk  coming  in  contact  with  its  inside.  A 
simple  and  effectual  way  of  preventing  the  air  penetrating  the  shell  is  to 
rub  the  egg  over  with  butter  when  taken  warm  from  the  nest ;  and  as 
simple  a  way  of  preventing  the  yolk  adhering  to  the  inside  of  the  shell  is 
to  roll  the  egg  from  one  side  to  the  other  every  day.  This  treatment  eggs 
should  daily  receive,  whether  kept  for  your  own  use  or  sold  to  the  dealer, 
and  it  will  preserve  them  in  quite  a  fresh  state  for  several  weeks.  But  I 
need  hardly  inform  you  that  this  is  not  the  general  mode  of  treating  eggs 
in  farm-houses,  whether  intended  for  use  at  home  or  for  sale,  they  being 
commonly  kept  in  promiscuous  heaps,  and  used  in  the  state  when  taken 
from  the  nest ;  and  if  they  are  habitually  used  on  the  day  they  are  laid,  no 
unnecessary  trouble  is  required  to  be  taken  with  them.  When  trouble  is 
desired  to  be  avoided  with  eggs,  they  are  sold  to  the  dealers  every  week 
in  spring  and  early  summer,  when  most  abundant ;  but  the  price  is  then 
very  low,  not  above  perhaps  4d.  per  dozen — a  price  unremunerative  for 
the  least  degree  of  care  bestowed  on  fowls.  If  it  is  desired  to  render 
eggs  a  remunerative  item  of  farm  economy,  they  should  be  presented  in 
a  fresh  state  until  the  season  of  scarcity  ai-rives,  when,  of  course,  they 
would  realize  a  fairer  price.  It  is  easy  to  preserve  eggs  to  that  season  by 
simply  smearing  them  with  butter  immediately  from  the  nest,  and  setting 
them  on  their  small  ends  among  salt  in  barrels  in  a  dry  room.  They  may 
be  kept  in  this  manner  for  7  months,  at  least  I  have  found  them  quite 
fresh  at  the  end  of  that  period,  so  much  so,  that  they  contained  the  very 
milk  which  constitutes  the  criterion  of  an  egg  being  fresh  when  boiled  ; 
and  how  much  longer  they  would  have  remained  in  that  state  I  cannot 
say,  as  I  never  tried  the  experiment  farther.     I  have  heard  of  an  instance 

(895) 


424  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 

of  egj^s  packed  in  salt  becpming  so  salted  as  to  be  useless ;  but  in  this 
case  the  salt  might  have  been  damp,  and  the  eggs  might  not  have  been 
greased  at  all.  Both  circumstances  are  matenal,  for  without  grease  air 
cannot  be  excluded,  and  I  know  that  new-laid  eggs  will  soon  become  salt 
when  floated  in  hriiif.  Eggs  will  also  keep  I'resh  in  a  barrel  of  lime- 
water ;  but  the  dry  salt,  in  a  dry  chamber,  is  a  much  more  agreeable  ma- 
terial to  put  the  liaiid  among  every  day.  In  short,  they  may  be  kept  in 
any  wav  that  will  exclude  tlie  air  entering  the  shell  ;  but  whatever  other 
additional  expedient  is  adopted,  that  of  greasing  them  with  butter  imme- 
diately fiom  the  nest  should  never  be  neglected. 

(2.345.)  Hens  begin  to  lay  about  the  beginning  of  March,  and  continue 
to  the  beginning  of  October.  They  do  not  lay  every  day,  that  is,  every 
24  hours,  some  hiying  every  other  day,  and  some  missing  (jne  day  in  three. 
Thev  lay  about  2  dozen  of  eggs  at  one  period,  then  cease  for  2  or  3  weeks, 
and  again  lay  other  2  dozen,  and  so  on  for  the  number  of  months  men- 
tioned. Of  all  these  months,  however,  they  lay  most  constantly  in  March 
and  April.  After  each  period  f)f  laying  they  are  inclined  to  sit  on  the 
eggs,  and  when  it  is  not  desirable  for  them  to  incubate,  it  is  difficult,  in 
most  cases,  to  drive  them  from  their  propensity  to  ducking,  as  it  is  com- 
monly called. 

(2346.)  Many  cruel  expedients  are  practiced  by  country  people  to  pre- 
vent hens  clucking,  such  as  ducking  them  in  water,  dipping  them  in  water 
for  a  few  seconds,  pulling  feathers  in  a  particular  manner  out  of  particular 
parts  of  their  body,  and  such  like  barbarities — all  of  which  I  believe  to  be 
ineffectual,  at  least  I  never  saw  a  single  instance  of  their  success.  The 
only  effectual  plan  I  know,  without  giving  bodily  pain  to  the  animal — for 
if  it  is  desired  to  have  hens  to  lay  eggs  in  preference  to  hatching  chickens, 
it  is  requisite  to  remove  from  them  the  desire  to  sit — is  to  place  them  in 
darkness,  and  there  deprive  them  of  food  and  water  for  2  days  and  2  nights, 
and,  in  difficult  cases,  for  the  third  day.  The  simplest  means  of  accom- 
plishing this  is  to  procure  a  number  of  light-made  tubs,  each  just  large 
enough  to  hold  one  hen  within  it  when  standing  on  her  feet,  and  to  have 
its  top  and  sides  pierced  with  holes  to  afford  air,  but  so  small  as  to  exclude 
light,  and  to  give  them  such  an  inclination  as  the  hen  may  not  see  through 
them.  Such  a  tub  is  placed  mouth  downward  over  a  hen,  in  a  quiet  place, 
such  as  an  out-house,  and  not  in  the  hen-house.  In  this  position,  the  de- 
sire to  sit  will  be  removed  from  her  in  2  days,  and  in  obstinate  cases  in  3 
days.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  practice  to  whelm  an  ordinary  tub  over  a 
number  of  hens,  with  one  side  of  its  mouth  raised  a  little  from  ths  ground, 
the  effects  of  which  contrivance  are  to  allow  as  much  light  to  enter  the 
tub  as  to  let  the  hens  see  to  fight  each  other,  and  in  many  such  cases  they 
are  removed  with  their  scalps  bared  to  the  bone,  and  even  pecked  and 
trampled  to  death. 

(2347.)  Neither  dogs  nor  children  should  be  allowed  to  nin  after  laying 
hens,  as  such  treatment  obliges  them  to  lay  their  eggs  before  they  are  pro- 
vided with  the  shell.     Guinea  fowls  are  incessant  chasers  of  hens. 

(2348.)  Ducks  are  great  layers,  laying  an  e^^  almost  every  day.  They 
commence  at  the  beginning  of  April,  and  cease  at  the  season  the  bean 
usually  comes  in  bloom — in  July. 

(2349.)  Autumn  is  the  time  to  select  hens  for  laying  the  eggs  in  the  en- 
suing winter.  They  should  all  be  yi>ung,  but  of  different  ages,  that  a  suc- 
cession of  layers  may  be  maintained  during  the  season,  as  I  have  men- 
tioned before  in  (1473),  and  the  food  they  should  receive  I  have  also 
mentioned  in  (1939).  Like  the  eggs  collected  in  summer,  those  dropped 
in  winter  should  also  be  smeared  with  butter  when  taken  from  the  nest. 

(896) 


EGGS.  425 

Hens  readily  taken  to  the  nests  made  for  them  at  this  season,  evincing 
Uttle  desire  to  make  them  in  the  fields  for  themselves.  Autumn  is  the 
season  of  moulting  with  fowls.  The  only  cave  requisite  under  this  peri- 
odic visitation,  is  to  keep  the  creatures  warm  at  night,  for  chilhiess  of  air 
may  be  looked  for  at  nights  in  October. 

(2350.)  Pigeons  will  produce  a  young  brood  in  every  month  in  autumn, 
and  in  this  season  of  heat  and  abundance  of  food,  both  old  and  young 
become  full-sized  and  in  fine  condition.  They  sbould  be  fed  in  common 
with  other  poultry  ;  but  though  this  be  regularly  practiced,  they  are  fond 
of  going  to  the  fields  in  search  of  variety  of  food.  Fields  of  new-sown 
peas,  oats,  barley,  and  wheat,  are  eagerly  visited  by  them  in  quest  of  grain 
that  has  escaped  burial  by  the  harrow.  Even  the  turnip-seed  is  eagerly 
souo-ht  for  in  a  new-sown  field  ;  and  where  the  wheat  crop  is  laid  by  the 
weather,  there  they  will  congregate  in  flocks,  and  pick  out  every  kernel 
within  their  reach.  For  wheat  and  pease  they  will  fly  miles  to  obtain.  It 
is,  no  doubt,  provoking  to  see  corn  nearly  ready  for  the  sickle  destroyed 
in  the  field  by  any  kind  of  animal  ;  but  a  larmer  regards  the  depredations 
o/Vi«*  oii>/j  ^>/^eo«s  in  a  pardoning  mood. 

(2351.)  Turkeys  and  geese  commit  sad  havoc  in  corn-fields  situate  near 
the  steading,  for  a  week  or  two  before  harvest — a  si^ht  intolerable  to  the 
farmer,  not°so  much  on  account  of  the  quantity  of  grain  actually  consumed, 
as  for  that  scattered  about  and  trampled  down.  When  corn  happens  to 
be  growing  near  the  steading,  all  the  poultry  should  be  confined  within 
court-yards  for  a  time,  and  supported  entirely  by  hand.  A  few  sheep- 
nets  stretched  over  the  court-walls  of  hammels,  afford  an  easy  means  of 
confining  a  large  assortment  of  poultry,  and  of  subdividing  them  into 
classes. 

(2352  )  The  e^g,  being  a  remarkable  object,  and  produced  in  such  abundance,  and  so  univer- 
sally esteemed  as  an  article  of  food,  a  few  particulars  obtained  by  men  of  science  of  its  nature  and 
constitution  may  prove  interesting  to  you.  „  ,       ,         ,  •      .   . 

(2353  )  "  The  e^'^s  of  all  birds,"  says  Dr.  Thomson,  "  so  far  as  they  have  been  examined,  bear 
a  striking  resemblance  to  each  other.  They  consist  of  4  ^a.ns.firs<t,  the  shell,  which  is  white  in 
the  eggs°of  the  common  fowl,  and  of  many  other  kinds  ;  but  it  is  often  colored  or  spotted  of  vari 
ous  colors,  so  as  to  give  it  a  beautiful  appearance  ;  second,  the  membrana  pntamiiiis,  a  thin,  trans 
parent  peilicle,  immediately  within  the  shell  ;  at  the  great  end  of  the  egg  this  membrane  is  de 
tached  from  the  shell,  leaving  a  certain  distance  between  them,  which  is  filled  with  air ;  third, 
the  white  or  albumen,  a  glaiiy  liquid,  consisting  of  albumen  dissolved  in  water,  and  contained, 
like  the  vitreous  humor  of  the  eye,  in  an  extremely  thin  membrane,  divided  into  cells  :  fourth,  the 
yolk,  a  thick  and  almost  solid  yellow  matter,  inclosed  in  a  peculiar  membrane  ;  this  membrane, 
by  2' ligaments,  called  chalaza,  is  tied  to  the  membrane  of  the  albumen,  and  thus  the  yolk  is  kept 
in  the  center  of  the  egg."  .  .  ,     .       p 

(2354.)  In  regard  to  the  constitution  of  these  various  parts,  it  appears  trom  an  analysis  ot 
Dr.  Prout,  which  was  later  tlian  that  of  Vauquelin,  that  the  shell  of  the  common  fowl  consists  of 

Carbonate  of  lime,  with  a  little  carbonate  of  magnesia 97  parts. 

Phosphate  of  lime  and  magnesia 1     -  - 

Animal  matter •  ^     -  - 

Total 100  parts. 

The  membrana,  according  to  Hatchett,  consists  of  coagulated  albumen.  The  white,  or  albumen, 
coagulates  into  a  firm  white  solid,  when  heated  to  159°  Fahr. ;  and  when  evaporated  to  dryness, 
leaves  about  14  per  cent,  of  albumen.  Dr.  Bo.stock  has  shown  that  it  contains  also  a  little  mucus. 
The  constitution  of  the  white,  according  to  him,  is 

Water 80 

Albumen l^'^ 

Mucus ••  '^'^ 

Total 100- 

Dr.  Prout  obtained,  by  combustion,  the  following  fixed  constituents  in  1,000  grains  of  the  white  of 
egg,  from  3  different  eggs  : 

Sulphuric  acid 0-29 

Phosphoric  acid 0'45 

Chlorine 0-94 

Potash,  soda,  and  carbonates  of  potash  and  soda 2-92 

Lime,  magnesia,  and  the  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia 0-30 

Total 4  90 

(897) 


015 

0-18  grains. 

0-46 

0-48 

0-93 

0-87       .. 

2-93 

2-72       .. 

0-25 

0-32 

4-72 

4-57  grains. 

426  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM AUTUMN. 

M.  Mulder  lias  proved  that  the  sulphur  and  phosphorus  are  in  the  state  of  sulphur  and  phosphonis, 
aud  not  in  thai  of  acid  ;  and  tliis  was  to  huvc  been  expected,  from  the  well  known  alkaline  reac- 
tion of  the  white  of  an  egg.  Dr.  Prout'H  analysis  of  the  t/olk  uf  an  egg  which  was  hard  boiJed  in 
distilled  water,  and  weighed  316-5  grains,  gave  lliese  results: 

Water 170-2  grains  or  53-78  in  100  parts. 

Albumen .')5-3         ..         17-47 

Yellow  oil 91-0         ..         2^-75 

Total 316-5         ..       100-00 

According  to  Planchc,  1,000  parts  of  yolk  of  egg  furnish,  at  an  average,  180  parts  of  oil.  This 
oil  con.«istK  of  stearin  lU,  and  ot  elain  90  parts-,  the  stearin  is  white  and  solid,  and  docs  not  stain 
paper  like  oil.  He  found  this  stearin  and  the  fat  of  fowls  to  agree  verj-  nearly.  The  elain  pos- 
sesses the  character  of  a  fixed  oil.  Chcvreul  found  2  coloring  matters  in  the  yolk,  the  one  rpti, 
and  the  oilier  j/il/oir.  Lecanu.  besides  the  stearin  and  elain,  extracted  from  the  yolk  a  cr^sialine 
matter,  which  melted  at  293^  Fahr.,  and  which  he  considered  as  of  the  same  nature  with  choles- 
teriu  from  the  brain.  Dr.  Prout  determined  the  quantity  of  fixed  consiitueuts  in  100  grains  of  the 
yolk,  by  incineration,  in  3  ditierent  eggs,  thus : 

Sulphuric  acid 0-21       0-06       0.19  grains. 

Phosphoric  acid 3  56       350       400     .. 

Chlorine 0-39       0-28       044      .. 

Potash,  soda,  and  the  carbonates  of  potash  and  soda 0-50      0-27       0  51     .. 

Lime,  magnesia,  aud  the  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  0-68      0-61      0-67     .. 
Total 5-34      4  72      581  grains. 

Whether  the  sulphur  aud  phosphorus  exist  in  the  yolk  in  the  state  of  acids,  or  as  sulphur  and 
phosphorus,  is  unknown.  When  we  compare  the  fixed  constituents  of  the  white  and  yolk,  we 
cannot  avoid  being  struck  with  the  difference.  The  n-hite  contains  a  much  greater  quantity  of 
fixed  alkalies  than  of  any  other  fixed  constituent ;  while  in  the  yolk  the  most  abundant  constituent 
is  phosphoric  acid,  which  amounts  to  from  35  to  4  grains ;  or  il  w-e  suppose  it  to  exist  as  phospho- 
rus, it  varies  in  diflerent  yolks  from  l-5o  to  177  grains. 

(2355.)  The  specific  gravity  of  a  new-laid  egg  varies  from  1080  to  1-090;  an  egg,  therefore,  is 
heavier  than  sea-water,  the  specific  gravity  of  which  is  1-030.  When  kept,  eggs  rapidly  lose 
weight,  and  become  specifically  lighter  than  water.  This  is  owing  to  the  diminution  of  bulk  in 
the  contents  of  the  egg  ;  the  conseiiuence  of  which  is,  that  a  portion  of  the  inside  of  the  egg  comes 
to  be  filled  with  air.  Dr.  Prout  kept  an  egg  2  years,  and  found  that  it  lost  weight  daily,  at  an 
average  rate  of  0744  grains.  The  original  weight  was  907-5  grains,  and  after  2  years'  exposure 
to  the  atmosphere,  it  weighed  only  363-2  grains.  The  total  loss  amounted  to  5443  grains,  or  con- 
siderably more  than  half  the  original  weight.  The  loss  in  summer  was  somewhat  greater  than  in 
winter,  owing,  no  doubt,  to  the  difference  of  temperature.  When  an  egg  is,  therefore,  emploj-ed 
as  a  test  of  the  strength  of  brine,  the  newer  it  is,  the  stronger  is  the  brine  that  floats  it.  The  rela- 
tive weights  of  shell  and  membrane,  albumen  and  yolk,  are  very  diflerent.  Supposing  the  original 
weight  of  the  egg  to  be  1.000  grains.  Dr.  Prout  found  the  relative  pro[iortions,  in  10  diflerent  eggs, 
to  be  as  follows  :  Shell  and  membrane  106-9.  albumen  604-2,  and  yolk  288-9  grains.  When  an  egg 
is  boiled  in  water,  it  lo.scs  weight,  i)articularly  if  it  be  removed  from  the  water  when  boiling,  and 
be  permitted  to  cool  in  the  open  air.  The  water  will  be  found  to  contain  a  portion  of  the  saline 
constituents  of  the  egg.  The  loss  of  weight  from  boiling  is  not  con.stant,  varying  from  20  to  30 
grains,  supposing  the  original  weight  to  have  been  1,000  grains.  The  quantity  of  saline  matter 
obtained  by  evaporating  the  distilled  water  in  which  an  egg  was  boiled,  amounts,  at  an  average, 
to  0.32  grains.  It  is  strongly  alkaline,  and  yields  traces  of  all  the  fixed  principles  found  to  exist 
in  the  egg ;  but  the  carbonate  of  lime  is  most  abundant,  and  is  obtained  by  evaporation  in  the 
form  of  white  powder. 

(2356.)  The  source  whence  are  derived  the  bones  of  the  chick  while  in  the  egg,  is  still  an  object 
of  research.  At  the  full  term  of  incubation,  important  changes  in  the  constitution  of  the  egg  are 
completed.  "  The  albumen."  as  Dr.  Thomson  observes,  "has  disappeared,  or  is  reduced  to  a  few 
dry  membranes,  together  with  earthy  matter.  The  yolk  is  considerably  reduced  in  size,  and  is 
taken  into  the  abdomen  of  the  chick,  w-hile  the  animal  has  attained  a  -weight  nearly  equal  to  the 
original  weiu'ht  of  the  albumen,  together  with  that  lost  by  the  yolk,  minus  the  loss  of  weight  sus- 
tained by  the  eirg  during  incubation  The  alkaline  matters  and  chlorine  have  diminii-hed  in  quan- 
tity, while  the  earthy  matters  have  considerably  increased During  the  last  week  of  in- 
cubation, the  yolk  has  lost  mo.st  of  its  phosphorus,  which  is  found  in  the  animal  converted  into 
phosphoric  acid,  and,  combined  with  lime,  constituting  its  bony  skeleton.  This  lime  does  not  ex- 
ist in  llie  recent  eug,  but  is  derived  from  some  unknown  source  during  the  process  of  incubation. 
Mr.  Hatchett  made  the  curious  remark,  that  in  the  ova  of  those  tribes  of  animals  the  embryos  of 
which  have  bones,  there  is  a  portion  of  oily  matter,  and  in  those  ova  whose  embryos  consist  en- 
tirely of  soft  parts,  there  is  none.  In  what  way  the  oily  matter  contributes  to  tlie  formation  of 
bone  it  is  impossible,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  to  conjecture.  Nor  can  any  source 
of  the  lime  of  the  bones  be  pointed  out,  except  the  shell ;  and  it  would  be  difficult  to  determine 
whether  the  shell  loses  lime  during  the  process  of  incubation."* 

(2357.)  M.  Raspail,  in  investigating  the  nature  of  animal  albumen  by  the  microscope,  as  exem- 
plified in  the  white  of  the  egg,  observes  that  '-the  albumen  of  the  pullet's  egg  is  composed  of  an 
insoluble  and  regularly  organized  texture,  which  contains  in  its  cells  a  soluble  substance  much 
more  su.sceptible  of  alteration  than  the  texture  is.  Chemists  had  previously  acknowledged  the  ex- 
istence of  an  albumen  soluble  in  water,  and  of  another  w-liich  was  insoluble;  but  they  had  not  re- 
marked that  these  2  sorts  of  albumen  existed  together  in  the  white  of  eggs,  and  they  had  consider- 

*  Thomson's  Chemistry  of  Animal  Bodies. 
(898) 


THE   POINTS   OF  LIVE-STOCK.  427 

ed  this  substance  as  a  variety  of  the  insoluble  albumen But  the  insoluble  substance  of  the 

white  of  an  egg  is  rendered  apparent  only  by  degrees,  and  accordingly  there  is  a  period  when  it 
can  scarcely  be  distinguished  in  this  respect  from  the  soluble  substance,  and  this  is  when  the  egg 
is  fresh,  that  is,  recently  laid.  Hence,  as  I  have  already  pointed  out  regarding  the  vegetable  tex- 
tures, the  textures  are  formed  by  the  aggregation  of  the  particles  of  the  soluble  substance,  oi",  in 
other  words,  the  soluble  substance  is  converted  by  solidification  into  the  parietes  of  cells.  All 
these  circumstances  establish  a  complete  analogy  between  gluten  in  vegetables  and  albumen  in 
animals."*' 

(23.58.)  Of  the  nature  of  egg  and  seed,  the  origin  of  animal  and  vegetable  individuality,  and  of 
the  natural  analogy  between  them,  M  Raspail  thus  expresses  himself :  "  The  egg  and  the  seed 
are  cells  detached  from  the  texture  of  the  mother,  in  consequence  of  an  influence  of  an  opposite 
kind.  This  influence  may  proceed  from  an  external  body  which  we  call  the  male,  or  from  an  in- 
ternal cause  which  we  altogether  neglect  to  notice.  The  egg  and  the  seed  may  more  particularly 
attract  our  attention,  in  consequence  of  their  forms  and  dimensions  ;  but  the  slice  of  a  polypus, 
which  becomes  an  entire  animal,  and  the  fragment  of  a  potato,  which  produces  a  complete  plant, 
are  sufficient  to  teach  us  that  the  generative  faculty  is  preserved  by  the  whole  organic  system,  and 
that  the  whole  organized  being  is  complete  in  any  one  of  its  cells."t 

(2359.)  The  duty  on  the  importation  of  Ibreign  eggs  is  fixed  by  the  new  Tariff  at  lOd.  per  120, 
and  2^ii.  from  British  Possessions.  The  trade  in  eggs  is  carried  on  to  a  very  great  extent  in  this 
country.  The  importation  from  France  is  large,  and  the  supply  obtained  in  the  west  coast  of 
England  and  Scotland  from  Ireland  is  also  great.  About  20  years  ago  and  upward,  £30,000  worth 
of  eggs  used  to  be  sent  from  Berwick-on-Tweed  to  the  London  market  in  the  oour.se  of  the  year, 
but  since  the  interference  of  large  importations  from  France  and  Ireland,  that  trade,  I  believe,  has 
almost  dwindled  away.  The  price  of  eggs  is  never  high  in  the  country,  but  in  towns  it  is  almost 
always  so.  In  the  most  abundant  season,  egg,s,  that  can  be  relied  on  as  fresh,  are  never  below  7d. 
per  dozen  in  Edinburgh,  and  in  winter,  especially  at  Christmas,  when  the  confectioners  iise  large 
quantities,  they  are  as  high  as  from  ]4d.  to  18d,  per  dozen. 


40.  THE  POINTS  POSSESSED  BY  THE  DOMESTICATED  ANIMALS 
MOST  DESIRABLE  FOR  THE  FARMER  TO  CULTIVATE. 

"From  fairest  creatures  we  desire  increase, 
That  thereby  Beauty's  rose  may  never  die  ; 
But  as  the  riper  should  by  time  decrease. 
His  tender  heir  might  bear  his  memory." 

Sonnets,  by  Shakspeake. 

The  most  difficult  branch  and  the  highest  aim  of  farming  is  the  breeding 
and  rearing  of  live-stock,  so  as  to  produce  the  most  perfect  animal  that 
shall  yield  the  highest  profit.  It  is  very  easy  to  maintain  a  flock  or  a  herd 
that  will  propagate  its  kind  ;  as  the  actual  condition  of  many  flocks  and 
herds  in  the  country  abundantly  testifies.  It  is  even  easier  to  do  this  than 
to  cultivate  arable  land  for  the  purpose  of  raising  corn  ;  for  the  latter  de- 
mands and  must  receive  more  trouble,  at  all  events,  if  not  attention,  than 
a  flock  or  herd  of  neglected  animals,  who  will  keep  themselves  alive  if 
food  be  within  their  reach,  and  who  will  propagate  their  kind  even  in  due 
season,  if  the  sexes  are  not  kept  asunder. 

I  am  not  aware  that  the  principles  upon  which  the  proper  breeding  of 
animals  should  be  based  are  understood  by  our  farmers  ;  for  I  hold  that 
our  stock  have  been  brought  to  their  present  state  of  perfection,  merely 
from  each  farmer  exercising  his  individual  taste  and  judgment — by  grati- 
fying his  eye  and  satisfying  his  mind — and  not  in  pursuance  of  any  fixed 
principle  he  is  acquainted  with  on  the  subject.  There  can  be  no  doubt, 
however,  that  the  symmetry,  disposition  to  grow  and  fatten,  and  the  rela- 
tive proportions  of  the  different  parts  of  animals,  are  entirely  dependent 
on  laws  which  govern  animal  life  ;  and  could  these  be  understood,  so  as 
to  render  their  application  easy,  the  breeder  of  stock  would  no  longer  in- 
trust his  success  to  uncertainty.     The  botanical  physiologist  and  the  chem- 

*  RaspaiVs  Organic  Chemistry.  t  Ibid. 

(899) 


428  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 


ist  have  been  very  dilatory  in  proposing  suggestions  to  the  farmer,  but  the 
animal  physiologist  has  hitherto  almost  entirely  neglected  him.  The  phy- 
sician and  surgeon,  on  the  other  hand,  have  not ;  for  the  veterinarian,  now  a 
man  of  science,  administers  his  prescriptions  and  performs  his  operations 
with  the  confidence  and  ease  of  a  proHtient.  Pity  the  physiologist  should 
have  almost  neglected  so  extensive  and  fine  a  field  as  a  breeding  and  rear- 
ing fium  presents  for  his  peculiar  pursuits,  and  where  the  functions  of  the 
living  and  growing  structure  might  so  easily  be  observed,  and  their  ef- 
fects aflerwaid  as  easily  demonstrated  by  post-morhin  examinations.  The 
results  obtained  from  such  investigations  would  afford  invaluable  data 
with  which  to  compare  the  functions  of  the  human  structure  ;  and,  forti- 
fied by  the  investigations  of  the  comparative  physiologist,  the  human  phy- 
sician would  treat  diseases  with  increased  skill.  The  anatomist  acknowl- 
edges the  great  importance  of  Comparative  Anatomy  to  his  profession  ; 
and  the  surgeon  owns  to  have  received  many  useful  hints  from  the  veteri- 
narian, in  the  treatment  of  wounds  and  the  conducting  of  operations  of 
magnitude  and  difficulty  ;  and  so,  in  like  manner,  no  doubt,  would  the 
physiologist  also  acknowledge  the  importance  of  the  observations  he  might 
make  on  a  breeding-farm,  were  he  disposed  to  turn  his  attention  to  the 
subject.  Meantime  the  breeder  of  stock  must  go  on,  as  he  has  hitherto 
done,  by  the  light  of  his  own  genius.* 

From  what  I  have  said  of  what  is  known  of  the  principles  of  breeding 
stock,  you  will  not  expect  from  me  so  concise  an  explanation  of  them  as  I 
have  given  of  the  methods  of  conducting  the  operations  of  the  field  ;  and 
wei'e  it  even  possible,  1  could  not  find  space  here  for  the  discussion  of  so 
extensive  a  subject.  Suffice  it  to  give  you  a  few  of  the  rules  which  guide 
the  breeder  in  the  treatment  of  his  stock  with  a  view  to  its  improvement ; 
and  for  your  better  ability  to  follow  me  in  a  subject  which  is  yet  confess- 
edly in  a  state  of  confusion,  I  have  selected  a  numerous  group  of  illustra- 
tions, in  whose  good  points  you  should  have  confidence,  because  they  were 
all  faithfully  taken  from  the  life,  from  individuals  considered  excellent  by 
competent  judgres. 

The  great  aim  of  breeders  is  that  their  stock  shall  possess  fine  symme- 
try— shape,  as  it  is  commonly  called — robust  constitution — and  a  disposi- 
tion to  attain  early  maturity,  which  insures  good  quality  of  flesh,  as  well 
as  of  wool  in  the  case  of  sheep.  Let  us  consider  what  each  of  those 
properties  means,  and  also  the  points  by  which  the  existence  of  each  is 
indicated  in  the  animal. 

Symtnctni  or  Shape. — The  shape  is  the  first  object  to  be  attained  ;  for 
without  fine  symmetry  no  animal  looks  well,  however  passable  it  may  be 
in  other  respects  ;  but,  in  fact,  when  symmetry'  is  wanting,  so  are  the  other 
goo<l  particulars.  In  fine  symmetry,  the  outline  of  the  figure  viewed, 
whether  on  the  side  or  at  either  end,  or  from  above,  should  be  rectangu- 
lar. Fig.  273  represents  the  side  view  of  a  fat  Short-Horn  ox  ;  and  it  will 
be  obsened  that  the  body  nearly  fills  up  the  rectangle  a  h  d  c  inscribed 
about  it.  A  fat  ox  will  fill  up  the  rectangle  more  fully  than  a  lean  one  ; 
but  still  a  lean  ox  should  have  the  rectangular  outline.  But  it  is  not 
enough  for  an  ox  to  present  the  rectangular  outline  in  the  side  profile 
only  ;  it  should  have  it  in  other  positions,  such  as  when  viewed  from  be- 
hind, as  in  fig.  274,  where  the  same  sort  of  outline  may  be  obsen-ed  within 
the  rectangle  a  h  d  c.     True,  this   is   a  different  rectangle  from  the  other, 

*  The  only  phvsiologisu  I  am  aware  of  who  have  made  observations  on  breeding  stock,  were  the  lat« 
Mr.  Knight,  and  iiis  valuable  suceestions  will  be  found  in  the  Philosophiral  Transactions  ;  and  Mr.  Walker. 
whose  original  views  on  Physinlugy  have  been  made  public  in  several  works  :  for  as  to  the  value  of  the 
experiments  of  Sir  John  Sebright,  nis  scieniilic  acquiremenu  were  not  of  so  high  an  order  as  to  inspire 
practical  men,  at  least,  in  the  accuracy  of  his  observations,  and  correctness  of  his  conclusions. 
(900) 


SYMMETRY  OF  LIVE   STOCK.  429 


approaching  near  the  square,  while  the  other  is  oblong.  I  do  not  know 
whether  the  rectangles  of  the  side  and  the  ends  should  bear  a  given  pro- 
portion to  each  other,  as  the  outlines  of  the  ox  have  never,  I  believe  been 
subjected  to  proportional  measurement,  though  these  could  easily  be  as- 
certained by  employing  an  adjusting-frame  ;  but,  judging  from  measure- 
ments taken  with  the  view  of  ascertaining  the  weight  ol"  beef  in  oxen 
(19S8),  it  is  probable  that  a  fine  symmetry  gives,  on  the  side  profile,  a  rect- 
angle of  double  the  length  of  that  of  the  end  profile.  The  end  profile, 
viewed  from  behind,  gives  a  rectangle  equal,  of  course,  to  the  depth  of 
that  of  the  side  profile.  Another  point  of  a  well-proportioned  ox  is  that 
the  breadth  across  the  hooks  from  a  to  h,  fig.  274,  should  be  equal  to  the 
depth  from  the  hook  a  to  the  hook  c  ;  that  is,  the  hind  profile  should  be 
inscribed  in  a  square.  Now,  an  ox  may  be  rectangular  in  its  side,  and 
across  its  rump,  and  yet  be  of  different  shape  across  its  shoulders, 
when  viewed  from  the  front  of  the  animal — it  may,  for  example,  be 
narrow  at  the  top  of  the  shoulder,  and  wide  below  at  the  brisket.  In 
such  a  case  the  ribs  will  be  flat,  that  is,  fall  quickly  downward,  and 
not  project  square  from  the  back-bone,  as  they  always  do  in  fine  sym- 
metry. Fig.  275  shows  the  front  end  of  a  fat  round-ribbed  ox  fillino' 
up  the  rectangle  ;  but  though  the  top  of  the  shoulder  fills  up  the  rect- 
angle as  well  as  the  lower  part  of  the  body  across  the  shoulder-points  e  f, 
yet  the  rectangle  may  not  be  a  square ;  that  is,  the  ox  may  be  narrower 
in  front  than  behind ;  and  this  is  no  uncommon  case  in  many  breeds 
of  cattle  in  this  country,  and  many  breeders  maintain  that  this  form 
constitutes  perfect  symmeti'y,  at  least  for  certain  purposes,  as  for  milk. 
This  mode  of  reasoning,  however,  is  not  satisfactory  ;  for  the  idea  con- 
veyed by  perfect  symmetry  is  an  equilibrium  of  parts.  Now,  we  cannot 
conceive  an  equilibrium  of  parts  to  exist  in  an  ox  whose  fore-end  is  nar- 
rower than  its  hind  ;  and  where  this  disparity  is  found  there  is  evidently 
something  wrong  in  the  symmetry.  For  observe  fig.  276,  which  gives  the 
top  view  of  the  body  of  an  ox — a  view  which  is  never  seen  unless  sought 
for  on  purpose.  Here,  again,  is  the  long  rectangle  as  of  the  side  ;  but 
when  an  ox  is  narrower  before  than  behind,  this  figure  would  not  be  a 
rectangle,  but  a  trapezium — a  figure  no  way  associated  with  symmetry — 
so  that,  for  fine  symmetry,  it  is  not  enough  to  have  the  front  outline  filling 
up  a  rectangle,  for  that  rectangle  should  be  equal  to  that  of  the  hooks,  as 
may  be  seen  in  comparing  figs.  274  and  275  ;  and  as  we  have  seen,  in  fig. 
274,  that  the  breadth  of  the  hooks  is  equal  to  the  depth  of  the  hock,  and 
its  rectangle  is  therefore  a  square,  so  we  see,  by  fig.  276,  that  the  breadth 
and  length  of  an  ox,  when  seen  from  above,  forms  a  rectangle  equal  to 
that  of  its  side,  as  seen  in  fig.  273.  Perfect  symmetry  in  the  ox,  there- 
fore, implies  that  all  the  horizontal,  as  well  as  vertical  lines  inscribing  its 
outlines,  are  respectively  parallel  to  each  other ;  and  that  these  two  sets 
of  parallel  lines  are  at  right  angles  to  one  another.  On  dividing  the  entire 
area  of  the  side  view  of  an  ox  into  5  parallel  and  horizontal  parts,  f  will 
bejfound  to  be  occupied  by  the  body,  and  \  below  the  body. 

This  is  the  abstract  view  of  symmetry,  as  applied  to  the  ox ;  but  it  is  not 
to  be  supposed  that  every  ox  fulfills  these  conditions  ;  for,  even  in  the 
figures  referred  to  above,  it  will  be  observed  that  in  the  side  view  of  fig-. 
273  the  brisket  falls  below  h,  and  the  flank  rises  a  little  at  e.  The  brisket 
h  may  be  observed  to  drop  below  the  horizontal  line  c  d'vtx  the  front  view 
of  fig.  275  ;  and  in  the  hind-view  of  fig.  274,  it  frequently  happens  that  the 
hocks,  c  and  d,  do  not  descend  so  far  as  to  constitute  a  square  figure  with 
the  hook  a  h.  Still  the  aim  of  the  breeder  should  be  to  attain  all  the  points 
of  the  abstract  model,  and  he  should  never  rest  satisfied  until  he  attain  them. 

(901) 


430  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

Nevertheless,  it  must  not  be  imagined  that  the  configuration  of  any  ox  in 
any  view  should  fill  up  the  angles  of  the  rectangles,  inasmuch  as  the  invaii- 
able  roundness  assumed  by  the  animal  frame  forbids  such  a  form,  which 
would,  in  fact,  destroy  the  beautiful  blending  of  curved  lines  abounding 
in  the  body,  and  deprive  us  of  the  highest  enjoyment  in  looking  at  a  sym- 
metrical animal. 

Of  the  states  of  ca<</e  on  a  farm,  that  of  the  full-giown  ox  approaches 
nearer  than  any  other  to  perfect  symmetry  of  form.  If  you  compare  the 
picture  of  the  ox  in  Plate  VI.,  though  that  animal  was  then  only  1  year  11 
months  old,  with  that  of  the  bull  or  the  cow,  by  imagining  a  rectangle  in- 
scribed around  each  figure,  you  will  find  his  symmetry  more  correct  than 
that  of  the  others.  The  bull  in  Plate  XXXII.  has  the  brisket  drooping 
even  lower  down  than  the  ox,  while  his  neck  rises  in  a  crest  behind  the 
head.  In  Plate  XV.,  though  the  side  view  of  the  cow  is  pretty  similar  to 
that  of  the  ox,  the  hind  view  is  proportionally  broader  across  the  hooks, 
while  the  front  view  is  somewhat  narrower  across  the  shoulders.  If  the 
broad  hook-bones,  with  the  narrow  chest,  are  not  entirely  occasioned  in 
cows  by  calf-bearing,  the  disproportion  between  them  is,  at  all  events, 
greatly  increased  by  it. 

So  far  in  regard  to  the  symmetry  of  the  outline  of  the  ox  ;  and  as  to  the 
filling  up  of  the  outlines,  the  remarks  offered  in  (1309)  will  apply  to  cattle 
in  all  states,  though  there  •especially  referring  to  the  points  of  a  fat  ox. 
There  should  be  a  straight  back,  round  ribs,  and  full  muscles  in  every  state 
of  cattle,  and  the  objectionable  deviations  from  these  points,  mentioned  in 
(1311),  are  as  much  to  be  deprecated  in  the  bull,  the  cow,  the  heifer,  and 
the  calf,  as  in  the  ox. 

Apply  the  rectangle  to  the  figure  of  the  sheep,  and  it  will  fit  the  more 
closely  the  nearer  the  animal  approaches  to  perfection.  In  fig.  462,  the 
rectangle  ^  A  i  k  is  applied  to  the  new-clipped  body  of  a  Leicester  tup, 
and  though  an  old  tup,  and  deviations  from  correct  form  may  be  expected 
in  old  age,  still  the  figure  fills  up  the  rectangle  very  well.  Apply  it  over 
the  wool  to  the  picture  of  the  Leicester  tup  in  Plate  XXXIII.,  and  it  will 
fit  .still  better  ;  and  carry  it  to  the  picture  of  the  South  Down  in  Plate 
XIV.,  and  it  will  still  apply  ;  though  in  this  particular  animal  the  wool 
grew  more  than  usually  rank  upon  the  top  of  the  rump.  Even  the  figure 
of  the  lamb  in  the  fig.  444,  will  bear  the  application  of  the  rectani^le. 
In  regard  to  the  end  and  lop  views  of  the  figure  of  the  sheep,  the  ribs  of 
the  Leicester  breed  are  so  very  much  rounded  that  they  form  cun'ed  lines 
down  the  sides  of  the  rectangle,  inscribing  the  hind  and  fore  profiles  ;  and 
along  the  sides  of  the  rectangle,  inscribing  the  view  of  the  back  from  above  ; 
still  the  flatness  across  the  back,  and  the  straightness  across  below  the  chest, 
fill  up  the  lines  of  the  rectangle.  In  other  breeds,  such  as  the  Black-faced 
and  Cheviot,  the  rectangle  may  still  be 

applied. 

To  the  figure  of  the  ?torse  the  rectangle  may  also  be  applied,  as  the  pic- 
ture of  the  draught-gelding  in  Plate  VII.  may  be  imagined  to  be  inscribed, 
and  of  this  class  of  stock  the  gelding  is  the  best  state  for  comparison,  as 
the  f)X  is  that  of  cattle.  The  picture  of  the  draught-stallion  in  Plate  VII., 
will  bear  the  same  application  ;  though  in  this,  as  in  all  cases  of  stallions, 
the  neck  rises  to  a  high  crest.  *  ♦  *  But  the  end  views,  in  the  case  of 
the  horse,  bear  difieient  proportions  to  those  of  cattle,  the  hind  view  being 
always  broader,  and  broadest  in  the  mare,  approaching  more  to  the  square, 
or  like  that  of  the  ox,  than  the  front  view,  which  is  always  narrow.  The 
square-like  hind  view  is  very   well   seen  in  the  left-hand  dark  figure  of  a 

(90-2) 


ROBUSTNESS  OF  CONSTITUTION    IN  LIVE-STOCK. 


431 


mare,  in  Plate  XVII.,  and  the  narrow  front  view  is  as  well  observed  in 
the  right-hand  dark  figure  of  a  draught-horse,  Plate  VII.  The  compara- 
tive breadths  of  the  hind  and  front  views  approach  nearer  each  other  in 
the  draught-horse  than  in  any  other  breed  ;  his  drawing  powers  lying  in 
the  shoulders,  the  muscles  there  become  developed  to  a  gi-eat  degree, 
while,  in  the  saddle-horse,  the  propelling  power  is  in  the  hind-quarter, 
where  the  muscles  become  developed  ;  as  the  fore-quarter  is  only  required 
to  support  the  fore-hand  of  the  animal  in  action,  the  muscles  there  are  all 
light.  For  these  reasons,  it  is  obvious  that  the  view  of  a  horse  from  above 
will  not  form  a  rectangle  but  a  trapezium.  In  perfect  symmetry  the  void 
below  the  body  is  of  the  san^e  depth  as  the  body  to  the  top  of  the  rump  ; 
the  length  of  the  body  from  the  shoulder-point  through  the  center 
of  gravity  of  the  horse  to  the  hams  is  two  times  the  depth  of  the  body; 
the  length  of  the  neck  to' the  withers  is  equal  to  the  depth  of  the  body  from 
the  withers;  and  the  distance  from  the  fore-fetlock  to  the  elbow-joint  is  the 
same  as  from  the  latter  point  to  the  withers. 

There  are  peculiarities  in  some  of  the  points  of  the  horse  which  deserve 
to  be  mentioned.  A  horse  with  ears  set  high  on  the  crown  of  the  head  is 
of  lively  temperament,  but  is  hasty  of  temper,  and  easily  made  afraid ; 
while  a  horse  with  ears  set  wide  apart  is  dull  in  action,  but  sagacious,  and 
easily  taught. 

Following  the  same  rule,  the  rectangle  will  be  found  to  apply  to  the 
shape  of  the  j^'g  as  to  the  other  domesticated  quadrupeds,  as  may  be  seen 
hy  a  b  d  c,  m  fig.  434.     The   end   views  of  the  best  formed  pigs  are  quite 

Fig.  434. 


THE  KECTANGLE  TO  ILLUSTRATE  THE  SYMMETRY  OF  THK    PIG. 

rectangular,  though  the  generality  of  those  met  with  in  the  country  have 
a  tendency  to  a  larger  rectangle  in  the  fore  than  in  the  hind  view.  The 
view  from  above  is  also  rectangular,  except  in  the  case  of  the  pio-s  havino- 
thick  shoulders. 

Robustness  of  Constitution. — Having  obtained  a  good  shape,  the  next  ob- 
ject of  the  farmer  with  his  stock,  is  to  impart  to  them  a  strong  constitution, 
that  is,  to  impart  to  them  physical  powers  to  do  their  work  with  ease,  to 
eat  their  food  with  good  appetite,  to  digest  it  within  a  reasonable  time,  to 
feel  no  fatigue  with  necessary  daily  exercise,  and  to  withstand  the  weathei-, 
whether  hot  or  cold ;  in  short,  always  to  enjoy  good  health,  and  be  in  a 
growing  condition.  The  following  are  indications  of  robust  health  which 
cannot  be  mistaken :  The  skin  loose  upon  the  body,  feeling  soft  and  mel- 
low, and  covered  thickly  with  long  soft  hair.  The  eyes  full  and  clear,  and 
in  the  case  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  pigs,  the  skin  of  the  nose  always  bedewed 
with  moisture.     The  bones  of  the  leg  strong,   broad,  and  flat,  with  the 

(903) 


432  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

sinews  thick,  strong,  and  distinctly  developed  ;  the  whole  being  closely 
covered  with  the  skin.  This  condition  constitutes  what  is  termed  clean 
limbs.  The  honi  of  the  feet  and  horns  smooth  and  shining,  and  indicating 
healthy  growth  at  its  junction  with  the  hair.  The  hair  of  the  tail  in  cattle, 
and  of  the  mane  and  tail  in  horses,  long,  shining,  and  with  a  tendency  to 
crisp  ;  the  wool  of  sheep  waved,  greasy,  interlaced,  and  of  fine  quality. — 
Ah)ng  with  these  physical  })roperties,  the  animal  spirits  are  alive  to  every 
passintr  event,  the  senses  acute,  and  the  instinct  sagacious. 

All  these  indications  of  a  sound  constitution  are  obtainable  by  selecting 
parents  which  possess  them  ;  and  they  are  sustained  by  kind  treatment, 
comfortable  lodging,  and  abundance  of  good  food.  Neglect  of  a  proper 
selection  of  parents  will  produce,  perhaps,  the  very  opposite  results.  The 
skin  will  become  thin  and  covered  with  scanty  hair  and  open  wool.  With 
such  a  covering,  the  animal  will  easily  be  affected  by  the  least  change  of 
weather,  be  overcome  with  the  heat  of  summer,  feel  uneasy  in  the  cold  of 
winter,  and  be  chilled  by  every  shower  that  falls.  A  very  small  bone,  how- 
ever clean,  is  always  accompanied  with  reduced  size  of  carcass,  though  in- 
dicative of  great  disposition  to  fatten.  Should  the  bone  become  thick  and 
round,  it  gives  a  clumsy  form  to  the  limbs  and  head,  and  is  invariably  ac- 
companied with  dullness  of  spirit,  and  in  the  horse,  in  particular,  with 
want  of  action.  Those  conditions  of  the  skin  and  bone  are  not  so  much 
objectionable  in  themselves,  as  hurtful  in  their  consequences.  A  thin- 
skinned  and  a  thick-boned  animal  is  ill  to  maintain  in  condition.  Thin- 
skinned  animals  are  easily  affected  by  the  weather;  a  fit  of  indigestion  in 
consequence  frequently  overtakes  them,  and  their  condition  alternates  be- 
tween worse  and  better  ;  they  are,  in  fact,  tender  in  constitution.  Thick- 
boned  animals  never  seem  to  relish  their  food,  and  show  carelessness  about 
everything  that  concerns  them. 

Disposition  to  attain  early  maturity. — But  the  farmer's  aim  is  not  con- 
fined to  a  good  shape  and  robust  constitution  ;  there  must  be  a  fineness 
given  to  every  point — every  part  must  be  finished  off,  as  it  were,  mth 
a  polish.  This  fineness  can  only  be  supenmposed  by  parents  derived 
from  a  race  which  have  long  possessed  all  the  fine  properties — indi- 
viduals whose  pedigrees  can  be  traced — whose  breeding  is  accounted  pure. 
No  matter  whether  the  breeding  be  of  the  plebeian  caste  of  the  draught- 
horse,  or  of  the  aristocratic  family  of  the  racer, — nor  whether  the 
animals  be  horses,  cattle,  or  sheep  ;  the  breeding  of  all  should  be  pure  of 
its  kind. 

The  immediate  effect  in  employing  parents  of  pure  breeding,  is  not  so 
obvious  upon  the  carcass  as  upon  the  extremities.  The  head  and  limbs 
first  l>ecome  finer;  the  fat  disappears  fi"om  them  ;  the  muscles  expand  into 
a  thin,  broad  form ;  the  tendons  increase  in  strength;  the  bone  becomes 
harder  and  of  finer  quality  ;  the  blood-vessels  large  and  full  of  blood  ;  the 
skin  thinner,  and  drawn  more  tightly  over  the  bone,  so  as  to  exhibit  its 
irregularities,  and  the  tracings  of  the  blood-vessels  distinctly;  the  hair  is 
smoother  and  closer  ;  the  nostj-ils  more  expanded ;  the  eyes  more  promi- 
nent and  clear ;  the  ears  thinner,  more  capacious,  set  higher  upon  the 
head,  and  more  quickly  moved  about ;  the  action  of  the  limbs  quickened  ; 
and  the  animal  spirits  raised.  All  these  changes  may  take  place  without 
materially  affecting  the  shape  of  the  body  or  the  strength  of  the  constitu- 
tion ;  but  the  improvement  of  the  extremities  is  rapidly  followed  by  that 
of  the  body  ;  the  skin,  though  not  thinner  of  itself,  floats  upon  a  thicker 
mass  of  cellular  tissue,  which  imparts  to  it  the  agreeable  sensation  of  the 
touch.  The  hair  multiplies  in  numbers,  becomes  finer  in  quality,  more 
fixed  in  color,  longer,  and  softer.  The  proportion  of  flesh  to  bone  increases. 

(904) 


SELECTION  OF  PARENTS  IN  BREEDING  LIVE-STOCK.         433 

The  fat  is  more  generally  and  equally  diffused  over  the  body.  The  texture 
of  the  muscles  is  finer  and  firmer  in  the  fibre,  and  the  tissue  between  them 
becomes  loaded  with  fat.  In  a  word,  such  a  total  change  is  effected  upon 
the  entire  animal,  that  from  being  coarse,  dull,  clumsy,  and  sluggish,  it  be- 
comes fine-spirited,  handsome,  and  active  ;  and  as  it  improves  in  personal 
appearance,  so  it  incieases  in  its  tendency  to  grow,  and  to  come  sooner  to 
maturity  in  stature  and  condition. 

Sclectinu  of  Pa?-ents. — You  must  not  imagine,  from  this  unintemipted 
description  of  the  improvement  of  parts  in  animals,  that  all  those  changes 
are,  or  can  possibly  be,  effected  during  the  lifetime  of  one  individual  pa- 
rent. The  entire  of  those  changes  can  only  be  effected  in  the  cour&e  of 
generations  ;  but  as  all  domesticated  animals  produce  rapidly,  that  is, 
within  the  course  of  every  year,  it  is  possible  to  effect  great  improvement 
in  the  offspring  during  the  lifetime  of  a  female  parent,  by  employing  a 
better  male  every  year.  To  hasten  the  improvement  more  rapidly,  better 
parents  of  both  sexes  may  be  chosen  as  soon  as  the  points  of  the  proo'eny 
show  themselves,  and  which  are  appreciable  in  2  years. 

Of  the  two  sexes,  the  properties  of  the  male  are  more  obviously  im- 
printed on  the  offspring  than  those  of  the  female  ;  and  it  is  on  this  account 
that  males  are  in  most  request  among  breeders  for  the  improvement  of 
their  stocks.  High  prices  have  been  given,  and  high  premiums  are  an- 
nually offered,  for  superior  males,  whether  stallions,  bulls,  or  tups  ;  and  it 
is  fortunate  for  the  more  rapid  extension  of  the  improvement  of  stock,  that 
the  influence  of  the  male  thus  bears  sway  in  the  propagation  of  his  kind, 
as  by  permission  of  polygamy  one  male  may  serve  many  females,  and  of 
course  extend  his  influence  in  the  exact  proportion  to  the  number  of  the 
latter ;  whereas  a  female  produces  usually  1  in  the  course  of  a  year.  A 
stallion  serves  from  60  to  80  mares,  a  bull  60  cows,  and  a  tup  60  ewes  in 
a  season,  not  once  or  twice  only,  but  as  often  until  the  female  prove  with 
young.  Generally  the  female  conceives  at  the  first  service  of  the  male, 
and  at  all  events  at  the  second  ;  but  should  her  desire  continue  beyond 
that  time,  it  is  better  to  withdraw  her  from  breeding  altogether,  than  run 
the  risk  of  having  a  late  progeny,  or  none  at  all;  for  a  late  calf,  lamb,  or 
foal,  loses  1  year  of  its  progress,  compared  with  its  earlier  born  compan- 
ions. But  the  part  which  the  male  and  female  respectively  undertake,  in 
the  improvement  of  the  progeny,  differs  widely,  and  is  entirely  dependent 
on  their  state  of  breeding — the  head  and  extremities  being  improved  by 
the  highest,  and  the  carcass  and  procreating  powers  by  the  lowest  bred. 
The  highest  bred  imparts  the  small  head,  prominent  eyes,  thin  ears,  wide 
nostrils,  clean  limbs,  full  blood-vessels,  action,  spirit,  and  intelligence ;  in 
short,  all  the  parts  which  go  to  develop  the  mental  qualities  ;  while  the 
lowest  bred  improves  the  shape  of  the  carcass,  by  straightening  the  back 
and  rounding  the  ribs,  extending  the  muscles,  laying  on  the  fat,  enlaroinp- 
the  capacity  of  the  pulmonary  organs,  and  decreasing  the  size  of  the  ab- 
dominal. On  distinguishing  the  parts  more  immediately  imprinted  by 
each  parent,  it  is  obvious  that  the  effects  of  the  highest  bred  are  more 
striking  than  those  of  the  other.  Hence,  a  fine  head,  well  set  upon  the 
neck,  a  lustrous  eye,  a  gay  look,  an  engaging  manner,  and  free  action,  are 
more  readily  appreciated  than  a  fine  mould,  sound  constitution,  touch,  and 
disposition  to  grow. 

Few  farmers  commit  a  mistake  in  the  choice  of  the  male  for  improving 
their  stock.  Breeders  themselves  pay  particular  attention  to  the  produc- 
tion of  the  male,  and  farmers  who  purchase  or  hire  males  never  grudge 
paying  a  high  price  for  them  ;  and  hence  the  male-breeding  market  is  al- 
ways at  a  premium.  But  many  mistakes  are  made  by  breeders  in  the 
(!>05) a^» 


434  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

choice  of  the  females  to  hreed  from.  In  the  case  of  horses  particularly, 
any  sort  of  mare  is  considered  good  enough  to  produce  a  foal,  and  if  she 
happen  to  be  unfit  for  work,  or  has  met  with  an  accident,  such  as  having 
swung  her  back,  or  has  a  bad  leg,  she  is  the  one  selected  for  breeding  the 
future  labor-stock  of  the  farm.  The  best  stallion,  it  is  true,  will  be  put 
to  her,  most  probably  the  prize-stallion  of  the  local  agricultural  show  ; 
but  as  to  the  mare  herself,  it  is  considered  a  great  sacrifice  of  physical 
power  to  breed  from  young  fresh  mares.  Now,  in  acting  thus,  the  farmer 
commits  a  fatal  blunder  ;  he  is  depriving  himself  of  the  use  of  superior 
farm-liorses,  which  would  not  only  work  with  ease  to  themselves  and  sat- 
isfaction to  him,  and  at  the  same  cost  of  keej),  but  would  do  him  credit 
wherever  they  went.  Instead  of  pursuing  this  system,  he  should  select 
1  or  2  of  the  best  mares  in  his  possession  to  breed  from,  and  if  he  has  none 
possessing  youth  and  beauty  of  mould,  let  him  buy  1  or  2  at  any  pnce,  if 
such  are  to  be  purchased.  Let  them  not  be  under  5  years  of  age  when 
the  horse  is  first  put  to  them  ;  for  they  will  not  have  acquired  their  full 
stature  until  that  age.  From  that  period  let  them  bear  a  foal  every  year 
till  they  attain  12  or  13  years,  when  they  should  cease  to  breed  ;  for  old 
mares,  any  more  than  old  females  of  other  classes  of  animals,  cannot  pro- 
duce a  vigorous  progeny.  For  those  7  years  the  fresh  young  mares, 
stinted  to  the  best  stallion  that  can  be  secured,  will  each  produce,  and 
bring  up,  a  foal  every  year,  and  perform,  at  the  same  time,  their  part  of 
the  work  with  ease.  Such  foals  will  be  strong  in  bone  and  constitution,  and 
be  always  in  high  condition,  because  they  are  the  offspring  of  young  mares 
themselves,  high  in  condition,  and  overflowing  with  milk  ;  and  having  been 
brought  up  together  will  work  better  together.  I  speak  not  in  this  tone 
for  the  purpose  merely  of  condemning  the  practice  usually  followed  by 
farmers  in  breeding  farm-horses,  but  having  myself  tried  the  system  I 
recommend,  I  can  do  it  with  confidence.  I  purchased  from  a  dealer  a 
very  excellent  Clydesdale  mare  in  St.  John's  Market  at  Perth,  for  .£42,  a 
large  price  for  the  time.  She  was  5  years  old  oft",  and  was  altogether  such 
a  mare,  for  mould  and  strength,  as  is  seldom  to  be  found  in  a  market. 
Next  year  she  was  put  to  a  prize  stallion,  also  of  the  Clydesdale  breed, 
and  bore  a  foal  every  year  till  she  reached  10  years  of  age,  when,  much 
to  my  disappointment,  she  ceased  to  breed.  Her  first  2  foals  were  fillies, 
and,  when  4  and  5  years  old,  were  sold  at  the  sale,  when  I  declined  farm- 
ing, for  c£108,  to  convert  into  brood-mares.  Her  other  2  foals,  colts,  at  4 
years  old,  realized  c£'38  and  c£44.  I  had  other  2  mares  which  began  to 
bear  foal  at  7  years  of  age,  1  of  which  bi-ed  draught-horses,  which  real- 
ized from  .£'35  to  c£40,  and  the  other  was  put  to  a  coaching-stallion,  and 
produced  excellent  harness-horses  ;  1  of  them,  a  mare,  was  purchased  by 
a  friend  in  Ireland,  and  proved  one  of  the  fastest  goers  in  harness  I  ever 
saw.  I  am  ])erfectly  certain  the  same  results  will  be  realized  everywhere 
by  breeding  from  excellent  young  mares;  and  though  3  marcs  out  of  10 
horses,  which  wrought  my  farm,  bore  foals  every  year,  the  work  never 
fell  behind  its  season  ;  and  they  had  as  rough  and  heavy  work  to  do  for 
several  years,  while  improvements  were  in  hand,  as  could  be  encountered 
on  any  farm.  The  system  pursued  in  regard  to  the  breeding  of  cattle  and 
sheep  is  generally  much  better  than  that  for  horses,  though  1  think  that 
cows  are  not  generally  so  well  selected  as  they  should  be;  and  one  reason 
is  this  :  whenever  a  cow  happens  to  be  a  good  milker,  she  is  kept  to 
breed  as  long  as  she  is  worth  keeping  for  that  purpose,  without  regard  to 
any  other  point  of  excellence  ;  and  her  calves  may  be  good  or  bad,  in  pro- 
portion as  the  points  of  the  bull  which  begot  them  are  so.  Those  who 
keep  a  stock  of  cows  for  breeding  bulls,  of  course,  do  not  follow  this  haz- 

(906) 


SELECTION  OF  PARENTS  IN  BREEDING  LIVE-STOCK.         435 

ardous  plan  of  producing  valuable  calves ;  but  I  believe  by  far  the  great- 
est number  of  cattle  bred  in  this  country  are  produced  in  this  careless 
manner;  and  the  simple  recital  of  the  system  is  quite  sufficient  to  account 
for  the  great  number  of  inferior  cattle  to  be  met  with  in  all  our  public 
markets. 

The  system  of  breeding  I  have  recommended  is  applicable  to  every 
kind  of  stock  ;  but  modifications  are  allowable  in  it,  and  in  fact  expedient, 
according  to  the  particular  object  the  breeder  has  in  view.  If  his  object 
is  simply  to  breed  cattle  and  sheep  for  ordinary  markets  of  fat  and  lean 
stock,  a  useful  lot  of  cows  or  ewes,  with  a  good  tup  or  bull,  are  all  that 
are  requisite  ;  and  once  having  obtained  a  desirable  stock  of  either,  and 
not  wishing  them  of  finer  quality,  his  solicitude  will  be  confined  to  sus- 
taining their  character  by  preventing  the  least  tendency  to  deterioration. 
In  such  a  case  the  females  are  commonly  bred  by  the  farmer  himself,  and 
the  male  is  purchased  from  a  breed  of  superior  class  to  his  o^vn.  So  far 
the  practice  is  good ;  but  when  a  good  cow,  or  a  lot  of  good  ewes,  of  the 
same  or  superior  character  as  the  stock  itself  can  be  picked  up  now  and 
then,  the  opportunity  should  not  be  lost  of  infusing  a  fresh  strain  of  blood 
into  the  stock.  A  frequent  change  of  the  male  is  advisable  in  such  a  sys- 
tem, as  the  stock  will  soon  become  too  near  akin  to  him.  On  the  other 
hand,  those  whose  professed  object  is  to  breed  animals  to  propagate  their 
kind,  must  bestow  great  care  and  skill  to  sustain  their  breeding-stock  in 
the  hio-hest  state  of  perfection.  The  least  defect  in  the  female,  whether 
arising  from  accident  or  inherent  weakness,  should  be  the  instant  signal 
for  her  removal  from  the  stock,  and  as  to  the  male,  the  very  best  that  can 
be  found  should  be  purchased  at  any  price.  The  best  male  in  reference 
to  the  particular  case  may  not  be  the  best  animal  of  the  stock  from  which 
it  is  desired  to  purchase,  because  it  should  preeminently  possess  points 
which  will  either  iinprove  or  sustain  those  of  the  females  which  he  is  des- 
tined to  serve.  The  properties,  therefore,  which  a  male  should  possess 
are  entirely  relative  and  not  absolute ;  for  absolutely  good  points  ought  to 
be  possessed  by  the  females  before  the  breeder  should  attempt  to  produce 
breeding-stock  from  them.  To  manage  this  part  of  his  business  well  is  a 
very  difficult  task  for  the  breeder  ;  and  a  single  mistake  committed  in  this 
respect,  for  a  single  season,  may  cause  him  more  trouble  to  rectify,  and  in- 
cur greater  loss  than  if  he  had  been  content  with  his  own  stock  in  the  state 
it  was.  It  must  be  owned,  however,  that  whenever  a  breeder  discovers 
a  defect  in  any  point  in  his  stock,  his  desire  to  remedy  it  is  natural  ;  and 
whenever  he  finds  an  animal  superior  to  his  own,  it  is  as  natural  he  should 
endeavor  to  possess  it.  If,  for  example,  he  thinks  his  own  stock  somewhat 
slacker  behind  the  shoulder  than  they  should  be,  the  remedy,  he  conceives, 
is  to  use  a  male  which  is  free  of  that  deficiency.  The  usual  practice  is  to 
select  a  male  for  this  purpose  which  is  rather  full  behind  the  %houlder; 
because,  what  more  natural  than  to  fill  up  a  deficiency  with  a  redundancy  ] 
Such  an  expectation,  though  natural  enough,  may  lead  to  unexpected  re- 
sults ;  for  the  use  of  the  redundant  point  may  give  such  an  impetus  in  the 
stock  to  rectify  their  deficiency,  that  its  tendency  to  fill  up  may  proceed 
too  fai-,  even  in  one  generation,  and  cause  redundancy  where  there  was 
deficiency  before  ;  but  this  is  just  the  result  which  ought  to  have  been  an- 
ticipated, if  there  is  any  truth  in  the  breeders'  maxim  that  "  like  begets 
like."  The  employment,  therefoi'e,  of  a  symmetrical  shoulder  to  rectify  a 
deficient  one  is  the  practice  most  consonant  to  reason  and  principle  ;  for 
what  more  is  wanted  than  to  Jill  up  the  deficiency  behind  the  shoulder ; 
and  how  should  that  be  best  attained  but  by  using  a  model  which  is 
exactly   in  the  state    which    you  wish    the  deficiency  to  assume  1     The 

(907) 


436  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 


want  of  forethought  to  consequences  of  this  sort  has  been  the  cause  of 
deterioratittn  to  many  a  good  stock.  Too  many  farmers  attempt  to  pro- 
duce breeding-stock,  and  they  are  tempted  to  proceed  with  the  system 
as  long  as  they  observe  the  progeny  improve  upon  their  parents  ;  and 
as  long  as  they  are  observed  to  improve,  purchasers  will  be  found  to 
pay  good  prices — for  they  like  to  purchase  from  a  thriving  stock — till  a 
point  is  reached  beyond  which  improvement  does  not  succeed  ;  and 
this  is  considered  the  point  of  perfection,  though  it  may  be  veiy  far 
short  of  it.  The  breeder's  skill  may  be  unable  to  cany  him  farther ; 
and,  on  account  of  his  want  of  skill,  will  be  induced  to  present  his 
breeding-stock  to  the  attention  of  other  laeeders  with  the  greater  eaniest- 
ness.  Herein  is  concealed  another  source  of  error  ;  for  it  is  clear,  that  as 
long  as  a  stock  is  itself  far  short  of  perfection,  its  offshoots  cannot  afford  a 
certain  means  of  improving  other  stock.  Trial  may  be  made  of  it ;  but 
the  result  may  be  disapjiointment  to  the  purchasers,  and  disgust  to  the 
self-sufficient  breeder  himself.  One  circumstance  alone,  I  conceive,  would 
justify  a  breeder  in  oft'ering  imperfect  stock  for  breeding,  which  is,  being 
situate  in  a  country  where  crossing  with  other  breeds  might  be  carried  on 
with  advantage.  The  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter,  then,  is  that  a  stock 
producing  offshoots  fit  to  breed  from  should  have  arrived  at  perfection,  at 
least  to  such  a  degree  of  perfection  as  the  best  stocks  known  ;  and  the  ob- 
ject of  the  owner  of  such  a  stock  should  not  be  so  much  to  improve  its 
best  animals — for  that  seems  impossible — as  to  imjirove  the  inferior,  and 
sustain  the  quality  of  the  best ;  and  before  a  stock  can  be  brought  to  that 
state  of  perfection,  the  pedigree  of  its  best  animals — for  no  stock  contains 
all  its  animals  equally  good — might  be  traced  back  for  many  generations. 
Doubtless  this  is  a  severe  criterion  by  which  to  judge  the  character  of  a 
breeding-stock  ;  but  when  it  is  considered  that  its  members  are  preferred 
with  a  view  to  improve,  or  at  least  sustain,  the  breeding  of  membei-s  of 
another  stock  equally  well  bred  as  itself,  it  is  necessary  to  fix  a  high  stand- 
ard of  comparison,  and  nothing  short  of  this  will  afford  satisfaction.  There 
are  many  stocks  of  Short-Horn  cattle  and  Leicester  sheep  whose  character 
will  bear  the  strictest  scrutiny  by  such  a  criterion. 

Breeding  in-and-in. — No  wonder  high-breeding  produces  such  an  im- 
provement in  stock  as  to  render  the  head  small,  fine  and  beautiful,  the 
extremities  elegant,  the  form  handsome,  and  the  disposition  so  accommo- 
dating as  that  the  animals  grow  and  fatten  without  feeling  disturbed  at 
what  passes  around  ;  in  short,  become  so  prepossessing  as  to  make  their 
owners  mistrust  the  stocks  of  others,  and  employ  only  their  own  to  in- 
crease its  own  numbers.  It  was  this  feeling  which  actuated  Bakewell  to 
breed  only  from  his  own  stock,  after  he  had  brought  the  Leicester  sheep 
and  Long-Horn  cattle  to  perfection.  For  a  time  Mr.  Mason,  of  Chilton, 
pursued  the  same  course  ;  and  there  are  breeders  in  England  at  the  pres- 
ent time  who  maintain  that  it  is  the  best  system,  and  will  follow  no  other. 
Perhaps  a  stock  brought  to  the  highest  state  of  perfection,  and  at  the 
same  time  possessed  of  sound  constitution,  may  be  supported  free  of  de- 
terioration for  many  years  by  the  peculiar  skill  of  its  owner  ;  and  I  can 
conceive  a  high-bred  stock,  full  of  young  blood,  such  as  Bakewell's  was 
during  his  whoJe  lifetime,  to  be  increased  and  supported  by  its  own  mem- 
bers though  bred  in-and-in,  that  is,  supported  by  near  kindred  or  consan- 
guinity. There  was  one  valid  reason  for  Mr.  Bakewell  employing  only 
his  own  stock,  which  was,  that  there  was  no  other  so  good  as  his  own  to 
select  fi'om  ;  and  it  would  have  seemed  extraordinary  in  him,  of  all  men, 
to  have  employed  any  animal  of  acknowledged  inferiority  to  his  own  ;  but 
I  suspect  no  such  libeity  may  be   taken,  with   impunity,  with   a   stock  as 

(908) 


CROSSING  LIVE-STOCK.  437 

highly  bred,  but  not  so  youthful  in  blood.  At  all  events,  many  instances 
have  occurred  in  which  many  fine  stocks  have  been  ruined  in  character, 
and  have  entailed  irreparable  loss  on  their  owners  simply  by  being  bred 
in-and-in.  The  immediate  effects  of  employing  parents  nearly  allied  by 
blood  to  propagate  their  kind  are  remarkable.  The  bone  becomes  very 
small,  of  condensed  texture,  and  fine  quality.  The  skin  is  so  thin  as  to 
receive  the  appellation  oi paj^ery,  and  so  open  of  texture  as  to  be  sensible 
to  the  least  change  of  temperature  ;  and  hence  animals  bred  in-and-in  are 
very  susceptible  of  catarrhal  affections,  and  on  which  account  they  are  lia- 
ble to  consumption  and  clyers.  The  carcass  is  much  reduced  in  size, 
and  the  disposition  to  fatten  increases  to  such  a  degree  that  the  ani- 
mal may  be  said  to  be  always  in  a  condition  to  be  slaughtered  ;  and  it  is, 
perhaps,  this  tendency  to  fatten,  which  has  proved  the  great  inducement 
with  many  breeders  to  tolerate  the  in-and-in  system.  The  hair  is  short, 
smooth,  and  thin-set,  and  the  wool  short,  thin-set,  and  watery  ;  and  both 
hide  and  fleece  lose  a  large  proportion  of  weight.  The  body  assumes  a 
change  of  form,  the  barrel  being  beautifully  rounded,  but  seems  stuffed, 
as  it  were,  within  the  skin.  The  extremities  are  very  fine,  the  head  and 
hoofs  small,  the  ears  thin  and  broad,  and  the  head  of  the  sheep  is  almost 
bare  of  hair,  of  a  blue  color,  very  liable  to  be  scalded  by  the  heat  of  the 
sun,  and  attacked  by  the  fly.  The  necks  of  both  cattle  and  sheep  are  thin, 
and  droop  with  a  downward  curve  from  the  head  to  the  top  of  the  shoul- 
der. The  points  just  enumerated  show  the  unprofitable  state  into  which 
a  stock  may  be  brought  by  being  bred  in-and-in.  Mr.  Mason's  fine  Short- 
Horn  stock  latterly  showed  symptoms  of  the  bad  effects  of  this  system  ; 
and  Mr.  Robertson's  stock  at  Ladykirk,  which  contained  at  one  time  by 
far  the  finest  Short-Horns  in  Scotland,  suffered  after  his  demise  from  the 
same  cause,  as  was  apparent  on  the  animals  presented  at  the  sale  Avhich 
dispersed  them.  Only  cattle  and  sheep  have  been  subjected  by  farmers 
to  be  bred  in-and-in,  for  their  draught-mares  are  usually  covered  by 
stallions  obtained  from  a  distance  ;  and  of  cattle  and  sheep,  the  injurious 
effects  of  the  system  have  only  been  observed  in  Short-Horn  cattle 
and  Leicester  sheep.  The  injurious  effects-  of  the  system  have  been  felt, 
it  is  true,  in  the  racing-stud,  and  aie  evinced  by  the  racers  of  the  present 
day  being  unable  to  carry  heavy  weights,  and  run  the  long  distances  of 
the  horses  of  old.     At  present  nothing  but  speed  is  regarded. 

Now,  that  high-bred  stocks  exist  in  every  district  of  the  kingdom,  there 
is  no  excuse  for  pursuing  the  in-and-in  system  of  breeding ;  and  the  attempt 
is  the  more  inexcusable  from  the  remarkable  fact,  brought  to  light  only  since 
the  distribution  of  high-bred  stock,  that  its  progeny,  after  being  distributed 
for  a  time,  may  be  brought  together  to  propagate  their  kind,  and  their  off- 
spring will  exhibit  no  symptoms  of  in-and-in  breeding.  Such  a  result  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  change  of  soij  and  situation  renovates  the  animal  as 
well  as  the  vegetable  constitution. 

It  may  be  proper  to  mention  what  relations  are  considered  allied  in 
blood,  in  breeding  in-and-in.  Connection  of  the  sire  with  his  gi-and-dam, 
dam,  and  sister,  is  improper.  So  it  is  even  with  his  aunt,  niece,  and  cousin- 
germain.  One  should  imagine  that  a  breeder  would  feel  repugnance  at  con- 
necting so  near  a  consanguinity  as  the  former ;  yet  the  union  is  too  often 
permitted  to  take  place  in  the  latter  cases. 

Crossiyig. — The  union  of  different  breeds  of  the  same  sort  of  animal  is  a 
favorite  scheme  with  many  breeders,  and,  under  certain  conditions,  pro- 
duces good  results.  Those  conditions  are,  that  the  male  employed  in  the 
crossing  shall  have  the  superior  breeding  of  the  2  parents,  and  that  the  sit- 
uation in  which  the  cross-progeny  shall  be  brought  up  shall  be  suitable  to 

(909) 


438  1  HE  BOOK  OF  the  farm. 


it.  The  first  condition  is  usually  complied  with,  but  the  second  is  as  com- 
monly disregarded  ;  and  the  consequence  is,  that  the  crosses  attempted  to 
be  brought  up  in  situations  quite  unsuited  to  their  nature  have  proved  a 
failure. 

In  the  crosses  commonly  attempted  in  this  country,  among  cattle  the 
Short-Horn  bull,  and  among  sheep  the  Leicester  tup,  have  been  employed 
to  serve  the  ordinary  breeds  of  cattle  and  sheep.  The  eflects  have  proved 
satisfactory ;  for  though  the  progeny  could  not  but  be  expected  to  be  in- 
ferior to  the  sire,  they  are  superior  to  the  dam.  The  effects  are  :  an  en- 
largement of  the  carcass,  a  finer  skin,  longer  hair  and  wool,  cleaner  bone 
and  finer  head,  and  tlie  disposition  to  fatten  greatly  accelerated — all  of 
which  are  superior  to  the  ordinary  points  of  the  breed  ;  but,  of  course,  the 
better  the  dam  is,  the  more  decidedly  improved  will  those  points  be.  In 
effecting  such  a  cross,  it  has  been  found  that  the  higher  bred  the  male  is 
the  finer  is  the  cross  ;  that  is,  the  nearer  will  it  approach  his  properties  ;  and 
even  an  ovcr-brcd  male,  that  is,  one  showing  symptoms  of  having  been 
bred  in-and-in,  may  be  used  with  advantage  in  crossing.  Where  a  supe- 
rior cross-male  happens  thus  to  be  produced,  a  strong  desire  is  evinced  by 
the  breeders  to  keep  him  entire  for  service,  and  to  use  him  as  a  sire,  in- 
stead of  expending  money  in  the  puixhase  of  a  high-bred  male.  A  more 
short-sighted  step  than  this  cannot  be  taken  by  a  breeder,  because  from 
such  a  male  he  has  no  assurance  that  the  progeny  will  be  superior  to  the 
dam.  Indeed,  he  has  no  guaranty  of  what  the  state  of  the  progeny  will 
be  at  all,  for  it  may  be  worse  than  eitlier  sire  or  dam  ;  and  if  such  a  disap- 
pointment overtakes  him,  he  has  himself  to  blame,  having  left  the  whole 
matter  to  chance.  The  employment  of  a  high-bred  sire,  on  the  other  hand, 
will  never  lead  to  disappointment,  as  the  pi'ogeny  will  assuredly  be  supe- 
rior to  the  dam.  It  is  this  assurance  which  affords  much  satisfaction  to 
the  breeder  of  high-b?ed  stock,  by  which  he  can  anticipate  the  quality  of 
his  forthcoming  young  stock;  and  it  is  with  high-bred  stock  alone  that  the 
maxim  of  *'  like  producing  like  "  is  realized.  Nevertheless,  there  are  sit- 
uations in  which  high-bred  stock  cannot  be  maintained  as  a  breeding  stock, 
and  in  which  nothing  but  crossing  can  be  practiced  when  improvement  is 
desired  ;  but  the  desire  for  improvement  has  been  earned  by  some  breed- 
ers beyond  the  bounds  of  prudence  ;  they  have  crossed  the  Black-faced 
ewe  with  Leicester  tups,  in  situations  where  the  enlarged  lamb  has 
been  unable  to  subsist  in  winter ;  and  on  this  account  the  policy  of 
changing  the  Black-faced  breed  of  sheep  in  high  localities  seems  doubtful. 
In  lower  situations,  the  Cheviot  ewe,  which  inhabits  the  middle  range  of 
green  pasture,  may  be  crossed  with  the  Leicester  tup  with  advantage. 
Every  crossing,  however,  should  be  prosecuted  with  caution,  because  the 
result  may  overstep  the  intentions  of  the  breeder.  It  is  clear  that  if  the 
crossed  stock  is  retained  as  females,  which,  in  their  turn,  are  served  by 
high-bred  males,  the  time  will  arrive  when  the  character  of  the  original 
stock  will  be  entirely  changed,  and  become  unsuited  to  their  native  climate 
and  pasture,  and  will,  in  fact,  have  become  the  same  breed  as  their  high- 
bred sires.  It  is  quite  possible  to  originate  a  race  of  Short-Horas  and 
Leicester  sheep  anywhere  suited  to  their  nature,  by  constantly  employing 
a  high-bred  bull  and  tup  to  serve  cross-bred  heifers  and  gimmers,  genera- 
tion after  generation  ;  and  were  this  practice  generally  adopted,  the  time 
would  arrive  when  tlje.  original  breeds  which  were  crossed  would  disap- 
pear altogether.  Such  a  result  would  prove  injurious  to  the  breeder  him- 
self, inasmuch  as  the  pasture  would  be  unsuited  for  the  stock  he  had 
caused  to  be  produced  ;  so  that  his  best  plan  is  to  preserve  the  original 
breeds  in  the  higher  parts  of  the  country,   and  take  the  crosses  to  the  low 

(910) 


THE   POINTS     OF    HORSES. 


439 


country  to  be  fed  off.  The  temptation  of  larger  profits  has  already- 
caused  the  Cheviot  to  drive  the  Black-faced  breed  from  the  lovi^er  pastures 
to  the  highest,  while  the  cross-bred  Cheviot,  with  the  Leicester,  have  de- 
scended, on  the  other  hand,  to  the  low  country,  and  there  have  met  the  true 
bred  Leicester.  This  result,  upon  the  whole,  has  done  good,  as  it  has  in- 
creased the  quantity  of  mutton  in  the  market  ;  and  the  skillful  pasturao-e 
which  the  hills  have  received  since  a  regular  system  of  breeding  has  been 
introduced,  has  caused  them  to  yield  a  larger  quantity  of  finer  grasses. 
The  crossing  of  the  Black-faced  sheep  has  undergone  a  change  ;  the  Lei- 
cester tup  is  too  heavy  to  serve  Black-faced  ewes  on  the  hills,  and  to  bring 
those  ewes  to  the  tup  in  the  low  country  is  attended  with  ti'ouble  and  ex- 
pense. Instead,  therefore,  of  the  Leicester  tup  being  so  employed,  the 
Cheviot  tup  has  been  substituted  ;  and  though  the  cross  is  inferior — for 
nothing  can  exceed  the  beauty  of  the  lamb  produced  between  the  Black- 
faced  ewe  and  Leicester  tup — it  is  a  good  one,  and  has  enlarged  the  Black- 
faced  mutton.  So  long  as  crossing  is  conducted  with  the  breeds  in  their 
natural  state,  it  will  go  on  without  confusion,  but  the  moment  cross-bred 
tups  are  employed  as  improvers  of  stock,  their  interference  will  produce 
confusion  in  the  crosses,  and  throw  discredit   upon    crossing  altogether. 

I  purpose  giving  a  short  description  of  the  animals  whose  portraits  are 
given  in  the  Plates  illustrative  of  this  work,  and  shall  make  such  T'emarks 
on  the  form  of  the  animals  as  to  give  you  an  idea  of  their  leading  points, 
whether  good  or  bad.  In  order  to  render  reference  to  the  figures  in  the 
iPlates  more  easy,  wood-cuts  of  their  points  have  been  provided,  that  they 
may  be  more  distinctly  indicated. 

Horses. — Among  horses  I  shall  take  the  draught-horse,  fig.  435,  and 
Plate  VII.,  as  the  standard  of  comparison.  This  gelding  is  of  gray  color, 
was  bred  by  Mr.  Curry  at  Brandon,  in 
the  county  of  Northumberland,  and  is  the 
property  of  Messrs.  Ho wey  and  Co.,  the 
great  carriers  from  Edinburgh  into  Eng- 
land. He  is  not  a  thorough-bred  Clydes- 
dale, having  a  dash  of  the  coaching  blood 
in  him,  a  species  of  farm-horse  very  much 
in  use  on  the  Borders,  and  admired  for 
their  action  and»spirit.  This  gelding  ex- 
hibits such  a  form  as  to  constitute,  in  my 
estimation,  the  very  pei'fection  of  what  a 
farm-horse  should  be.  His  head  a  is 
small,  bone  clean,  eyes  prominent,  muz- 
zle fine,  and  ears  set  on  the  crown  of  the 
head.  His  neck  rises  with  a  fine*  crest 
along  the  mane  from  the  trunk  b  h  to  a,  and  tapers  to  the  head,  which  is 
beautifully  set  on,  and  seems  tt)  be  borne  by  the  neck  with  ease.  His 
limbs  taper  gradually  from  the  body,  and  are  broad  and  flat ;  the  knee  k 
is  straight,  broad,  and  strong,  and  the  fore-arm  i  broad  and  flat — all  excel- 
lent points  in  the  leg  of  a  draught-horse,  giving  it  strength  and  action.  The 
back  of  the  fore-leg,  from  the  fetlock-joint  I  to  the  body  o,  is  straight,  indi- 
cating no  weakness  in  the  limb — a  faihng  here  causing  the  knees  to 
knuckle,  and  rendering  the  horse  unsafe  in  going  down  hill.  The  hind- 
legs  m,  as  well  as  the  fore  ones  k  and  I,  stand  directly  under  the  body, 
forming  firm  supports  to  it.  The  body  is  beautifully  symmetrical.  The 
shoulder  slopes  backward  from  h  to  b,  the  withers  at  b  being  high  and 
thin.  The  sloped  position  of  the  shoulder  affords  a  proper  seat  for  the 
collar,  and  provides  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder-blade  s;  so  long  a  lever  as 

(911)  '  ° 


Fig.  435. 


^^«j»^£22 


THE     DRAUGHT-HORSE. 


440 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 


to  cause  them  to  thii)\v  the  fore-legs  forward  in  a  walk  or  trot ;  and  with 
such  a  shoulder  a  horse  cannot  stumble.  The  back,  from  bto  c,  is  short,  no 
longer  than  to  give  room  to  the  saddle.  The  chest,  from  b  to  o,  is  deep, 
giving  it  capacity  for  the  lungs  to  play  in,  and  room  for  the  muscles  re- 
quired in  draught.  The  top  of  the  quarter  from  c  to  d  is  rounded,  the 
flank,  from  c  to  n,  deep,  and  the  hind-quarter,  from/to  e,  long.  On  look- 
ing on  the  side  profile  of  the  entire  animal,  the  body  seems  made  up  of  two 
large  quarters,  joined  together  by  a  short  thick  middle,  suggesting  the  idea 
of  strength  ;  and  the  limbs,  neck  and  head,  are  so  attached  to  the  body  as 
to  appear  light  and  useful.  In  a  well  formed  horse,  I  may  remark,  tho 
line  from  the  fetlock  /  to  the  elbow-joint,  at  o,  is  equal  to  that  from  the 
joint  o  to  the  t(»p  of  the  withers  b.  In  a  low-shoulderetJ  leggy-horse,  the 
line  I  o  is  much  longer  than  the  line  o  b  ;  but  in  the  case  of  this  horse,  the 
body  b  ois  rather  deeper  than  the  leg  /  o  is  ipng,  realizing  the  desideratum 
in  a  farm-horse  of  a  thick  middle  and  short  legs.  The  line  across  the  ribs 
from  g  toy' is,  like  the  back,  short,  and  the  nbs  are  round.  He  is  16  hands 
high,  measures  from  a  to  i  35  inches,  from  i  to  c  33  inches,  from  c  to  d  19 
inches,  being  in  extreme  length  7  feet  3  inches.  Length  of  the  face  25  in- 
ches, breadth  of  face  across  the  eyes  10  inches,  length  of  ears  6^  inches, 
breadth  across  the  hook-bones  22  inches,  girth  behind  the  shoulder  80  in- 
ches, girth  of  fore-arm  23  inches,  girth  of  bone  below  the  fore-knee  9i  in- 
ches ;  the  breadth  of  this  bone  shows  the  strength  of  the  fore-leg  of  every 
horse  ;  girth  of  neck  at  the  onset  of  the  head  32  inches,  girth  of  muzzle  21 
inches,  width  of  counter  19  inches,  and  bight  of  top  of  quarter  from  the 
ground  G'S  inches.  In  a  draught-horse  the  collar  causes  the  muscles  to  en- 
large upon  the  shoulder,  and  the  neck  to  become  thin.  This  horse's  name 
is  Farmer,  his  walk  is  stately,  and  he  can  draw  3  tons  on  level  gi'ound,  in- 
cluding the  weight  of  the  wagon.  He  is  a  well  known  animal  in  Edinburgh, 
and  is  generally  admired. 

Fig.  436  as  here  shewn  is  the  portrait  of  the  black  draught-stallion 
Champion,  bred  by  Mr.  James  Steedman, 
Boghall,  in  the  county  of  Mid-Lothian. 
He  is  of  the  true  Clydesdale  breed.  He 
gained  the  first  prize  at  the  Highland 
and  Agricultural  Society's  Show  at  Glas- 
gow in  October,  1837,  and  obtained  pre- 
miums elsewhere.  He  is  a  sure  foal- 
getter.  He  is  fully  17  hands  high,  and 
though  otherwise  a  large  animal,  being 
8  feet  7  inches  in  length,  his  action  is 
high  and  uncommonly  light.  On  com- 
paring him  generally  with  the  geldii<g 
just  described,  though  his  body  is  longelv 

ndr 


Fig.  436. 


THE  DRAUGHT-STALLIO.-J. 


both  hind  and  fore  quarters  are  long  ant 
deep,  and  exhibit  a  large  display  of  muscle.  His  middle  is  somewhat 
small,  as  is  almost  always  the  case  -with  stallions  which  have  sen-ed  many 
mares.  Like  all  stallions,  his  neck  rises  beautifully  from  his  body  h  e,  in 
a  full  crest  from  b  to  a,  evincing  that  castration  has  the  effect  of  reducing 
the  size  of  the  muscles  of  the  neck  of  all  geldings.  The  shoulder  slopes 
well  back  from  e  to  b,  giving  freedom  of  action  to  the  fore-legs,  while  the 
muscle  at  m  being  fully  developed,  assists  in  imparting  power  to  that  ac- 
tion. The  hind-quarter,  from  g  to  b,  is  long  and  deep.  The  fore-leg  is 
straight,  and  short  from  knee  to  fetlock,/?  to  n,  the  bone  under  the  knee 
strong,  and  the  fore-arm  /  flat  and  broad.  The  hind-legs  o  are  remarkably 
handsome.     The  sweep  of  line  from  the  crown  of  the  head  along  the  back 

(912J 


THE  POINTS   OF  HORSES.  44] 


to  the  tail-head  is  truly  elegant,  giving  a  very  fine  top  to  the  quarter,  and 
the  plenitude  of  hair  in  the  tail  d  k  indicates  gi-eat  strength  of  back.  His 
eye  is  good,  though  somewhat  small,  the  ratch  of  white  down  his  face  is 
against  his  cast  of  countenance  ;  and  having  the  2  hind-legs  white  is  also 
against  his  general  appearance.  His  disposition  is  remarkably  docile,  anff 
his  whole  demeanor  harmless.  His  constitution  is  good,  and  he  is  an  ex- 
cellent traveler.  These  are  a  few  of  his  dimensions  :  from  a  to  b  5\ 
inches,  from  i  to  c  30  inches,  from  c  to  d  22  inches  ;  in  all  8  feet  7  inches 
Length  of  face  26^  inches,  breadth  of  face  across  the  eyes  11  inches,  length 
of  ears  6^  inches,  breadth  across  the  hook-bones  30  inches,  girth  behind 
the  shoulder  90  inches,  girth  of  fore-arm  28  inches,  girth  of  bone  below 
*^he  fore-knee  12  inches,  hight  of  top  of  quarter  from  the  ground  67  inches 
•J^irth  of  neck  at  the  onset  of  the  head  39  inches,  girth  of  muzzle  24  inches 
and  width  of  counter  22  inches. 

Fig.  437  as  here  shewn  is  the  portrait  of  a  brown  mare  belonging  t( 
Mr.  George  Bagrie,  Monkton,  near  Dal- 
keith, Mid-Lothian.  She  gained  the  fii-st  Fig. 437. 
premium  at  every  show  of  stock  she  was 
ever  exhibited.  The  white  ratch  down 
her  face,  and  so  much  white  on  her  legs, 
detract  from  her  general  appearance ; 
but  notwithstanding  these  drawbacks,  she 
is  an  exceedingly  handsome  mare.  You 
have  only  to  look  at  the  Plate  to  observe 
the  beautiful  flowing  lines  of  her  whole 
contour,  and  also  the  gi'eat  substance  of 
both  fore  and  hind  quarter.  The  rise  and 
crest  of  her  neck  from  b  to  a,  and  from  e 
to  a,  are  remaikably  fine.  The  back  from  the  draught-mare. 
Z>  to  c  is  somewhat  hollow,  and  there  is  a 

corresponding  depression  of  the  belly  at  i,  both  the  consequences  of  foal- 
bearing,  as  well  as  a  slackness  of  the  flank  in  front  of  g,  the  usual  defi- 
ciency there  of  brood-mares.  The  top  of  the  rump  from  c  to  (Z  is  also 
very  fine.  The  shoulder  slopes  well  from  e  to  b,  indicating  good  action  ; 
the  muscles  are  well  developed  on  the  fore-quarter  from  e  to  f,  indicating 
power  in  draught;  and  the  ribs  are  round,  and  long  fromyto  g,  a  favora- 
ble configuration  in  the  brood-mare  for  giving  room  for  the  growth  of  the 
foetus.  The  hind-quarter  from  ^  to  A  is  long.  The  legs  are  placed  directly 
under  the  body,  the  fore-knee  I  being  broad  and  strong,  the  back  of  the 
fore-leg  fi-om  the  fetlock  m  to  the  body  straight,  and  the  fore-arm  k  broad 
and  flat.  I  have  no  measurement  of  the  dimensions  of  this  mare,  which  I 
regret,  as  losing  a  means  of  comparison  with  the  gelding  and  stallion.  Be- 
side roundness  and  length  of  rib,  a  brood-mare  should  be  wide  across  the 
hook-bones  and  the  pelvis,  to  afford  room  for  the  growth  and  subsequent 
egress  of  the  foal. 

I  have  chosen  a  black  stallion,  brown  mare,  and  gray  gelding,  as  illus- 
trative of  the  three  colors  most  commonly  seen  among  farm-horses.  A 
black  stallion  seems  the  generally  favorite  color,  and  a  brown  mare  is  not 
uncommon,  but  the  gi'ay  color  is  less  in  vogue  than  it  was  20  years  ago  ; 
but  why  I  cannot  say.  It  is  said  that  the  feet  of  gray  horses  are  more  ten- 
der than  of  horses  of  other  colors ;  and,  for  the  same  reason,  whatever 
that  may  be,  it  is  alleged  that  white  feet  are  more  tender  than  any  other 
color.  I  once  corresponded  on  this  subject  with  the  veterinary  surgeon 
of  one  of  the  regiments  of  Life  Guards,  the  horses  of  which  are  black,  and 

(969) 


442 


THE  BOOK  OF   THE  FARM. 


Fig.  438. 


his  Statement  was  that  he  had  ncit  observed  any  remarkable  defect  in  those 
horses  which  happened  to  liave  white  feet ;  but  that  his  attention  had  not 
before  been  particularly  drawn  to  the  subject.  It  might  be  worth  while 
to  ascertain  whether  or  not  it  is  found  that  the  horses  of  the  Scots  Grays 
are  more  liable  to  tender  feet  than  those  of  other  corps  of  a  different  coloi-. 

Cattle. — 1  have  already  said  so  much  on  the  points  of  cattle,  that  noth- 
ing more  remains  to  be  advanced  on  that  subject ;  so  I  shall  merely  allude 
to  the  particular  ])oints  exhibited  by  the  animals  represented  in  the  Plates. 
And,  first,  I  shall  take,  as  a  standard  of  comj)arison,  the  Short-Horn  ox, 
fig.  438  given  below.  This  was  an  ox  from  the  herd  of  Mr.  Wilson,  of 
Cumledge,  in  Berwickshire,  who  has  long  been  known  as  a  successful 
breeder  of  Short-Horn  steers.  His  stock  comes  to  maturity  and  is  fat- 
tened off'  at  2  years  of  age,  when  they  commonly  attain  70  stones  impe- 
rial. The  ox  in  fig.  438  was  1  year  11  months  old  when  his  portrait  was 
taken  ;  and  he  was  afterward  shown  at  the  Highland  and  Agricultural 
Society's  Show  at  Berwick-upon-Tweed,  in  October,  1841.  He  was  of  a 
roan  color,  with  a  good  deal  of  white. 
His  head  was  remarkably  fine,  with  a 
pleasant  countenance,  full  eyes,  and 
small,  slouching,  shai-p-pointed  horns. 
Besides  a  fine  head,  he  had  a  straight 
back,  round  rib,  deep  flank,  and  full 
neck-vein.  His  principal  measure- 
ments were,  from  e  to  a  27  inches, 
from  a  to  b  321,  from  J  to  c  21i  inches, 
in  all  6  feet  9  inches ;  and  the  girth  of 
the  body  behind  the  shoulder  at  J"  7 
feet  3  inches.  His  measurement  for 
beef  was  4  feet  6  inches  in  length  by  7 
feet  3  inches  in  girth,  equal  to  56  stones  imperial ;  so  1  should  say  from 
these  figures,  that  this  ox  was  rather  too  short  for  a  perfectly  symmetrical 
figure. 

Fig.  439  given  on  page  443,  is  a  portrait  of  a  red  and  white  Short-Horn 
bull.  This  animal  was  bied  by  the  late  Mr.  George  Brown  at  Whltsome 
Hill,  in  Berwickshire.  He  was  got  by  a  red  and  white  bull  belonging  to 
Mr.  Robertson,  of  Ladykirk,  named  Valentine.*  At  that  period,  Mr. 
Robertson's  stock  of  Short-Horns  was  in  its  glory.  The  dam  of  this  bull 
was  got  by  a  red  bull,  never  named,  bred  by  Mr.  Thomas  Smith,  now  at 
Buckden,  then  at  Grindon,  in  Northumberland,  and  was  a  son  of  his  old 
roan  bull  Duke ;  and  at  that  period  few  farmers  had  so  high  a  bred  stock 
as  Mr.  Smith.  The  grand-dam  was  one  of  twin  quey-calves  produced  by 
a  heifer,  purchased  in  calf  by  Mr.  Brown  from  Mr.  Mason,  of  Chilton. 
One  of  the  twin  calves,  when  a  2-year-old  quey,  Mr.  Brown  sold  to  the 
late  Duke  of  Buccleuch  for  50  guineas,  and  the  other  he  retained  for  him- 
self I  purchased  this  bull  When  1  year  old  from  Mr,  Brown  for  20 
guineas,  and  kept  him  at  Balmadies,  in  Forfarshire,  for  8  years,  during 
which  time  he  proved  himself  a  sure  and  excellent  calf-getter,  and  evinced 
a  gentleness  of  disposition  to  every  person  who  approached  him,  in  a  re- 
markable degree  for  a  bull.  He  had  many  good  points — small  head,  lively 
eye,  small,  fine,  white  liorn.  He  was  well  filled  up  behind  the  shoulder, 
at  J]  fig.  439,  a  point  in  which  many  bulls  are  deficient.  He  had  a  long 
quarter  from  g,  a  difficult  point  to  attain  in  a  bull,  carrying  the  flesh  of  the 
hocks  d ;  a  thick  flank  e ;    ribs  round,  forming   a  straight  line  from  the 


THE  SHORT-HORN  OX. 


*  For  Valentine's  pedigree,  see  Coates's  Herd  Book,  vol.  L 
(970) 


THE     POINTS   OF    CATTLE. 


443 


THE    SHORT-HORN    BULL. 


shoulder-point  in  front  oi  f,  past  g,  to  the  margin  of  the  round  above  d. 
His  fore-arm  h  was  very  strong ;  neck-vein  full  ;  and  the  crest  of  his 
neck  a  fine  and  not  lumpy,  as  is 
too  often  the  case  in  bulls  ;  his 
hooks  and  back  were  remai'kably 
straight  and  broad,  measuring 
across  the  hook-bones  at  h  36  in- 
ches ;  the  rump  between  h  and  c 
was  full  and  round,  and  the  tail- 
head  c  was  remarkably  level  and 
fine,  showing  no  undue  develop- 
ment of  muscle,  as  is  often  the 
case  here — a  deformity  loo  gen- 
erally admired,  and  in  so  far 
shows  a  prevalence  of  bad  taste. 
His  neck  and  shoulders  were 
strewed  over  with  curled  locks  of  long  hair,  the  entire  body  being  thickly 
covered  with  long  soft  hair  ;  the  face  was  garnished  with  curled  hair  in  a 
line  down  in  front  of  each  eye  ;  and  the  roots  of  the  horns  were  hidden 
with  long  hair  falling  over  the  forehead.  His  hide  was  thick  and  mellow, 
and  the  touch  fine.  He  had  a  most  robust  constitution,  never  having  had 
a  day's  illness  in  his  Ufe  of  nine  years.  Unfortunately  I  had  no  measure- 
ment taking  of  him  before  he  was  killed  fat,  when  the  butcher,  Mr.  John- 
ston of  Arbroath,  informed  me  he  weighed  139  stones  imperial,  sinking 
the  oifals.     His  flesh  was  fine,  much  more  like  ox  than  bull  beef. 

Fig.  440,  given  below,  are  the  portraits  of  three  Short-Horn  cows  be- 
longing to  the  Duke  of  Buccleuch,  at  Dalkeith  Park,  in  Mid-Lothian. 
They  are  all  of  pure  blood,  being  descended  from  Mr.  Robertson  of  Lady- 
kirk's  stock,  when  Mr.  John  Rennie  had  a  part  of  them  in  his  possession 
at  Phantassie  in  East-Lothian.     The   cow,    a   roan,  whose  side  view  is 

Fig.  440. 


THE    SHORT-HORN    COWS. 


given,  was  in  a  lean  state  when  the  portrait  was  taken  ;  but  the  likeness 
is  the  more  valuable  on  that  account,  in  giving  an  idea  of  the  skeleton, 
which  in  her  case  is  very  fine.  She  is  the  beautiful  Kilmeny,  got  by 
Match  'em.  The  hook-bone  h  is  finely  prominent,  and  at  the  same  time 
level ;  the  ribs  e  round  ;  the  shoulder-blade  d  sloping ;  the  top  of  the 
shoulder  a  broad  :  the  neck-vein  at  g  fine  ;  the  muscle  at  /well  develop- 
ed ;  the  tail-head  c  level  with  the  hooks;  and  the  udder  h  hemispherical, 
the  teats  being  pendant  at  equal  distances.  The  uncommon  half-slouching, 
half-projecting  form  of  her  horns,  and  a  staring  of  the  eyes,  give  her  coun- 
tenance, though  her  head  is  otherwise  fine,  a  somewhat  more  austere 
aspect  than  cows  generally  have.  The  front  view  of  the  re^  cow  in  the 
middle  is  intended  to  show  the  breadth  of  the  fore-quarter  from  p  to  r,  the 
roundness  of  the  ribs  at  p,  the  depth  of  bi-isket  at  s,  and  the  width  of 
space  upon  which  the   fore-legs  stand.     The  hind  view  of  the  white  cow, 

(»7l) 


444  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

on  the  I'ight,  shows  the  broad  space  between  the  hooks  from  /  to  k,  and 
the  same  across  the  pelvis  from  m  to  n,  2  points  essential  in  the  cow,  as  a 
safe  breeder  of  full-grown  calves.  The  form  of  the  udder  behind  at  o 
shows  the  proper  position  of  the  2  hind  teats,  and  exhibits  the  loose,  soft 
skin  above  the  udder,  which  is  characteristic  of  good  milkers. 

The  3  colors,  roan,  red.  and  white,  were  purposely  chosen  to  show  the 
common  colors  which  the  Short-Horns  bear.  Though  thus  divided  into  3, 
only  2  colors  are.  in  truth,  sported  by  Short-Horns,  namely,  red  and  white, 
the  roan  being  a  mixture  of  the  other  2.  The  roan  is  a  handsome  color, 
and  is,  I  believe,  the  general  favorite  now  ;  the  fancy  for  color  having  gone 
from  the  red  to  the  white,  and  is  now  settled  on  the  roan.  Dark-red  usually 
indicates  hardiness  of  constitution,  richness  of  milk,  and  disposition  to  fat- 
ten ;  light-red  indicates  gieat  quantity  of  thin  milk,  and  little  disposition  to 
fatten  ;  but  the  red  in  either  case  is  seldom  entire,  being  generally  relieved 
with  white  on  the  sides,  and  the  belly,  as  in  the  case  also  of  the  bull  de- 
scribed above.  White  was  considered  indicative  of  delicacy  of  constitution  ; 
and  to  get  quit  of  it,  and  at  the  same  time  avoid  the  dullness  of  red,  the 
roan  was  encouraged,  and  now  prevails.  I  think  I  have  obsen-ed  that  white 
animals  show  the  symptoms  sooner  than  any  other  color  of  being  bred  in- 
and-in. 

A  single  black  hair  on  the  body,  and  particularly  on  the  nose  ;  or  the 
slightest  dork  spot  on  the  flesh-colored  skin  upon  the  nose,  or  around  the 
eyes,  or  the  bonis  tipped  with  black,  at  once  proclaim  that  a  Short-Horn 
sporting  either  of  these  is  not  pure  bred — all  attestation  to  the  contrary- be- 
ing of  no  avail. 

To  show  that  careful  breeding  improves  the  head  of  every  breed  of 
cattle,  specimens  of  the  heads  of  3  celebrated  breeds  are  given,  one  being 
the  Long-Horns,  a  breed  not  confined  to  England,  as  it  extends  over 
Ireland,  though  it  is  only  in  England  that  fine  specimens  of  the  breed  are 
to  be  seen.  This  is  the  breed  which  the  famous  Bakewell  improved  in 
Leicestershire,  a  few  years  before  the  Collings  improved  the  Short-Horns, 
by  which  they  established  to  themselves  a  fame  which  eclipsed  that  of 
Bakewell  as  a  breeder  of  cattle ;  not  because  they  understood  the  princi- 
ples of  breeding  cattle  better  than  he  did,  but,  fortunately  for  them,  they 
selected  a  better  subject  to  deal  with — the  Short-Homs.  Their  fame,  how- 
ever, was  not  established  at  the  cost  of  that  of  Bakewell,  for  he  had  already 
acquired  an  imperishable  name  as  a  breeder,  in  the  improvement  of  the  old 
Leicestershire  breed  of  sheep  ;  but  it  must  be  owned  that  when  the  Col- 
lings advanced  beyond  Bakewell  as  breeders  of  cattle,  the  advancement 
was  the  more  meritorious  in  being  made  in  competition  with  so  very  for- 
midable a  rival.  The  Long-Horns  were  originally  called  Leicesters  ;  but 
having  long  horns,  they  were  so  named 
in  contradistinction  to  the  Durham  breed,  '^' 

whose  horns  were  short ;  and,  besides, 
Bakewell's  improved  sheep  were  as  often 
called  Leicesters  as  the  Dishley  breed. 

The  Long-Horn  bull, a  likeness  of  whose 
head  is  here  given  in  fig.  441,  belonged 
to  Mr.  R.  Horton,  in  Warwickshire,  and 
was  shown,  and  obtained  the  first  prize 
of  his  class  at  the  Show  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society  of  England  at  Ox- 
ford, in  July,  1839,  when  he  was  4  years 
2  months  old.     It  will  be   obsened  that       ^„,  „„.„  „,  .  ,„r^-^=_ 

,  -1   •   ^      1         -1  1  THE  HEAD  OF  A  LOyo-HORS  BULL. 

the  muzzle  is  fine,  the  eye  large  and  ex- 

(972) 


Boot  of  the  Farm. 


©MOB'lf  WOKlJil  ©@W©= 


Plate  XV 


^^z=^=^^r^- 


THE  POINTS    OF    CATTLE. 


445 


Fig.  442. 


pressive,  the  horns  fine,  tapering,  and  sharp-pointed,  and  the  entire  counte- 
nance agreeable.  His  color  was  light-brown,  brindled  with  black  stripes. 
The  skin  of  the  nose  and  around  the  eyes  dark-flesh  color.  The  slouch- 
ing position  of  the  horns  is  very  common  in  the  Long-Horn  breed  ;  they 
are  brown,  with  a  few  reddish  streaks,  and  tipped  with  brownish- 
black. 

Another  breed  to  which  much  attention  has  been  paid,  is  the  Hereford, 
which  has  long  been  famed  for  its  excellent  steers.  Fig.  442  is  the  portrait 
of  the  head  of  a  Hereford  ox  which  belonged  to  Mr.  S.  Druce  of  Ensham, 
in  Oxfordshire,  and  was  shown  at  Ox 
ford,  at  the  Show  of  the  Royal  Agricul- 
tural Society  of  England,  in  July,  1839, 
when  4  years  4  months  old.  It  will  at 
once  be  observed  that  the  muzzle  is  fine, 
the  eye  large  and  full,  and  the  horns  small, 
tapering,  and  sharp-pointed.  A  white  face 
is  quite  common  in  the  Hereford  breed, 
with  white  horns,  and  brownish  red  points. 
The  body  is  either  dark  or  light-red  and 
white,  a  common  color,  or  a  dark  rich 
chestnut-brown,  which  is  becoming  fash- 
ionable. The  skin  on  the  nose  and  around 
the  eyes  is  fine  flesh-color. 

The  West- Highland  has  long  been 
famed  in  Scotland  as  a  superior  breed  of 
cattle.  They  have  most  of  the  points  of 
the  Short-Horns  in  the  body,  which  is  covered  with  shaggy  hair,  that  bids 
defiance  to  the  keenest  blasts  and  the  most  drenching  rains.  Fig.  443 
gives  an  idea  of  the  head  of  an  _j 


THE  HEAD  OF  A  HEREFORD  OX. 


443. 


ox  belonging  to  Mr.  Campbell 
of  Jura,  which  was  shown  with 
another,  as  a  pair,  at  the  High- 
land and  Agricultural  Society's 
Show  at  Inverness,  in  October, 
1839.  It  will  be  observed  that 
the  muzzle  is  fine,  eye  large 
and  full,  and  the  horns  small, 
tapering,  sharp-pointed,  white, 
and  tipped  with  black.  The 
color  of  the  body  is  usually 
black,  sometimes  red,  and  not 
unfiequently  dun.  The  black- 
colored,  in  my  opinion,  makes 
the  most  profitable  animal  t6 
the  feeder.  The  skin  on  the 
nose,  and  around  the  eyes,  is 
always  black. 

There  is  a  breed  of  cattle 
extensively  cuhivated  in  Scot- 
land, the  importance  of  which  consists  in  affording  milk  for  the  purposes 
of  the  dairy.  It  is  a  remarkable  circumstance  in  the  history  of  the  breed- 
ing of  this  race  for  the  dairy,  that  the  very  opposite  points  have  been  cul- 
tivated by  its  breeders,  which  I  have  described  as  being  essential  in  the 
opinion  of  the  best  breeders  of  every  other  race.  The  breed  I  allude  to 
is  the  Ayrshire.     The  points  considered  good  in  an  Ayrshire  bull,   by  the 

(973J 


THE  HEAD  OF    A  WEST-HIGHLAND  OX. 


446  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

breeders  of  that  species  of  stock,  are  a  broad,  shoit  head,  the  horns 
spreading  from  the  side  of  the  head  a  httle  in  front,  and  tnrning  upward. 
The  top  of  the  shoulder  sharp,  back  narntw,  ribs,  of  course,  flat,  hooks 
confined,  hams  thin,  tail-head  somewhat  drooping,  belly  enlarged,  and 
lews  very  short.  These  are  all  points  contrary  to  those  of  a  good  Short- 
Hom  ;  and  the  points  in  which  they  agree  are  a  straight  back,  loose  mel- 
low skin,  large  eye  and  small  horn.  The  cows  are  best  liked  for  a  very 
sharp  shoulder  and  wide  hooks  and  pelvis,  in  which  case  the  ribs  are  flat 
and  the  bellv  large.  The  udder  is  desired  to  be  hemispherical,  well 
forward,  and  provided  with  loose,  soft  skin  behind. 

I  am  satisfied  that  the  points  thus  desiderated  by  Ayrshire  breeders  are 
not  necessarily  promotive  of  the  principal  object  they  have  in  view, 
namely,  a  large  quantity  of  milk  ;  for  though  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
Ayrshire  cows  are  generally  good  milkers,  it  is  attributable,  in  my  opinion, 
more  to  the  great  length  of  time  they  have  been  devoted  to  that  particular 
purpose,  and  which  property  has  now  become  inherent  in  the  breed,  than 
to  the  form  which  the  breeders  promote  ;  and  my  reason  for  thinking  so 
is  this  :  it  is  well  understood,  in  large  dairies  in  large  towns,  that  the 
Short-Horns  pi'ove  the  most  steady  milkers,  that  is,  they  continue  to  yield 
milk  in  large  quantities  for  a  longer  period  than  any  other  breed.  When 
they  are  not  allowed  to  bear  calves,  they  will  continue  to  yield  milk  un 
til  they  are  fat  enough  for  the  butcher ;  and  when  allowed  to  bear  calves, 
they  will  give  milk  to  within  5  or  6  weeks  of  the  time  of  calving.  Now 
it  is  averred  by  Ayrshire  breeders,  that  the  points  cultivated  in  Short- 
Horns  are  for  the  purpose  of  yielding  flesh ;  and  the  averment  is  quite 
true  ;  but  if  the  points  which  yield  flesh  are  also  favorable  to  yielding 
milk,  as  the  expei'ience  of  dairymen  in  towns  has  proved,  and  their  pref- 
erence of  Short-Horns  to  othei-s  testify,  it  is  clear  that  it  is  7iot  in  conse- 
quence of  cultivating  points  in  the  Ayrshire  breed  of  entirely  an  opposite 
character  to  those  of  the  Short-Horns,  that  the  Ayrshire  yields  so  large  a 
quantity  of  milk  ;  but  that  it  must  depend  upon  some  other  quality,  oth- 
erwise the  Short-Horns  should  yield  little  or  no  milk,  but  entirely  flesh — 
which  is  found  not  to  be  the  case.  I  had  a  light-red  Short-Horn  cow, 
which  crave  17  Scots  pints  of  milk  at  the  hight  of  the  gi-ass  season,  and 
would  scarcely  go  dry  before  calving;  and  have  seen  another  roan  cow, 
which  gave  30  pints  a  day  for  3  months,  and  had  to  be  milked  for  relief 
5  times  a  day. 

Horns  of  Cattle. — There  is  much  to  be  observed  in  the  set  and  form  of 
the  horns  of  cattle.  Small,  short,  slouching  horns  on  a  2  or  3  year  old 
steer  give  a  grave  and  majestic  cast  to  the  countenance.  Horns  rising 
outward  from  the  side  of  the  head,  and  looking  up,  and  bending  backward, 
never  fail  to  impress  one  with  the  conviction  that  their  bearer  is  an  ill- 
tempered  brute,  and  ready  to  use  them  offensively  on  all  occasions.  Horns 
curving  laterally  and  horizontally  forward,  "give  a  finished  appearance  to 
the  top  of  the  head,  when  viewed  in  front,  as  exemplified  in  the  figure  of 
the  lesser  Short-Horn  cow  in  Plate  XV.  When  horns  are  long,  and  rise 
outward,  forward,  and  elevate  their  points,  they  impart  a  very  majestic 
mien  to  the  ox,  as  shown  in  fig.  443  of  the  West-Highland  ox.  Some 
horns  are  set  looking  backward  behind  the  head,  and  give  an  idea  of  mal- 
formation. A  horn  thick  at  the  root  never  looks  well,  neither  does  one 
that  is  blunted  at  the  point ;  and  both  kinds  are  associated  with  dull  feed- 
ers;  nor  do  those  which  spring  outward  and  then  turn  downward,  look 
well,  as  shown  in  the  left-hand  Short-Horn  cow  in  Plate  XV.  A  good 
horn  is  small  where  it  emerges  from  the  head,  and  tapers  gradually  to  a 
fine  point.     A  white  horn  is  better  than  a  dark-colored,  and  a  finishing  of 

(974) 


Eook  of  the  i'ttria- 


giK)^i?l'if  t]©Kia   ll3[l3iLio 


Hate  XXXI I 


^Zl^^^ 


Booik  of  the  b  arm. 


©M©S"f  KlQIS'i^  (S)2Su 


Plate  Vr 


^^;^^,V'>^'^_-   --vi.^r-^ri^.Sy^iK^'fe^'- 


THE  POINTS  OF  SHEEP.  447 

brown  or  black  at  the  tip,  according  to  the  breed,  is  a  good  outset,  though 
many  Short-Homs,  especially  of  white  color,  have  their  horas  all  white, 
and  being  short,  do  not  seem  obtrusive — indeed,  in  most  Short-Horns  the 
horns  serve  more  for  ornament  than  purposes  of  defence.  Oxen  with 
spreading  horns  are  better  feeders  than  those  which  contract  toward  the 
front.  Horns  indicate  the  age  of  cattle.  At  3  years  of  age  the  horn  has 
attained  its  state  of  uniform  growth  ;  that  is  to  say,  it  is  uniformly  smooth 
from  the  root  to  the  tip.  Every  year  after  the  horn  is  protruded  from 
the  head,  with  a  notch  on  it,  so  that  by  counting  the  number  of  notches, 
and  adding  3  to  the  number,  the  age  of  the  animal  may  be  ascertained. 
Tricks  are  practiced  by  fraudulent  dealers,  by  filing  down  the  notches,  to 
make  the  animal  appear  younger  than  it  is ;  but  a  slight  inspection  of  the 
hom  will  easily  detect  the  fraud;  and  the  period  of  the  year,  whether  late 
or  early,  in  which  the  animal  was  born,  will  have  some  effect  on  the  notches 
of  the  horn.* 

Sheep. — Of  the  numerous  varieties  of  sheep  cultivated  in  Great  Britain, 
1  have  only  selected  3  for  illustration  here,  as  these  include  all  the  breeds 
bi'ought  up  in  Scotland,  though  another  has  been  partially  introduced. 
The  three  varieties  alluded  to  are  the  Leicester,  the  Cheviot,  and  the 
Black-faced,  and  the  supplementary  variety,  as  it  may  be  called,  is  the 
South-Down.  The  three  varieties  are  well  suited,  not  only  for  the  climate 
of  Scotland,  but  also  for  the  peculiar  zones,  as  they  may  be  termed,  into 
which  the  pasturage  of  that  country  is  subdivided.  The  Leicesters  are 
adapted  to  heavy  pastures  and  sheltered  fields  in  low  lands.  The  Cheviot 
is  equally  well  fitted  for  the  middle  range  of  green  pastures  to  be  found 
in  the  pastoral  districts  of  the  South  and  North  of  Scotland.  While  the 
Black-faced  derive  their  chief  support  from  the  heathy  pastures  of  the 
mountains  ;  at  least  that  range  of  country  forms  the  nurseries  of  this  hardy 
race. 

Plate  XXXin.  contains  the  portrait  of  a  Leicester  tup  belonging  to  Mr. 
Torr  of  Riby.  *  *  This  animal  exhibits  the  peculiar  properties  of  the 
breed  to  which  he  belongs  ;  the  principal  of  which  are,  a  white  face  and 
legs  covered  with  hair,  hornless  head,  and  body  enveloped  in  long  wool. 
The  individual  characteristics  of  this  tup  are,  rectangular  carcass,  round 
rib,  small  bone,  fine  head,  small  muzzle,  large,  full  eye,  and  expressive 
countenance  ;  but  his  ears  are  much  shorter  than  usual.  The  head  of 
the  tup  is  broader  across  the  eyes  than  that  of  the  ewe  or  wether,  and 
the  skin  becomes  wrinkled  upon  the  nose  when  he  gets  aged.  The  wool 
is  thick-set,  long,  of  good  quality,  and  the  fleece  covers  the  entire 
body  above  and  below — a  mark  of  sound  constitution,  and  a  great 
means  of  preserving  the  animal  from  the  bad  effects  of  the  weather 
above,  and  of  the  dampness  of  the  ground  below.  A  level  broad  back 
from  neck  to  rump,  and  across  the  ribs,  is  characteristic  of  the  Leicester, 
and  on  being  turned  up,  a  broad  chest  and  fullness  on  the  inside  of  the 
hams.  The  touch  should  be  equally  mellow  along  the  back,  a  hardness 
in  any  part  indicating  a  defect.  In  ordinary  condition,  the  flesh  above 
the  tail-head  is  nicked,  which  may  be  easily  felt  with  the  points  of 
the  fingers;  but  when  in  high  condition,  which  they  should  be  at  tupping- 
time  in  autumn,  the  nicking  should  extend  all  the  way  from  the  shoulder- 
top  to  the  tail.  The  rib  should  also  be  well  covered  with  flesh  and  fat, 
and,  indeed,  a  round  rib  is  almost  always  so. 

Fig.  444,  given  on  page  448, contain  the  portraits  of  a  Leicester  eioe  and 
I'lmb  belonging  to  Mr.  Brodie,  Abbey  Mains,  in  the  county  of  Had- 
dington.    The  Leicester  ewe's  head  is  generally  long,  narrow,  and  clean, 

*  See  a  paper  on  this  subject  in  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Asriculture,  vol.  iii. 
^975) 


448 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 


with  fine  muzle,  prominent  eyes,  and  long,  broad,  thin  ears.  The  bone  is 
small  and  fine.  In  this  particular  instance  the  l)ody  is  well-wooled  and 
formed.  The  counter^  is  full;  the  shoulder  well  filled  up  behind  at  a  ; 
the  rib  at  /"round  and  full ,  and  the  loin  at  v  not  hollow,  as  is  sometimes 
the  case,  particularly  after  ewes  have  home  a  number  of  lambs.  In  re- 
gard to  the  wool  it  is  full  behind  the  ears  on  the  top  of  the  neck  at  Ic,  thus 

Fig.  444. 


LEICESTER  EWE  AND  LAMBS. 


keeping  these  organs  protected  ;  it  is  also  fiill  toward  the  cheeks  at  //, 
which  keeps  the  throat  warm  ;  the  belly  is  well  covered  with  wool  below 
at  h  ;  and  so  is  the  flank  c ;  the  rump  d  has  rather  a  redundancy,  and  it 
affects  even  the  shape;  but  gimmers,  that  is,  ewes  of  their  first  lamb,  often 
produce  a  large  quantity  of  wool  on  this  point,  which  afterward  reduces  it- 
self to  an  equality  of  the  rest  of  the  body  ;  but  it  is  a  good  property  in  a 
ewe  to  have  plenty  of  wool  on  the  rnmp,  to  protect  the  anal  and  vaginal 
passages  below  the  tail,  and  it  is  also  an  indication  that  the  tail-head  is 
placed  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  back.  It  is  no  uncommon  occurrence  in 
a  Leicester  ewe  to  bear  twin-lambs,  nor  is  it  uncommon  to  wean  twins  to 
the  extent  of  50  per  cent,  of  the  whole  flock,  some  of  the  ewes  bearing 
twins  every  year,  while  others  only  occasionally. 

The  Leicester  breed  of  sheep  has  been  cultivated  with  very  gieat  care 
in  Great  Britain,  since  the  days  of  Bakewell,  who  brought  them  in  his  own 
lifetime  to  a  very  high  degree  of  perfection.  Many  of  the  flocks  in  the 
kingdom  can  trace  their  pedigree  to  that  of  Bakewell,  with  as  much  truth 
as  the  purest  stud  of  the  race-horse,  or  the  purest  herd  of  Short-Horns, 
though  no  Flock-Book  has  been  kept  to  record  the  names  of  the  most  re- 
nowned sheep  ;  a  circumstance  which  excites  in  me  much  surprise.  The 
breed  is  desei-ving  of  the  utmost  attention  that  can  be  bestowed  upon  it,  as 
it  possesses  many  valuable  properties.  The  individuals  are  in  themselves 
handsome,  displaying  a  beautiful  contour,  with  a  pleasant  aspect.  Their 
disposition  is  so  amiable  that  they  have  no  desire  to  overleap  a  fence ;  and 
this  disposition,  no  doubt,  is  fostered  by  their  aptitude  to  fatten.  The  re- 
sult of  their  condition  is  a  large  proportion  of  flesh  to  bone,  and  of  useful 
parts  to  the  offal.  Many  people  affect  to  dislike  the  mutton,  as  being  too 
fat  and  flavorless.  The  muscle  is  certainly  larger-grained  than  that  of  the 
other  2  breeds,  and  the  fibres  are  intermixed  with  fat  ;  but  though  the 
mutton  may  be  disliked,  for  these  reasons,  by  the  higher  orders,  the  breed 
being  generally  of  robust  constitution  the  meat  is  always  wholesome,  and 
acceptable  to  work-pe()j)le.  Colliers,  who  eat  a  large  quantity  of  meat,  will 
have  none  other.  For  these  reasons,  Leicesters  are  more  profitable  to  the 
farmer,  where  they  can  be  reared,  than  any  other  breed.     The  wool  is  of 

the  most  valuable  description,  not  on  account  oi  \\\q  fineness  of  its  quality, 

(97fi; 


THE   POINTS   OF   SHEEP, 


449 


7 


7 


if 


if 


THE    HEAD    OF    A    CHEVIOT     TUP. 


for  many  sliort-wooled  sheep  have  much  finer  wool ;  but  its  ereat  lenfth 
as  well  as  its  tolerably  fine  quality,  renders  it  useful  in  the  manufacture  of 
all  fabrics  which  require  combing  wool,  and  in  which  worsted  is  employ- 
ed. This  wool  seems  peculiar  to  the  British  climate ;  for  in  no  other  coun- 
try have  sheep-breeders  succeeded  in  raising  it  of  the  same  quality  ;  the 
pile  becoming  shorter  or  coarser  in  warm  countries.  So  lono-,  therefore,  as 
peculiar  fabrics  are  made  from  Leicester  wool,  the  breeders  of  Leicest'ers 
need  not  fear  the  want  of  a  steady,  if  not  a  high  market  for  their  wool ;  and 
it  must  always  be  in  demand,  since  no  other  country  can  compete  in  raising 
it  to  the  same  degree  of  perfection. 

Fig.  445  represents  the  head  of  a  Cheviot  tup  which  gained  the  first 
prize  of  his  class  at  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society's  Show  at 
Aberdeen  in  1840,   and  was  shown 

by  Messrs.  Craig,  Bighouse.Suther-  '°'     ^' 

landshire.     It  will  be  observed  that  _^„..--,„-M^'^^^^^(^f^^ 

its  face  is  longer  than   that  of  the  "^ 

Leicester,  muzzle  not  so  fine,  eye 
not  so  full,  ears  set  not  so  high  and 
handsomely  upon  the  top  of  the 
head,  and  there  is  a  rugosity  of  the 
skin  across  the  bridge  of  the  nose. 
In  the  white  face,  and  want  of 
horns,  the  Cheviot  resembles  the 
Leicester.  The  wool  is  short,  thick- 
set, and  of  fine  quality,  fit  for  the 
manufacture  of  inferior  qualities  of 
broadcloths.  The  carcass  is  usual- 
ly unequal,  the  fore-quarter  being 
lighter  than  the  hind — narrow  in  frOnt,  with  the  fore-legs  set  near,  and  a 
want  of  depth  and  breadth  in  the  counter.  The  flesh  is  fine-grained,  often 
well  intermixed  with  fat,  and  is  generally  esteemed  for  the  table.  The  dis- 
position of  the  Cheviot  is  somewhat  suspicious,  with  an  inclination  to  rove  ; 
which  disposition  renders  the  breed  rather  unkindly  to  feed,  at  least  at  an 
early  age. 

The  Cheviots,  as  their  name  implies,  had  their  origin  in  the  Cheviot  Hills, 
in  Northumberland.  They  occupy  almost  all  the  pastoral  hills  of  the 
south  of  Scotland,  especially  from  the  center  of  the  country  to  the  east- 
ward. They  are  localized  in  some  of  the  best  parts  of  the  Grampian  moun- 
tains, and  are  to  be  found  as  far  north  as  the  hills  of  Caithness  and  Suther- 
land. They  may,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  a  hardy  race,  and  are  well  suit- 
ed, on  that  account,  for  the  middle  green  pastures  of  the  mountainous  parts 
of  our  countiy. 

The  SoHth-Doions  are  little  known  in  Scotland  ;  but  what  is  known  of 
them  is  favorable  to  their  character.  Like  the  Cheviot,  they  are  covered 
with  short,  thick-set,  fine  wool,  which  is  of  a  dusky  brown  color,  and  it  also 
affects  the  hair  which  covers  the  face  and  legs.  They  are  a  hornless  breed. 
In  symmetry  of  body  they  are  much  superior  to  the  Cheviot,  bringing  their 
quarters,  hke  the  Leicester,  to  an  equahty.  Their  flesh  is  fine-grained, 
and,  as  high-flavored  mutton,  is  prefen-ed  to  that  of  the  Cheviot  in  the  Lon- 
don market.  They  have  also  a  gentler  disposition,  and  are  in  consequence 
better  feeders.  The  only  doubt  with  the  South-Downs,  on  their  introduc- 
tion into  Scotland,  was  their  ability  to  withstand  the  damp  climate  of  our 
sub-alpine  pastures.  The  experience  of  several  years  has  proved  that  they 
are  capable  of  enduring  any  climate  with  the  Cheviot;  and  this  being  the 

(977) «9 


450 


THE   BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 


Fig.  446. 


case,  with  their  other  superior  qualities,  they  hid  fair  to  rival  and  per- 
haps ultimately  to  displace  that  breed.  Hitherto,  however,  they  have 
only  been  tried  in  a  few  places.  Mr.  Hugh  Watson  has  had  them  at 
Keillor,  in  Forfarshire,  for  more  than  20  years,  and  they  have  thriven 
with  him  upon  the  pastures  of  the  Sidlaw  Hills.  The  Duke  of  Richmond 
has  them  in  Morayshire.  Our  small  flocks  are  scattered  through  the 
couutry. 

Figs.  446  and  447  represent  the  heads  of  a  Black-faced  ram  and  ewe 
The  ram,  fig.  446,  was  shown  by  Mr.  Robert  M'Turk,  Hastlngs's-Hall,  in 
Dumfriesshire,  at  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society's  Show  at  Ber- 
wick-upon-Tweed in  1841, 
where  it  obtained  the  first 
prize  of  its  class.  As  indica- 
tive of  the  long  period  and 
care  with  which  the  breed 
has  been  cultivated,  we  have 
only  to  look  at  the  tapering 
face,  small  muzzle,  and  full 
eye,  exhibited  by  the  speci- 
mens in    the    figures.      The  

Black-faced  ram  has   always    ^^fc^jj^^^HflfiBB^f ff^^Kffi'iilP ^\  M  \) 
an  arched  nose,  expressive  of     ^"^■i^^^^"*.™«IB^™B^'a mumxmmkmlli^m  \\\  1  \. 

boldness  and  courage.  The 
face  and  legs  are  covered 
with  black  or  mottled  hair, 
mostly  the  latter.  The  head 
is  horned  ;  and  the  horns  are 
considered  a&  picturesque  an 
object  as  is  exhibited  by  any 
animal  of  this  country.     The 

wool  is  long  and  coarse, which  \\i'  ^!i 

render  it  of  small  value  as  an 
article  of  manufacture,  and 
being  thin-set  exposes  the  body  to  the  inclemency  of  the  weathei"  It  is 
to  assist  the  animal  for  this  latter  defect  in  the  fleece  that  the  filthy  opera- 
tion of  smearing  is  resorted  to.  The  carcass  is  well  formed,  carrying  its 
depth  forward  to  the  brisket  better  than  the  Cheviot ;  but  still  the  entire 
body  is  narrow,  owing  to  the  flatness  of  the  ribs,  which  gives  too  much 
lightness  to  the  whole  carcass  ;  or  want  of  substance,  as  it  is  commonly 
called.  The  flesh  is  fine-grained,  high  flavored,  greatly  esteemed,  and  can 
be  fed  sufliiciently  fat  on  the  turnips  and  pastures  of  the  low  country.  The 
breed  is  very  hardy,  frequenting  the  highest  parts  of  our  heath-clad  moun- 
tains, and  in  summer  require  little  care  from  the  shepherd. 

As  with  cattle,  the  horns  of  sheep  afford  facilities  for  ascertaining  the  age 
of  the  animal.  In  fig.  446,  the  age  of  the  tup  is  distinctly  marked,  the  Ist 
year's  growth  being  evidently  the  space  from  the  point  of  the  horn  to  the 
letter  a ;  the  2d  year  is  from  a  to  h,  the  giowth  of  the  dinmont  being 
stronger  than  that  of  the  hogg  ;  the  3d  year's  growth  is  marked  from  h  to 
c;  the  4th,  from  c  to  d,  which  great  growth  shows  the  vigorous  state  which 
the  animal  had  attained  at  that  age  ;  and  this  is  no  doubt  the  most  vigor- 
ous period  of  the  life  of  a  sheep  ;  and  the  5th  year's  growth  is  shown  from 
d  to  e.  The  respective  ages  of  the  ewe,  fig.  447,  and  of  the  wether,  may 
be  traced  in  like  manner,  but  the  horns  not  attaining  the  full  develop- 
ment  in  them   as   in   the    ram,    the    yearly  marks    cannot  be  discerned 

(978) 


THE  HEAD  OF  A    Df.ACK-FACED  RAM. 


THE   POINTS   OF  SWINE.  45] 


ivithout  minute  examination.  As  to  this  figure  of  the  ewe  it  is  evi- 
dently that  of  a  young  one,  probably  a  maiden  ewe  or  gimmer,  or  at 
most  with  the  first  lamb. 

Plate  XXVIII.  exhibits  a  group 
oifat  tvethers  of  the  3  native  breeds 
we  have  been  considering  and  illus- 
trating ;  but  all  the  animals  com- 
posing the  group  are  by  no  means 
alike  favorable  specimens  of  their 
respective  breeds.  The  Black-faced 
wether  is  a  good  specimen,  and 
many  such  are  brought  fat  to  the 
Edinburgh  market  every  winter. 
They  are  fed  in  Forfar,  Fife,  and 
Perth  shires,  on  turnips  in  winter, 
but  the  finest  fat  are  those  fed  on 
turnips  in  East-Lothian — that  coun- 
ty affording  by  far  the  best  feeding 
land  for  stock  in  Scotland.  The 
Cheviot  is  evidently  not  a  wether,  ^"^  "^^°  ""^  *  black-faced  ewe. 

being  only  a  dinmont,  and  not  pure  bred  ;  and  on  both  these  accounts  is  not 
a  ripe  specimen.  The  letter  P  is  left  on  the  rump  to  show  the  tar-mark  of 
the  farm  on  which,  or  the  name  of  the  farmer  by  whom  it  had  been  bred. 
The  lightness  of  the  fore-quarter,  characteristic  of  this  breed  is,  however, 
very  well  shown  in  the  figure.  It  is  rare  to  meet  with  Leicester  wethers 
now-a-days,  the  dinmonts  attaining  a  sufficient  degree  of  fatness  for  all  use- 
ful purposes.  The  figure  in  the  Plate  is  a  dinmont,  and  not  a  favorable  speci- 
men, not  being  pure  bred,  and  too  small  for  the  breed.  The  characteristic 
distinctions  of  the  three  breeds  ai'e,  however,  sufficiently  marked  in  the 
heads  of  the  figures  given  in  the  Plate. 

A  desire  seems  to  be  spreading  in  this  country  for  the  naturalization  of 
the  Alpaca  from  South  America.  It  is  the  opinion  of  those  who  have  seen 
the  Alpaca  in  its  native  country,  that  it  would  thrive  w^ell  on  our  highest 
mountains,  upon  the  coarsest  fare  that  can  be  obtained — upon  what,  in 
fact,  is  refused  by  even  Black-faced  sheep — and  at  the  same  time  yield  a 
coat  of  fine  wool,  far  finer  and  longer  than  any  grown  in  this  kingdom. 
Could  this  opinion  be  established  by  experiment,  the  cultivation  of  the  ani- 
mal would  be  worth  attempting  on  a  large  scale ;  and  no  doubt  suflScient 
supplies  would  be  obtained  of  it  in  a  few  years.  As  yet,  the  subject  is  only 
under  discussion.* 

Swine. — There  are  many  breeds  of  sivine  existing  in  the  country  ;  and 
whatever  denomination  they  may  pass  under,  if  they  do  not  possess  the 
points  exhibited  in  the  adjoining  fig.  448,  and  in  the  Plate,  they  may  be  pro- 
nounced defective.  Here  the  same  rules  apply,  not  only  of  symmetry,  as  we 
have  seen  in  fig.  431,  but  points  of  breeding.  The  head  a  is  small,  the  face 
tapering  to  the  muzzle  or  snout  i,  which  is  short  and  fine,  the  ears  set  on 
the  crown  of  the  head,  being  broad,  thin,  long,  and  so  mobile  as  to  indi- 
cate quickness  of  perception.  The  value  of  the  head,  as  an  article  of  food, 
is  indicated  by  the  enlargement  of  the  muscle  upon  the  cheek  h.  The 
neck  from  a  to  i  is  full ;  the  back  from  b  to  c,  broad  ;  the  rump  from  c  to 


*A  little  work,  named  The  Alpaca,  by  Mr.  William  Walton  of  Liverpool,  published  by  Blackwood  in  1844, 
gives  an  interesting  account  of  this  animal,  both  historical  and  natural.  The  author  seems  to  know  the 
habits  of  the  animal ;  considers  that  it  would  thrive  to  a  profitable  extent  in  this  country  ;  and  details  the 
particulars  of  a  practicable  plan  by  which  a  regular  and  sufficient  supply  of  it.  at  a  remunerative  rate,  might 
be  obtained. 
(979) 


452 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 


Fig.  448. 


d  full  and  round,  and  the  roundness  descends  to  the  hams  ;  the  ribs  f  are 
round  ;  the  space  behind  the  slioulder  at  g  filled  up  ,  and  so  is  the  flank 
e  ;  the  shanks  k  are  small  and  short,  and 
finely  tapered.  A  pig  with  these  pro- 
perties is  always  in  a  condition  for  use 
from  the  state  of  a  pig  sucking  milk, 
through  its  progress  of  porkling  and 
shott  till  it  attain  the  full  size  fur  bacon 
and  hams.  Such  a  breed  never  requires 
feeding,  and  as  it  is  always  in  condition, 
it  must  only  have  time  to  grow  to  the 
size  wanted,  when  a  little  firming  of  the 
flesh  by  corn  is  all  that  is  required  to 
piepare  it  for  slaughter. 

The  slouch-eared  breed  that  pre- 
vailed in  the  country  is  fast  being  supplanted  by  the  one  I  have  been  de- 
scribing ;  because,  wherever  such  a  character  of  ear  is  seen,  it  is 
universally  accompanied  with  length  of  leg,  length  of  nose,  narrowness  of 
back,  and  dilatoriness  in  feeding.  I  believe  the  prick-ears,  short  snouts, 
and  full  cheeks,  may  be  traced  to  an  improvement  deiived  from  the  Chinese 
breed,  which  possess  those  points  even  to  a  deformity.  The  cross  with  our 
old  bony  breeds  has  been  the  means  of  disseminating  through  the  country 
a  race  of  beautiful,  profitable,  delicate-fleshed  pigs. 


THE    BROOD-SOW. 


THE  HEAD  OF  A  BOAR. 


Fig.  449  represents  the  head  of  a  boar  Fig. 449. 

belonging  to  the  Duke  of  Buccleuch,  and 
the  hrood-sow  represented  in  the  Plate, 
is  also  from  His  Grace's  stock.  The 
boar,  though  evidently  full-grown  and 
larsfe,  bears  the  same  character  of 
pricked  ear,  tapering  face,  short  nose, 
and  full  cheeks,  and  the  flesh  of  the 
neck  is  seen  to  be  fully  able  to  support 
the  fullness  of  the  head  ;  these  pigs  are, 
moreover,  strong-constitutioned,  and  cov- 
ered with  plenty  of  white  hair  and  valua- 
ble bristle.  Their  temjier  is  generally 
docile,  and  the  animals  seldom  wander  far 
from  the  steading,  or  engage  in  mis- 
chievous pursuits. 

Teeth. — The  teeth  are  far  more  imperfect  organs  to  the  domesticated 
animals  than  the  bonis.  The  horns  are  the  instruments  of  defence  and  of 
attack  ;  and,  in  the  situation  in  which  those  animals  are  placed,  are  seldom 
put  in  rerjuisition,  and  the  more  seldom  the  better ;  but  the  teeth  are  the 
instruments  by  means  of  which  their  food  is  broken  and  masticated  in 
winter,  and  cropped  and  masticated  in  summer;  and  this  being  the  case, 
the  condition  of  the  animal  mainly  depends  upon  the  state  of  soundness 
in  which  the  teeth  may  be  preserved.  There  is  one  similar  property  be- 
tween the  horns  and  teeth  of  animals ;  both  furnish  data  by  which  the  age 
of  the  animal  may  be  ascertained.  You  have  already  seen  how  the  horns 
are  indicative  of  the  age  ;  we  shall  now  advert  to  the  manner  in  which  the 
teeth  may  be  examined  for  the  same  purpose. 

Fig.  450  represents  the  left  half  of  the  head  of  an  adult  Jiorse,  viewed 
internally,  and  so  figured  as  to  show  the  origin  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves, 
and  the  nervous  branches  which  go  to  the  teeth  ;  and  for  this  reason  the 
figure  may  be  consulted  with  equal  advantage  for  a  knowledge  of  the  dis- 

(980) 


THE   TEETH  OF  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 


453 


tribution  of  the  nervous  system  and  of  the  teeth.  The  milk-te^th  of  the 
horse  consist  of  12  incisors,  6  in  each  side  of  the  head  ;  and  of  molars 
16  in  number,  8  on  either  side  of  the   head — in  all  28  teeth.     The  teeth 


Fig.  450. 


THE  VERTICAL    SECTION    OF  THE    HEAD  OF  THE  ADULT  HORSE,  SHOWING  THE    TEETH  AND  THE 
NERVOUS   SYSTEM  IN   CONNECTION   VV'ITH  THEM. 

of  the  second  dentition  are  40  in  number,  of  which  28  have  replaced  the 
milk-teeth.  Those  between  the  incisors  and  molars,  called  the  canine  or 
tusks,  do  not  appear  along  with  the  teeth  at  an  early  age.  Others 
complete  the  arch  by  occupying  the  room  made  by  the  growth  of  the 
jaws;  these  are  new  molars  which  come  out  of  both  jaws.  The  full  set 
consists  of  12  incisors,  4  canines,  and  24  molars — in  all  40  in  number.  In 
fig.  450,  a  are  the  incisors,  b  the  canine  or  tusks,  and  c  the  molars. 

"  This  is  the  order  of  coming  out  of  the  second  or  permanent  dentition 
of  the  horse,"  observes  M.  Rousseau.  "  The  first  permanent  molar,  which 
is  situate  behind  the  last  milk-molar,  pi'esents  itself  before  any  of  the  milk- 
teeth  have  fallen,  and  makes  its  appearance  upon  the  maxillary  arch  from 
the  11th  to  the  13th  month  after  birth;  it  will  be,  by  numerical  number, 
the  4th  persistent  molar,  when  all  the  milk-molars  have  fallen.  The  5th 
permanent  molar,  which  is  situate  behind  the  preceding  tooth,  breaks  the 
edge  of  the  socket  from  the  14th  to  the  20th  month.  During  this  time 
the  decaying  teeth  die  from  their  roots,  and  wear  down  their  crowns  to 
such  a  degree  that  the  hollow  which  characterizes  the  surface  of  the  in- 
cisors at  certain  periods  cannot  be  observed,  so  that  the  veterinarians  call 
them  lost-mark.  The  central  incisor  or  pincer  is  ordinarily  of  the  9th  or 
11th  month  ;  the  lesser  incisor  from  the  11th  to  13th  month  ;  and  the  lat- 
eral incisor  or  corner-tooth,  from  the  14th  to  the  20th  month.  Once  these 
teeth  cease  to  have  mark,  they  bear  upon  their  surface  a  smooth  trace, 
brown  and  indelible,  which  diminishes  the  more  that  the  teeth  appi'oach 
their  fall.  The  first  permanent  molar  replaces  the  first  and  second  milk- 
molars  from  2  years  to  2^  yeai's.  The  central  incisor  appears  upon  the 
edge  of  the  socket  after  the  coming  out  of  the  5th  permanent  molar,  from 
2^  to  3  years.  The  2d  permanent  molar  replaces  the  3d  milk-molar  a 
little  after  the  same  term,  or  1  or  2  months  of  difference.  The  3d  perma- 
nent molar  replaces  the  4th  decaying  molar  at  3  years  ;  at  this  time  also 
appears  the  6th  and  last  molar.  The  lesser  incisor  from  31  to  4  years. 
The  canine  or  tusks  appear  from  4  to  4^  years.  At  last  the  second  denti- 
tion is  ordinarily  terminated  by  the  lateral  incisor  or  corner-tooth.     It  must 

(981) 


454 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 


not  be  tliouglit,  however,  that  the  coming  out,  as  I  have  endeavored  to  in- 
dicate as  the  most  ordinary,  is  without  vanation  ;  this  would  be  to  give  to 
Nature  too  regular  a  march.  All  teeth  in  general  are  the  more  devel- 
oped that  they  belong  to  a  large  and  robust  subject." 

Fig.  451  gives  a  similar  representation  of  the  dental  system  of  the  adult 

Fig.  451. 


THE  VERTICAL  SECTION'  OF  THE  HEAD  OF  THE  ADULT  OX,  SHOWING  THE  TEETH  A.VD  THK 
NERVOUS  SYSTEM  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  THEM. 

OX,  and  of  the  ners-ous  system  connected  with  it,  that  the  preceding  figure 
gives  of  those  of  the  horse.  The  milk-teeth  of  the  ox  are,  8  incisors  on  the 
lower  jaw,  and  none  on  the  upper,  and  12  molars,  3  on  each  jaw.  In  the 
adult  ox  are  S  incisors  on  the  lower  jaw,  and  none  on  the  upper;  and 
there  are  24  molars,  6  on  each  jaw.  In  the  figure,  a  are  the  incisors,  and 
h  the  molars,  and  the  same  configuration  exists  in  the  sheep."  "  In  the 
second  dentition,  these  teeth  show  themselves  upon  the  edge  of  the  socket 
in  the  following  order,"  says  M.  Rousseau  :  "  The  4th  permanent  molar 
comes  out  from  the  4th  to  the  6th  month  after  birth,  and  commences  the 
second  dentition.  The  1st  or  central  replacing  incisor  from  the  loth  to 
the  22d  month.  The  5th  or  penult  molar,  from  the  18th  to  the  22d  month 
The  second  replacing  molar,  as  also  the  2d  incisor  of  this  order,  appeal 
from  the  28th  to  the  32d  month.  The  3d  replacing  molar,  as  also  the  3d 
incisor,  come  out  very  near  at  the  same  time,  that  is,  from  the  38th  to  the 
48th  month.  The  6th,  or  last  molar,  from  the  44th  to  the  52d  month.  At 
length  the  4th  permanent  incisor  tooth  terminates  the  2d  dentition,  which 
is  ordinarily  completed  when  the  animal  has  not  yet  attained  its  5th  year." 
Fig.  452  gives  a  section  of  the  head  of  a  wild  boar,  in  which  the  dental 
and  nei-vous  systems  are  distinctly  delineated  ;  a  are  the  superior  incisors; 
b  the  superior  lateral  incisor ;  c  the  inferior  incisors  ;  d  the  upper  canine 
or  defence  tusk  ;  e  the  inferior  canine  or  defence  tusk,  the  origin  and  form 
of  which  may  be  easily  traced  ;  andy  are  the  molars.  I  have  selected  the 
head  of  the  wild  boar  for  illustration,  because  the  character  of  all  the 
teeth,  and  particularly  that  of  the  tusks,  is  more  strongly  developed  than 
in  the  domesticated  boar.  The  tusks  of  the  sow  are  comparatively  short 
and  weak.  The  milk-teeth  of  the  ordinary  pig  are  32  in  number,  namely, 
12  incisors,  4  canines  or  tusks,  and    16  molars  half  of  which  numbers  are 

(982) 


THE   TEETH   OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 


455 


on  each  side  of  the  head.  The  second  dentition  is  only  completed  as  soon  as 
as  all  the  milk-teeth  have  fallen ;  and  these  are  not  only  replaced,  but  3  other 
molars  on  each  jaw  rise  up,  one  after  the  other,  until  the  whole  dental  arch 

Fig.  410. 


THE  VERTICAL  SECTION  OF  THE  HEAD  OF  THE  WILD  BOAR,  SHOWING  THE  TEETH  AND  THE 
NERVOUS  SYSTEM  IN  CONNECTION   WITH  THEM. 

is  completed,  when  the  entire  complement  is  44  teeth,  of  which  22  are  on 
the  uppei-,  and  22  on  the  lower  jaws,  and  they  are  divided  thus  :  12  in- 
cisors, 4  tusks,  and  28  molars.  These  teeth  are  composed  of  2  substances, 
the  one  bony,  the  other  enameled.  "  The  tusks  are  each  inclosed  in  a 
socket,  filled  with  a  substance  analogous  to  the  marrow  of  the  long  bones  ; 
it  is  most  remarkable  and  most  abundant  in  the  inferior  tusks.  These 
teeth  are  only  provided  with  enamel  upon  the  external  face  of  the  per- 
manent tusks."* 

In  regard  to  the  indications  of  age  by  means  of  the  teeth,  in  the  horse 
the  marks  on  the  crowns  of  the  front  teeth  on  the  lower  jaw  are  almost 
always  obliterated,  or  at  least  cannot  be  depended  on  after  9  years  of  age. 
After  that  period,  the  only  means  of  judging  is  by  the  quantity  of  ma,tter 
ground  off  the  top  of  the  teeth,  and  by  the  distance  between  the  teeth  ;  the 
older  the  horse  gets,  the  wider  the  space  between  them  becomes.  In  re- 
gard to  the  grinding  down  of  the  teeth,  however,  you  should  know  that 
pasturage  on  sharp  land,  and  support  on  hard  meat,  such  as  unbruised 
corn  and  beans,  will  wear  down  teeth  much  faster  than  pasturage  on  soft 
land  and  prepared  food.  The  same  remark  applies  to  cows  which  have 
been  pastured  on  sharp  or  soft  land,  and  been  fed  on  straw  and  turnips, 
or  on  boiled  food,  and  it  is  only  applicable  to  them ;  for  as  to  steers,  their 
age  cannot  be  mistaken,  from  the  growth  and  condition  of  the  body.  The 
teeth  of  cows  also  stand  wider  as  they  advance  in  years. 

A  horse's  mouth  is  easily  opened  for  the  purpose  of  examination,  by  in- 
troducing a  finger  by  the  side  of  the  mouth  into  the  space  between  the  in- 
cisor and  molar  teeth,  where,  in  short,  the  bit  of  the  bridle  lies,  upon  the 
tongue,  when  the  horse  will  play  with  his  mouth,  to  get  quit  of  the  finger, 
and  show  as  much  of  the  lower  teeth  as  to  satisfy  your  cui'iosity.  Some 
sulky  horses  require  to  have  their  lips  held  asunder ;  and  vicious  ones 
will  even  strike  out  with  the  fore-feet  when  their  mouth  is  meddled  with. 
I  had  a  cart-mare,  the  moment  her  mouth  was  attempted  to  be  held  for 
examination,  she  would  wheel  round  quickly,  and  kick  with  the  hind-feet 
at  the  person  attempting  it.     A  cow's  mouth  cannot  be  examined  without 

*  Eousseau's  Anatomie  Compar§e  du  Systeme  Dentaire.  p.  205-230— a  very  complete  and  elegant  work. 
(983) 


456  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

first  taking  hold  of  her  nose,  elevating  her  mouth,  and  drawing  down  her 
under-lip.  Some  cows  will  not  allow  themselves  to  be  taken  by  the  nose, 
and  the  thing  can  only  be  done  in  such  a  case  by  stratagem.  Some,  again, 
have  such  a  power  in  the  nose  by  curling  up  the  nostrils  when  held,  that 
its  squeeze  against  the  holder's  fingers  renders  them  soon  powerless  ;  but 
a  steady  pinch  of  the  thumb  nail  against  the  septum  of  the  nose  will  make 
any  cow  give  way,  provided  the  jierson  has  strength  to  hold  her  firmly  at 
the  first  burst. 

I  am  strongly  tempted  to  give  you  an  account  of  the  physiological  re- 
marks of  Mr.  Walker  on  the  breeding  and  crossing  of  the  domesticated 
animals,  but  find  that  even  an  epitome  of  his  observations  would  occupy  a 
considerable  space.  I  must,  therefore,  content  myself  by  refeiring  to  his 
very  curious,  instructive,  and  not  less  entertaining  work. 


41.     CARTS  AND  CARTING.* 

In  the  ordinary  progress  of  the  harvest,  having  gathered  the  corn  together  by 
the  horse-rake,  the  next  step  is  to  carry  it  to  the  barn  or  the  stack-yard.  This 
leads  us  to  the  question  of  carts  and  wagons.  The  asserted  saving  in  animal 
power,  by  the  employment  of  one-horse  carts  in  exchange  for  the  ordinary  har- 
vest-wagon, has  now,  for  some  years,  been  the  subject  of  occasional  discussion 
among  the  farmers  of  England  :  the  common  result  of  which  has  been  to  con- 
vince pretty  generally  the  English  farmer,  that  on  most  soils  and  in  many  situa- 
tions, for  the  general  purposes  of  Agriculture,  there  is  a  very  material  saving  to 
be  accomplished  in  horse  labor,  by  their  employment  in  preference  to  wagons. 
"I  early  felt  convinced,"  said  Mr.  Mechi,  in  the  course  of  some  observations  he 
made  in  1847,  at  a  monthly  meeting  of  the  London  Farmers' Club,  "  that  it  was 
much  easier  to  carry  a  load  upon  an  implement  which  weighed  7  cwts.,  running 
upon  one  pair  of  wheels,  than  upon  one  which  weighed  22  to  24  cwts.  running 
on  two  pairs  of  wheels  ;  my  powers  of  calculation  were  sufficient  to  convince  me 
at  once  that  we  had  been  committing  a  perfect  barbarism  in  the  matter  of  wag- 
ons." And  he  alluded  with  advantage  to  a  valuable  paper  by  Mr.  Hannam,  on 
the  use  of  one-horse  carts,  which  some  years  since  appeared  in  an  early  volume 
of  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  English  Agricultural  Society.  In  this  very  excellent 
paper,  Mr.  Hannam  truly  states  that  the  farmers  of  the  counties  of  Cumberland 
and  Westmoreland  have  universally,  and  from  time  immemorial,  used  the  one- 
horse  cart  ;  they  have  no  other  carriage  for  any  kind  of  agricultural  produce,  and 
never  is  the  addition  of  another  horse  on  any  occasion  seen.  The  practice,  ap- 
parently originating  in  economy,  has  long  since  spread  into  the  neighboring 
Scotch  county  of  Dumfries,  and  we  have  the  authority  of  Mr.  Wilkie,  the  well- 

[*  For  a  chapter  of  50  pages  ou  the  philosophy  and  the  application  of  Wheel  Carriages,  which 
Mr.  Stephens  says  he  had  himself  at  one  time  deemed  uncalled-for,  we  venture  to  substitute  ihia 
one  on  Carts  and  Carting,  by  Cuthbert  ^V.  Johnson,  F.  R.  8  ,  as  being  more  modem  and  better 
adapted  to  common  use.  We  find  it  in  "  Modem  Agricultural  Improvements,  intended  also  as  a 
Supplement  to  the  Fanner's  Series  of  the  Library  of  Useful  Knowledge." 

By  adopting  this  course  we  not  only  present  a  paper  ef  more  general  utility  on  a  subject  of 
very  general  interest,  but  it  enables  us  to  draw  the  whole  work  to  a  conclusion  in  this  volume, 
and  thus  present  in  two  volumes,  at  a  cost  of  S5,  what  would  cost  825  if  imported. 

In  reference  to  this  subject  of  fami  transportation,  we  have  no  doubt  that  great  waste  is  com- 
mitted in  the  United  States  in  two  ways :  first,  by  want  of  a  sufficient  number  of  these  and  other 
implements,  and  next,  by  the  use  of  heavy,  unwieldy  wagons  in  the  place  of  carte,  in  which  the 
horse  may  be  said  to  carry  a  portion  of  the  weight  on  his  back,  which  in  the  wagon  he  must 
draw,  altogether.  Bui  we  will  not  presume  to  go  farther,  lest  we  might  seem  to  be  anticipating 
or  otherwise  taking  the  subject  out  of  abler  hands.  Ed.  Farm.  Lib.] 

(984) 


CARTS  AND  CARTING.  457 


known  implement-maker  of  Addington,  near  Glasgow,  for  saying  that  it  is  all 
but  universal  at  the  present  moment  throughout  the  West  of  Scotland."  As  re- 
lates to  the  economy  of  the  cart,  it  is  evident  that  a  considerable  saving  in  the 
expense  for  animal  labor  on  a  farm  may  be  often  accomplished  by  substituting 
one-horse  carts  for  wagons.  "I  had  no  other  object  in  entering  into  this  prac- 
tice," adds  Mr.  Hannam,  "  than  lessening  my  expenses  by  reducing  the  number 
of  my  horses,  and  in  this  I  have  succeeded  beyond  my  expectations.  My  farm 
(at  Burcott,  in*  Oxfordshire)  of  370  acres,  consisting  chiefly  of  gravelly  and  fer- 
ruginous sandy  loams,  was  some  years  ago  under  very  able  management,  with 
a  strength  of  12  horses  and  6  oxen  ;  and  just  previous  to  taking  it  into  my  own 
culiivation,  16  horses  had  been  employed  by  a  very  spirited  cultivator.  1  have 
gradually,  by  the  joint  operation  of  two-horse  plows  and  single-horse  carts,  re- 
duced my  number  to  8  horses.  My  system,  notwithstanding,  is  such  as  some- 
what increases  niy  aggregate  amount  of  horse  labor  beyond  that  of  the  surround- 
ing district ;  certainly  doing  a  great  deal  more  carting  work,  although  in  a  few 
points  of  tillage  it  is  transferred  to  the  manual  labor.  For  instance,  I  grow  an- 
nually about  35  acres  of  mangel  and  20  of  potatoes,  which  necessarily  cause 
much  carriage,  and,  together  with  the  other  ridged  crops,  also  a  good  deal  of 
horse-hoeing."  The  general  saving  of  animal  power  has  been  thus  stated  in  a 
tabular  form  by  Mr.  Hannam,  and  1  am  always  glad  when  I  can  avail  myself  of 
such  condensed  statements,  since  it  is  general  results  which  are  commonly  the 
most  practically  valuable.  Mr.  Hannam  calculates  that  the  team  labor  per  cent, 
expended,  with  four  horses,  on  a  farm  of  100  acres,  is  commonly  thus  appor- 
tioned: 

In  plowing \ 

In  horse-hoeins (    i_     ..  rn 

Indra-ging..: j  about  50  per  cent. 

In  Suffolk  drill,  &c  ) 

In  harrowinff )    t     .  •, -, 

In  rolling.... ^  about  12  per  cent. 

In  carting about  38  per  cent. 

And  that  the  saving  capable  of  being  effected  is — 

By  two,  and  occasionally  one-horse  plows,  and  double-ridging  plo'ws ) 

By  forking  couch  grass C -27  per  cent. 

By  pair-horse  cat's-claw  drag ) 

By  one-horse  six-feet  heavy  rollers,  being  33  per  cent,  in  the  implement,  and  10  or 

1-2  per  cent,  on  the  general  labor  where  heavy  rolling  is  performed 1  per  cent. 

By  single-horsecarts , 19  per  cent! 

Being  equal  to  a  total  saving  of ."fT per  cent. 

"  Let  me  now  answer  the  question,"  continues  Mr.  Hannam,  "which  will  be 
asked.  In  what  manner  is  the  saving  by  single  carts  of  about  one-fifth  of  the 
usual  proportion  of  horses  eflfected  ?  By  considering  that  to  move  a  bulk  from 
one  spot  to  another,  in  the  way  that  field  operations  are  carried  on  by  a  continu- 
ous chain  of  loading  at  one  end  and  discharging  at  the  other,  seldom  less  than 
three  carts  are  employed,  and  that  in  the  usual  practice  of  the  Southern  Coun- 
ties one  horse  occupies  the  stand-cart  or  wagon,  and  three  horses  each  of  the 
other  two  that  are  in  motion  ;  the  work  thus  going  forward  with  seven  horses. 
If  two  horses  in  a  cart  are  used,  five  will  be  the  number  engaged  ;  and  if  four, 
the  number  will  be  nine.  Now,  I  am  prepared  to  show,  not  by  any  series  of  ex- 
periments, but  by  the  routine  of  my  farm  for  the  last  ten  years,  that  the  same 
amount  of  work,  when  at  a  moderate  distance,  may  be  performed  by  three 
horses  in  separate  carts ;  and  that  it  is  only  at  the  greatest  distance  in  which 
three  three-horse  carts  are  able  to  keep  up  the  chain,  that  four  may  be  required. 
And  these  will  keep  the  same  number  of  (and  from  low-filling,  somewhat  fewer) 
loaders  engaged,  and  consequently  accomplish  the  moving  of  an  equal  bulk.  As 
this  may  seem  a  little  paradoxical,  I  will  enter  into  the  reasons  which  combine 
to  effect  it.  1st.  A  horse  thus  harnessed  draws  more  in  proportion  with  equal 
ease  ;  2d.  The  misapplication  of  his  strength  in  the  constant  draught  of  a  heavy- 
carriage  is  prevented  ;  3d.  He  moves  more  briskly  and  freely,  and  turns,  &c., 
with  less  loss  of  time,  and  when  any  check  occurs,  the  loss  is  saved  that  takes 
place  by  the  hindrance  of  a  large  number  ;  and  lastly,  there  is  a  certain  con- 
venience and  ready  manageableness  which  can  be  better  felt  than  calculated  or 
described. 

(985) 


458  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 

"  Practice  and  general  opinion  are  agreed  in  assigning  a  greater  power  of 
draught  to  a  horse  working  singly  than  to  any  number  harnessed  together  ;  but 
the  amount  of  difference  I  have  never  proved  by  actual  experiment.  Mr.  Cul- 
ley,  in  his  Report  of  the  three  English  Border  counties,  gives  an  instance  in 
which  the  advantage  is  as  three  to  four  ;  and  another,  m  which,  with  a  horse 
of  16  hands,  ^4  cwis.  was  the  load,  on  the  hilly*  road  from  Hexham  to  jSew- 
castle.  I  am  in  the  regular  practice  of  sending  out  to  any  distance,  on  a  turn- 
pike however  hilly,  5  qrs.  of  wheat,  which,  with  the  cart,  8  cwts.,  seldom 
amounts  to  less  than  30  cwts.  It  is  also  considered,  universally,  that  the  nearer 
a  horse  is  to  his  load  the  easier  will  be  the  draught,  but  to  what  extent  I  have 
never  proved. 

"  The  misapplication  of  power  caused  by  a  heavy  carriage  is  often  enormous, 
there  being  sometimes,  especially  by  wagons  in  harvest,  double  the  weight  of 
timber  moved,  in  eoing  backward  and  forward,  to  that  of  produce  brought  home  ; 
for  instance,  a  common  harvest,  except  at  a  great  distance  from  the  homestead,  sel- 
dom exceeds  one  ton,  and  one  ton  more  or  less  is  the  weight  of  a  wagon :  at  any 
rate,  1  to  1  is  the  common  proportion  of  the  carriage  to  the  harvest  load.  It  is  ad- 
mitted that  there  is  no  perceptible  difference  between  the  size  of  my  neighbors' 
loads  and  my  own  ;  the  weight  of  my  harvest-cart  I  have  stated  is  about  6|  cwts. ; 
therefore  my  proportion  is  1  to  3  ;  and  under  less  favorable  circumstances  than 
mine,  it  need  never,  with  a  similar  carriage,  be  less  than  1  to  2 ;  and  this  goes 
a  very  considerable  way  to  explain  why  I  am  able  to  perform  the  same  work 
with  half  the  strength,  and  without  straining  the  powers  of  my  horses.  In  the 
dung-carts  the  case  is  not  quite  so  strong  in  my  favor,  as  there  is  not  so  large  a 
disproportion  in  their  weight. 

"  It  is  certain  that  a  horse  can  exert  his  powers  with  greater  ease  and  effect 
by  himself  than  when  incommoded  by  the  diverse  pulling  of  companions,  and 
also  that  a  sluggish  animal  must  draw  his  own  share.  In  turning,  one  horse  is 
much  more  handy  than  a  string ;  and  no  comparison  can  be  made  between  the 
turning  of  a  two  and  four-wheel  carriage.     I  have  never  practiced  trotting. 

"  The  question,"  concludes  Mr.  Hannam,  "is  not,  as  is  frequently  supposed, 
whether  one  horse  single  can  draw  more  in  proportion  than  any  number  har- 
nessed together,  which  I  believe  is  generally  admitted  ;  it  is  not  altogether 
which  will  move  the  greatest  weight ;  but  the  question  is,  which  will  transport 
m  the  most  ready  and  economical  manner  the  materials  required  to  be  passed 
between  the  field  and  the  homestead,  or  between  one  field  and  another.  For  in 
the  carrying  operations  of  a  farm,  with  the  exception  of  drawing  corn  to  market,  a 
certain  bulk  has  to  be  transferred  from  one  point  to  another,  not  by  one  effort, 
but  by  a  continuous  succession  of  them.  Practically  speaking,  the  loading  and 
unloading  have  to  be  kept  in  constant  activity  by  a  chain  of  carriages  passing 
between  them.  What,  then,  is  the  best  and  most  economical  intermediate  con- 
veyance is  not  an  easy  matter  for  consideration.  The  best  implement  and  best 
moving  power  have  to  be  ascertained  ;  and,  among  known  methods,  the  selec- 
tion ranges  widely  between  the  barrow  or  pack-saddle  and  the  eight-horse 
wagon.  Our  present  consideration,  however,  is  whether  one-horse  carts  are 
more  ready  and  economical  for  the  purpose  than  the  methods  now  generally  in 
use." 

The  outlay  of  capital  is  certainly  in  favor  of  the  substitution  of  carts  for  wag- 
ons. Mr.  Bowly,  of  Siddington,  has  given  the  following  comparative  calcula- 
tion of  the  outlay  required  by  the  two  systems,  on  50  acres  of  arable  land  : 


1  wagon jCSS 

1  dung-cart 15 

3  horses 60 

Extra  harness i! 

Proportionate  cost  of  light  cart  to  50  acres       3 
Total £105 


2  4-inch  wheel  one-horse  carts £24 

2  horses 40 

Total ."£64 

Balance  in  favor  of  carts 41 

£105 


"  I  had  occasion  to  send  my  skeleton  cnrt  with  15  cwts.  of  hay  up  the  steepest  hill  (Cuddesden)  in  this 
part  of  the  country,  and  directed  n  very  intelligent  laborer  to  go  with  it  and  report  :  his  statement  was, 
that  besides  obeerving  at  a  steep  descent  th»t  the  breeching  was  lichtened  more  than  the  back-chain,  on 
stopping  on  the  ehai-pest  ascent  he  found  the  breast-band  tolerably  slack,  and  that  the  horse  drew  the  load 
up  this  steep  point  (1  in  7)  without  difficulty;  and  he  thought  he  might  have  managed  a  ton.  "The 
horse,  however,  had  a  knack  of  thtcaTting  the  road.'  a  method  of  easing  the  ascent  horses  are  very  ready 
at  in  the  North  ;  in  a  wagon  they  cannot  do  it.  His  opinion  also  was  that  four  horses,  with  two  tons  on  a 
wagon,  would  have  verj'  light  work  at  this  part  of  the  hill. 
(986) 


CARTS  AND  CARTING.  459 


"In  conclusion,"  says  Mr.  Bowly,  "  1  may  remark  that  the  principle  of  one- 
horse  carts  is  quickness  of  motion  ;  therefore  they  must  be  loaded  according  to 
the  land  to  be  passed  over,  so  as  not  to  reduce  the  pace  of  traveling  ;  and  I  can 
assure  those  who  are  timid  about  them  that  they  are  much  less  liable  to  acci- 
dents of  every  kind  than  wagons,  and  that  however  prejudiced  the  workman 
may  be  against  their  first  introduction,  when  he  becomes  acquainted  with  the 
system  he  will  prefer  it. 

"  The  descriptions  of  carts  I  make  use  of  are,  five  common  Scotch  carts  and 
one  skeleton  cart ;  those  of  the  former,  with  narrow  wheels,  cost  me  10  guineas 
each  ;  and  with  the  4-inch  wheels  (which  I  recommend)  £12,  with  harvest- 
frame,  &;c.,  complete.  The  skeleton  with  narrow  wheels  cost  me  £10  ;  it  will 
carry  more  hay  or  straw  than  the  others,  its  loads  being  in  proportion  of  four 
carts  to  three  wagons  ;  it  is  more  convenient  for  conveying  poles,  hurdles,  &;c.  ; 
and  one  on  a  farm  may  be  useful,  but  it  will  not  answer  in  dung-carting,  and  its 
advantages  in  harvesting  are  not  sufficient  to  remunerate  for  the  additional  out- 
lay of  a  double  set." 

The  one-horse  carts,  then,  we  perceive,  have  been  successfully  tried,  and  pre- 
ferred to  wagons  in  the  Northern  Counties  and  in  Oxfordshire.  We  have 
equally  satisfactory  evidence  of  their  employment  on  the  stiff"  clays  of  Glouces- 
tershire and  the  Weald  of  Kent,  and  the  deep  soils  of  Huntingdonshire.  "  My 
land,"  observes  Mr.  T.  Baker,  of  Hardwicke  Court,  near  Gloucester,  "  is  a  stiff 
clay  ;  my  carts  are  on  six-inch  wheels,  and  made  to  hold  half  the  quantity  that 
my  neighbors  carry  in  theirs.  My  land  is  hilly  ;  my  carts  generally  go  with  one 
horse  ;  but  up  hill,  when  loaded,  another  is  put  on  before,  which  comes  down 
the  hill  with  the  next  returning  cart.  Thus,  on  level  ground,  with  two  carts 
and  two,  or  perhaps  three  horses,  I  take  out  the  same  quantity  of  dung  that  my 
neighbors  carry  in  their  large  carts  with  never  less  than  three  horses,  and  often 
with  four.  All  my  carts  have  reins  ;  a  boy  walks  and  drives  them  when  loaded, 
but  when  returning  empty  he  gets  into  the  cart  and  trots  back  at  the  rate  of 
about  five  miles  an  hour,  which  of  course  saves  about  half  the  time  in  returning. 
Here,  again,  I  have  a  manifest  advantage  in  using  lighter  and  more  active  horses, 

"  Some  lime  ago  I  made  the  following  trial.  Two  heaps  of  stone,  of  32  tons 
each,  were  landed  from  a  barge  :  they  were  to  be  taken  to  the  same  place,  about 
a  mile  and  a  quarter  off.  A  farmer  began  the  first  with  two  large  carts  and  three 
horses  ;  one  cart  was  being  loaded  while  the  other  was  moving ;  and  the  horses 
were  taken  off  and  put  on  at  every  load.  Finding  that  he  could  not  do  it  in  the 
day,  he  gave  over  at  the  end  of  about  six  hours,  and  set  to  again  the  next  morn- 
ing ;  this  rest,  of  course,  givinsr  him  an  advantage,  as  you  will  see  ;  but,  anxious 
for  their  own  credit,  both  he  and  his  man  made  the  very  best  use  of  their  time. 
Their  Avork  was  completed  at  eleven  loads,  (which  of  course  is  nearly  three  tons 
to  each  load,  or  one  ton  to  each  horse,)  in  nine  hours  and  fifty  minutes.  I  be- 
gan the  other  heap  with  three  small  one-horse  carts,  and  completed  it  in  one 
day,  at  twenty-one  loads,  (being  nearly  a  ton  and  a  half  to  each  horse,)  in  six 
hours  and  one  minute  ;  which  was  a  saving  of  about  three  hours  and  a  quarter 
on  nine  hours  and  fifty  minutes,  or  rather  more  than  one-third.  In  this  I  had 
three  decided  advantages — first,  the  saving  of  time  by  trotting  back  ;  secondly, 
the  rest  that  each  of  my  horses  got  in  his  turn  while  his  cart  was  being  loaded  ; 
and  thirdly,  the  ease  with  which  my  carts  were  loaded  in  consequence  of  being 
lower." 

"  Having,"  remarks  Mr.  Jesse  French,  of  Rolvenden,  "  pursued  this  plan  of 
carrying  corn  and  hay  for  two  years,  and  one  of  my  neighbors  having  followed 
my  example  last  year,  I  draw  the  following  conclusion  from  the  observations  I 
have  made:  that  in  carrying  bound  corn,  the  one-horse  cart  system  has  several 
advantages  over  that  of  wagons  ;  and  in  carrying  loose  corn  or  hay,  though  the 
loader  and  he  Avho  throws  it  off  may  complain,  and  strong  prejudices,  the  effect 
of  habit,  may  possess  the  minds  of  all  the  hands  employed,  there  is,  upon  the 
whole,  no  advantage.  Three  carts  will  generally  be  sufficient  where  the  dis- 
tance does  not  exceed  half  a  mile,  for  one  cart  to  be  always  loading  ;  and  for 
every  additional  half  mile,  one  additional  cart  will  be  about  sufficient ;  but  this 
will  depend  in  a  great  measure  upon  the  road."  It  is  true,  as  he  very  justly 
adds,  tbat  "  there  certainly  are  various  things  which  a  farmer  may  have  to  carry, 
for  which  one-horse  carts  are  not  adapted,  as  timber  and  hop-poles,  which  in 

(987) 


4G0 


THE   BOOK   OF  THE   FARM. 


Kent  and  Sussex  are  often  carried  a  long  distance.  In  the  same  district  many 
farmers  hrinjj  their  hay  from  the  marshes,  a  distance  of  from  tliree  to  eisrht 
miles.  For  tiiis  purpose  small  carts  are  not  so  convenient  ;  and  for  carrying 
hay,  and  particularly  where  it  has  to  be  carried  a  considerable  distance,  a  small 
cart  may  be  eularjjed  by  this  expedient.  The  draught-staples  being  generally 
about  a  foot  from  the  ends  of  the  shafts,  by  attaching  rings  to  their  extreme  ends 
for  the  horse  to  draw  by,  the  wheels  will  be  thrown  a  foot  farther  behind  the 
horse  ;  consequently  the  fore-ladder  may  be  fixed  a  foot  forwarder  on  the  shafts. 
This  will  allow  for  the  tail-ladder  to  lean  farther  back,  so  as  the  load  may  bal- 
ance. By  thus  lengthening  the  load,  and  keeping  it  a  good  width,  as  much  hay 
may  be  loaded  as  a  horse  will  be  well  able  to  draw." 

"And  it  will  be  seen,"  remarks  Mr.  E.  Loomes,  of  Whittlesea,  near  Peter- 
borough, "  from  the  following  Table,  (which  I  have  laid  down  from  a  careful  ob- 
servation of  the  capabilities  of  one-horse  carts  and  wagons,)  that  one  horse  in  a 
cart  is  capable  of  conveying  much  more  than  half  what  can  be  carried  on  a 
wagon  with  two  horses  "  : 


One-horse  Carts. 

Wheat  sheaves 172 

Corn-cake,  &c cwts.     25 

Bones bush.     60 


Two-horse  Wagons. 

"Wheat-sheaves 207 

Corn,  cake,  &c cwts.     45 

Bones bash.  100 


In  dung-carting,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  one-horse  carts  appear  to  have, 
in  ordinary  circumstances,  a  decided  advantage.  Mr.  Love  has  given  the  follow- 
ing comparative  Table  of  the  economy  of  both  one  and  hoo-horse  carts,  in  the  dif- 
ferent distances  supposed  to  be  traveled  ;  and  each  boy  driving  is  counted  as  the 
fourth  of  a  man  tipping  ;  a  man's  wages  is  reckoned  as  2s.  per  day,  and  the  ex- 
pense of  each  horse  3s.  per  day  of  nine  hours  : 


Distance  in  furlongs 

Time  of  traveling  a  revolution. 

Number  of  horses 

Number  of  carts 

Men  fillinK  the  carts 

Time  of  filling 

Men  tipping  and  driving 

Time  of  tipping 

Total  time  to  each  revolution  . . 

Number  of  loads  drawn 

Number  of  yards  drawn 


Expense  of  horses 

Expense  of  men 

Total  day's  expenses 

Expense  of  carting  thirty  yards 

Saving  by  onehorse  carts  per  acre. 


3 
15 

3 

3 

2 
10 

H 

3 

30 

54 

54 

s.    d. 


3 
15 
3 
2 
o 

15 
1 

n 

37i 

29 

43J 

.-i.    d. 

9     0 

6     0 

15     0 

10     2J 


3 

15 
5 
5 
4 
5 

n 

5 
25 
108 
108 
s.  d. 
15  0 
11     6 


3 
15 
5 
3 
4 

n 

H 

7i 

30 

54 

81 

s.    d. 

15     0 

10     6 

25    6 

9     5 


7 
35 
9 
9 
4 
5 

n 

5 
45 

108 

108 

s.  d. 
27  0 
13  6 
40  6 
11     3 

3     0 


7 
35 
9 
5 
4 

n 

H 

n 

50 

54 

81 

s.  d. 

27     0 

11     6 

38     6 

14     3 


Mr.  John  Dryden  has  described  a  plan  for  an  improvement  in  single-horse 
carts,  by  which  the  evils  of  a  fixed  balance  of  the  load  in  a  cart  are  avoided  ; 
and  it  is  probable  that  the  use  of  the  Welsh  drag  in  hilly  countries  would  ma- 
terially facilitate  the  general  employment  of  one-horse  carts. 

"That  the  state  of  the  road  has  a  very  material  influence  upcn  the  animal 
power  required  to  draw  a  given  weight  over  it  every  person  is  well  aware,  but 
few  persons  regard  the  difference  between  the  labor  of  drawing  a  carriage  over 
a  road  in  good  condition  and  the  same  road  when  out  of  order.  This  has  been, 
however,  experimentally  determined,  and  we  commend  to  every  farmer  and 
every  overseer  the  careful  and  steady  consideration  of  the  results  thus  obtained. 
In  these  trials  it  was  found  that  a  light  carriage  with  four  wheels,  weighing 
with  its  load  1,000  lbs.,  required  a  force  of  traction  as  follows  ": 

On  a  turnpike-road,  when  hard  and  dry 30J  lbs. 

On  the  same  road  when  dirty 39     .. 

On  a  hard,  compact  loam 53     .. 

On  an  ordinary  by-road 106     .. 

On  a  turnpike-road  newly  graveled 143     .. 

On  a  loose,  sandy  road 204     . . 

The  care  with  which  all  drivers  avoid  the  newly  graveled  portions  of  a  road  is 

(988) 


CARTS  AND  CARTING. 


461 


well  known,  yet  few  of  even  the  best  whips,  I  think,  are  aware  of  the  enormous 
diiference  of  pressure  upon  the  collar  shown  by  the  previous  Table  to  exist,  when 
the  load  is  passing  over  a  hard  and  dry  turnpike-road,  and  the  same  road  when 
newly  oraveled,  composed  of  loose,  sandy  materials.  The  Farmers'  Club,  then, 
we  cannot  but  feel,  arrived  at  a  tolerably  correct  conclusion  when  they  thus 
save  the  preference  to  one-horse  carts  for  the  general  purposes  of  the  farm.  The 
farmer  however,  who  resolves  to  make  trial  of  these  advantages,  must  be  firm 
and  resolute,  for,  like  every  other  alteration,  it  will  hardly  fail  otherwise  of  be- 
in^  met  by  a  strong  opposition  from  his  servants.  To  this  end  a  hint  or  two  of 
Mr  Hannam'swill  be  useful  ;  he  observes,  "  I  market  my  corn,  according  to  the 
Northern  practice,  in  the  dung-cart ;  it  is  not  so  convenient  to  unload  sacks  from 
as  a  wa<Ton,  but  the  load  it  carries,  viz.,  5  qrs.  [40  bushels  at  60  lbs.  per  bushe  , 
2  400  Ibs.l  of  wheat,  6  qrs.  of  barley,  and  other  grain  in  proportion,  and  in  back 
carria'-e  half  a  wagon-load  of  ashes  compensates  for  small  inconveniences.  The 
only  obiection  that  I  have  heard  the  carters  make  to  the  system  m  thus  carrymg 
out  the  corn  is  that  they  find  themselves  singular,  and  makmg  but  a  bad  figure 
by  the  side  of  a  wagon  and  team  of  horses.  They  should  therefore  be  indulged 
with  a  reserve  of  the  best  carts,  kept  well  painted.^^and  washed  after  being  used 
for  manures,  and  with  harness  a  little  ornamented." 

Of  the  many  excellent  carts  prepared  by  various  makers,  we  will  only  allude 
to  two,  those  of  Mr.  Crosskill,  of  Beverlev,  and  of  Messrs.  Stratton,  ot  Bristol. 


THE    ONE-HORSE    CART    OF    CROSSKILL    OF  BEVERLEY. 

«'  Mr  Crosskill's,"  said  the  Judges  of  the  Shrewsbury  meeting,  "  is  a  thor 
ouehlv  well  made  and  cheap  one-horse  cart,  having  a  particularly  simple  and 
sale  ti'ppinf^  contrivance.  The  especial  reason  for  awarding  to  it  a  premium  of 
£2  was  the  introduction  of  a  self-acting  tail-board,  which  opens  and  shuts  as  the 
bodv  is  tipped,  or  brought  home,  so  that  no  time  is  lost  by  having  to  unship  and 
ship  a  tail-board,  whether  the  contents  of  the  cart  have  to  be  discharged  at 
once  or  at  intervals.     At  the  Newcastle  meeting  it  obtained  the  prize  of  £5. 

Of  the  cart  of  Messrs.  Stratton,  and  of  their  other  excellent  implements  ol  a 
similar  kind,  the  Judges  of  the  Bristol  meeting  thus  reported  :  ''  The  show-yard 
was  rich  in  an  assortment  of  carts  and  wagons.  To  Mr.  Richard  Slratton,  ot 
Bristol  a  premium  of  £10  was  assigned  for  the  extraordmary  variety  and  good 
workmanship  of  his  immense  collection  ;  more  particularly  for  the  mgenuity  dis- 
played in  the  construction  of  a  cross-lock  wagon,  which  facilitates  its  turning  m 
a  verv  small  space,  and  permits  the  use  of  four  large  wheels  of  equal  diameter. 
A  tip'ping-wagon  also  possessed  much  mechanical  merit,  but  it  is  to  be  recom- 
mended as  better  adapted  to  commercial  than  to  agricultural  use.  Mr.  btratton 
produced  an  excellent  specimen  of  the  low-chested  cart,  obtained  by  cranking 
down  the  axles,  now  in  such  general  use  by  mercantile  men  and  shippers,  ihis 
disposition,  modified  to  suit  farming  purposes,  well  merits  the  attention  oi  ag- 
riculturists, as  it  would  greatly  ease  the  toil  of  the  laborer.  Of  Mr  Hannam  s 
(of  Burcot)  unequaled  one-horse  harvest-cart,  more  need  not  be  said  tfiau  tHat 

(989) 


i62 


THE  BOOK  OF   THE  FARM. 


it  cannot  be  exhibited  too  often,  and  that  it  ought  to  be  found  on  every  farm 
To  Mr.  Robert  Law,  of  Shettleston,  near  Glasgow,  a  prize  of  £3  was  awarded 
for  his  Scotch  one-horse  tipping-cart  with  a   spring-catch  to  retain  it  on  the 


THE  CART  OF  MESSRS.  STRATTON  &  CO.,  OF  BRISTOL. 

shafts.     This  simple  little  contrivance  is  much  preferable  to  pins  and  cotters; 
which  are  apt  to  shake  out,  or  to  be  neglected  in  the  fastening,  by  which  the 
load  is  not  unfrequently   let  fall."     At  the  Bristol  meeting,   two  prizes  wer 
awarded  to  Mr.  Stratton  for  his  carts  and  wagons,  and  three  at  Southampton. 


END  OF  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 


Tne  Book  of  the  Farm. 


iriKIS[M*3MJl?^©.  I)!iil5^ei^]llli=<]ll  = 


Plate  SIX. 


The  Book  oi'  the  Farm 


'lJ'ln]lSlMigln]lJI^3@■  Kill^CSMJliyi^^ 


Plate  XX 


The  Book  of  the  Parm 


lr[KIB[i©K][lKI©-   !ji(]^^i5lXl]lj'?Jg, 


Plate   SSI 


ii.ii.i 

The  Book  of  the  Farm^  ©Bi^KlK  ©ifH^Ea    lllKI©aKl!Io 


Plate  SSII. 


r.ookof  the  Farm.  ©'u'd^iiSa  g^JSO  ©  J 'i!3 1    ©©JiiEK. 

Fir.  3Sfi.  Fig    339 


Plate  XXTV. 


r:. 


'-^ 


Boot  of  the  Farm 


Fig.  3+! 


Plate  XXV. 


MANURES, 

AMELIORATORS  AND   STLMULANTS : 

MODES  OF  MANUFACTURE  AND  APPLICATION 

BY  JEAN  BAPTISTE  DUMAS. 

TRANSLATED  BY  CAMPBELL  MORFIT, 

PRACTICAL  AND  ANALYTIC  CHEMIST. 


THE  NUTRITION  OF  PLANTS. 

BY  JEAN  BAPTISTE   DUMAS. 

TRANSLATED 

BY  CAMPBELL  MORFIT  AND  BARNET  PHILLIPS. 


THE 

ACTION  OF   SALT  UPON  VEGETATION; 

AND    ITS    USE    IN    AGRICULTURE. 

BY 

M.  BECQUEREL  AND  J.  B.  LAWES. 


NEW-YORK : 
GREELEY  &  McELRATH,  TRIBUNE  BUILDINGS. 

1848. 


PREFACE. 

Having  finished,  in  the  last  number  of  The  Farmers'  Library 
Stephens's  "  Book  of  the  Farm,"  we  dedicate  with  pleasure  the  few 
remaining  pages  of  this  volume  of  The  Library  to  the  following  Tract 
on  "  Manures,  Ameliorators  and  Stimulants,"  and  on  the  Action  of 
Salt  as  a  Manure,  translated  expressly  for  this  work. 

The  authors  are  all  men  of  distinguished  character  as  scientific  investi- 
gators, and  have  fortunately  given  their  attention,  in  this  case,  to  subjects 
of  great  moment  to  Agriculture. 

The  Essay  by  Dumas  will  be  seen  to  relate  chiefly  to  the  preparation 
of  certain  Manures,  of  which  cities  supply  the  materials,  and  most  particu- 
larly to  nightsoil. 

Perhaps  nothing  could  be  referred  to  that  would  more  forcibly  illus- 
trate the  carelessness  of  agriculturists  in  matters  that  very  nearly  concern 
them,  than  the  neglect,  in  this  country,  of  this,  the  most  wasted  of  all  fer- 
tilizers, and  the  most  concentrated  and  powerful,  except  the  excrement 
of  birds  and  fowls,  which  contains  more  nitrogen.  Such  are  the  fertilizing 
effects  of  this  manure,  says  an  English  author  of  many  Prize  Essays,  that 
it  has  been  assumed  that  the  excrements  of  a  man,  when  properly  applied, 
can  be  made  to  produce  sufficient  coin  and  roots  for  his  own  support. 
Though  this  may  be  an  exaggeration,  a  thousand  experiments  have 
proved  it  to  be  exceedingly  nourishing  to  vegetation,  and,  it  is  said,  most 
particularly  to  potatoes  !  And  yet,  what  immense  quantities  of  it  are 
carried  off  and  lost,  especially  from  our  large  towns !  What  a  resource 
would  the  piivies  of  the  public  buildings  at  Washington  afford,  if  arrange- 
ments for  preparing  their  contents  were  provided  according  to  the  direc- 
tions in  this  Treatise  ! 

It  has  been  said  that  nightsoil  communicates  an  unpleasant  flavor  to 
plants  ;  but  this  objection  may  be  easily  obviated  by  mixing  it  properly 
with  ashes,  or  lime,  before  being  applied.  In  China,  where  Agriculture 
is  carried  to  the  highest  point  of  productiveness — from  the  denseness  of 
the  population,  and  the  labor  being  principally  manual — nightsoil  is  the 
only  manure  in  use,  both  for  the  gardens  and  the  fields. 

The  nightsoil  of  Paris  .is  exported  to  Flanders  and  the  low  countries, 
whei-e,  after  being  converted  into  liquid  manure,  it  is  extensively  used — 
being  considered  particularly  convenient  and  valuable  as  a  top-dressing 
for  grass-lands. 

We  know  of  but  few  chances  that  offer  so  promisingly  of  great  profit 
to  the  manufacturer  and  to  neighboring  cultivators,  as  establishments  for 

(1067) 


IV  PREFACE. 


the  preparation  of  poudrette,  in  many  large  cities  where  none  such  havo 
been  provided.  It  would  seem  to  be  supeifluous  to  dwell  on  the  care 
with  which  every  provident  fanner  will  husband  a  resource  so  efficient 
and  valuable.  One  might  as  well,  it  ought  to  be  supposed,  exhort  a 
sensible  man  not  to  take  silver  out  of  his  pocket  and  throw  it  away ! 

In  appending  to  the  observations  of  Dumas  the  remarks  of  eminent 
writers  and  practical  agriculturists,  on  the  use  of  Salt,  we  had  in  view  to 
fill  with  a  kindred  topic  the  little  space  which  remained  to  us  and  at  the 
same  time  to  show  that  a  Farm  is  in  truth  but  a  Manufactory,  and  that 
when  so  considered  it  ought  to  go  far  in  dissipating  that  prejudice  and 
mistaken  apprehension  of  antagonism,  which  pervade  the  agricultural 
community,  toward  their  best  friends  and  customers,  to  wit :  those  who 
(nearest  to  tJicir  own  farms)  are  the  manvfacturers  of  their  raw  material* 
and  the  consumers  of  their  produce. 


MANURES, 

AMELIORATORS  AWD  STIMULANTS— MODES  OF  MANUFACTXJRE,  &c. 

BY  JEAN  BAPTISTE  DUMAS. 
Translated  from  the  French  for  The  Library,  by  Campbell  Morfit,  Practical  and  Analytic  Chemist. 

The  term  Manure,  in  its  widest  sense,  extends  to  all  substances,  solid,  liquid  or 
gaseous,  which  are  applicable  to  the  nutrition  of  plants  or  to  the  promotion  of  their 
growth.  Thus  generally  considered,  manures  are  very  diverse.  In  fact,  every  sub- 
stance containing  one  or  more  elements  of  plants,  wholly  or  partially  susceptible 
of  assimilation,  in  the  act  of  vegetation,  may  be  ranked  as  a  manure.  Sooner  or 
later,  the  plants  in  contact  with  such  substances  will  assimilate  some  of  its  ele- 
ments— that  is,  either  hydrogen,  oxygen,  carbon  or  nitrogen,  or  the  water  of  combi- 
nation,  or  even  different  calcareous,  earthy  or  metallic  salts  which  enter  into  the 
composition  of  nearly  all  plants. 

An  ameliorator  {amendment),  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  substance  designed  for 
the  improvement  of  the  physical  constitution  of  the  soil  ;  that  is,  to  render  it 
permeable  if  too  compact,  and  to  impart  body  and  consistence  when  too  light 
and  sandy  :  indeed,  to  partially  change  or  to  modify  its  nature,  if  its  constitution 
is  either  deficient  in  nutritive  power  or  prejudicial  to  vegetation.  A  combination 
of  these  valued  qualifications  of  both  a  manure  and  an  ameliorator  is  met  with 
in  a  variety  of  matters. 

Finally,  the  title  of  stimulant  applies  to  those  substances,  solid  or  liquid, 
which  give  an  impulse  to  vegetation,  either  by  imparting  a  more  active  energy 
to  the  manure,  or  by  stimulating  the  organs  of  the  plant  and  thus  promoting  the 
assimilation  of  the  elements  which  constitute  it.  Sometimes,  the  stimulants 
are  of  a  nature  totally  or  partially  assimilative  by  the  plant,  but  their  more  spe- 
cial object  is  to  augment  the  activity  of  manure,  particularly  those  whose  which 
are  nitrogenous.  In  a  soil  completely  deprived  of  the  latter,  stimulants  are  in- 
effective, and  they  impoverish  the  soil  if  care  is  not  taken  to  recruit  its  strength 
by  fresh  additions  of  azotized  matters.  Gypsum,  lime,  and  common  salt,  in 
proper  proportions,  are  powerful  stimulants. 

Although  the  term  Manure  properly  refers  to  every  substance  capable  of 
furnishing  one  or  more  of  the  elements  of  a  plant,  yet  custom  limits  the  applica- 
tion of  the  name  to  those  which  furnish  the  nitrogen,  alkaline  and  earthy  phos- 
phates, and  other  salts  requisite  for  vegetation. 

The  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen  exist  abundantly  in  Nature,  and  a  supreme 
intelligence  dispenses  them,  in  suitable  proportions,  in  the  forms  of  air  and  water. 
That  which  is  most  wanting  and  expensive  to  the  agriculturist,  as  being  the 
most  fruitful  source  of  abundant  crops,  is  nitrogenous  matter.     Since  the  recogni- 

^'1069 


DUMAS  ON    MANURES. 


tion  of  this  great  truth,  and  since  modern  Chemistry  has  demonstrated  the  im- 
portant agency  of  nitrogen,  real  manufactories  of  manures  spring  up  and  prosper, 
and  the  offal,  detritus  and  Glth  which  were  formerly  unavailable,  and  were  even 
tbe  causes  of  the  insalubrity  of  cities,  are  now  rendered  subservient  to  Agricul- 
ture. 

We  divide  the  nitrogenous  manures  into  two  classes  :  the  first  comprises  those 
which  are  employed  in  their  natural  stale,  and  the  second  embraces  such  as 
should  undergo  preliminary  preparation. 

Every  nitrosenous  substance,  liquid  or  solid,  whether  from  the  animal,  vegeta- 
ble or  mineral  kingdom,  when  employed  in  its  original  stale  and  without  previ- 
ous preparation,  constitutes  a  natural  manure. 

Among  the  animal  manures  are  blood,  muscular  flesh,  and  the  offal  of  the 
carcass.  All  the  substances,  in  their  rousrh  state,  should  be  used  immediately, 
otherwise  their  rapid  putrefaction  will  develop  an  infectious  odor,  and  conse- 
quently render  their  use  impossible  in  the  environs  of  large  cities  where  they 
are  most  abundant.  We  will  see,  however,  in  studying  the  prepared  or  man- 
ufactured manures,  in  what  manner  they  can  be  indefinitely  preserved  and  re- 
duced to  a  bulk  convenient  for  transportation  to  a  distance,  and  thus  made  more 
uniform  and  constant  in  their  action. 

The  herbaceous  plants,  turned  under  the  soil  in  a  green  slate,  form  a  natural 
manure  much  used,  especially  in  warm  countries — for  while  furnishing  nitrogen, 
ihey  maintain  a  humidity  very  favorable  to  vegetation. 

Without  recommending  this  practice,  we  will  merely  remark  that  in  the  south 
of  France  and  in  Italy,  certain  plants,  (such  as  the  lupines,  beans,  and  even  maize) 
are  specially  cultivated  for  this  purpose.  For  moist  and  cold  soils  they  should 
be  applied  in  a  dry  state  ;  and  of  great  advantage  in  this  respect  is  the  employ- 
ment of  rye-stalks  and  damaged  hay.  Leaves  of  trees  are  also  applicable,  for 
analysis  has  proved  them  to  contain  more  nitrogen  than  other  portions  of 
the  tree ;  and,  moreover,  they  are  not  costly,  being  furnished  in  abundance  and 
gratuitously  by  neighboring  forests. 

The  seeds  and  fruits  of  plants  and  trees,  are  likewise  often  employed  as  ma- 
nure. In  Italy,  the  lupin  seeds  are  successfully  used  to  manure  the  orange 
and  olive  trees  ;  but  care  is  always  taken  lo  previously  destroy  their  germinative 
impulse  by  torrcfaction  in  a  furnace  :  as  the  lupin  seeds  contain  4  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen,  their  activity  is  readily  comprehensible — as  is,  for  like  reasons,  the  case 
with  clover  which  is  applicable  under  similar  circumstances.  So  also,  the 
residual  matter  of  malt,  of  pressed  fruits,  oleaginous  seeds,  or  of  olives,  will 
produce  corresponding  and  frequently  even  more  energetic  effects,  since,  not- 
withstanding their  loss  in  weight  by  expression,  they  still  retain  nearly  the 
whole  of  their  nitrogenous  and  albuminous  matter,  which  constitutes  their  value 
and  richness  as  a  manure.  In  fact,  the  marc  of  flax-seed,  colza,  Arachis 
hypogca,  Madia  sativa,  &c.,  contain  the  enormous  quantity  of  5  to  8  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen,  nearly  equaling  the  proportion  in  dry   animal  matter. 

Finally,  among  the  natural  manures  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  must  be  classed 
aquatic  plants,  growing  either  in  fresh  or  salt  water.  The  plants  which  are 
gathered  sreen  from  the  marshes  may  be  used  in  that  state  for  the  fertilization 
of  the  soil,  as  it  sufBces  to  merely  turn  them  into  the  ground  by  plowing. 

Sometimes,  however,  they  are  previously  subjected  to  incipient  fermentation 
under  water,  but  the  resultant  peat  cannot  be  used  without  certain  precautions, 
for  its  acid  reaction  renders  it  hurtful  to  vegetation.      To  remedy  this,  and  to 

(1070) 


NATURAL  FERTILIZERS. 


render  it  suitable  for  agricultural  purposes,  the  free  acid  must  be  saturated  with 
lime — or  as  well  by  promoting  putrefaction,  which  destroys  these  acids,  or  rather 
saturates  them,  by  the  formation  of  ammonia. 

In  some  localities  they  are  merely  burned,  and  the  ashes  spread  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  fields ;  but  it  must  be  remarked  that  this  process  destroys  their 
most  fertilizing  portion,  viz.,  the  ammonia  or  nitrogenous  matters ;  still,  how- 
ever, the  residuum,  by  reason  of  its  constituent  salts,  forms  a  stimulant  of  much 
energy. 

The  marine  plants,  such  as  the  fucus,  sea-wreck,  hair-weed,  &c.,  where  they 
can  be  procured  abundantly  and  cheaply,  make  a  very  advantageous  manure,  as 
they  contain,  in  addition  to  some  nitrogen,  a  certain  portion  of  salt  which  stimu- 
lates their  fertilizing  power.  In  Normandy  and  Brittany  they  have  been  used 
from  time  immemorial.  Sometimes  they  are  applied  to  the  soil  in  their  natural 
state,  and  again  sometimes  in  the  form  of  litter.  But  another  practice  is  to 
make  a  compost  of  them,  either  by  stratification  with  alternate  layers  of  earth, 
so  as  to  produce  a  mould,  or  by  admixture  with  other  mucks.  In  this  last  pro- 
cess there  is  evidently  a  partial  loss  of  their  properties,  for  the  fermentation  pro- 
duced in  the  mass  always  eliminates  nitrogen,  which  consequently  escapes.  As 
the  marine  plants  decompose  with  sufficient  rapidity  in  the  earth,  this  previous 
disintegration,  in  most  instances,  is  unnecessary. 

In  France,  the  use  of  the  varech  and  fucus  creates  so  extensive  a  cultivation 
on  the  sea-board  that  a  royal  ordinance  has  restricted  their  time  of  harvest  to 
a  limited  period — between  the  full  moon  of  March  and  that  of  April,  during 
which  they  have  expanded  their  reproducing  granules,  and  are  not  covered  by 
the  spawn  of  fish. 

The  mineral  kingdom  also  furnishes  some  substances  suitable  to  agricultural 
purposes.  They,  too,  may  be  considered  as  natural  manures,  and  though  gener- 
ally constituted  of  a  certain  portion  of  nitrogen,  are,  by  reason  of  other  proper- 
ties, powerful  stimulants  and  ameliorators.  For  example,  the  black  or  red  pyri- 
tous  ashes  from  Picardy,  much  used  in  the  Northern  Departments,  may  be  con- 
sidered as  an  energetic  stimulant  manure. 

These  ashes,  which  also  are  the  raw  material  from  which  copperas  and  alum 
are  manufactured,  exist  in  numerous  other  localities  as  a  black  powder,  frequent- 
ly containing  shells,  vegetable  debris,  and  bituminous  wood,  more  or  less  decom- 
posed. When  heated  slightly  in  a  crucible,  it  inflames  and  undergoes  a  slow 
combustion,  which,  after  two  weeks'  continuance,  partially  changes  its  nature  and 
color,  which  latter,  from  the  per-oxidation  of  the  iron,  becomes  red. 

According  to  Girardin  and  Bidard,  they  are  to  be  found  at  the  surface  of  the 
soil,  in  the  neighborhood  of  F or ges-les-Eaux. 

These  pyritous  earths,  after  having  been  leached,  are  generally  mixed  with 
one-fourth  of  their  weight  of  calcined  turf,  and  applied  as  a  stimulant.  They  are 
exactly  similar  to  those  from  Picardy.  According  to  the  analyses  of  Girardin  and 
Bidard,  their  composition  is  as  follows : 

{Organic  matter  or 
soluble  humus  2-74 

Sulphate  of  protoxide 
and  peroxides  of  iron  179 

{Fine  sand  38-92 

Insoluble  humus  49'83 
Salphuretofiron 

Peroxide  of  iron  672 

Total 10000  100-00 

(1071) 


8  DUMAS  ON    MANURES. 


The  nitrogen  of  these  ashes  equals  the  considerable  amount  of  2-72  per  cent. 
The  proportion  found  by  Boussingauit  and  Payen  in  the  Picardy  ashes,  did  not 
exceed  0-65  per  cent. — hence,  probably  it  is  the  humus  which  they  contain  that 
gives  them  the  property  of  a  manure,  while  the  stimulative  influence  is  doubt- 
less due  to  the  presence  of  salts,  especially  those  of  iron.  The  warmth  genera- 
ted during  the  slow  combustion  of  the  sulphuret  may  also,  and  probably  does, 
have  some  influence  promotive  and  accelerative  of  vegetation. 

The  mixed  manures  which  are  employed  without  previous  preparation  consist 
of  the  offal  of  streets  and  excrements  of  animals. 

Fecal  matters  and  urine,  either  pure  or  diluted  with  water,  are  frequently  ap- 
plied in  their  natural  states,  merely  by  distribution  on  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
This  mode  enables  all  parts  of  such  manure  to  be  used,  but  it  is  not  without  in- 
convenience, for  its  great  bulk  renders  the  expense  of  transport  heavy,  and  con- 
sequently limits  its  use  to  the  immediate  vicmiiy  of  its  production.  As  the 
cities  and  towns  produce  more  than  is  requisite  for  their  vicinities,  there  is  a  con- 
siderable loss  when  it  is  not  used  in  its  natural  state. 

There  are  these  objections,  however,  to  fresh  fecal  matter :  they  commu- 
nicate their  disagreeable  odor  to  the  plants,  and  emit  a  pestilential  effluvia  in  the 
act  of  being  carried  to  and  spread  upon  the  field.  A  proper  treatment  previous 
to  their  application  to  the  soil,  obviates  all  these  disadvantages. 

Human  excrements  constitute  one  of  the  best  manures.  They  are  employed 
in  a  fresh  state  under  the  form  and  name  of  gadoue,  or  in  a  dry  state  as  pou- 
drette. 

n  China,  Tuscany,  Holland,  Belgium,  and  many  other  countries,  they  are  used 
in  a  fresh  state,  being  diluted  with  water  and  then  dispensed  throughout  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil.  In  China  they  are  kneaded  with  clay,  and  the  dried  mixture  is 
then  pulverized  or  crushed.  In  Flanders,  where  they  use  them  for  the  culture 
of  flax-seed,  colza,  poppy  and  tobacco,  the  farmers  have  reservoirs  expressly  for 
the  reception  of  fecal  matters.  In  these  vats  they  remain  for  several  months,  or 
until  transformed  by  fermentation  into  a  viscid  liquid  matter.  In  this  state  they 
constitute  the  Flemish  manure.  To  improve  it,  the  pulverized  marc  of  pressed 
seeds  is  frequently  added,  for  the  nitrogenous  matter  therein  contained  becoming 
rapidly  decomposed,  contributes  materially  to  the  efficacy  of  the  manure.  The 
addition  has  other  advantages  also  in  decreasing  the  fluidity  of  the  excrements, 
and  by  becoming  thoroughly  impregnated  with  it,  in  facilitating  its  application 
and  prolonging  its  beneficial  effect.  However,  this  effect  is  never  beyond  a  year's 
duration.  26^  gallons  of  Flemish  manure  equal  about  550  lbs.  of  horse-dung.  This 
mode,  prevalent  in  Belgium  and  Flanders,  where  Agriculture  is  brought  to  a  full 
development,  and  where  great  care  is  observed  in  the  preservation  and  applica- 
tion of  all  matters  promotive  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  is  the  one  most  to  be 
recommended. 

The  excrements  being  inclosed  and  free  from  exposure,  are  less  subject  to  sud- 
den changes  of  temperature  and  to  fermentation,  and  consequently  can  be  retained 
unaltered  and  unimpaired  in  quality  for  a  long  time. 

When  the  liquid  manure  is  to  be  used,  it  is  drawn  portionwise  from  the  reser- 
voir, and  then  diluted  with  five  or  six  times  its  weight  of  water,  in  order  to  modify 
its  energy  and  prevent  injury  to  the  plant.  Thus  prepared,  it  is  spread  upon 
the  fields  when  they  are  being  sowed,  and  upon  the  meadows  after  having  been 
recently  mowed.  Sometimes  it  is  dropped,  undiluted,  by  ladles-full  at  the  foot  of 
each  plant,  when  its  nature  permits  the  application  without  too  much  manual 

(1072) 


THE  EMPLOYMENT  OF  FiECES. 


labor ;  but  in  such  instances  care  must  be  taken  not  to  touch  the  stalks,  lest 
they  might  be  injured. 

In  the  environs  of  Lille,  a  cask  of  thirty-five  and  a  half  gallons  of  Flemish 
manure,  costs  twenty-four  cents,  that  is,  six  cents  purchase  money,  six  cents  for 
transportation,  and  twelve  for  labor  in  spreading  it. 

The  excrements  of  birds  or  fowls  form  a  manure  much  richer  in  nitrogen,  and 
consequently  much  more  active  than  the  Flemish  manure.  They  contain,  in  fact, 
8  and  even  9  per  cent,  of  nitrogen.  They  undoubtedly  are  the  richest  of  mixed  ma- 
nures, and,  moreover,  are  among  the  warmest  and  most  alterable.  In  the  North- 
ern Departments  of  France,  where  they  are  much  appreciated,  one  of  them — 
that  most  used — is  pigeon's  dung,  $20  value  of  which  will  fertilize  or  manure 
9,500  square  yards  of  ground.  This  rich  manure  is  especially  used  in  the  culture 
of  flax,  tobacco,  &c.  It  is  only  necessary  to  examine  the  analyses  of  guano,  to 
see  and  be  convinced  of  the  richness  of  the  excrements  of  birds  and  their  utility 
in  promoting  vegetation.  They  contain,  in  fact,  independent  of  accidental  por- 
tions of  feathers  and  other  debris,  uric  acid,  ammonia,  coagulated  albumen  and 
phosphate  of  lime. 

In  Flanders  and  elsewhere,  where  pigeon-fanciers  are  numerous,  they  collect 
the  dung  and  engage  it  to  farmers  at  stipulated  rates.  At  the  usual  price  of 
$20,  for  the  product  of  6  or  700  pigeons  it  will  cost  $25  to  $40  to  manure  about 
three  acres. 

The  excrements  of  other  birds  are  less  valuable  than  those  of  the  pigeon. 

Usually,  these  latter  are  employed  in  their  natural  state,  and  without  any  admix- 
ture, being  in  this  form  specially  fitted  to  assist  the  growth  of  the  cereals  in 
humid  and  compact  soils.  They  are,  however,  of  nearly  equal  service  in  the 
culture  of  clover  ;  but  for  this  purpose  they  should  be  mixed  with  ashes.  In 
Flanders,  4,500  lbs,  per  three  acres  is  the  proportion  for  a  good  yield. 

As  has  already  been  remarked,  these  manures  owe  their  efficacy,  m  part,  to  the 
urine  with  which  they  are  impregnated  ;  and  furthermore,  it  is  well  known  that 
this  liquid,  by  the  decomposition  of  urea,  one  of  its  principal  constituents,  can 
furnish  a  notable  quantity  of  carbonate  of  ammonia,  the  utility  of  which  to  veo'e- 
tation  has  been  well  proved.  Independent  of  the  urine  absorbed  by  the  litter,  a 
portion  which  by  a  little  management  might  be  retained,  runs  off,  and  is  lost. 

In  Switzerland,  it  is  the  custom  to  collect  the  urines  in  cisterns  and  therein  re- 
serve them  for  some  time  before  spreading  them.  In  Belgium,  they  are  imbibed 
by  straw  and  then  mixed  with  ordinary  manure,  and  sometimes  even  with  loam, 
clay,  sand  or  plaster.  That  manure  known  in  commerce  under  the  name  of 
"  Urate,''''  is  a  mixture  in  equal  proportions  of  urine  and  plaster.  It  is  dried  and 
powdered,  and  kept  free  from  moisture. 

Whether  it  is  more  useful  to  employ  fresh  or  slightly  putrid  urines  as  a  ma- 
nure, is  a  question  which  answers  the  prevalent  custom  in  favor  of  the  latter  ; 
but  the  practice  in  this,  as  in  many  other  instances,  may  lead  to  error  for,  for  it 
is  not  based  upon  correct  principles. 

It  is  known,  in  fact,  that  carbonate  of  ammonia  generated  during  the  fermenta- 
tion of  urine  is  a  very  volatile  salt,  and  that  thus  the  more  active  and  useful 
principle  is  liable  to  be  dissipated  when  the  urine  is  too  long  kept.  To  form  an 
idea  of  the  advantages  which  may  be  thus  lost,  remember  that  every  2i  lbs. — 
of  ammonia  which  evaporates  is  equivalent  to  a  loss  of  150  lbs.  of  grain,  and  that 
2\  lbs.  of  urine  will  produce  2\  lbs.  of  wheat. 

In  all  these  cases,  in  order  to  fix  the  ammonia,  the  urine  must  be  mixed  with 

(1073) 


10  MONTHLY  JOURNAL  OF   AGRICULTURE. 

plaster,  sulphate  of  iron,  or  mould.  Sulphate  of  ammonia,  a  more  fixed,  but  not 
less  efficacious  salt  than  the  carbonate,  is  thus  formed. 

The  advice  of  some  agriculturists  to  use  the  fresh  urine,  properly  diluted  witb 
water,  we  rather  hesitate  to  recommend. 

There  are  many  other  substances  besides  bird's  dung,  which  can  without  pre- 
vious preparation  be  advantageously  used  in  Agriculture.  The  excrements  from 
sheep-folds,  ficc,  are  of  this  number,  and  this  mode  of  manuring  is  simple  and 
economical,  for  there  is  a  saving  of  both  the  waste  and  expense  of  transporta- 
tion. 

Dung  or  muck  itself,  as  obtained  in  most  places,  may  be  considered  as  a  mixed 
unprepared  manure,  since  all  its  preparation  consists  in  receiving  the  excre- 
ments upon  straw  and  slacking  it  as  fast  as  it  becomes  impregnated  with  fecal 
matter. 

The  name  of  dung  specially  applies  to  the  straw  litter  impregnated  with  the 
urine  and  faeces  of  domestic  animals.  When  a  mixture  of  this  kind  is  exposed 
to  air,  and  moistened  occasionally  with  water,  a  very  active  fermentation  ensues : 
carbonic  acid  and  ammonia,  among  other  gaseous  products,  are  disengaged,  and 
the  straw  itself  becomes  rotted  and  disintegrated.  It  is  in  this  state  that  the 
dung  is  used  to  manure  the  land.  As  to  the  juices,  which  serve  for  irrigation, 
they  hold  in  solution  all  the  soluble  matters  of  the  manures,  and  owe  their  deep- 
brown  color  to  the  presence  of  ulmate  of  ammonia.  Being  advantageously  ser- 
viceable, they  should  be  carefully  collected  and  preserved. 

One  circumstance  worthy  of  note  is,  that  the  dung  during  fermentation  can 
lead  to  the  formation  of  ammonia  from  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  and  hydrogen  of 
the  water.  The  efficacy  and  value  of  manures,  then,  depend  not  only  upon  the 
nature  and  relative  proportions  of  the  excrements  and  straw,  their  bases,  but 
also  upon' the  processes  of  their  manufacture  and  modes  of  preservation  and  em- 
ployment. 

The  dungs  obtained  from  the  excrements  of  herbivorous  animals  are  not  equal- 
ly efficacious.  Hog  dung  is  much  less  valuable  as  a  manure  than  that  of  the 
cow  and  ox,  which  latter,  in  their  turn,  are  surpassed  in  richness  by  those  of  the 
horse  and  sheep. 

Below  are  Girardin's  comparative  analyses  of  the  excrements  of  the  cow,  horse, 
and  sheep : 

Covo.  Horse.  Shtep. 

Water 79-72  7836  68-34 

Organic  matters  soluble  in  water   5-340  4-34  4-10 

in  alcohol  200  2-60  2-80 

Woodyfibre  870  1216  16-26 

Saline  matters,  viz.,  phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  t 
carbonate  of  lime,  chloride  of  sodium,  silicate  of  > 

potassa,  silica 3     423  2-34  815 

Total 100  00  100-00  lOOOO 

Sheep  manure  is  considered  the  most  preferable  of  all  other  species.  Being  hard 
and  of  a  shape  which  prevents  a  ready  admixture  with  the  litter,  it  is  slower  to  be 
impregnated  with  the  stable  liquor,  and  consequently  is  less  liable  to  rapid  fer- 
mentation. To  favor  the  decomposition  of  the  straw,  therefore,  it  is  necessary 
to  arrange  it  in  layers,  and  to  wet  it  frequently  before  using  it. 

It  has  been  calculated  that  the  excrements  of  a  sheep  produced  in  one  night, 
suffice  to  manure  U  square  yards  of  surface,  or,  according  to  Boussingault,  even 
one  and  a  third. 

In  comparing,  for  different  species  of  animals,  the  weight  of  their  faeces  with 
that  of  their  food,  we  find,  after  Black's  experiments,  the  following  relations  : 

(1074) 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE   STRAWS.  11 

From  the   ox  0-42  From  the  horse 0-42 

Frdin  ihe  shi  ep 0'40 

Experience  ha«,  moreover,  shown  that  an  ordinary  beef  of  900  pounds  produces, 
annually*  from  fifty  to  sixty  metrical  quintals  of  manure.  The  same  quantity  is 
obtained  from  a  horse  and  a  half,  and  from  ten  to  lifteen  sheep. 

The  nature  of  the  litter  used  necessarily  exercises  a  marked  influence  upon  the 
qualities  of  the  manure.  In  fact,  the  different  kinds  of  straw  vary,  those  of  the 
leguminous  from  those  of  the  cereals,  not  only  in  the  proportions  of  their  saline 
contents,  but  also  in  their  richness  in  nitrogen. 

Sprengel  makes  the  following  classification  of  the  straws,  ranking  each  accord- 
ing to  its  practical  value.  Annexed,  also,  is  a  Table  of  their  relative  proportions 
of  organic  matters  and  saline  substances  : 

Organic  Solid  Organic  Solid 

Substances.         Substances.  Sobstances.         Substances. 

1.  Colza         straw,  96-127  3  675  7.  Pea  straw,  95  029  4  971 

2.  Vet'jh  ..  91899  5-101  8.  Barley,  ..  94-759  5244 

3.  Buckwheat,  ..  96-t-79  3121  9.  Wheat,  ..  96-482  3-518 

4.  Bertns,  ..  96-797  3-203  10.  Rye.  ..  37"i07  2-793 

5.  Lentil,  ..  96  101  3-899  11.  Corn,  ..  96-015  3-985 

6.  Millet,  ..  95-145  4  855  12.  Oats,  ..  94-266  5-7.34 

The  following  analyses  of  Boussingault  and  Payen  show  the  proportion  of  azote 
in  several  straws. 

Nitrogen  per  Dung  per  Nitrogen  per  Dung  per 

cent.  Equivalent.        ly,  acr-9.  cent.  Equivalent         2l<  acres 

Pea                Straw,  1-79  22-34  6-702  Oat                 straw  0-28  142-85  4-:'-855 

Lentil               ..  1-01  39-60  11880  Wheat  (new)    ..  0-24  166  66  49-998 

Millet                 ..  0-78  51-28  15-384  Barley                 ..  0-23  173-90  52170 

Wheat,  (old)    ..  0-49  81-60  24-990  Rye                   ..  0-17  335-29  70-587 

The  straw  of  the  leguminous  plants  is,  therefore,  richer  in  nitrogen  than  that 
of  the  cereals,  and,  moreover,  contains  larger  proportions  of  potassa  salts,  and  by 
putrefaction  gives  more  ulmic  acid  and  disengages  more  ammonia. 

The  latter  are  preferable  in  the  manufacture  of  manures.  Cereal  straws,  poor 
in  nitrogen  and  alkaline  salts,  contain  a  large  portion  of  silica  and  phosphate  of 
lime.  Oat  straw  is  richer  in  potassa  than  other  cereal  straws,  and  the  soil  con- 
taining this  alkali  produces  good  oats.  Magnesian  earths  are  particularly  ap- 
plicable to  the  culture  of  buckwheat,  the  straw  of  which  contains  a  remarkable 
quantity  of  magnesia. 

The  mode  of  preserving  the  manure,  during  the  interval  between  its  removal 
from  the  stable  and  application  to  the  soil,  has  a  decided  influence  upon  its  fer- 
tilizing power.  Its  action  depends  upon  a  carefully  managed  fermentation,  so 
as  to  generate  ammoniacal  salts  and  other  stimulant  principles,  and  at  the  same 
time  prevent  a  partial  volatilization  of  the  ammonia  by  a  too  active  evapora- 
tion. To  this  end,  therefore,  it  is  requisite  to  stack  the  manure  in  broad  heaps, 
so  that  a  too  great  hight  of  the  pile  may  not  cause  a  too  high  elevation  of  tem- 
perature in  the  interior  of  the  mass. 

To  prevent  the  escape  of  a  part  of  the  ammonia,  the  manure  must  be  fre- 
quently wetted  with  the  juice  which  runs  from  the  stables,  which  should  be  col- 
lected and  saved  for  the  purpose.  It  can  be  pumped  up  from  the  reservoir,  and 
thus  applied  uniformly  and  regularly. 

It  is  also  necessary  to  protect  the  manure  from  the  unequal  washings  by  rains. 

Some  farmers  prevent  a  too  active  fermentation  of  manure  by  stratefying  it 
with  earth.  It  may  also  be  mixed  with  peat  or  turf,  as  experience  has  shown 
that  a  uniform  compost  of  this  kind  makes  an  excellent  manure. 

Manures  can  be  immediately  used,  fresh  from  the  stable,  and  without  being 

previously  fermented.     Under  this  form  they  are  called  lonsr  or  straw  manure. 
(1075)  ^  '^ 


12  DUMAS  ON  MANURES. 

Those  which  have  been  for  some  time  stacked  have  the  name  of  short  or  fat 
manure.  Both  the  weight  and  volume  of  manures  are  decreased  by  fermenta- 
tion.    It  has  been  ascertained  that  100  volumes  of  fresh  manure  are  reduced 

In    81  days  to  73  3  of  its  original  bulk,  with  a  loss  ol  3fi-7 
..   254  ..     64-3  ..  ..  35  7 

..   284  ..     62o  ..  ..  37-5 

..  395         ..     47-2  ..  ..  34-8 

Schattenman,  the  skillful  director  of  the  factories  at  Bouxwiller,  has  proposed 
a  simple  and  economical  mode  of  effecting  the  fermentation  of  manures.  It 
consists  in  adding  to  saturated  waters,  or  spreading  upon  the  dung,  either  sul- 
phate of  iron  or  gypsum,  the  sulphuric  acid  of  which,  by  forming  a  fixed  salt  with 
ammonia,  prevents  the  volatilization  of  the  latter.  With  due  precaution,  a  rich 
manure  of  great  power  may  after  this  manner  be  prepared  in  two  or  three 
months. 

As  has  already  been  remarked,  the  different  manures  vary  in  properties  and 
fertilizing  power.  The  remarkable  difference  between  the  weight  of  an  equal 
volume  of  cow  and  horse  dungs,  for  example,  is  shown  as  follows: 

A  cubic  foot  of  fat  manure  of  ihe  ox  weighs  57  1-5  lbs. 
fresh  ..  ..  ..      47  1-4     .. 

fat  ..  horse    ..     37  1-2     .. 

fresh  ..  ..  ..     29  1-2     .. 

The  better  dung,  and  that  which  may  be  considered  as  normal,  is  from  homed 
beasts,  and  approximates  in  composition  to  the  following  analysis: 

Water 75  (  Resinous  and  fatty  matter..   I 


(-Albumen ) 


Insoluble     (    Starch 


Mucus j  Substances.   (  Salts  of  lime  and  magnesia.    I* 

Soluble       !    {;Y« ^   Vegeublefibre J   20 

Substances    <   Mudlage  or' gumV.V.'.". '.■.■.■.:■. 
Kxtractive  and  sweet  matters   | 
Salts  potassa,  soda,  ammonia.         5  — 60 

100 

Boussingault  gives  the  composition  of  a  farm  manure  aged  six  months,  and 
which  he  calls  normal,  as  follows  : 

Water 79-30 

Oreanic  substances 14-03  >   on-70 

Salts  and  earths 6-67  ) 

Total 100-00 

Under  the  name  of  street  dung  is  comprised  the  incongruous  mixture  of  mire 
and  filth  which  is  collected  in  cities  by  sweeping  the  streets.  Its  composition 
is  complex,  and  before  being  used  it  should  undergo  fermentation.  During  this 
process  large  quantities  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  are  disengaged.  Lime, 
which  is  sometimes  added  to  accelerate  decomposition,  is  apt  to  cause  a  partial 
loss  of  ammonia. 

The  mass  should  be  left  undisturbed  for  some  time,  so  that  the  decomposition 
may  be  thorough.  If  applied  while  fresh,  it  will  ferment  in  the  soil ;  and  thus, 
by  a  too  energetic  action,  will  blast  the  roots  of  the  plants. 

The  name  of  compost  is  given  to  a  mixture  more  or  less  similar  to  street  dung. 
It  is  formed  of  alternate  strata  of  manures  of  different  compositions.  In  this  way, 
a  pile  of  organic  debris,  the  detritus  of  plants,  residual  animal  matters,  and  waste 
juices  of  dwellings  and  manufactories,  may  be  manufactured  into  a  profitable 
manure ;  but  it  too  often  happens  that,  in  large  cities,  where  these  matters  are 
most  abundant,  the  profit  they  would  yield  the  farmer  is  lost  by  the  neglect  in 
collecting  and  preserving  them, 

Jauffret,  a  Provincial  farmer,  has  proposed  the  manufacture  of  manure  by  a 

(1076) 


COMPOSTS THE  NITROGEN  OF  MANURES.  13 


rapid  and  active  fermentation  of  fern,  broom-reeds,  and  organic  residues.  To 
this  end,  the  materials  must  be  finely  divided, — heaped  up  and  moistened  with 
lye  holding  in  solution  some  mineral  substances,  and  putrefied  organic  matters. 
The  place  of  manufacture  should  be  convenient  to  a  pool,  the  water  in  which 
can  be  made  foul  by  additions  of  fecal  matter,  urine  and  sewer  filth.  Ashes 
plaster  and  nitre,  are  necessary  and  advantageous  additions. 

By  wetting  the  vegetable  debris  with  this  lye,  a  very  active  fermentation  is 
produced  ;  the  confined  air  of  the  mass  facilitates  the  reaction,  and  the  tem 
perature  of  the  interior  rises  as  high  as  167°  Fahrenheit. 

But  this  manure  is  too  expensive,  for  while  4,500  lbs.  will  cost  $4  80,  thai 
amount  of  stable  manure  can  be  bought  for  $2  to  $3.  Nevertheless,  by 
following  the  method  of  Jaufi'ret,  a  sufficiently  economical  manure  can  be  made 
says  Lucy,  with  the  following  ingredients.  The  cost  of  the  compost  and  its  ap- 
plication per  11,960  square  yards,  will  be  as  follows  : 

500  bundles  of  colza  twigs $4  75  22  hogsheads  of  salt  and  crude  saltpetre  1  14 

500     ..         ..     fern 2  47  52i  gallons  of  ashes 2  28 

Small  straw,  damaged 3  42  52.i^     ..     of  charcoal  dust 114 

220  lbs.  of  plaster 3  4a  Labor 3  04 

105  gallons  of  fecal  matter 1  14  Total                                                    ^ 

While  leaving  to  agricultural  experience  the  resolution  of  the  problem  in  a 
practical  and  economical  point  of  view,  we,  on  the  other  hand,  cannot  too  strongly 
reccommend  this  system  of  fabrication,  which  evidently  reposes  upon  an  excel- 
lent basis. 

When  the  importance  of  nitrogenous  manures  in  the  nutrition  of  plants  becomea 
fully  known  and  recognized,  all  matters  containing  more  or  less  of  this  element 
will  be  turned  to  account,  and  everywhere  will  be  erected  real  manufactories  for 
their  proper  preparation.  Indeed,  even  now  the  preparation  of  manures  commences 
to  form  a  true  chemical  art — the  object  of  which  is  to  furnish  to  the  land,  under 
the  best  possible  form,  the  supplement  to  that  nourishment  which  the  farmer 
cannot  supply  to  soil  otherwise  well  cultivated,  and  from  which  it  is  desired  to 
draw  the  most  advantageous  results. 

All  parts  of  animals,  being  rich  in  nitrogen,  form  an  excellent  manure  which 
can  be  used  on  the  spot  in  a  fresh  and  unprepared  state  ;  but  to  transport  them 
to  a  distance,  or  to  preserve  them,  or  to  render  their  effect  more  constant  and 
uniform,  it  is  requisite  to  subject  them  to  a  certain  treatment  that  will,  at  the 
same  time,  render  them  less  communicative  of  a  bad  taste  to  plants.  The 
slaughter-houses,  where  sick  horses  are  killed  for  their  fat,  possess  advantages 
for  the  preparation  of  manures  from  offal  otherwise  wasted. 

To  preserve  the  blood,  indefinitely,  it  must  be  coagulated  at  a  temperature  of 
212°  Fahrenheit,  either  by  a  direct  application  of  heat  to  a  caldron  containing  it, 
or,  more  preferably,  by  the  intervention  of  steam.  In  the  latter  case,  the  blood  can 
be  placed  in  a  wooden  vat.  The  coagulated  portion  is  removed  by  a  large  skimmer, 
then  pressed  until  it  ceases  to  yield  any  more  liquid  ;  afterward  it  is  dried  either 
in  the  open  air  or  in  a  heated  room.  Thus  dried  and  pulverized,  it  can  be  pack- 
ed into  casks  for  transportation  and  agricultural  purposes  ;  and  being  much  re- 
duced in  bulk  forms  a  very  rich  manure,  containing  the  large  amount  of  13  to  14 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 

In  the  horse  butcheries,  after  having  boiled  the  carcasses  in  wooden  vats  or 
steam  tanks,  they  detach  the  flesh  from  the  bones  and  dry  it,  first  in  the  sun  and 
finally  in  a  dry  room,  until  it  becomes  friable  and  pulverulent.  When  coarse- 
ly ground  in  a  mill,  this  dried  flesh  makes  an  excellent  manure  which  decom- 

(1077) 


14  DUMAS  ON    MANURES 


poses  much  slower  than  fresh  meat,  and  at  the  same  time  is  of  more  durable  fer- 
tilizing power.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  use  of  this  material  in  the  manu- 
facture  of  prussiate  of  potassa  and  nourishment  of  animals  makes  it  too  expen- 
sive except  for  the  most  productive  vegetables  ;  thus,  for  instance,  it  is  exported 
to  the  Colonies  for  the  culture  of  the  Cant- — fur  its  richness  in  nitrogen  renders  it 
more  economical  for  transportation  than  oiher  kinds  of  manure. 

Bones  properly  prepared  constitute  an  excellent  manure  which  is  much  used 
in  England.  In  France,  where  they  are  not  so  plenty,  and  command  a  high 
price  for  the  manufacture  of  bone-black,  they  also  are  used  to  a  limited  extent. — 
Before  being  applied  to  the  soil  they  must  be  freed  of  their  grease  by  a  long 
boilins  in  water.  The  fat  thus  obtained  pays  the  expense  of  its  separation  and 
a  small  profit  additional.  The  bone,  after  being  boiled  and  dried,  must  be  ground 
to  a  coarse  powder  between  channeled  iron  rollers  propelled  by  steam  or  horse- 
power. They  are  first  passed  through  rolls  with  wide  and  coarse  channels,  and 
finished  between  a  pair  with  finer  grooves  and  more  closely  set. 

This  manure  (bone-dust)  is  so  well  appreciated  in  England  that  it  commands 
$3  to  $3  50  per  185  lbs.  ;  and  1,850  to  7,400  lbs.  are  used  per  2^  acres.  Its  slow 
decomposition  is  a  peculiar  merit  of  this  manure,  as  its  effects  are  perceptible  for 
many  consecutive  years.  While  manures  much  richer  in  nitrogen  during  their 
rapid  decomposition  generate  fertilizing  gaseous  matter  n)uch  faster  than  it  can 
be  assimilated,  the  bone-dust  furnishes  them  gradually  and  produces  in  the  end 
more  profitable  results. 

When  the  gelatine  and  glue  have  been  extracted,  or  when  the  bones  have  for 
a  length  of  time  been  exposed  to  the  irregularities  of  the  atmosphere,  their  fertili- 
zing power  becomes  impaired,  and  is  less  than  that  of  new  bones  proporiionably 
as  the  organic  matter  has  decreased. 

There  are  mills  in  various  parts  of  the  world  for  grinding  boiled  bones  and 
the  refuse  of  the  comb  and  button  factories  ;  and  the  powder  thus  obtained,  when 
dried,  consists,  per  220  lbs.,  of 

Combustible  animal  matter 43-86 

Phosphate  and  carbonate  of  lime 56-14 — 100-00 

This  analysis  approximates  very  nearly  to  the  normal  constitution  of  bone. 

The  animal  matter  of  bones,  doubtless,  plays  an  important  part  in  their  applica- 
tion to  Agriculture ;  but  it  would  be  false  not  to  recognize  the  importance,  and  even 
absolute  necessity,  of  the  phosphate  of  lime  in  the  bones.  The  exportation  of  meat 
or  grain  from  a  farm  is  equivalent  to  the  exportation  of  earthy  phosphates,  because 
the  bony  structure  of  animals  is  formed  of  it,  and  grain  contains  it  in  large  quan- 
tities. In  order  to  revive  lands,  therefore,  these  phosphates  must  be  restored  to 
it,  for  light  soils  naturally  have  but  very  little.  Consequently,  the  most  simple 
method  is  to  impregnate  the  soil  with  the  urine  or  fecal  matters  of  man,  which 
the  consumption  of  the  grain  has  produced,  or  with  the  bones  of  the  animals 
whose  flesh  has  been  exported  or  otherwise  consumed. 

The  natural  phosphate  of  lime  would  also  make  an  excellent  ameliorator,  and 
its  application  will  doubtless  be  well  worth  the  expense. 

Among  the  economical  means  of  restoring  to  the  soil  all  the  essential  ingre- 
dients that  have  been  abstracted  from  it  by  vegetation.  Chemistry  enumerates  am- 
monia and  the  earthy  phosphates,  as  of  chief  importance.  Boussingault,  who  has 
also  tried  the  ammonia-magnesian  phosphate,  recommends  its  use,  as  espe- 
cially advantageous  in  the  culture  of  a  variety  of  maize  known  as  Mais  quararx' 
tain. 

(1078) 


MANUFACTURE  OF  POUDRETTE.  16 

The  most  common  and  well-known  manufactured  manure  is  doubtless  the 
Poudrelte,  which  is  prepared  from  the  contents  of  privies,  and  contains  the 
earthy  phosphates  in  connection  with  fecundant  animal  matters.  An  extensive 
factory,  established  at  the  very  gates  of  Paris,  gives  great  value  to  fecal  matters 
by  reducing  them  to  a  suitable  condition  for  transportation  to  a  distance.  Thus 
a  large  amount  of  material,  which  in  other  large  cities  is  useless,  becomes 
transformed,  by  some  skill,  into  a  source  of  profitable  revenue. 

But  it  must  be  remarked,  that  the  mode  of  preparing  the  poudrette  pursued  at 
Montfaucon  is  very  imperfect,  as  it  not  only  incommodes  the  vicinity,  but  occa- 
sions a  loss  of  a  great  part  of  the  gases  most  useful  to  vegetation.  As  the  method 

is  still  in  prevalent  use,  we  deem  it  necessary  to  give  a  more  correct  process. 

It  is  briefly  as  follows  : 

The  operation  is  conducted  in  six  or  seven  perfectly  tight  large  reservoirs, 
placed  in  an  elevated  position  and  above  the  neighboring  dwellings.  These  cis- 
terns are  arranged  with  coupling  connections  so  that  they  may  be  united  together 
or  disconnected  at  will.  One  of  them,  much  more  elevated  than  the  rest,  is  also 
of  a  proportionally  greater  capacity.  This  is  the  recipient  for  all  the  collected  faeces 
of  the  City  of  Paris,  which  is  emptied  in  from  casks  specially  appropriated  for 
its  first  reception.  The  reservoir  is  of  irregular  shape,  being  of  330  feet  long,  150 
to  175  wide,  and  30  deep  ;  and  it  is  in  this  vessel  that  the  liquid  is  separated, 
merely  by  decantation  from  the  solid  portion.  It  is  drawn  ofl"  through  a  conduit, 
and,  passing  through  a  wicker  sieve,  falls  into  one  of  the  vessels  beneath.  There 
should  be  five  or  six  of  these  receiving  vessels,  and  each  of  50  to  80  square  me- 
tres capacity  ;  but  having  to  contain  less  solid  matter,  they  are  not  necessarily  so 
deep  as  the  upper  cistern.  As  has  been  remarked,  these  vats  communicate  with 
each  other,  so  that  there  may  be  a  systematic  deposition  of  the  matters  suspended 
in  the  liquid  running  from  the  upper  cistern.  The  thin  juices  then  pass  consecu- 
tively through  all  the  vats,  and  are  again  filtered  through  a  fine  loicker  which 
catches  the  solid  particles,  and  allows  the  free  egress  of  the  liquid  into  a  conduit 
which  connects  with  a  sewer  emptying  into  the  Seine. 

From  this  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  lower  cisterns  are  a  long  time  being 
filled  with  solid  matter  ;  a  year  or  more  frequently  elapses  before  one  is  full. 
When  it  is  so,  after  several  days'  repose  it  is  freed  of  its  liquid  with  a  pump, 
syphon,  or  by  drawing  off.  Each  vat  is  emptied  in  its  turn,  and  again  set  for  the 
reception  of  thin  juices  which  are  constantly  flowing  from  the  large  upper 
cistern.  This  latter,  when  sufficiently  full  of  solid  matter,  must,  after  the  ex- 
cess of  liquid  has  been  drawn  off,  be  worked  in  the  same  manner  as  the  lower 
vessels. 

The  vats  of  Montfaucon  are  so  badly  arranged  as  to  render  it  necessary,  while 
working  the  upper  vat,  to  continue  adding  the  nightsoil.  Care,  however,  is 
taken  to  immediately  separate  the  more  liquid  portion  and  run  it  into  the  lower 
vessel.  The  process  will  be  more  readily  and  uniformly  conducted  if  there  are 
two  reception  reservoirs,  so  that  while  one  is  being  worked  the  other  can  be  filled. 
The  mode  of  operating  and  of  managing  the  vats  is  very  simple.  When  thf 
matters  have  been  sufficiently  drained,  open  the  gangways  leading  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  reservoirs,  and  then  gradually  lift  out  all  the  matter.  The  dung- 
carts  empty  their  contents  upon  a  contiguous  field,  where  it  is  dried  in  manner 
as  follows.  The  fecal  matter  is  first  spread  uniformly  over  the  whole  extent  of 
the  lot,  and,  after  some  hours,  must  be  harrowed  so  as  to  present  new  surfaces 
for  evaporation,  and  thus  hasten  its  desiccation.     The  harrowing  is  repeated 

(1079) 


16  DUMAS  ON  MANURES. 


several  times,  and  until  the  drying  is  complete;  then  the  matter  must  be  thrown 
into  piles,  and  after  a  proper  repose,  again  spread  out  into  thin  layers  and  crushed 
to  powder.  The  gravel  and  other  coarse  impurities  with  which  it  may  be  con- 
taminated are  separated  by  a  riddle  or  sieve.  Thus  prepared,  the  poudrette  is 
ready  for  use  or  exportation.  In  the  mean  time  it  is  stacked  in  piles  of  two  or 
three  cubic  metres*  bulk. 

At  Montfaucon  they  receive  daily  nearly  600  cubic  metres  of  solid  and  liquid 
matters,  from  which  are  prepared  about  100  cubic  metres  of  poudrette. 

Of  late  years,  a  new  art,  based  upon  Jacquemart's  experiments,  has  enabled 
the  useful  transformation  of  the  liquid  portions  previously  wasted.  A  part  of  the 
thin  juices  is  thus  made  into  sulphate  of  ammonia  and  other  ammoniacal  salts. 
There  is  a  factory  constructed  near  this  locality,  but  it  consumes  at  most  only 
90  to  100  cubic  metres  of  urine  ;  the  remainder  being  thrown  into  the  Seine.  A 
greater  perfection  of  this  art  will  doubtless  enable  the  utilization  of  all  the 
ammonia  and  other  salts  which  are  contained  in  the  refuse  urine. 

There  is  no  doubt  that,  after  having  withdrawn  the  ammonia  by  lime,  as  is 
done,  the  muddy  residue  will  make  an  excellent  manure  for  the  irrigation  of  ar- 
tificial meadows,  as  it  contains  all  the  requisite  phosphates,  much  alkaline  salt, 
and  even  organic  matters. 

The  poudrette  prepared  as  we  have  directed  sells  at  80  cents  per  26|  gallons. 
Of  late  years  the  manufacture  has  been  carried  on  at  the  Forest  of  Bondy,  M. 
Mary  having  constructed  a  conduit  of  great  diameter  for  the  conveyance  thereto 
of  the  liquid  previously  separated  from  the  poudrette  vats.  The  transportation 
and  disinfecting  of  the  solid  matters,  thus  reduced  to  a  fifth,  offers  comparatively 
much  greater  facilities.  The  arrangement  of  the  vats  at  Bondy  is  superior  to 
that  at  Montfaucon,  in  having  two  complete  systems  ;  but  the  difference  in  levels 
being  less,  much  more  manual  labor  is  demanded.  Another  conduit  conveys  the 
excess  of  thin  juices  into  a  town  sewer  emptying  into  the  Seine.  Thus,  as  at 
Montfaucon,  the  urines  will  be  lost,  though  they  contain  nitrogen  enough  to 
make  them  three  times  as  valuable  to  Agriculture  as  the  poudrette.  Future 
skill  will  doubtless  take  advantage  of  this  source  of  wealth,  which  is  now 
thrown  into  the  river.  They  might  already  use  two  methods  for  the  purpose. 
One  is  indicated  by  the  elevation  of  the  vats  at  Bondy  above  the  plain  of  St. 
Denis,  where  the  ihin  liquors  could  be  well  employed  for  irrigating  and  greatly 
fertilizing  the  surrounding  plains.  If  it  is  necessary  to  dilute  the  urine  with 
water  in  order  to  modify  its  energy,  the  proximity  of  the  canal  whose  level  is 
above  that  of  the  cisterns,  renders  this  operation  comparatively  easy.  The 
quantity  of  urine  thus  disposable  is,  however,  much  greater  than  is  needed  for 
a  field  even  five  times  as  large  as  that  of  St.  Denis. 

The  other  method  of  rendering  the  urines  useful  is  to  convert  them  into  sul- 
phate of  ammonia.  Since  Chemistry  has  shown  the  feasibility  of  using  this  salt 
for  the  fertilization  of  the  earth,  a  number  of  experiments  have  been  performed 
on  a  large  scale  in  many  parts  of  Europe.  In  England  its  use  has  produced  most 
profitable  effects,  and  in  France,  where  the  subject  has  been  investigated,  equally 
favorable  results  were  obtained.  We  will  cite  one  essay  of  many,  viz.,  that  on 
a  large  scale  by  Kuhlmann  (of  Lille)  and  Schattenmann. 

Its  large  amount  of  nitrogen  (21  per  cent.)  renders  the  sulphate  of  ammonia 
one  of  the  richest  of  azotized  manures ;  and  hence  there  will  be  great  economy 
in  transforming  the  urines  of  Bondy,  Montfaucon  and  elsewhere  into  sulphate 

*  A  metre  U  equal  to  39-37100  EoglUh  ioches. 
(1080) 


AMMONIACAL   SALT AMMALIZED   BLACK.  17 

of  ammonia  by  sulphuric  acid.  We  will  prove  by  figures  that  under  present  cir- 
cumstances, and  notwithstanding  the  interposition  of  sulphuric  acid  and  the  ex- 
penses of  preparation,  that  the  sulphate  of  ammonia  can  be  furnished  at  a 
cheaper  rate  than  most  manures,  with  which  it.  can  successfully  compete  even 
at  its  present  prices. 

For  example,  let  us  compare  the  sulphate  of  ammonia  with  the  poudrette  of 
Montfaucon.  The  pure  salt  now  sells  at  $11  40  per  220  lbs.,  and  it  contains  21 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen.  The  poudrette  sells  for  about  85  cents  per  220  lbs.,  and 
contains,  according  to  Payen  and  Boussingault,  but  1-6  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 
Supposing,  then,  that  the  value  of  a  manure  is  exactly  proportional  to  the 
quantity  of  nitrogen  which  it  contains,  it  follows  that  220  lbs.  of  sulphate  of 
ammonia  will  produce  the  same  effect  as  2,900  lbs.  of  poudrette,  which  amounts 
to  the  same  as  saying  that  $11  40  of  the  first  is  equal  to  $11  40  of  the  latter. 
It  is  true  that  the  action  of  the  poudrette  is  not  limited  to  its  nitrogen,  for  it  con- 
tains salts  which  are  excellent  ameliorators  of  moist  soils.  Moreover,  its  or- 
ganic matters  have  the  effect  of  modifying  the  properties  of  water  or  of  the  air 
absorbed  by  the  roots.  But  as  the  expense  of  transporting  the  sulphate  is  ten 
times  less,  and  as  the  substances  which  furnish  the  elements  other  than  nitro- 
gen may  be  had  at  a  price  much  lower  than  that  of  poudrette,  we  may  hope 
economical  and  profitable  results  from  the  use  of  the  sulphate  of  ammonia 
combined  with  dung,  turf  and  bone-dust.  The  price  of  the  sulphate  afore- 
mentioned is  that  of  the  commercial  article.  If  it  were  extensively  used 
for  agricultural  purposes,  the  price  would  be  brought  down  to  $7  60,  and 
lower. 

Without  dwelling  upon  the  manufacture  of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  we  will 
only  remark  that  the  urines  received  at  Montfaucon  would  suffice  to  produce 
4,400,000  lbs.  of  that  salt,  representing  in  nitrogen  57,200,000  lbs.  of  poudrette, 
or  even  220,000,000  lbs.  of  ordinary  manure.  It  can  be  inferred  from  these  fig- 
ures, of  what  great  import  to  Agriculture  is  the  thorough  solution  of  the  ques- 
tion of  the  availability  of  the  sulphate  of  ammonia  as  a  fertilizing  agent,  and  how 
invaluable  would  be  the  result,  if  long  experience  shall  verify  the  success  that 
some  have  already  attained  in  its  use. 

In  what  manner  should  the  sulphate  of  ammonia  be  applied  to  the  soil  ?  This 
is  a  question  yet  unsolved.  Some  advise  its  use  in  solution  of  one  or  two 
thousandths  at  least,  but  under  this  form  it  is  not  applicable  in  all  localities  ; 
moreover  it  requires  the  expense  of  additional  labor. 

It  is  probable  that  as  good  results,  with  less  expense,  will  follow  by  sowing  it 
either  in  a  free  state  or  mixed  with  earth  or  chalk,  provided  the  time  of  its  ap- 
plication is  favorable,  so  that  the  too  active  effect  of  the  manure  may  not  injure 
vegetation.  However,  the  experiments  under  this  form  have,  so  far,  proved  less 
favorable  and  effective. 

The  great  value  of  refuse  bone-black  (from  sugar  refineries)  as  a  manure,  and 
its  advantageous  effects,  are  fully  known  and  appreciated.  Unfortunately,  how- 
ever, commerce  furnishes  a  too  limited  quantity  for  agricultural  purposes,  and 
consequently  it  has  been  proposed  to  form  a  substitute  of  similar  properties  by 
commingling  disinfected  fecal  matters  with  a  cheap  charcoal. 

This  new  manure,  called  animalized  black,  is  made  with  carbonized  vegetable 
mould  and  nightsoil,  and  thus  a  substance  is  produced  which,  in  I'act,  possesses 
most  of  the  properties  of  the  animal-black  from  the  refineries.  Moreover,  this 
compost,  by  its  absorbent  power,  retains  the  ammoniacal  compounds  as  they  are 

(1081) 31 


18  DUMAS  ON  MANURES. 


generated,  and  yields  them  gradually  and  in  uniform  proportions  to  the  growing 
plant.  It  is  this  slow  and  regular  production  of  ammonia  which  gives  also  to 
the  bone-black  a  fertilizing  value  so  mucli  greater  than  that  indicated  by  the 
Table  of  equivalents. 

This  effect  of  retarding  decomposition  is  especially  advantageous  m  the  afore- 
mentioned instance,  for  almost  the  sole  inconvenience  in  the  use  of  fecal  mat- 
ters as  manure,  in  the  usual  manner,  consists  in  their  too  sudden  and  rapid 
action. 

For  this  manufacture,  a  mould,  as  rich  as  possible  in  organic  debris,  should  be 
selected,  so  that  by  charring  it  may  furnish  a  sufficient  quantity  of  coal.  It 
should  also  be  pulverulent,  easily  divisible,  and  not  liable  to  become  clotted 
during  charring,  as  will  happen  when  it  is  too  argillaceous. 

It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  even  under  the  most  favorable  circum- 
stances, the  charred  mould  is  far  from  comparable  in  absorbent  properties  to 
animal  charcoal,  and  perhaps  in  this  respect  the  processes  employed  might  ad- 
mit of  modification.  Still,  these  plans  yield  a  charred  mould  sufficiently  cheap 
for  an  extensive  and  profitable  application.  This  plan  seems  to  be  the  best  sub- 
stitute for  the  manufacture  of  poudrelte.  Indeed,  by  the  use  of  charred  mould, 
we  obtain  manure,  rich  in  nitrogen,  which  retains  and  renders  useful  all  the 
animal  parts  of  fecal  matters,  and,  moreover,  presents  itself  in  a  form  convenient 
for  application. 

This  manure,  which  is  sufficiently  rich  to  be  exported,  can  be  made  rapidly, 
that  is,  in  a  month  during  summer,  and  in  two  months  when  the  temperature  is 
low.  Moreover,  in  its  manufacture  there  is  no  disengagement  of  disagreeable 
odors,  as  is  the  case  with  poudrette,  which  in  its  preparation  requires  a  much 
longer  time,  and  loses  a  portion  of  its  ammoniacal  components. 

As  regards  the  value  of  the  products  of  these  two  systems  of  fabrication,  there 
is  but  little  difference,  though  the  animalized  black  is  generally  the  richer  ;  in  fact, 
we  might  impart  to  it  3  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  an  amount  rarely  contained  in  com- 
mercial poudrette.  It  is  true  that  Payen  and  Boussingault  found  in  the  pou- 
drette of  Belloni  4-4  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  but  that  of  Montfaucon  contains  at 
most  but  2-67  per  cent.  The  medium  dry  poudrettes  have  but  2  and  some  only 
1-6  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 

It  is  true  that  by  this  mode  of  preparation  and  reduction  of  bulk,  the  pou- 
drette contains  the  salts  and  the  phosphates  of  a  large  quantity  of  fecal  matter, 
concentrated  in  a  small  bulk,  with  equal  richness  in  nitrogen,  and  value  greater 
than  that  of  animalized  black,  which  also  contains  phosphates,  but  in  a  much 
less  proportion. 

Nevertheless,  I  do  not  consider  this  a  great  disadvantage  in  the  black,  for  by 
a  comparison  of  the  analyses,  it  is  seen  that  the  ratio  of  nitrogen  to  phosphorus 
is  almost  the  same  in  fecal  matters  and  in  a  great  number  of  plants  ;  whence 
it  follows  that  the  quantity  of  animalized  black  sufficient  to  furnish  the  nitrogen 
requisite  for  a  crop  would  also  yield  the  amount  of  phosphorus  which  the  crop 
should  contain.  It  is  true  also  that  the  animalized  black  is  not,  in  this  respect, 
a  complete  manure,  for  as  its  richness  in  nitrogen  is  greater  than  that  of  other 
constituents  useful  to  vegetation,  it  requires,  like  some  other  manures,  to  be  as- 
sisted by  a  complemental  manure. 

To  facilitate  such  calculations,  it  would  be  useful  to  make  Tables  of  equiva- 
lents for  the  principal  mineral  substances  which  enter  into  the  composition  of 
plants,  similar  to  that  which  has  been  made  for  the  most  useful  element,  nitrogen. 
(1088) 


MODE   OF  OPERATION  WITH  FECAL  MATTERS.  19 

The  definite  quality  of  a  manure  should  depend  upon  the  rank  that  it  would 
have  in  each  of  these  Tables. 

Barronet  &  Co.  make  the  animalized  black  by  a  process  consisting  of  two  steps  : 
first,  the  extraction  of  the  fecal  matters  of  privies,  and  then  their  transformation 
into  manure.  Before  the  removal  of  the  fecal  matters  from  the  wells,  they  are 
disinfected,  and  for  this  purpose  two  equally  good  substances  are  employed  :  the 
first  is  the  residue  from  the  manufacture  of  the  proto-sulphate  of  iron,  and  may 
generally  be  purchased  at  a  low  rate.  Where  there  is  a  choice  of  residues,  those 
should  be  preferred  which  are  the  least  acid  and  most  rich  in  peroxide  of  iron, 
and  even  sometimes  in  zinc.  The  mode  of  action  of  these  salts  is  readily  com- 
prehensible. 

Another  substance  used  for  this  purpose  is  a  solution  of  the  preceding  matter 
united  with  an  equal  quantity  of  solution  of  common  soap,  which  is  thrown  into 
the  trench.  A  metallic  oleate  is  thus  formed,  and  being  of  easier  decomposition 
by  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  sulphydrate  of  ammonia  than  are  the  sulphates,  the 
soap  and  greasy  matters  are  useful  in  this  operation,  for  protecting  the  surface 
of  liquids  with  an  oleaginous  layer  which  opposes  the  diffusion  of  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  and  sulphydrate  of  ammonia. 

The  fecal  matters  are  drawn  from  the  privies  by  dredging  buckets  attached  to 
an  apparatus  called  a  Machine  Frederic.  It  occupies  but  little  space,  and  can 
be  conveniently  used  in  any  of  the  houses,  as  it  only  requires  an  opening  into 
the  cess-pool  of  about  \\  by  1  foot  for  its  entrance.  For  the  convenience  of 
perfectly  emptying,  the  privy  wells  should  be  concave  at  the  bottom  ;  it  hence 
follows  that  the  consistency  of  these  matters  is  not  very  great.  Without  these 
precautions  it  is  necessary  to  finish  their  removal  in  the  usual  manner.  The 
matter  drawn  up  in  the  dredges  is  immediately,  and  without  an  instant's  ex- 
posure, turned  into  casks,  for  the  whole  apparatus  being  inclosed  with  sheet 
metal,  the  disengaged  gas  will  be  driven  into  the  air  through  a  small  apart- 
ment containing  chloride  of  lime.  By  this  arrangement,  even  when  operating 
during  the  day,  there  is  scarcely  any  perceptible  unpleasant  odor,  though 
the  material  may  not  have  been  disinfected  previous  to  its  removal  from  the 
privies. 

These  fecal  matters  transported  to  the  factory,  are  there  converted  into  ma- 
nure and  mixed  with  charred  soil ;  for  the  disinfection  produced  by  the  sulphate 
of  iron  will  not  be  permanent.  They  are  consequently  turned  into  vats  and  therein 
treated  by  the  shovelfuU  with  nearly  their  volume  of  charred  soil.  After  thorough 
incorporation  of  the  whole,  by  stirring,  the  matter  is  left  to  deposit,  and  after 
having  collected  about  the  center  of  the  vat,  where  the  bottom  is  most  elevated, 
the  liquid  which  remains  is  run  off'  through  gates.  The  bottom  of  the  vat  has  a 
slope  of  about  two-hundredths  of  a  metre. 

This  compost  is  spread  out,  under  cover,  upon  an  impermeable  soil,  and  left  to 
dry  in  the  air.  To  hasten  the  desiccation,  new  surfaces  should  be  presented  by 
occasional  stirring.  When  the  drying  is  complete,  add  to  the  first  mixture,  a 
second  time,  its  volume  of  fecal  matters,  and  operate  as  at  first.  Repeat  this 
process  until  the  soil  forms  nearly  a  fourth  of  the  resultant  product ;  this  hap- 
pens about  the  third  mixing,  generally,  when  the  operation  has  been  properly 
conducted,  and  especially  when  the  fecal  matters  employed  contain  a  large  pro- 
portion of  solid  products. 

This  plan  of  working,  during  which  there  is  but  little  disagreeable  odor 
emitted,  requires  about  one  month  in  summer  and  two  in  winter.     The  season 

(1083) 


20  DUMAS  ON  MANURES. 


most  favorable  to  the  manufacture  is  spring,  and  il  is  then  that  the  greatest  pos- 
sible number  of  emptyings  should  be  made. 

The  charred  soil  was  formerly  prepared  in  pots,  but  Barronet  has  substituted 
an  economical  furnace. 

The  soil  as  it  comes  from  the  furnace  falls  into  a  sheet-iron  extinguisher, 
wherein  it  cools,  free  from  exposure  to  air.  It  is  used  as  soon  as  cold  in  order  to 
obtain  the  full  effect  of  its  absorbent  qualities,  and  should  be  powdered  and  sieved 
as  fine  as  possible.  It  is  better  if  a  little  argillaceous,  because  the  coal  which  it 
contains  is  then  more  divided  and  absorbent.  But  if  the  proportion  of  clay  is  too 
great,  the  mould  becomes  clotted. 

The  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  carbonate  of  lime  increases  its  durability 
and  makes  it  flow  more  readily.  There  must  be  but  very  little,  for  if  much  lime 
is  formed  during  healing,  ammonia  will  be  disengaged  at  the  moment  of  mixing 
the  soil  and  fecal  matters.  It  is  well  also  to  slightly  moisten  the  soil  before 
carbonization,  for  the  aqueous  vapor  generated  by  the  heat  carries  off  the  air  ex- 
isting in  the  interstices  of  the  soil  of  the  upper  apartment.  In  this  way  the  car- 
bonization is  effected  almost  entirely  apart  from  air,  while,  if  the  soil  is  too  dry, 
it  nearly  always  happens  that  instead  of  carbonizing,  il  burns,  although  it  has 
only  been  at  a  dull  red  heat. 

175  to  200  cubic  feet  oi  soil  can  be  carbonized  during  24  hours,  in  a  furnace 
of  20  feet  bight,  and  under  these  circumstances  the  whole  expense,  of  35^  cubic 
feet  of  charred  soil  will  be  about  95  cents. 

An  establishment  for  a  medium  sized  city,  say  of  20,000  inhabitants,  will  cost 
$3,800  to  $4,750,  that  is,  for  utensils,  furnaces  and  every  other  requisite.  Such 
a  factory  will  yield  per  annum  600  cubic  metres  of  salable  manure,  which  at  95 
cents  per  35  cubic  feet,  the  usual  price  for  manure  of  3  per  cent,  nitrogen,  equals 
$5,700. 

At  the  rate  of  76  to  95  cents,  the  animalized  black  has  the  advantage  over  the 
dung  ;  for  while  the  11,960  square  yards  of  land  require  of  the  former  but  70  to 
80  cubic  feet  at  the  gross  expense  of  $19  to  $23  75,  it  needs  22,000  lbs.  of  ma- 
nure, which  cost  $34  20,  and  are  of  more  difficult  transportation. 

If  the  animalized  black  is  not  yet  as  perfect  a  manure  as  could  be  desired,  it 
is  nevertheless  one  of  the  best  means  of  wholly  using  the  products  of  the  privies, 
and  offers  great  advantages  with  respect  to  health  and  Agriculture. 

It  would  be  both  politic  and  desirable  for  the  different  Municipalities  to  com- 
pel the  proprietors  to  construct  their  privy-wells  perfectly  water-tight,  and  of 
cement  within,  so  as  to  avoid  infiltration  and  to  protect  them  from  rains.  When 
this  measure  shall  have  been  generally  employed,  the  vegetable  richness  of  the 
soil  will  be  completely  regenerated,  for  the  immense  quantity  of  manure  which 
it  might  receive  would  soon  revive  its  fecundity.  Agriculture  and  hygeine  are 
then  equally  interested  in  the  success  of  this  new  manufacture. 

The  value  of  a  manure  can  only  be  determined  by  agricultural  experience  ;  but 
the  chemist  can  furnish  useful  data  for  the  proper  management  of  the  experi- 
ments. In  fact,  it  is  by  chemical  analysis  that  we  ascertain  the  precise  nature 
and  properties  of  materials,  either  organic  or  mineral,  which  a  given  harvest  re- 
moves from  the  ^oil  that  produces  it,  and  if  this  determines  the  absence  of 
earthy  phosphates,  alkaline  salts,  potassa  and  sulphur,  these  must  be  restored 
again  before  the  land  can  recover  its  fertility.  Chemical  researches  have  also 
proved  that  which  is  now  an  established  fact,  the  active  efficiency  of  ammonia 
in  manures,  and  that  of  nitrogenous  matters  generally. 

(1084) 


AMMONIACAL  SALTS.  21 


Manures  should  always  contain  ammonia  or  nitrogenous  matters  capable  of 
yielding  it  ;  but  as  to  the  collected  vegetable  or  animal  offal  which  contain  the 
requisite  nitrogenous  matter,  as  well  also  in  their  ashes,  the  salts  necessary  for 
vegetation,  a  question  arises  whether  it  is  useful  or  dangerous  to  subject  them 
to  a  prolonged  fermentation  ?  Is  muck  better  than  the  litter  which  produces  it  ? 

I  have  no  hesitation,  and  I  believe  no  farmer  would  have  anV;  in  declaring 
that  dung  is  much  more  efficacious  than  the  materials  which  furnish  it  would  be 
in  their  natural  state.  There  are  two  causes  contributing  to  this  special  efficacy. 
The  first  is  the  formation  of  ammonia  generated  during  the  fermentation  of  the 
muck  and  resulting  from  the  reciprocal  action  of  the  hydrogen  of  the  water  and 
the  oxygen  of  the  air.  Consequently,  the  muck  may  be  richer  in  nitrogen  than 
its  components,  if  the  fermentation  %as  been  properly  managed.  The  second 
circumstance  influencing  the  special  activity  of  the  muck  is  the  presence  of  brown 
acids,  which  evidently  have  a  great  affinity  for  the  oxygen  of  the  air  contained 
in  the  water,  converting  it  into  carbonic  acid.  If  the  water  of  the  muck  contains 
ammoniacal  salts  formed  by  such  acids,  the  action  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  will 
create  the  presence  of  the  carbonate  of  ammonia  in  the  solution. 

Now  every  one  knows  that  it  would  be  very  different  for  a  plant  to  absorb,  by 
its  roots,  aerated  water  containing  carbonate  of  ammonia  in  solution,  or  water 
deprived  of  air  containing  carbonic  acid  and  carbonate  of  ammonia. 

Such  seems  to  me  to  be  the  part  of  the  muck  which  gradually  supplies  the 
water  with  very  combustible  materials,  capable  of  attracting  oxygen  from  the  air, 
and  of  transforming  it  into  carbonic  acid  :  and  which  contains,  moreover,  ammo- 
nia, together  with  alkaline  and  earthy  salts.  If  neither  meat  nor  grain  is  ex- 
ported, then  it  becomes  the  medium  through  which  the  ingredients  of  the  soil, 
abstracted  during  vegetation,  are  restored  to  it.  Bone-dust,  urines  and  the  like, 
however,  are  the  most  prolific  sources  of  the  earthy  and  alkaline  salts  and  phos- 
phates, and  are  the  best  manures  for  reviving  land,  exhausted  by  the  removal  of 
grain  and  live-stock. 

But  theulmate  of  ammonia,  as  a  source  of  carbonate,  which  has  latterly  been 
too  much  neglected,  is  also  a  manure  worthy  the  particular  attention  of  farmers. 
Its  constant  presence  in  muck  is  a  matter  for  consideration,  and  indicates  plainly 
the  utility  of  those  previous  fermentations  of  the  components  of  muck,  to  which 
lauffret  has  directed  the  attention  of  agriculturists. 

Jacquemart,  quoted  above,  has  communicated  to  me  the  following  remarks 
upon  ammoniacal  salts  as  manure  : 

"  In  1832  and  1833,  I  tried  various  plans  of  extracting  ammoniacal  salts  from 
substances  which  would  furnish  liberal  proportions,  with  the  view  of  ascertain- 
ing whether  salts,  rich  in  nitrogen,  if  cheap  and  abundant,  whould  not  be  of 
beneficial  and  profitable  application  to  Agriculture." 

"  1  found  that  150  lbs.  of  poudrette  are  equivalent  in  nitrogen  to  10  lbs.  of  crys- 
talized  sulphate  of  ammonia,  and  53  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  exists  as  ready- 
ormed  carbonate  of  ammonia,   and  47  per  cent,  is  comprised  in  organic  matters." 

"  This  result,  and  the  promptness  of  the  action  of  poudrette  upon  vegetation, 
lead  to  the  idea  that  the  carbonate  of  ammonia  might  be  very  favorable  to  its  de- 
velopment, and  that  to  this  salt  should  be  attributed  the  energetic  influence  of  the 
poudrette  and  Flemish  manure.  In  fact,  when  this  manure  is  employed,  all  the 
urea  of  the  urines  is  transformed  into  carbonate  of  ammonia,  and  this  salt  is  ia 
greater  proportion  than  all  others." 

"  Circumstances  did  not  permit  me  to  continue  these  researches,  and  I  only  pro- 

(1085) 


22  DUMAS  ON  MANURES. 


gressed  far  enough  to  prove  thai  the  sub-carbonate  ofammonia  has  a  very  bene- 
ficial influence  upon  vegetation.  My  essays  upon  the  applicability  of  ammonia- 
cal  salts  to  Agriculture,  were  limited  to  April,  1843.     They  had  for  their  object, 

1st.  To  determine  the  value  of  sub-carbonate  of  ammonia  as  a  manure  or  stimu 
lant,  in  comparison  with  the  poudrette  as  the  standard. 

2d.  The  use  of  these  matters  in  small  bulk  and  in  convenient  form. 

The  poudrette  was  applied  in  the  proportion  of  25  bushels  per  acre.  As 
has  been  said,  150  lbs.  represent,  in  nitrogen,  10  lbs  of  crystalized  sulphate  ofam- 
monia ;  3,000  lbs.,  therefore,  are  equivalent  to  200  lbs.  of  sulphate." 

"  The  quantities  of  ammoniacal  salts  were  proportioned   so  as  to  contain  as 

much  nitrogen  as  the  poudrette,  and  were,  per  21  acres. 

180  gallons  sab-carbonate  in  solation,  formed  of  1  eqai^alent  of  acid. 

2       ..  of  ammonia  representing  200  lbs  of  sulphate. 

..     Carbonate  in  solution,  formed  of  2  equivs.  of  acid  and  2  equi%-3.  ofammonia 200  lbs. 

200  lbs.  of  sulphate  in  solution  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..         ..200  lbs. 

"  In  order  to  the  ready  and  easy  transportation  and  distribution  of  the  solutions 
of  ammoniacal  carbonate,  they  should  be  heated  with  charcoal,  or  other  porous 
matters,  in  quantity  sufficient  to  form  a  thoroughly  impregnated  mass.  It  will 
be  seen  in  the  essays  of  October,  1843,  that  the  solution  of  the  carbonate  can  be 
employed  in  a  reduced  volume  of  one-half,  merely  doubling  the  quantity  of  salt 
then  the  bulk  of  the  manure  is  reduced  to  that  of  poudrette." 

"  The  sulphate  ofammonia  was  used  in  two  states  : 

1st.  As  solution  in  six  times  its  weight  of  water,  imbibed  by  dry  calcareous 
matter  in  powder. 

2d.  In  the  form  of  powder,  and  sown  similarly  as  fine  seed.  To  prevent  the 
formation  of  carbonate  of  ammonia,  the  calcareous  matter  must  not  be  welted 
with  the  solution  of  sulphate.  In  fact,  a  mixture  of  chalk  or  marl,  and  sulphate 
ofammonia,  when  placed  in  a  flask,  emits  an  ammoniacal  vapor,  strong  enough 
to  blue  a  reddened  litmus  paper.  As  this  reaction,  however,  is  very  slow,  good 
effects  may  be  expected  from  the  use  of  a  mixture  in  which  the  carbonate  of  am- 
monia disengages  gradually  enough  for  its  assimilation,  by  the  plant,  in  a  nascent 
stale.  The  first  crop  derived  no  benefit,  scarcely,  but  upon  the  second  its  good 
effects  were  decidedly  evident.  Unfortunately,  I  was  unable  to  repeat  the  experi- 
ments in  the  third  year. 

"  Finally,  to  approximate  as  nearly  as  possible  the  composition  of  poudrette,  the 
ammonia  of  which  is  partially  carbonated  and  partially  free,  I  made  a  mixed 
solution  of  sulphate  and  carbonate  ofammonia  in  the  proportion  of  68  lbs.  of  the 
first,  and  132  pounds  of  the  latter  per  2|  acres.  This  solution  was  caused  to  be 
imbibed  by  peat  dust,  and  all  the  matters  employed  in  this  essay  were  sown  on 
the  same  day,  April  29,  1843,  simultaneously  with  the  oats,  and  plowed  in  with 
the  grain." 

"  The  land  was  newly  cleared,  limed  and  marled  ground  from  which  two  crops 
had  been  taken.  Each  essay  occupied  274  yards  of  surface,  and  was  separated 
from  the  other  by  intervals  of  ten  feet.  The  limits  were  enclosed  by  cords,  the 
harvest  gathered  with  great  care,  and  the  products  weighed." 


THE  CARBONATES  AND  SUB-CARBONATES 


23 


No.   1.  Carbonate  of  ammonia  and  carbon  (charcoal) 

2.  Sub-carbonate 

3.  Carbonate  and  peat. 

4.  Sub  catbonate  and  peat. 

5.  Carbonate,  sulphate  and  peat 

6.  Poudrette -  •  - 

7.  Sub-carbonate,  salphate  and  peat. 

8.  Sulphate  and  calcareous  matter 

9.  Sulphate  in  powder 
10.  Nothing 


"  From  these  experiments  it  follows :  .  ,     ,  ,  * 

1st    That  the  carbonate  and  sub-carbonate,  combined  with  charcoal  or  peat, 

<rive  94  per  cent,  of  the  product  of  poudrette,  containing  an  equal  quantity  of  ni- 

troc^en  corresponding  to  202  lbs.  of  crystalized  sulphate  of  ammonia  per  hectare  : 

2°d.  That   the    degree    of  saturation   of  ammonia  by   carDonic   acid    has  no 

'"^  sTThat  the  sulphate  by  itself,  and  as  a  salt,  furnishes  no  results  : 

4th  That  the  mixture  of  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  ammonia  gives  84  per 
cent,  of  poudrette.     This  number  is  deduced  almost  exactly,  a  prwrt,  from  the 

i:;Thrrc\ltr  matter  imbued  with  sulphate  of  ammonia  gives  79 
per  cent  that  is  to  say,  8  per  cent,  more  than  nothing.  This  result  so  different 
from  what  might  have  been  hoped  for,  ought  probably  to  be  attributed  to  the 
S  composition  of  the  sulphate,  and  to  the  short  time  (about  four  months)  that 
^,e  plant  was  in  the  ground.  The  following  experiments  seem  to  show  the  pro- 
priety  of  farther  testing  the  matter.  .        »u„ 

These  trials  were  made  in  October,  1843,  upon  a  crop  of  wheat,  and  on  the 
same  spot  as  the  before-mentioned  experiments. 

Havinc^  already  ascertained  that  the  carbonate  and  sub-carbonate  of  ammo- 
nia  give  ^similar  results,  the  latter  only  was  used  in  these  experiments  ;  but  m 
order  to  reduce  the  volume  of  the  mixture,  the  solution  was  made  of  double 

'Th^Jstandard  of  comparison  was,  poudrette  employed  in  the  proportion  of  about 
79  cubic  feet,  nearly  3  cubic  yards,  per  n,960  square  yards,  and  representmg,  m 
nitrogen,  227  lbs.  of  crystalized  sulphate  of  ammonia.  „       ,      ,^  . 

•  The  ammoniacal  salts  were  used  in  the  proportion  of  238  lbs.  of  sulphate  of 
ammonia;  that  is  to  say.   they  contain  5  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  more  than  the 

poudrette.  , 

"  These  essays  were  made  in  the  same  spots  as  the  precedmg,  and  the  same 
numbers  correspond  with  the  same  places:  time  (October)  and  other  circum- 
stances were  likewise  corresponding. 


24 


DUMAS  ON     MANURE?. 


RESULTS  OBTAINED    WITH  THK  roLLOWING   SUDSTANCES 


No.    1.  Snb-carbonale  and  peat 

2.  roufirettc 

3.  Sub-carbonate  (pouci'iitrated)  and  peat 

4.  510  sub-carbonate,  5-10  poudrelte  and  peat 

5.  Nothinur 

6.  Poiidi-ette 

7.  ^  sub  carbonate  (coiux'iitraied)  j  poudretle  and  peat. 

8.  Sulpbate  and  calcareous  matter 

9.  Sul|phate  in  salt 

10.  Ninhinir 


3  * 


2,837 
:i,:)50 

3,1.50 
3.350 
2.393 
:f.275 
2.975 
3,112 
2.675 
2,700 


s    ^ilil. 


1.87.'; 

2.000 
1,875 
1.987 
1,485 
1,970 
1,750 
1.787 
1,412 
1,400 


IVr    il 

94-5 
100 

94  5 
100 

73 
100 

88(?) 

90 

71 

70 


Sg3 

in 


g?2. 


Per  ct. 
65 
60 
GO 
CO 
62 
CO 
57 
57 
53 
.52 


"  It  follows  from  these  trials  as  from  the  preceding: 

1st.  That  the  sub-carbonate  of  ammonia  gives  94  per  cent,  of  the  product  of 
the  poudrette,  as  proved  by  trials  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  6.  The  5  per  cent.  ex. 
cess  of  nitrogen  that  was  used  produced  no  effect  ;  probably,  because  it  only 
served,  from  the  length  of  the  experiment  (nine  months)  to  compensate  lor  the 
difference  of  fixity  between  the  principles  of  the  two  substances. 

2d.  That  No.  3  indicates  that  the  concentrated  carbonate  (14|  cubic  feet 
per  11,960  square  yards)  acts  in  the  same  manner  as  that  which  is  weaker. 

3d.  That  No.  4  apparently  proves  that  a  mixture  of  poudrette  and  peat  in  equal 
proportions,  imbued  with  sub-carbonate,  has  the  same  value  as  poudrette.  No.  7 
does  not  confirm  this,  but  it  allows  the  inference  that  there  was  some  error  in 
the  last  experiments,  for  in  those  of  April,  Nos.  4  and  7  presented  no  anomaly. 

4th.  It  is  shown  by  No.  8  that  calcareous  matter  moistened  by  sulphate  of 
ammonia  yields  90  per  cent,  of  the  poudrette,  while  in  the  spring  it  only  gave 
79  per  cent.  This  difference  is  doubtless  attributable  to  the  difference  in  time 
between  9  and  4|  months.  It  is  difficult  to  say  whether  the  calcareous  matter 
moistened  with  sulphate  and  sown  in  the  spring  united  its  action  with  that  sown 
in  autumn  ;  for  it  was  buried  by  the  plowing  which  followed  the  crop  of  oats. 

"It  would  have  been  interesting  to  have  made  an  examination  of  the  products 
of  a  third  crop,  but  circumstances  did  not  permit. 

5ih.  The  sulphate  in  salt,  as  in  the  preceding  case,  gave  no  result. 

6lh.  Finally,  if  we  compare  No.  4,  in  which  turf  imbued  with  sub-carbonate, 
was  sown  in  the  spring,  and  no  other  manure  used  in  autumn,  with  No.  10, 
which  received  no  manure,  in  either  sqason  we  find  the  product  is  nearly  the 
same  ;  hence  either  the  conclusion  that  the  effect  of  the  sub-carbonate  of  ammo- 
nia was  not  perceptible  after  the  first  crop,  or  that  this  substance,  being  on  the' 
surface,  was  plowed  in  too  deeply. 

<'  To  conclude,  therefore,  it  seems  demonstrated  by  the  experiments  of  the  spring 
and  fall,  that  the  carbonates  of  ammonia  have  evidently  a  very  happy  influence 
upon  the  growth  of  cereals ;  that  the  sulphate  of  ammonia,  in  a  state  of  salt,  is 
without  influence  upon  these  plants,  at  least  under  the  aforementioned  circum- 
stances. Perhaps  better  results  might  be  obtained  by  sowing  it  in  spring  upon 
the  cereals,  when  they  cover  the  soil ;  that  the  sulphate  of  ammonia  in  solution 
and  absorbed  by  calcareous  matter,  produces  very  favorable  effects,  especially 
when  the  growth  of  the  plant  is  of  some  duration.  Its  action  should  be  studied 
during  many  consecutive  crops. 

"  These  facts,  as  is  readily  observed,  are  of  great  importance  to  Agriculture  ; 
for  they  prove  the  advantageous  applicability  of  ammoniacal  salts.  In  fact,  it 
results  from  the  experiments  that  a  quantity  of  sub-carbonate  of  ammonia  equiva- 

(1088) 


SALINE   MATTERS.  25 

lent  to  198  lbs.  of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  gave  per  11,960  square  yards  an  excess 
of  product  as  follows  : 

Oats — 680  kilogrammes  of  grain,  say  15-8  hectolitres,  of  43  kils.  at  6  francs 95 

400  ..  of  straw,  say  80    bundles,  at  lOf.  per  100,  net 8 

Total 103"  franca 

"  That  a  quantity  of  the  sub-carbonate  of  ammonia  equal  to  108  kilogrammes 
of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  gives  in  excess  of  products  per  hectare,  as  follows: 

Wheat  — 435  kils.  of  wheat,  say  6  hects.  of  73  kils.  at  18  francs 108 

430  kils.  of  straw,  say  86  bundles  at  lOf.  per  100,  net 860 

Total 116-60f. 

Or,  in  English : 

Oats — 1,496  lbs.  of  grain $19  oo 

880  lbs.  straw,  say  80  bundles,  at  $2  per  100 1  60 

Total $20  60 

Wheat — 957  lbs.  grain $21  60 

946  lbs.  straw,  say  36  bundles  at  $2  per  100 1  72 

Total $23  32 

"  In  the  provision  market  of  Paris,  where  straw  is  generally  of  very  high  price, 
the  revenue  would  be  increased  $1  52  to  $1  90  per  100  of  straw,  thus  giving  as 
its  gross  overplus  $26  60  to  $27  74  per  11,960  square  yards. 

"  From  these  sums  must  be  deducted  the  expense  of  the  sub-carbonate  of  am- 
monia. But  the  ammoniacal  salts  are  now  so  low  in  price,  the  sub-carbonate 
being  abundantly  extracted  from  the  refuse  liquor  of  gas-works,  that  its  net 
benefits,  the  straw  being  valued  as  above,  may  be  guarantied  at  |9  50  to  $15  20 
for  the  crop  of  oats,  and  $10  45  to  $16  15  for  the  crop  of  wheat. 

"In  1843  I  studied  the  action  o{  ammoniacal  salts  upon  meadows,  and  of  so- 
lutions of  carbonate  and  sulphate,  with  which  I  cultivated  definite  portions  of 
a  lawn.  I  also  sowed  the  sulphate  in  powder,  so  that  two  equal  surfaces  wa- 
tered with  solution,  or  dusted  with  powder,  should  receive  the  same  quantity  of 
ammonia.  After  thirty-six  hours,  the  wetted  surfaces  acquired  a  deep-green 
tint,  and  exhibited  a  striking  contrast  with  the  rest  of  the  sward.  This  effect 
must  be  attributed  to  the  salts,  for  the  parts  wetted  with  pure  water  did  not  ex- 
hibit any  change.  After  the  first  rain  the  experimeist  with  the  sulphate  in  pow- 
der resulted  as  favorably  as  the  other. 

•*  This  last  result  made  me  renounce  the  use  of  saline  solutions,  which  to  the 
farmer  presents  many  difficulties.  I  propose  the  employment  only  of  sulphate 
in  powder  to  be  sown  like  the  seeds. 

"  I  will  remark  that  when  the  lawn  was  reaped  and  the  grass  had  commenced 
to  re-sprout,  it  was  impossible  to  observe  any  difference  between  the  dusted  and 
watered  plots,  for  the  action  of  the  salts  had  been  limited  to  one  crop. 

"In  the  latter  part  of  March,  1844,  I  sowed  the  meadows  with  sulphate  of 
ammonia  in  powder,  at  the  rate  of  90  to  100  kilogrammes  per  hectare,  each  ex- 
periment occupying  about  one-third  of  a  hectare.  After  the  first  rain  the  parts 
thus  treated  were  distinguishable  from  the  remainder  of  the  field  by  their  deep- 
green  color  ;  and  subsequently  the  grass  grew  luxuriantly,  but  circumstances  did 
not  permit  me  to  accurately  estimate  the  results. 

"  In  1845,  these  experiments  were  repeated,  and  the  plots  fenced  in.  When 
planting,  I  also  measured  off,  adjoining  these  plots,  others  of  equal  dimensions, 
that  is,  a  third  of  a  hectare  each,  and  at  the  harvest  compared  the  products  of 

(1089) 


26  DUMAS  ON    MANURES. 

the   sulph-ammoniated  parts  with    those   which  were  cultivated  without  this 
treatment : 


lit  Experiment. — 100  kilog*  of  sulphate  per  hectaret      )    Excess  of  product  with  the  sulphate. 

Grass 3.746  kils.    > 

Good  medium  soil  ..Huy '.',907  kils.   ) 839  kilogrammes, or  29  per  cent 

Zd  Experiment. — 100  kilog.  of  sulphate  per  hectare  ) 

Hay 4.9.')fi  kils.  > 

Very  good  soil Hay 3.892  kils.  )  ...1,064  kilogrammes,  or  30  per  cent. 

3d  Experiment. — 100  kilo;?,  of  sulphate  per  hectare  ^ 

Hay 3,970  kils.  > 

Strong  soil Hay 3,450  kils.  3 520  kilogrammes,  or  15  per  cent 

•'  We  will  remark  that  the  sulphate  apparently  has  an  action  much  greater  pro- 
portional to  the  quality  of  the  soil,  and  its  deficiency  in  strength  and  argillaceous 
matter — provided,  however,  it  is  not  loo  light.  It  remains  to  be  determined 
whether,  with  a  less  quantity  than  220  lbs.  per  11,9(50  square  yards,  we  would 
not  obtain  as  good  results — whether  a  stronger  proportion  would  not  produce 
even  better  effects — in  fine,  whether  the  influence  of  the  salt  extends  beyond  a 
year,  especially  in  argillaceous  soils.  If  the  latter  is  not  the  case  it  is  probable 
that  the  whole  influence  of  the  salt  is  exhausted  by  the  first  crop.  These  que- 
ries, however,  must  be  resolved  by  some  future  harvest." 

The  results  of  the  above  experiments,  such  as  they  are,  are  nevertheless  not 
without  interest  to  Agriculture. 

According  to  experiment  No.  2,  sulphate  of  ammonia  costing  $\0  26  per  220 
lbs.,  the  receipt  equals  the  expense  when  the  price  of  hay  is  $5  89  per  100  bun- 
dles; and  there  is  a  gain  of  $3  42  to  $5  70  per  11,960  square  yards,  when  it 
brings  $7  60  to  $8  36  per  100  bundles.  Again,  according  to  experiment  No.  2, 
where  there  is  an  equality  between  the  outlay  and  return,  the  hay  should  be 
worth  S6  65  to  $7  60  or  $8  36— an  advantage  of  $1  43  to  $2  47  per  11,960  sq.  yds. 

Experiment  No.  3  always  gave  a  loss. 

But  whether  a  soil  annually  treated  with  amraoniacal  salts  will  yield  liberal 
crops  for  consecutive  years,  or  whether,  on  the  contrary,  its  fertility  is  limited  to 
one  season  only,  and  requires  renewal  yearly  by  fresh  additions,  are  questions 
for  future  determination. 

.*  2  lbs.  3  oz.  4-428  drachms  avoirdupois.  t  2  acres,  1  r.  35  p.— 11,960-4604  square  yards. 


NUTRITION  OF  PLANTS. 

BY  JEAN  BAPTISTE  DUMAS. 
Translated  from  the  French  for  The  Library,  by  Campbell  Morfit  and  Baknet  Phillips. 

Plants  nourish  themselves  upon  animal  excretions,  that  is  to  say,  upon  water, 
carbonic  acid,  and  ammonia :  all  of  which  they  receive  through  the  medium  of 
the  atmosphere.  In  a  general  sense,  therefore,  the  study  of  the  nutrition  of 
plants,  IS,  in  fact,  the  examination  of  their  relations  to  the  atmosphere. 

A  plant,  during  a  growth  of  some  time,  presents  an  evident  accumulation  of 
matter  in  all  its  tissues ;  it  also  acquires  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen  and  nitrogen, 
together  with  earthy  and  mineral  matters  ;  but  of  this  more  hereafter. 

By  limiting  the  examination  to  the  principal  phenomena,  (discarding  all  the 
accidental  circumstances  which  may  intervene,)  we  can  readily,  by  some  simple 
but  conclusive  experiments,  be  convinced  of  the  truth  of  the  preceding  results. 
These  leave  no  doubt,  either  as  to  the  fixation  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  nitro- 
gen by  the  plants,  or  the  mode  in  which  it  is  effected  during  vegetation. 

Boussingault  proposes  to  demonstrate  this  by  means  of  a  large  bell-glass,  with 
three  tubulures.  Adapted  to  the  first  is  a  washing  apparatus  filled  with  water, 
for  the  removal  of  the  dust  suspended  in  the  atmospheric  air.  In  the  principal 
tubulure  is  a  funnel,  opening  and  closing  at  pleasure,  through  which  to  introduce 
distilled  water  for  the  irrigation  of  the  seeds  and  plants  placed  under  the  bell- 
glass.  These  are  contained  in  a  capsule  or  saucer  filled  with  calcined  sand. — 
The  bell-glass  rests  upon,  and  is  hermetically  cemented  to,  an  earthen  pan,  so  as 
to  prevent  the  admission  of  air.  The  third  tubulure  communicates  with  a  large 
flask,  by  means  of  two  U  tubes  and  a  washing  apparatus,  which  retain  the  water 
and  carbonic  acid. 

The  flask  being  filled  with  water,  and  the  apparatus  tightly  closed,  the  dis- 
placement of  the  air  from  the  bell-glass  is  determined  by  opening  the  cock  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  washing-flask.  This  operation  can  be  repeated  as  often  as  de- 
sired. By  these  precautions,  it  is  seen  that  the  plant  or  seeds  under  the  bell- 
glass  receive  definitely,  as  their  whole  nourishment,  only  water,  air  and  carbonic 
acid. 

Now  if  peas  be  sown  in  this  calcined  sand,  taking  care  to  water  them  and  fre- 
quently renew  their  atmosphere,  they  germinate,  develop  their  leaves,  and  what 
is  remarkable,  flower  and  fructify.  Nothing  is  easier  than  to  estimate  the  amount 
of  matter  lost  or  gained  by  the  seed  in  developing  itself;  a  simple  comparative 
analysis  of  the  seed  and  of  the  crop  suffices.  Boussingault  has  determined  by 
analysis  the  nature  of  the  elements  and  their  proportions  in  both  the  seeds  and 
the  crop.     The  following  are  his  results  : 

(1091) 


28  DUMAS    ON    THE    NUTRITION  OF  PLANTS. 

The  peas  contained  : 

Before  Vegetation.  After  Vefietation. 

Carbon 51'5  parts.  237-6  parts. 

Hvdrogeu 5-9     ..  28-1     .. 

Nitrof;en 4-6     ..  10-1     .. 

Oxygen U^    . .  }C^8-0     .. 

Total lOG-0  443-8 

Showing  the  fixation,  during  the  process  of  vegetation,  of 

186-1  partsof  Carbon  139-r)  pans  of  Water 

5-5     ..     ..   Nitrogen  6-7     . .       ..    Hydrogen. 

These  results  prove  in  the  most  evident  manner  that  peas,  as  well  as  many- 
other  plants,  can  pass  through  all  their  phases  of  vegetation  even  when  nourished 
only  with  water  and  air.  The  crop  thus  obtained  is,  however,  very  meager  and 
incomparably  less  than  that  yielded  by  manured  soil. 

The  phenomenon  which  we  are  about  to  study  is  complex:  in  fact,  a  seed,  a 
plant,  in  certain  periods  of  their  growth,  present  modifications  both  in  their  vital 
functions  and  in  their  relations  to  the  atmosphere.  To  the  amount  of  fixed 
principles,  already  considerable,  must  be  added  another  large  portion,  which  is 
dissipated  after  having  been  momentarily  fixed.  But  if  the  result,  apparently 
simple,  which  I  am  about  to  give,  is  the  final  result  of  a  complex  theory,  it  does 
not  the  less  fully  confirm  the  fixation  of  carbon,  nitrogen  and  hydrogen  in  the 
plants,  besides  that  of  a  certain  quantity  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  which  is  fixed 
as  water,  or  in  the  proportions  which  constitute  water. 

It  is  not  sufficient  to  have  clearly  proved  that  the  fixation  of  the  elements  con- 
stituting plants  can  be  eff'ected  by  the  sole  intermediation  of  the  air  ;  we  should 
investig-dte  farther  in  order  to  clearly  determine  the  principal  sources  of  these 
elements. 

When  we  reflect  upon  the  enormous  quantity  of  carbon  in  continual  fixation 
by  vegetation,  the  question  naturally  arises  whether  it  really  does  not  originate 
wholly,  or  at  least  in  part,  from  the  decomposition  of  the  carbonic  acid  in  the 
air.  We  know  that  the  atmosphere  contains,  usually,  4-10,000ths  of  its  volume, 
or  as  well,  6-10,OOOths  of  its  weight  of  carbonic  acid  ;  an  evident  proof  that  this 
quantity  is  sufficient. 

A  very  simple  calculation  will  determine  this  matter.  Let  us  suppose,  in  fact, 
that  the  atmosphere  is  compressed  by  a  force  which  would  give  it  the  density  of 
water ;  the  column  of  air  at  this  density,  has  a  hight  of  about  ten  metres  :  in  this 
column  of  ten  metres  carbonic  acid  enters  to  the  extent  of  four  millimetres,  and 
by  reducing  the  carbonic  acid  to  carbon,  it  will  be  finally  seen  that  the  quantity 
of  carbonic  acid  in  the  atmosphere,  is  sufficient  to  form  a  stratum  of  carbon  cov- 
ering the  surface  of  the  whole  earth  to  the  thickness  of  nearly  one-third  of  a 
millimetre. 

The  amount  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air  is  increased  by  the  torrents  emitted 
from  volcanoes,  and  the  supply  is  constantly  kept  up  by  the  large  quantities  emit- 
ted during  combustion  in  our  fireplaces,  by  the  respiration  of  animals,  and  also 
their  decomposition,  and  by  the  nocturnal  respiration  of  plants.  The  quantity  is 
being  constantly  diminished  by  the  diurnal  respiration  of  plants.  We  may  then 
ask  whether  this  actual  state  of  the  atmosphere  has  always  existed,  or  if  in  re- 
mote periods,  it  did  not  present  an  entirely  difli'erent  composition. 

Ad.  Brogniart,  relying  upon  the  precise  information  of  Geology,  has  calcu- 
lated the  composition  of  air  before  the  formation  of  the  coal  fields.  France,  as 
a  fair  average  of  the  coal  lands  of  Europe,  and  perhaps  of  the  whole  world,  was 
taken  as  the  standard.     It  contains  1-200  of  coal  land,  forming  a  stratum  of 

(1092) 


EXPERIM'tiiM'S    0.\   CARBONIC   ACID,  29 

twenty  metres  thickness,  and  is  poorer  in  this  respect  than  England  and  Belgi- 
um, but  much  richer  than  a  large  majority  of  the  other  countries  of  the  earth. 

Estimating  by  France,  we  then  find  that  a  pro  rata  apportionment  will  give 
to  the  whole  surface  of  our  globe  a  stratum  of  coal  of  a  decimetre  thickness  ; 
by  changing  the  weights  into  carbonic  acid,  (for  it  is  incontestable  that  coal  has 
Its  origin  from  vegetable  debris  whose  carbonic  acid  must  necessarily  have  been 
drawn  from  the  atmosphere,)  we  then  have  the  inference  that  the  air  before  the 
formation  of  the  coal-fields  must  have  contained  at  the  very  least  from  4  to  5 
per  cent.,  a  medium,  and  by  a  little  exaggeration,  perhaps  as  much  as  8  to  10 
per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid.  Air  charged  with  a  like  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  is 
injurious  to,  if  not  destructive  of  the  warm-blooded  animals  ;  and,  indeed,  we 
learn  from  geological  fossils  that  in  that  epoch  there  were  no  animals  of  that 
nature.  Saussure's  experiments  have  shown  that  vegetation  thrives  much  bet- 
ter in  an  atmosphere  containing  some  hundredths  of  carbonic  acid,  and  we  know 
also  that  the  vegetation  of  remote  periods  was  much  more  active  than  at  present, 
as  is  well  evident  in  the  singular  development  of  fossil  debris. 

But  supposing  there  were  no  animals,  or  at  most  but  a  few  of  them,  whence 
eomes  this  carbonic  acid  of  the  air,  unless  from  numberless  volcanoes  now 
extinct  ? 

What  is  the  action  of  the  carbonic  acid,  and  what  are  the  conditions  requisite 
for  the  regular  accomplishment  of  the  phenomenon  now  under  study  1  We  will 
answer  by  the  aid  of  some  historical  details.  Bonnet  first  observed  that  green 
leaves,  when  placed  in  aerated  water  and  exposed  to  the  sun's  light,  disengage 
a  gas  which  Priestly  proved  to  be  oxygen  ;  and  Jennevier  in  his  turn  showed 
that  this  oxygen  proceeds  from  the  carbonic  acid  held  in  solution  by  the  water, 
and  associates  this  fact  with  the  nutrition  of  plants.  To  efl'ect  the  decomposi- 
tion of  the  carbonic  acid,  the  green  part  of  the  plants  must  be  exposed  to  the 
solar  light.  A  plant  which  is  not  struck  by  the  light  does  not  decompose  car- 
bonic acid  ;  on  the  contrary,  in  the  presence  of  aerated  water  or  air,  it  generates 
it,  as  is  unequivocally  determined  by  the  following  two  experiments : 

Take  a  bell-glass  containing  an  atmosphere  of  carbonic  acid,  in  which 
plants  are  also  inclosed,  and  place  it  under  an  opaque  vessel,  and  keep  it  thus 
secluded  from  the  light  for  several  days.  After  this  time,  an  examination  of  the 
transvased  gas  shows  that  it  is  still  unaltered  carbonic  acid.  Again,  take  a 
second  bell-glass  similar  to  the  first,  and  inclose  therein,  as  before,  the  green 
parts  of  plants  ;  but  this  time  expose  it  to  the  sun's  light  weakened  by  a  gauze 
screen  or  sheet  of  transparent  paper.  This  precaution  is  necessary,  for  though 
a  plant  thrives  perfectly  in  the  open  air  even  under  the  direct  action  of  the  solar 
rays,  it  is  requisite,  when  operating  under  bell-glasses,  to  provide  against  the 
concentration  of  light  by  the  lenticles  which  their  surfaces  present,  else  the  parts 
of  the  plant  opposite  to  the  foci  become  torrefied  and  the  plant  perishes.  With 
proper  precautions  oxygen  is  obtained  nearly  pure.  Hence  the  necessity  of  light 
in  this  phenomenon.  Without  it  there  would  be  no  action — no  durable  vegeta- 
tion upon  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

Let  us  now  examine  under  what  forms  the  carbonic  acid  reaches  the  plant. 
We  can  determine  a  current  of  air  in  a  bulbed  apparatus,  with  three  tubulures, 
by  means  ofaflacon  d  ecoulement.  A  bulbed  apparatus,  adapted  to  the  first  tu- 
bulure,  serves  to  wash  the  air  which  enters.  To  the  third  tubulure  is  adjusted 
an  U  tube  containing  pumice-stone  saturated  with  sulphuric  acid,  for  the  reten- 
tion of  the  water.  There  must  be  also  a  second  bulbed  apparatus,  containing  a 
(1093) 


30  DUMAS  ON  THE  NUTRITION  OF  PLANTS. 

concentrated  solution  of  potassa,  for  the  absorption  of  carbonic  acid.  Following 
this  is  an  U  tube  again,  filled  with  pumice-stone  saturated  with  sulphuric  acid, 
to  retain  the  little  water  which  may  pass  over  from  the  potassa  solution.  The 
two  apparati  are  accurately  weighed  before  the  experiment,  and  in  order  to 
prevent  the  reentrance  of  moist  air  there  should  be  a  third  U  lube  filled,  as  be- 
fore, with  viiriolized  pumice-stone. 

All  the  air  which  passes  through  this  apparatus  during  exposure  to  the  sun's 
light  is  entirely  deprived  of  carbonic  acid,  without  any  increase  of  weight  ac- 
cruing to  the  apparatus  during  the  experiment.  Thus  we  have  evident  proof 
that  plants  draw  carbonic  acid  directly  from  the  atmosphere.  We  do  not  admit, 
however,  that  this  is  the  sole  source,  for  it  can  be  conveyed  into  the  plant 
through  its  roots,  which  imbibe  it  from  the  soil.  The  moisture  of  the  soil  which 
is  inabibed  by  the  roots  is  also  charged  with  carbonic  acid.  Moreover,  the  slow 
combustion  of  the  dung  deposited  around  plants  is  also  a  continual  source 
of  carbonic  acid.  The  arrangement  of  the  apparatus,  before  noted  exemplifies 
on  a  small  scale,  this  phenomenon,  as  also  ihe  role  of  the  carbonic  acid.  The 
roots  of  the  plant,  inclosed  in  the  balloon,  being  dipped  into  a  vessel  filled  with 
water  charged  with  carbonic  acid,  absorptioh  conveys  this  water  to  all  parts  of 
the  plant,  and  the  carbonic  acid,  as  soon  as  it  reaches  the  leaves  or  green  parts, 
is  decomposed  by  contact  with  the  light.  When  the  apparatus  is  to  be  arranged 
for  this  experiment,  the  first  bulbed  tube  must  be  filled  with  a  concentrated  so- 
lution of  caustic  potassa,  in  order  to  arrest  the  carbonic  acid  proceeding  from  the 
air  Itself. 

To  sum  up,  plants  have  two  sources  of  oxygen  :  1st,  the  atmosphere,  from 
which  they  abstract  it  directly  ;  and,  2dly,  the  soil,  from  which  they  receive  it 
through  their  roots.  They  receive  it  also  from  dew,  but  it  is  the  carbonic  acid 
of  the  air  reaching  them  in  an  indirect  way. 

Light  is  necessary  to  the  decomposition  of  carbonic  acid,  as  will  be  proved  by 
a  few  words.  If  green  twigs  or  branches  are  presented  to  the  object-slass  of  a 
camera,  the  light  reflected  by  the  green  portions  of  the  plant  acts  very  feebly 
upon  an  iodinized  silver  plate,  as  if  all  the  chemical  rays  of  the  light  absorbed 
during  the  process  of  life  in  the  plants,  when  reflected  back  by  their  green  parts, 
no  longer  exercise  any  chemical  action. 

Green  leaves  act  nearly  in  the  same  manner  as  those  black  bodies  which  are 
most  capable  of  entirely  absorbing  the  light.  This  is  a  matter  worthy  of  deep 
study,  for  at  the  moment  the  light  strikes  the  leaves,  the  most  mysterious  actions 
of  Nature,  and  the  most  important  to  be  revealed,  are  in  some  way  accomplished, 
while  we  have  no  authority  for  supposing  that  these  actions  are  produced  by  any 
of  the  methods  now  known  either  in  Physics  or  Chemistry. 

The  decomposition  of  carbonic  acid  is  eflfected  by  the  influence  of  the  sun's  rays 
and  the  green  matter  of  plants  ;  but  is  this  green  matter  endowed,  in  itself, 
with  this  property,  or  does  it  require  the  cooperation  of  vegetable  organisms? 
The  thorough  experiments  of  Morren  afi"ord  a  conclusive  decision  of  these  ques- 
tions. The  green  matter,  when  in  contact  with  the  solar  rays,  acts  always  in  the 
same  manner,  whether  it  is  or  is  not  coupled  with  a  vegetable  organism. 

Water  sometimes  holds  in  suspension  a  green  matter  formed  by  green  animal- 
cules. If  this  water  is  analyzed,  under  difl"erent  meteorological  circumstances, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  ratio  of  oxygen  in  the  gas  given  off  during  ebullition 
varies  from  16  to  60  per  cent.,  or  in  ihc  ratio  of  1  to  4.  After  being  some  time 
insulated  it  shows  an  excess  of  oxygen,  and  the  animalcules  assume  an  active  life. 

(1094) 


THE   ACTION  OF  CARBONIC  ACID.  31 

Under  the  influence  of  the  sun's  rays  the  green  matter  of  the  plants  decom- 
poses carbonic  acid,  and  sets  the  oxygen  at  liberty  ;  but  if  light  is  wanting,  then 
the  inverse  phenomena  occur. 

The  fish  of  a  pond  rapidly  absorb  the  oxygen  of  the  air  held  in  solution  by  the 
water,  and  if  the  green  animalcules  do  not  in  turn  replace  this  oxygen  by  the  de- 
composition of  carbonic  acid,  the  fish  suffer,  and  gradually  suffocate.  If,  on  the 
contrary,  the  sun  shines,  the  animalcules  quickly  restore  the  oxygen  to  the  air, 
and  the  fish  become  active.  These  alternatives  occur  ceaselessly,  and  are  pe- 
culiarly remarkable  for  the  strange  rapidity  with  which  the  results  become 
manifest. 

This  experiment,  besides  assigning  a  role  to  the  green  matter,  gives  an  exact 
idea  of  the  phenomena  occurring  in  the  atmosphere.  In  fact,  in  the  atmosphere 
the  equilibrium  is  due  to  the  same  causes,  but  the  variations  are  much  more  lim- 
ited. The  motion  of  the  air  is  much  more  rapid,  its  mass  enormous  compared 
with  the  causes  which  tend  to  modify  it  ;  while  in  the  water  of  the  fish-ponds, 
or  preserves,  the  masses  are  small  and  the  influential  causes  enormous. 

Independently  of  the  green  animalcules  which  act  in  the  same  manner  as 
green  plants,  Morren  has  shown  that  there  are  those  of  a  red  color  which  pro- 
duce the  same  effects.  This  discovery  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  for  hereto- 
fore this  action  has  been,  compulsorily,  attributed  to  the  green  matter  of  plants, 
although  the  foliage  of  certain  vegetables  and  trees  have  a  purple  or  nearly  red 
tint,  even  in  their  normal  state.  According  to  Morren's  experiments,  there  are 
a  number  of  coloring  matters  which  are  capable  of  decomposing  carbonic  acid. 

Those  plants  which  are  not  green,  the  fruits  which  lose  their  green  color  in 
acquiring  the  shades  peculiar  to  their  maturity,  flowers,  &c.,  do  not  decompose 
carbonic  acid.  As  soon  as  the  green  matter  appears  in  a  plant  exposed  to  light, 
the  decomposition  of  carbonic  acid  commences.  Is  this  green  matter  the  instru- 
ment or  the  product  of  the  decomposition  ?  If  it  is  the  product,  will  it  be  trans- 
formed by  the  successive  repetitions  which  constantly  renew  themselves  into  the 
various  products  developed  by  vegetation  ?  We  would  be  disposed  to  think  that 
the  green  matter  is  an  instrument,  an  agent  ;  that  it  is  doubtless  but  little  al- 
tered, and  that  under  its  influence  the  other  matters  are  produced  and  carried 
from  cell  to  cell  by  endusmose,  even  to  the  vessels  which  convey  them  to  the 
different  organs  of  the  plant. 

There  are,  however,  colorless  plants  which  run  through  all  phases  of  their  ex- 
istence without  being  colored.  Fungi  are  of  this  class,  and  there  are  certain  kinds 
which  grow  in  the  darkest  mines ;  and  hence,  very  naturally,  their  absence  of  color, 
which,  in  preventing  their  action  upon  light,  enables  them  to  dispense  with  its 
influence.  We  will  remark,  however,  that  the  fungi  of  the  mines  are  sunny 
white,  while  those  reared  in  the  light  are  always  diverse-tinted.  But  fungi  are 
always  parasitical;  they  thrive  upon  living  or  dead  animals  or  plants,  and 
always  by  means  of  organic  matters  which  they  contain  already  made. 

The  life  of  a  fungus  is  every  way  comparable  with  that  of  animals  ;  their 
nourishment  is  the  same,  and  perhaps  the  analogy  between  these  two  beings, 
apparently  so  very  different,  might  be  much  farther  traced. 

Thus,  for  our  benefit,  the  vegetable  kingdom  is  particularly  characterized  by 
those  plants  which  possess  the  property  of  decomposing  carbonic  acid,  and  thus 
it  is  that  it  enjoys  the  full  extent  of  its  purpose,  and  accomplishes  its  errand 
upon  the  earth.  The  reproductive  organs  of  plants  are  but  a  transition. 
Fungi  are  too  little  known,  in  this  respect,  to  claim  our  attention  longer.     It  is 

(1095) 


32  DUMAS  ON  theInutrition  of  plants. 

therefore  only  in  the  green  parts  of  plants  that  the  great  apparatus  exists  which 
may  exercise  a  certain  influence  upon  the  constitution  of  the  air,  and  which  de- 
serves to  be  classed  among  the  great  instruments  which  the  physics  of  the  world 
should  acknowledge. 

Supposing  that  the  plants  had  ceased  the  performance  of  their  functions  upon 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  calculation  proves  that  the  amount  of  oxygen  of  the  at- 
mosphere Avill  suflTice  for  the  respiration  of  the  present  existent  animals  for 
thousands  of  years.  Our  knowledge  of  the  nutrition  of  animals  teaches  us  that 
the  disappearance  of  plants  would  on  the  contrary  speedily  produce  their  death 
by  inanition.  Hence,  from  what  has  been  said,  the  unavoidable  conclusion  that 
the  carbon  of  plants  proceeds  mainly  from  the  decomposition  of  carbonic  acid. 

A  last  consideration  compels  us  to  make  an  important  restriction.  In  citing 
the  beautiful  experiments  of  Boussingault  upon  the  complete  development  in  a 
close  vessel  of  peas  nourished  by  air,  water,  and  carbonic  acid,  we  remarked  that 
the  harvest  was  very  poor  in  comparison  with  that  produced  by  manured  grounds. 
By  manuring  the  soil,  the  conditions  of  growth  are  augmented,  for  the  dungeon- 
tains  nitrogeneous  matters  ;  it  moreover  surrounds  the  roots  with  an  incessant 
source  of  carbonic  acid,  which  being  carried  up  with  the  sap  of  the  plant,  is  de- 
composed by  contact  with  the  green  matter  of  the  leaves.  The  manure  contains, 
also,  the  mineral  salts  which  are  indispensable  to  the  complete  development  of 
plants,  besides  the  soluble  organic  matters  which,  according  to  Saussure,  in  cer- 
tain cases  are  equally  necessary  for  the  nutrition  of  plants. 

As  regards  the  decomposition  of  the  water,  we  have  to  repeat  all  that  has  been 
said  relative  to  the  decomposition  of  carbonic  acid  by  plants,  for  the  hydrogen 
of  plants  is  derived  from  water,  and  besides  it  fixes  water  in  its  natural  state. 

We  have  now  the  certain  proof  that  many  fungi  disengage  hydrogen  naturally. 
Edwards  and  Colin  have  shown  that  the  stem  of  the  Polygonum  tinctorium, 
when  placed  under  water,  disengages  hydrogen.  Payen  has  proved  by  the  analy- 
sis of  the  ligneous  parts  of  vegetables,  that  the  amount  of  hydrogen  is  always 
slightly  excessive  of  that  of  oxygen.  Added  to  these,  also  are  Boussingault's  di- 
rect experiments  upon  the  growth  of  peas,  clover,  and  wheat.     Thus : 

WHEAT. 

Grains.  After  three  months  vegetation. 

Carbon 46-6  88            100-0  grains  have  fixed  carbon       41*4 

Hydrogen 5*8  10-0             ..             ..             ..     nitrogen      6-0 

Nitrogen 3-5  3-7             ..             ..             ..  (water) HC  41-8 

Oxygen 44-1  81-0             ..             ..             ..  (hydrogen) H  0-0 

Total 100-0  183-2                                                                   183-2 

CLOVER. 

Grains.  After  three  months  vegetation. 

Carbon 50-8  131-3            100-0  grains  have  fixed  carbon    80-5 

Hvdrogen 6-0  17-1               ..             ..             ..         nitrogen  2-6 

Nitrogen 7-2  9-8               ......           water  72-8 

Oxygen 36-0  100-7               ..             ..             ..      hydrogen  3-0 

Total 100-0  258-9  258-9 

In  the  wheat  there  was  no  fixation  of  hydrogen,  but  much  of  carbon  and  water  ; 
while  in  the  clover,  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen  and  water  were  all  assimilated. 
If  I  have  insisted  upon  the  decomposition  of  water,  as  established  by  Boussin- 
gault, it  is  because  that  incident  in  the  life  of  plants — the  fixation  of  the  carbon 
by  the  decomposition  of  the  carbonic  acid — thus  becomes  the  grand  theorem  of 
the  general  physics  of  the  globe,  which  forms  an  equivalent  to  that  other  phe- 
nomenon so  well  demonstrated  by  Lavoisier,  the  combustion  of  carbon  and  nitro- 
gen which  characterizes  the  life  of  animals. 

(1096) 


THE   CARDO:,-     OF     PLANTS.  33 


Plants  decompose  water  and  assiniilate  its  hydro2'cn  ;  they  reduce  carbonic 
acid  and  appropriate  its  carbon — they  decompose  ammonia  ;  ihevare,  in  fact,  the 
reducing  apparatus.  Animals,  on  the  contrary,  burn  the  carbon  and  hydrogen, 
and  may  be  styled  oxidizing  apparatus. 

This  property  in  plants  of  securing  the  carbon  of  carbonic  acid,  and  setting  toe 
oxygen  at  liberty,  has  no  parallel  in  any  chemical  force.  Chemistry  at  presently 
incapable  of  imitating  this  phenomenon  in  the  life  of  plants:  Physics  must  some  dav^* 
afford  an  explanation.  It  sliould  be  tried  whether  a  daguerreotype  in  regarding  a 
plant  behaves  as  in  the  presence  oi  a  black  plate,  if  the  reflected  li9,ht  is  deprived 
of  its  chemical  rays.  Plants  certainly  absorb  a  portion  of  ihe  intensity  of  the  sun's 
rays,  and  as  all  these  phenomena  are  colleagued  ;  if  the  animal  produces  heat 
and  electricity,  the  plants  in  their  turn  absorb  heat  and  electricity. 

It  remains  to  be  inquired  how  the  nitrogen  is  introduced  into  plants.  It  roaches 
them  by  two  channels :  1st.  Through  the  air.  2d.  Through  manures.  It  has 
already  been  shown  in  the  experiment  upon  the  growth  of  peas  in  a  close  vessel, 
that  nitrogen  is  abstracted  from  the  atmosphere.  Clover  as  well  as  Jerusalem 
artichokes  cultivated  under  similar  circumstances  present  a  similar  action.  If, 
however,  the  experiment  is  repeated  upon  the  plants,  this  pluenomenon  is  not 
evident  ;  for  instance,  the  cereals  do  not  abstract  their  nitrogen  from  the  air,  and 
hence  plants,  in  this  respect,  are  divisible  into  two  distinct  groups: 

1st.  Those  which  abstract  their  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere,  namely,  peas, 
clover,  and  Jerusalem  artichokes. 

2d.  Those  which  obtain  it  through  manures,  namely,  the  cereals,  and  the 
oleaginous  plants. 

Though  we  know  that  the  nitrogen   of  some  plants  is  borrowed  from  the  at-    ^ 
mosphere.we  cannot  tell  the  condition  or  state  in  which  it  is  assimilated  ;  it  may    ^ 
be  supposed  that  it  enters  directly  into  their  organs,  some  one  of  whicli  have  the 
natural  property  of  abstracting  it    from  air.     It  can  be  conveyed  thither  by  the 
water,  always  aerated,  which  is  imbibed  by  the  roots.     The  leaves  of  the  plant 
may  convert  it  into  ammonia  by  means  of  the  hydrogen  of  the  water,  which  they 
decompose.      Finally,  this  fixed  nitrogen,  according  to  Saussure's  experiments, 
proceeds,  certainly  in  part,  from  the  traces  of  ammonia  contained  in  the  air.     If 
there  are  any  doubts  in  this  respect,  doubts  removable  by  experiment,  there  can 
be  none  as  to  plants  which  receive   their  nitrogen  through  the  medium  of  ma- 
nures.    Manures  act  by  virtue  of  their  urea,  uric  acid  and  animal  matters,  which, 
by  decomposition,  are  transformed  into   ammoniacal  salts.     A  single  experiment 
readily  proves  this  fact :  Schattenmann  (the  director  of  the  manufactory  at  Boux- 
willer)  observed  that  by  watering  a  field  with  the  solution  of  sulphate  of  ammo- 
nia, obtained  by  treating  horse-dung  with  sulphate  of  iron,  he  could  readily  dis- 
tinguish  the  irrigated  spots  from   those  which  were  not   watered,    by   the  vis'or 
of  their  vegetation.     Letters   traced  with    the   liquid    manure  were  visible  at  a 
great  distance    during  the   whole   term   of  vegetation.     Hence,   the  evident  im- 
portance of  its  application  to  Agriculture.     In  some  countries  the  explanation  of 
this  theory  has  occasioned  a  profitable  practice:  for  instance,  in  the  Canton  of     f 
Grisons  the  dung-liquor  is  treated  with  sulphate  of  iron  ;  the  ammonia  which  is 
generated  decomposes  the  sulphate  of  iron,  and  forms  sulphate  of  ammonia,  which, 
in  this  state,  is  potential  and  not  volatile.     Elsewhere,  the  urine  or  dung-liquor  is 
mixed  with  sulphate  of  lime,  which  is  equally  efficient  in  fixing  the  ammonia  ; 
but  its  application  to  the  dried  fceces  is  not  efTectual,  owing  to  the  generation  of 
carbonate  of  ammonia,  which  is  wholly  volatile :  consequently,  the  efforts  to  nea- 
(1097) 33 


34  DUMAS  ON  THE  NUTRITION  OF    PLANTS. 

tralize  the  ammoniacal  odor  in   the  stables  by  means  of  sulphate  of  lime,  have 
not  been  successful. 

The  researches  of  Payen  and  Boussingault  have  removed  all  doubt  both  as  to 
the  effects  of  ammoniacal  salts  as  a  manure,  and  the  thorough  utility  of  animal 
matter,  or,  more  generally,  nitrogeneous  matter,  in  the  dunging  of  the  soils.  They 
,  have  recently  shown  that  all  true  manures  act  by  virtue  of  their  nitrogen,  and  are 
^efficient  proportional  to  what  they  contain  of  this  element,  and  they  have  given  the 
following  Table,  where  they  are  ranked  according  to  their  equivalent  value. — 
The  Table  shows  that  100  parts  of  farm  manure  can  be  replaced  by  3  parts  of 
dry  blood  or  animal  residues,  and  by  25  parts  of  grape-cake : 

Farm  manure 100     Pi.;reonilnnf»  5 

;?i':i  wped 50     Liquid  Flemish  manure 000 

Kosidiie  of  pressed  oleaginous  soc'ls  ....  8     Poudrt-llo  lOtoSS 

Grape-rake 25  Dry  blooil  or  dry    flesh,  feathers,  wool. 

Liquorfrom   starch  fac lories 600            and  hnrn 3 

Dung  liquor 70     Animal  black  40 

We  have  too  often  alluded  to  the  value  of  urine,  in  vegetation,  to  render  it  ne- 
cessary aiiain  to  enforce  upon  the  farnur  the  policy  of  carefully  collecting  the 
dung  juices  of  his  barn  yards. 

We  should,  however,  recollect  that  the  preceding  Table  does  not  give  a  per- 
fectly just  idea,  in  this  respect ;  for  we  might  be  led  to  think  that  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  Flemish  manure  or  animal  black,  none  of  the  products  of  the  juices  are 
lost.  Consequently,  though  the  poudretie  presents  a  greater  value,  pound  to 
pound,  it  is  not  a  thorough  proof  that  this  should  be  preferred  in  the  great  econo- 
my of  a  country.  In  fact,  during  its  preparation,  a  great  portion  of  useful  products 
escape  into  and  infect  the  atmosphere.  The  great  advantages  of  liquid  ma- 
nure, with  which  we  cannot  be  too  familiar,  may  be  summed  up  in  a  few 
words : 

1st.  Man  furnishes  the  air  with  carbonic  acid  and  water,  that  the  farmer  may 
always  have  a  supply  equal  to  the  requirements  of  his  crops. 

2d.  Man  ejects  urine  and  excrements,  which  constitute  liquid  manure,  after  a 
previous  fermentation,  all  the  other  products  of  his  alimentation. 

3d.  Consequently,  in  the  liquid  manure  and  the  atmosphere,  the  farmer  has 
all  the  matters  requisite  for  the  culture  of  those  plants  suitable  to  the  nutrition 
of  man. 

The  excrements  of  animals,  -which  constitute  the  nourishment  of  the  most 
useful  plants — such  as  the  cereals — areas  necessary  to  their  sustenance  as  bread 
and  meat  is  to  that  of  Man  ;  and  hence  the  culpable  neglect  in  allowmg  the  waste 
of  sewer  juices  in  large  cities.  Among  the  efforts  to  diminish  the  miseries  of 
the  poor  classes,  none  can  take  precedence  of  that  to  lessen  the  cost  of  manures, 
and  as  tending  to  this,  the  collection  and  preservation  of  the  contents  of  privies 
should  be  provided  for  by  the  authorities  of  all  the  cities  and  towns. 

One  more  remark  in  conclusion  of  this  subject.  It  is  well  known  with  what  facil- 
ity ammonia  dissolves  in  water,  v/hich  will  take  up  about  430  times  its  volume, 
and  it  is  also  well  known  that  hydrochloric  acid  is  equally  soluble.  But  let  us 
compare  the  operation  of  these  two  solutions.  By  heating  hydrochloric  acid  of 
a  certain  density,  it  boils  at  244-4°  Fahrenheit,  without  being  altered  ;  and  it  is 
impossible  to  separate  it  from  its  waters  by  physical  means.  At  the  temperataire 
of  122°  10  140°  Fahrenheit,  water  no  longer  retains  a  trace  of  ammonia  ;  indeed, 
in  vacuo,  it  loses  all  its  gas  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  even  evaporates  sponta- 
neously when  exposed  to  air  in  open  vessels. 

(109SJ 


AMMONIA   AND   VEGETATION.  35 

This  is  a  wise  provision  in  the  natural  economy,  for  this  property  enables  the 
condensation  of  the  ammonia  by  the  rains,  which  convey  it  to  the  plants,  that  it 
may  be  volatilized  anew,  and  carried  to  those  points  where  it  will  be  seized 
upon  and  rendered  available.  It  is  doubtless  the  final  cause  of  the  properties  of 
the  aqueous  solution  of  ammonia. 

But,  as  these  properties  are  necessary  in'the  designs  of  Creation,  so  that  vegeta-  ' 
tion  may  not  be  deprived  of  that  ammonia  which  it  requires  ;  so  much  the  more  ' 
is  it  important,  as  a  personal  consideration,  for  they  are  noxious  in  the  latter  re- 
spect. It  is  precisely,  this  volatility  of  the  ammonia  resulting  from  the  decom- 
position of  the  animal  detritus  of  a  city,  which  prevents  its  restoration  to  the 
neighboring  soil,  as  might  otherwise  so  well  be  done  ;  for  it  is  the  whole  sum  of 
manure  which  the  soil  requires  to  reproduce  the  sum  of  organic  matter  requisite 
for  its  nourishment.  We  should  therefore  direct  our  attention  to  the  elucidation 
of  the  mode  in  which  the  rejected  nitrogenous  products,  which  we  regard  as  lost, 
can  be  rendered  available. 


I 


THE  ACTION  OF  SALT  ON   VEGETATION;.. 

A>D  ITS  USE  IN  AGRICULTURE. 

BY  M.  HKCaUEREL. 

In  the  Memoir  which  I  presented  to  the  Royal  Society  of  Agriculture  in  July, 
1847,  I  treated  of  the  state  of  vegetation  in  the  saliferous  soils  under  the  influ- 
ence of  water,  and  laid  it  down  as  a  principle,  that  salt  and  water,  when  added 
gradually  and  in  small  portions  to  plants,  promoted  the  growth  and  excellence 
of  fodder  crops,  especially  in  those  soils  naturally  dry.  My  experience  in  this 
respect  is  based  upon  observations  and  analyses  made  of  the  old  royal  salines  of 
the  Levant  and  the  surrounding  countries.  These  experiments,  it  must  be  told, 
however,  are  only  the  beginning  of  a  series  which  t  intend  to  undertake  upon 
the  use  of  salt  as  an  amendment  [ameliorator  ?]  in  Agriculture,  commencing, 
however,  with  the  study  of  its  action  in  the  difl'erent  phases,  of  the  growth  of 
the  cereal  and  fodder  plants.  To  proceed  systeniaiically,  we  must  before  passing 
to  the  application,  determine  the  principal  physiological  phenomena  induced  by 
the  salt  during  the  course  of  vegetation,  so  that  we  may  avoid  or  follow  them, 
accordingly  as  they  are  useful  or  prejudicial  to  its  development. 

Those  who  deny  the  salutary  inlluence  of  salt  upon  vegetation,  under  certain 
circumstances,  are  perhaps  too  much  biased  by  the  idea  prevalent  among  the 
ancients,  that  steiility  is  the  inevitable  consequence  of  its  application.  This 
may  be  true  in  those  countries  which  receive  but  little  rain,  and  where  the  Sun 
is  intensely  hot ;  but  the  exception  is  not  applicable  to  humid  soils. 

The  hygroscopic  state  of  the  soil  being  an  important  element  in  determining 
the  question,  by  abstracting  it  we  render  it  extremely  complicated.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  sowing  salt  simultaneously  with  the  seed,  it  has  never  been  determined 
how  it  acts  or  whether  its  mode  of  action  is  the  same: 

1st.  In  germination. 

2d.  During  the  development  of  vegetation,  from  the  extremity  of  germmation 
to  budding,  that  is  to  say,  while  the  plant  sprouts. 

3d.  From  the  sprouting  to  the  fructification. 

4th.  Finally,  from  the  fructification  to  the  entire  cessation  of  vegetation,  or 
the  death  of  the  plant. 

If  this  had  been  known  sooner,  the  opinion  of  certain  persons  as  to  the  action 
of  salt  in  vegetation  would  certainly  have  been  modified,  but  as  the  question  is 
very  complex,  it  was  necessary  to  divide  it,  and  study  each  proposition  sepa- 
rately. 

From  the  experiments  which  1  made  as  to  the  action  of  salt  upon  germination, 
the  following  conclusions  are  to  be  drawn  : 

1st.  Common  salt,  in  certain  proportions,  retards  and  even  partially  destroys  the 
germination  of  rye  grass  and  white  mustard  seeds. 

2d.  It  completely  destroys  those  of  wheat  and  vetch. 

3d.  It  impedes,  in  a  measure,  the  germination  and  vegetation  of  many  plants. 

liioo; 


THE  ACTION  OF  SALT  ON  VEGETATION.  37 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  though  the  salt  may  not  destroy  germination,  it  neverthe- 
less injuriously  affects  the  young  plants  during  vegetation,  by  inducing  a  cliange 
in  their  embryo  in  the  initiatory  development  of  life. 

Can  we  not  interpret  this  injurious  tendency  of  the  salt  in  the  very  first  act  of 
vegetable  life  ? 

When  a  seed  is  subjected  to  the  combined  action  of  water  and  of  heat,  it 
swells,  and  the  starchy  matter  of  the  cotyledon  passes  into  gum  and  sugar,  as 
food  for  the  nutrition  of  the  plantlet.  These  substances  act  the  same  part  to 
young  plants  that  milk  does  in  the  nutrition  of  young  animals.  Now,  as  salt  is, 
in  general,  an  antiseptic,  being  often  used  to  prevent  the  putrefaction  of  animal 
and  organic  matters,  it  naturally  follows  that  if  its  presence  will  prevent  those 
transformations  of  the  starchy  matter  of  the  seed  only  by  which  it  can  be  ren- 
dered alimentary  of  the  plantlet,  the  plantlet  must  necessarily  perish.  Though 
the  destruction  may  not  be  complete,  still  the  plant  suffers  during  its  vegetation 
from  the  ill  effects  produced  by  the  salt  during  its  germination. 

As  regards  the  action  of  salt  in  the  second  phase  of  vegetation,  it  may  be  ad- 
mitted, a  priori,  that  it  should  not  influence  the  development  of  vegetation,  from 
the  completion  of  germination  to  the  moment  of  blooming,  in  the  same  manner 
as  during  germination ;  since,  in  this  case,  the  salt  seems  to  oppose  the  decom- 
position of  starchy  matter,  and  its  transformation  into  gum  and  sugar  ;  while  in 
the  other  instance,  as  soon  as  germination  is  completed  and  respiration  takes 
place  in  the  leaves,  the  salt  is  carried  by  water  into  the  different  tissues  and  or- 
gans, and  should  then  act  only  proportional  to  the  quantity  introduced,  to  hasten 
or  retard  the  phenomena  and  the  different  elaborations  of  the  juices  designed  for 
the  nutrition  and  development  of  the  plant.  The  salt,  therefore,  should  not  play 
the  same  part  in  both  eases.  Numerous  experiments  have  efi'ectually  confirmed 
this  deduction  drawn  from  facts  previously  noted. 

The  facts  stated  in  my  Memoir  authorize  the  following  conclusions : 
1st.  That  salt  in  solution  is  prejudicial  to  germination,  being  alterative  or  de- 
structive of  the  embryo  according  to  the  quantity  employed.     When  the  change 
is  very  sensible,  the  development  of  the  young  plant  is  much  less  perfect  than 
without  the  action  of  salt. 

2d.  That  germination  is  accomplished  without  the  aid  of  salt,  and  that  when 
the  plant  has  shot  above  ground,  the  application  of  salt  and  water  even  in  large 
doses,  causes  no  alteration  of  the  tissues,  nor  any  disturbance  of  the  veo-etation 
not  even  to  the  budding.  As  to  what  are  its  effects  then  and  afterward,  is  yet  to 
be  determined  by  the  result  of  some  experiments  now  in  progress.  The  plants 
usually  acquire  more  vigor  than  those  growing  in  the  natural  way,  provided  the 
proportions  of  salt  are  not  excessive.  The  amount  taken  up  by  plants  equals, 
sometimes,  eight  per  cent,  of  their  weight  when  dried. 

3d.  That  the  influence  of  salt  upon  germination,  even  in  presence  of  water, 
may  serve,  to  a  certain  extent,  to  explain  the  conflicting  results,  as  to  the  action 
of  salt  as  an  amendment  [ameliorator  ?],  of  experimenters  who  kept  no  record  of 
the  time  of  salting. 

4th.  That  when  used  as  an  amendment  in  soils  destined  for  the  culture  of  the 
cereals,  it  should  not  be  spread  at  the  time  of  sowing,  because  it  is  hurtful  to 
germination.  The  better  plan  would  be  to  apply  it  about  the  month  of  March, 
when  the  earth  is  moist,  and  previous  to  the  development  of  active  vegetatiou. 
In  operating  at  this  season,  be  careful  that  the  winter  rains  do  not  carry  the  salt 
too  deeply  into  the  soil,  else  it  will  lose  its  power  of  promoting  vegetation  in  the 

(1101) 


38  THE  ACTION  OF  SALT  ON  VEGETATION. 

spring.  The  quantity  of  salt  to  be  used  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  plant 
under  cultivation,  as  all  plants  are  not  equally  benefited  by  its  use. 

Kuhlmann's  experiments  have  proved  that  salt,  when  mixed  with  nitrogenous 
manures,  is  a  stimulant  of  vegetation.  It  will  then  be  necessary  to  ascertain 
whether,  as  to  certain  plants  which  require  a  substantial  nourishment,  salt  un- 
combined  with  these  manures  would  not,  by  inducing  a  too  vigorous  growth,  en- 
ervate such  plants. 

5th.  That  the  large  quantity  of  salt  required  by  the  stalk  of  the  cereals,  under 
the  circumstances  mentioned,  may  contribute  to  give  them  the  qualities  of  fodder. 

6th.  That  all  these  results  determine  nothing  as  to  the  product  in  grains, 
which  will  only  be  known  when  the  experiments  are  completed  in  the  coming 
year. 

7th.  That  in  moist  meadows  the  salt  should  be  sown  at  the  time  when  vegeta- 
tion develops.     In  dry  meadows,  rain  must  be  waited  for  before  applying  the  salt. 

8th.  That  in  soils  with  impermeable  bottoms  or  clayey  substrata,  the  applica- 
tion of  salt  should  not  be  often  repeated,  for  the  portion  first  added  suffices  for  a 
long  time,  and  sometimes  may  even  injure  later  germinations.  If,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  substrata  are  permeable,  it  is  necessary  to  renew  the  salting  at  each 
culture.  Before  taking  a  definite  part  in  this  respect,  we  should  appeal  to  ex- 
periment, the  only  sure  and  safe  guide. 

Salt  remains  in  the  soil  a  shorter  or  longer  time,  according  as  its  substratum 
is  permeable  or  impermeable  ;  and  as  all  plants  do  not  accommodate  themselves 
in  the  same  degree  to  the  salt  regime — the  vetch,  as  an  example — it  is  neces- 
sary, in  the  rotation  of  crops,  to  plant  therein  the  leguminous  and  other  plants 
whose  growth  would  be  retarded  by  the  salt. 

The  end  proposed  in  my  Treatise  is  to  point  out  the  path  to  be  followed  in  ex- 
periments for  the  exact  determination  of  the  part  acted  by  the  salt,  as  an  amend- 
ment, either  with  or  without  the  concurrence  of  nitrogenous,  manures. 


A  FARM  BUT  A  MANUFACTORY, 

THE  USE  OF  SALT. 

It  was  not  because  we  apprehend  that  Salt  is  likely  ever  to  be  used  in  our 
country  as  a  manure  to  an  extent  sufficient  to  make  its  value  for  that  purpose 
a  question  of  general  interest,  that  we  have  selected  the  following,  but  because 
of  the  philosophical  principles  which  it  contains  as  connected  with  Agriculture. 
But  the  reader  can  peruse  and  judge  for  himself,  whether  such  dissertations  are 
not  much  more  useful,  though  they  may  be  dryer,  for  young  men  wanting  to 
provide  for  themselves  a  wider  and  more  solid  basis  for  improvement,  in  a  better 
knowledge  of  the  principles  of  their  profession,  than  is  to  be  expected  from  a  re- 
lation of  the  mere  details  of  practice  followed  in  some  case  where  an  acre  has 
been  made  to  yield  a  heavy  crop  of  corn,  or  a  bullock  to  yield  a  heavy  crop  of 
tallow.  Such,  at  least,  is  our  view  of  the  matter,  and  such  our  aims,  without 
any  object  or  desire  to  deceive  or  be  deceived. 

From  the  London  Agricultural  Gazette. 
THE  VALUE  OF  SALT  AS  A  MANURE. 

In  your  Jooj-nal  of  April  8lh  I  read  that  Professor  Dumas,  who  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  Milne 
Bdwards,  was  engaged  by  the  French  Government  to  examine  into  the  value  of  common  salt  as 
(1102) 


THE  VALUE  OF  SALT  AS  A  MANURE.  39 

a  manure,  has  recorded  in  the  following  terms  thb  conclusions  arrived  at  from  their  inquiries  on 
the  subject  in  England  : 

"  I  quit  England  with  the  conviction  that  the  problem  of  the  employment  of  salt  in  Agriculture 
is  chimerical  We  have  been  sent  from  county  to  county  without  result  Here  they  send  us 
into  the  neighborhood  of  the  salt-mines ;  when  we  were  there  we  were  told  that  salt  was  not  a 
prophet  in  its  own  country.  I  am  convinced  that  the  most  desirable  mode  of  preparing  a  good 
manure  is  by  employing  the  phosphates  and  ammoniacal  salts,  rather  than  sea  salt,  however 
cheap  the  latter."  In  my  opinion  the  conclusion  they  have  come  to,  viz.,  that  salt  is  of  very  little 
value  as  a  manure,  is  perfectly  correct.  Opinions  unsupported  by  facts  or  reasons  are,  however, 
not  worth  much,  and  as  I  am  aware  that  many  practical  agriculturists  advocate  the  employment 
of  salt,  I  will  endeavor  to  explain  the  grounds  upon  which  I  dissent  from  them.  I  am  quite  willing 
to  admit  that  numerous  experiments  have  been  recorded,  wherein  a  beneficial  eifect  of  salt  upon 
the  crop  was  sufficiently  evident  The  question  with  the  French  chemists,  however,  and  that  to 
whicli  the  remarks  I  am  about  to  make  refer,  has  not  reference  to  the  special,  or  occasional,  but 
to  the  general  applicability  of  salt  as  a  manure,  and  to  its  importance  as  such  in  a  national  point 
of  view  ;  I  shall  not,  therefore,  quote  any  particular  experiments  of  my  own,  but  shall  endeavor 
to  show  :  1.  That  no  substance  can  be  nationally  or  universally  useful  as  a  manure,  which  is  not 
largely  exported  from  the  soil.  2  That  salt  exists  to  a  very  small  extent  in  the  exported  pro- 
duce of  a  farm ;  and  that  it  can  never  be  substituted  for  those  constituents  which  are  largely  ex- 
ported, and  in  which  most  soils  are  more  or  less  deficient.  Considering  a  farm  as  a  manufactory, 
of  which  the  imported  manures  represent  the  purchased  raw  material,  and  from  which  the  ex- 
ported products  are  corn  and  meat  it  is  evident  that  the  nature  of  the  imports  which  it  will 
be  necessary  to  provide  must  depend  upon  that  of  the  exports.  The  amount  of  such  ex- 
ports must  vary  according  to  climate,  .••oil  and  cultivation ;  but  assuming  the  extreme  case  of  an 
export  of  50  bushels  of  corn  from  an  acre  of  land  one  year,  and  100  lbs.  of  live-weight  of  animal 
the  next,  let  us  endeavor  to  estimate  the  loss  to  the  land  of  several  of  its  constituents  by  such 
means,  and  especially  that  of  salt.  Fifty  bushels  of  grain  may  be  said  to  contain  50  to  60'lbs.  of 
mineral  matter.  In  perfectly  ripened  grain  it  is  doubtful  whether  either  chlorine  or  sodium,  the 
two  constituents  of  common  salt,  exists ;  but  the  point  of  perfection  in  this  respect  is  seldom  at- 
tained in  our  climate,  and  it  is  probable  that  it  is  owing  to  variations  of  this  kind  that  the  presence 
and  amount  of  salt  in  grain  ashes  are  found  to  be  uncertain  The  average  quantity  in  such  ashes 
may,  however,  be  said  to  be  probably  little  more  than  1  per  cent,  if  even  so  much  as  that ;  so  that 
50  bushels  of  grain  would  contain  less  than  1  lb.  of  salt.  By  direct  experiment  I  find  that  a  lean 
sheep  of  100  lbs.  live-weight,  yields  about  8  to  10  lbs.  of  bone,  12  lbs.  skin,  and  5  lbs.  blood  ;  the 
flesh,  fat  and  entrails.  &c.,  comprising  the  remainder  The  bone  contains  no  appreciable  amount 
of  salt,  while  the  total  mineral  matter  of  the  other  parts  of  the  sheep  amounts  only  to  a  few 
ounces  of  which  quantity  a  very  small  proportion  must  be  estimated  to  be  common  salt.  It  is 
evident,  then,  that  the  amount  of  salt  exported  from  a  farm  in  corn  and  meat  is  exceedingly 
small ;  but  if  we  look  at  the  loss  of  phosphoric  acid  and  of  nitrogen  which  the  farm  sustains  under 
the  same  system  of  sales  or  export,  the  case  will  be  found  to  be  very  different. 

Of  the  50  or  60  lbs.  of  mineral  matter  contained  in  the  50  bushels  of  grain,  about  nine-tenths 
would  be  salts  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  the  sheep  weighing  100  lbs.  alive  would  carry  off  3  to  4 
ibs.  of  phosphate  of  lime  in  its  bones,  besides  a  few  ounces  of  phosphoric  acid  salts  in  its  other 
parts  Again,  the  50  bushels  of  grain  may  be  said  to  contain  50  to  60  lbs.  of  nitrogen,  and  the 
100  lbs  live-weight  of  animal  4  lbs.  of  the  same  substance  It  is  seen,  then,  that  while  the  soil 
would  be  exhausted  in  two  years  of  40  to  50  lbs.  of  salts  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  of  a  still  larger 
quantity  of  nitrogen,  the  amount  of  salt  removed  in  the  same  period,  and  by  the  same  course, 
would  scarcely  reach  a  pound.  Some  writers  have  said  that  farmers  do  not  know  their  own  in- 
terests when  they  purchase  the  expensive  foreign  guano  rather  than  the  cheap  salt  of  home  re- 
source, and  employ  the  bones  of  distant  countries  instead  of  the  sulphate  of  soda  manufactured  in 
our  own  towns ;  but  no  one  who  will  carefully  consider  the  statements  given  above  can  be  at  a 
loss  to  under.stand  why  salt  and  sulphate  of  soda  cannot  be  substituted  for  phosphates  and  ammo- 
nia. It  is  worth  consideration,  also,  that  in  many  parts  of  England  thousands  of  acres  have  been 
brought  from  a  ban-en  waste  into  the  highest  state  of  fertility,  by  the  importation,  in  some  form  or 
other,  of  phosphates  and  ammonia,  without  any  direct  supply  whatever  of  common  salt. 

The  employment  of  salt  as  manure  cannot,  then,  I  think,  be  advocated  as  providing  an  im- 
portant constituent  of  the  ordinary  exports  of  a  farm,  but  only  to  be  of  limited  necessity,  and 
applicable  with  economy  to  a  small  extent,  or  in  special  and  occasional  cases.  It  is  considered 
that  when  corn  is  used  for  corn  crops  the  straw  is  brighter  and  the  grain  of  finer  quality ;  but 
perhaps  no  one  will  maintain  that  it  would  increase  the  number  of  bushels  upon  a  corn-exhausted 
soil ;  and  if  this  be  the  case,  but  a  low  rank  can  be  claimed  for  it  by  the  side  of  manures  which 
are  known  to  enhance  the  produce  of  the  land.  I  fully  admit  some  beneficial  influence  upon  the 
elaborative  actions  in  the  juices  of  plants  under  the  agency  of  common  salt,  but  it  is  probable  that 
such  an  effect  will  generally  be  observed  only  in  highly  manured  soils,  where,  under  certain  con- 
ditions of  season,  vegetation  would  be  too  luxuriant ;  and  it  maybe  doubted,  indeed,  whether 
even  in  these  cases  an  equivalent  supply  of  soluble  saline  matters,  more  essential  as  constituents 
of  the  fixed  products  of  the  plants,  might  not  with  advantage  substitute  the  salt. 

On  the  other  hand,  however,  the  ready  solubility  of  common  salt  itself,  as  well  as  that  of  com- 
pounds which  may  result  from  its  reactions  on  the  contents  of  the  soil,  is  a  property  which  may 
render  it  of  real  service  in  cases  of  over- luxuriance,  arising  from  an  otherwise  too  prominent  sup- 
ply of  organic  constituents  to  the  plant.  There  are  other  instances  than  that  afforded  in  salt,  or 
mineral  substances  being  of  apparently  great  use  in  the  juices  of  plants,  without  seeming  to  con- 
stitute portions  of  the  fixed  products  of  the  plant;  and  we  must  be  careful,  therefore,  not  to  deny 
the  importance  of  the  presence  in  the  soil  of  any  substance,  merely  because  it  does  not  exist  in 
the  exports  of  the  farm ;  but  at  the  same  time  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  unless  a  substance 
be  either  sold  off  the  farm  or  diminished  in  quantity  by  drainage  or  actual  waste,  the  renewal  of 
a  supply  once  provided  can  very  seldom  be  needed. 
(1103) 


40  THE  VALUE  OF  SALT  AS  A  MANURE. 

The  solability  of  salt,  already  referred  to,  might  be  said  to  be  a  cause  of  its  rapid  exhaustion 
from  a  soil  by  drainage,  but  such  loss  will  be  frequently  compensated  for  by  the  incidental  import 
of  salt  for  cattle,  and  by  the  small  amount  contained  in  artiticial  food.  Again,  it  may  be  urged 
that  a  large  proportion  of  farms  export  other  articles  beside  corn  and  meat :  but  the  same  local 
circumstances  which  lead  to  such  a  cause,  generally  at  tlie  same  time  afford  sources  of  manure 
not  at  the  command  of  those  circumstanced  as  our  case  supposes.  Indeed,  where  town  manures 
are  used,  the  amount  of  salt  provided  must  always  be  considerable.  The  discrepancies  in  the 
accounts  that  are  published  of  the  effects  of  salt  as  a  manure  need  not  lead  us  to  doubt  the  cor- 
rectness but  only  tLe  completeness  of  the  statement ;  and  if,  as  I  have  shown  above,  this  substance 
is  not  required  m  any  material  quantity  as  a  constituent  of  the  exports  of  a  farm,  and  if  it  be  also 
true  that  when  useful  as  an  agent  it  is  so  only  under  particular  circumstances  of  excess  of  some 
substances  supplied  to  the  plant  over  others,  the  ditferences  in  result  are  what  we  should  expect. 
In  illustration  of  this  point  I  may  observe  that  a  few  years  ago  some  experiments  were  carried  on 
upon  agricultural  plants  at  the  gardens  of  the  Horticultural  Society,  at  Chiswick,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Mr.  Solly,  and  on  comparing  the  results  which  he  obtained  by  the  application  of  various 
substances  to  a  garden  soil  (probably  already  in  a  slate  of  fertility  far  exceeding  that  which  is 
usual  under  a  high  condition  of  field-culture)  with  tliose  obtained  by  the  same  substances  upon 
exhausted  land  on  my  farm  at  Rothamsled,  I  found  that  in  many  important  instances  the  eHect 
seemed  to  be  very  beneficial  in  the  one  case,  and  not  at  all  so  in  the  other.  Such  facts  as  these 
plainly  show  us  that  upon  soils  where  the  essential  elements  of  plants  are  wanting,  no  benefit 
can  be  derived  from  the  use  of  salt  or  any  other  substance  which  does  not  become  a  con.«tituent 
of  the  produce.  Where,  however,  in  the  growth  of  grain,  all  other  essentials  are  provided,  the 
use  of  salt  may  be  advantageous  by  giving  a  healthy  tone  to  the  vital  actions  of  the  plant,  and 
thereby  improving  the  quality,  and  even  to  a  small  extent  increasing  the  quantity  of  the  produce 
also. 

The  effect  of  salt  is,  however,  much  more  marked  upon  the  green  produce  of  a  farm  than  upon 
com  crops,  and  the  large  quantity  of  it  which  is  found  in  some  plants  of  the  former  kind  might 
well  lead  us  to  question  whether  it  be  not  an  essential  element  of  such  produce,  as  well  as  a  use- 
ful agent  in  the  processes  of  vegetation  in  such  cases.  Mangel-wurzel,  for  instance,  contains, 
comparatively  speaking,  a  large  amount  of  salt,  and  the  effect  of  its  application  is  perhaps  more 
evident  in  the  case  of  this  plant  than  in  that  of  any  other.  When,  however,  we  bear  in  mind  the 
small  amount  of  selective  action  which  is  exercised  by  the  roots  of  plants  upon  the  soluble  con- 
tents of  the  soil;  that  in  the  ash  of  the  mangel-wurzel,  as  well  as  in  that  of  all  other  green  pro- 
duce, we  have  the  saline  matter  of  the  juices  mixed  with  those  of  the  parts  formed  from  those 
juices;  and,  farther,  that  this  plant,  more  particularly  when  fresh  gathered,  and  before  fermenta- 
tion to  some  degree  has  taken  place  in  its  fluid  contents,  is  known  to  act  as  a  purgative  to  animals 
fed  upon  it,  we  cannot  fail  to  admit  the  presence  of  a  large  amount  of  as  yet  unorganized  matter, 
and  the  probability  also  that  some  of  it  is  extraneous  and  unnecessary  to  the  growth  of  the  plant ; 
and  in  this  latter  supposition  the  existence  of  salt  in  the  produce  would  show  an  ample  resource 
of  it  in  the  soil,  rather  than  prove  its  importance  to  the  plant.  Reasons  of  this  kind  must  not, 
however,  be  taken  as  satisfactorily  proving  the  non-essentialness  of  salt  as  a  manure  to  those 
plants  wherein  we  usually  find  it,  but  they  should  be  considered  more  as  pointing  out  the  direc 
tion  and  the  necessity  of  farther  experiment  on  the  subject,  and  especially  so  when  we  find  in 
the  animal  economy  instances  of  a  very  analogous  kind.  Thus  it  is  found  that  although  the  blood 
of  animals,  which  may  be  compared  to  the  juice  of  vegetables,  contains  a  large  amount  of  common 
salt,  which  cannot  be  supposed  to  be  unessential  to  the  healthy  actions  of  the  body,  yet  its  pres- 
ence appears  doubtful  in  any  of  the  resulting  products  of  the  processes  of  the  animal.  The  ques- 
tion, then,  of  the  use  and  importance  of  salt  to  some  few  plants,  and  under  certain  particular  cir- 
cumstances, is  still  open  to  investigation,  and  should  it  be  decided  affirmatively,  we  should  yet 
have  to  determine  whetlier  or  not  it  was  necessary  in  such  cases  to  employ  it  in  any  large  quan- 
tities, or  even  directly  as  a  manure  at  all.  For  the  reasons  I  have  adduced,  I  cannot  but  fully 
concur  in  the  general  opinion  expressed  by  Professor  Dumas,  more  especially  as  applicable  to 
the  state  of  Agriculture  in  France  at  the  present  time,  and  I  will  venture  to  assume  the  following 
positions:  1.  That  salt  can  never  be  a  substitute  for  the  constituents  ammonia  and  phosphoric  acid. 
2.  That  no  soils  exporting  com  and  meat  can  be  restored  to  fertility  without  the  application  of 
these  two  substances.  3.  That  much  of  the  money  now  expended  in  purchusing  salt  for  agri- 
cultural purposes  would  be  more  profitably  employed  in  procuring  ammonia  and  phosphates. 
4.  That  salt,  although  apparently  essential  in  the  animal  economy,  and  perhaps  in  that  of  plants 
also,  is  exported  from  a  farm  in  such  small  quantities  that  many  soils  will,  under  an  ordinary  sys- 
tem of  cultivation,  never  require  its  direct  application,  and  others  will  do  so  seldom,  and  to  a 
small  extent  only.  J-  B.  LAWES.  Rothamsted. 


Library 
N.  C.  State   College 

(1104) 


INDEX 

TO  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  FARM. 


Aberdeen,  Lectureship  on  Agriculture  in,  i.  41. 
Abortion  of  the  ewe,  indications  of,  ii.  169. 
Absenteeism,  causes  and  evils  of,  i.  53.  . 
Adulterations  of  Flour,  ii.  30. 

detection  of,  ii.  3U. 

Agricultural  Year,  its  divisions,  i.  15. 

Readings,  i.  421. 

Agriculture,  difficalties  of  the  first  study  of,  i.  5. 

want  of  schools  for  teaching,  i.  9. 

should  be  a  part  of  education,  i.  10. 

Books  on,  their  requisite  characteristics.i.?. 

errors  of  arrangement  in  existing,i.ll. 

their  proper  arrangement,  i.  12. 

their  incompetency,  i.  13. 

Connection  with  the  physical  sciences,  i.  19 

its  present  position  as  a  Science,  i.  19,  20. 

methods  of  acquiring  a  knowledge  of,  i.  28. 

love  for,  i.  34. 

practical  scientific  institutions  of,  i.  35,  46. 

Professorship  of,  at  Edinburgh,  40. 

Seminary  of,  at  Templemoyle.  i.  41. 

in  England,  i.  201. 

Agricultui-ists,  American,  their  resources,  i.  152. 
Ague,  effects  of  draining  on,i.  375. 
Air.  effect  of,  on  germination,  ii.  177. 
Allowances  of  contractors  in  England,  i.  213. 
Alpaca,  the  breeding  of,  ii.  451. 
America,  resources  of  her  Farmers,  i.  152. 

Climate  of,  i.  226. 

Hedges  in,  their  advantages,  i.  226-7. 

expensiveness  of  them,  i.  228. 

Draining  in,  i.  303. 

Drafting  Sheep  in,  i.  404. 

Horses  of,  i.  563. 

Swine  in,  and  their  use,  ii.  5,  219. 

Farming  Industry  of,  ii.  374. 

Experiments  in  cultivation,  ii.  379,  381. 

see  also  United  States. 

Anatomy,  value  of  to  the  farmer,  i.  61. 

Anemometer,  the,  i.  173. 

Animals,  geographical  distribution,&c.,i.  77,  207 

domestic,  treatment  of.  i.  540. 

breaking  them  in,  ii.  97.   _ 

experiments  in  feeding,  ii.  342. 

Ancrum,  Mr.,  on  feeding  stock,  ii.  342. 
Annatto,  coloring  cheese  with,  ii.  316. 
Ants,  acid  yielded  by,  i.  228. 
Arbroath  pavement,  i.  132. 
Artificial  hatching  of  fowls,  ii.  236. 
Asphaltum  pavement,  advantages,  i.  129. 
Atmosphere,  action  of  electricity,  i.  180. 

its  usual  electric  state,  i.  183. 

Atmospheric   phenomena,  i.  163. — Importance 

of  observing,  i.  163. — Instruments  for,  i.  166. 
Aurora  borealis,  appearances  of,  i.  184. 
Autumn,  season  of,  ii.  362. 

its  characteristics,  ii.  362-3. 

farm-work  of,  ii.  363-4. 

wheat,  sowing  of,  ii.  416. 


Ayr,  scholars  at,  from  the  U.  S.,  i.  34. 
Ayrshire  breed  of  cattle,  ii.  446. 

B 

Bache,  Prof.,  and  the  Girard  College,  i  44. 

Bacon  in  the  United  States,  ii.  8. 

Baikie,  description  of,  i.  102. 

Bailiff,  duties  of  the,  i.  159. 

Bailey,  Mr.,  mould-board  invented  by,  i.  254. 

Baking  household  bread,  ii.  31. 

Bare-fallowing,  objects,  &c.  of,  ii.  346. 

Barley,  scientific  classification,  &c.  of,  il.  34. 

Prof.  Johnston  on,  ii.  34. 

return  yielded  by,  ii.  34. 

crop  in  the  United  States,  ii.  34. 

quantity  annually  malted  in  Great  Britain, 

ii.  34. 

chemical  composition,  and  that  of  barley- 
meal,  ii.  35. 

grinding  and  malting  of,  ii.  35. 

its  straw,  ii.  41. 

Sowing  of,  ii.  174. 

comparative  weight  of  Grain,  Straw  and 

Roots,  ii.  382. 

Barn,  plan  of,  i.  105. 

Barometer,  description  and  uses  of,  i.  166, 

Tables  connected  with,  i.  167. 

Bathing  sheep,  time  for,  &c.,  ii.  406. 

composition  for,  ii.  407. 

stool  for,  ii.  407. 

how  performed,  ii.  407. 

Batts  in  horses,  its  causes  and  remedies,   i.  566. 

Beans,  scientific  classification  of,  ii.  38,  39. 

uses,  and  chemical  constitution,  ii.  39. 

their  straw,  ii.  43,  45. 

reaping  of,  ii.  379. 

carrying  in  and  slacking,  ii.  400,  401. 

Bedfordshire  plow,  the,  i.  404. 

BelFs  reaping-machine,  described,  ii.  384. 

Black.  James,  his  thorough  drainage,  i.  375. 

Black-faced  Sheep,  ii.  430. 

Bleeding  Horses,  i.  564. 

Blistering  Horses,  i.  564. 

Body-frame  of  the  East-Lothian  Plow,  i.  258. 

of  the  Lanarkshire  or  Wilkie's,  i.  262. 

' of  the  Mid-Lothian  or  Currie,  i.  267. 

Bogs,  drainage  of,  i.  320. — Example  of,  in  Ire- 
land, i.  320. 

Boiling-house  for  food  of  live-stock,  i.  104. 

Bondager,  origin  of  the  term,  ii.  50. 

Bone-dust,  use  of,  for  raising  turnips,  ii.  253. 

Sowing-machine  :  its  advantages,  ii.  253-4. 

how  to  secure  from  heating,  ii.  256. 

its  chemical  composition,  ii.  256,  257. 

compared  with  farm-yard  dung :  their  effi- 
cacy, ii.  257. 

nature  of  its  action  in  the  soil,  ii.  257-8. 

Book  of  the  Farm,  construction  of,  i.  14. — 
Its  arrangement,  i.  27. — Observations  of  the 
American  Editor  on,  i.  54,  74,  82,  98,  147. 


II 


INDEX. 


Books,  advantages  of  tuition  by,  to  the  youiitr 
fanner,  i.  7. 

Agricultural,  requisite  characteristics,  i.  9. 

information  contained  in  existing  ones,  i.lO 

their  general  arrangement,  i.  10. 

their  incompetency,  i.  11. 

Boswell,  Mr.,  of  Kingcausie,  on  raw  and  pre- 
pared cattle-feed,  i.  519. 

on  hammel.s  and' byres,  i.  rjSl. 

Botany  and  botanical  physiology,  connection  of 
with  Agriculture,  i.  20. 

value  of  a  knowledge  of.  to  the  farmer.!. 61 

Bothy  system,  the,  condemned,  ii.  48. 

Box-churn,  ii.  324. 

Brake-harrow,  description  of,  ii.  142. 

Branding  irons  for  Sheep,  ii.  296. 

Braxy  in  sheep,  kinds  and  treatment  of,  i.  477. 

Breaking-in  bridle  bit,  ii.  214. 

domestic  animals,  ii.  97. 

young  draught  horses,  ii.  212. 

young  saddle-horses,  ii.  359. 

age  for  it,  ii.  360. 

Breeding  live  stock,  points  of,  ii.  427. 

in  and-in,  ii.  436. 

Brick  drains,  how  made,  i.  382. 

their  durability,  i.  382. 

Bridle  of  the  East  Lothian  Plow,  i.  257. 

of  the  Lanarkshire,  i.  262,  265. 

of  the  Mid-Lothian,  i.  267. 

Bridle  bit  for  breaking-in  draught  colts,  ii.  215. 
"British  Husbandry,"  arrangement  of  steading 

propoised  in,  i.  125. 
Broadcast  sowing-machine,  ii.  142. 
Brodio,  Mr.,  on  feeding  cattle,  i.  515. 
Bruising  grain,  various  machines  for,  i.  559. 

by  hand,  i.  559. 

by  power,  i.  560. 

Brushwood  drains,  how  made  ;  not  good,  i.  382. 
Buccleucb,  the  Duke  of,  his  horses,  i.  563. 
Bucknell,  Mr.  on  hatching  Fowls,  ii.  237. 
Building  stone  dykes,  ii.  253. 
Bursting  or  marking  iron  for  Sheep,  ii.  296. 
Bull  calves  and  young  bulls,  management,  ii.  103 

ringing  them.  ii.  272,  298. 

treatment  of,  while  serving  cows,  ii.  273. 

Bullock  ring  and  holder,  ii.  298. 
Bushel  measure,  capacity  of,  ii.  55. 
Bu.sh  harrow,  de.scription  of,  ii.  142. 
Butter,  making  of,  ii.  305. 

various  forms  of  churns,  ii.  307,  323,  324. 

making  of,  from  sour  cream,  ii.  310. 

from  sweet  cream,  ii.  312. 

from  sweet  milk,  ii.  313. 

preparation  of  for  market,  ii.  310-12. 

.salting  and  curing  of,  ii.  311,  312. 

its  chemical  composition,  319. 

Byre,  its  position  in  the  steading,  size,  &c.  i.  99. 

best  floor  for,  i.  100. 

variouii  modes  of  fixing  cattle  in,  i.  101. 

window  for,  i.  105. 

cleaning  of,  i.  498. 


Cabbage,  drawing  and  storing,  i.  421. 

best  varieties  for  cultivation,  i.  441. 

the  Cow,  or  Cesarean  kale,  i.  441. 

the  Turnip-stemmed,  or  Kohlrabi,  i.  441. 

tlie  Drumhead,  i.  441. 

Caithness  pavement,  i.  132. 
Calderwood  peat-tile  spade,  i.  378. 
Calves,  description  of  house  for,  i.  103. 

treatment  of  ii.  82. 

extraction  of  from  the  mother,  ii.  89. 

first  feeding,  &c.  after  birth,  ii.  91,  94,  100. 

mode  of  castrating,  and  time  for  it,  ii.  102. 

disea.ses  to  which  subject,  ii.  104,  277. 

weaning  of,  ii.  266.— Proper  time,  ii.  270. 


Calving  of  cows,  reckoning  table  for,  ii.  104. 
Canadian  straw-cutter,  description  of,  i.  549. 
Caponizing  fowls,  ii.  239. 
Carey's  wood  pavement,  i.  130. 
Carmichael,  Mr.  his  'drag  log,'  ii.  147. 
Carpenter  work  of  the  steadmg,  specificationek 

&c.  i.  121,  138,  148,  150. 
Carrick  bog,  drainage  of,  i.  320. 
Carrot,  cultivation  of,  i.  442. 

drawing  and  storing,  i.  431. 

Carrying  corn,  ii.  391. 

^  cart  for  it,  ii.  391. 

Carse  lands,  mode  of  farming  on,  i.  66. 

farms,  modified  steading  for,  i.  124. 

of  Gowrie,  mode  of  draining  in,  i.  311. 

Carts,  liquid  manure,  ii.  67,  69. 

less  expensive,  for  America,  ii.  69. 

shed,  form,  size  and  position  of,  i.  114 

the  Corn,  ropes,  &c.  for,  ii.  392. 

construction  and  principles  of  ii.  556. 

as  applied  to  American  Farming,  ib. 

cohipared  with  wagons,  ii.  557. 

illustrations  of  different  kinds,  ii.  561-2. 

interesting  experiments  with,  ii.  558-560. 

Caschrom,  of  the  ancients,  i.  253. 

a  plow  now  used  in  Skye,  i.  253. 

Castration  of  the  calf,  time,  age,  &c.  for,  ii.  102. 

of  the  lamb,  ii.  165. 

of  pigs,  ii.  221. 

Cattle,  the  first  in  New-England,  i.  207. 

in  England  and  America,  ii.  105. 

Cattle,  accommodation  of  on  the  steading,  i.  99. 

sheds  for  them.  i.  89. 

binders  for,  in  the  byre,  i.  101. 

court  for,  i.  104. 

effect  of  spaying  on,  ii.  107. 

hammels  for  feeding  them,  i.  108. 

courts  for  the  young,  i.  109. 

arrangements  for  watering,  i.  112. 

preparing  the  courts  for,  i.  495. 

littering  them,  i.  495. 

arrangement  of  on  the  steading,  i.  496-7. 

the  milking  and  other  treatment  of,   i.  498. 

supplying  them  with  food,  i.  499,  500 

Treatment  of  the  Oxen,  i.  500. 

wisping  and  currying  them,  i.  501 

fattening,  in  hammels,  i.  501. 

slicing  their  Turnips,  i.  501. 

treatment  of  the  Calve.s,  i.  502. 

the  servants'  cows  in  England,  i.  502. 

cleaning  their  food,  i.  503. 

quantity  of  Turnips  consumed  by,  i.  504. 

carrying  straw  to  them,  i.  504. 

dress  of  their  attendant,  i.  504. 

regularity  in  attending  to  them,  i.  505. 

arrangement  of  time  of  attendant,  i.  505,506 

loss  by  irregularity  in  feeding,  i.  508. 

modes  of  fattening  for  exhibition,  i.  508. 

names  given  them  at  different  ages,  i.  509. 

management  of,  for  the  Dairy,  i.  510. 

food  given  to  Dairy  Cows,  i.  510. 

turnip-slicers  for  them,  i.  511. 

cftectofdilTerentkitidsof  foodonthem,i.515 

Diseases  to  which  subject,  i.  522. 

animals  infesting  them.  i.  523. 

Choking,  and  remedies  for  it,  i.  523. 

the  Hoven.  i.  524. 

the  Fardlebound,  i.  525. 

other  diseases  of,  i.  525. 

Driving  and  Slaughtering  them,  i.  525,  531. 

precautions  on  letting  them  loose,  i.  526. 

requisites  of  their  Drover,  i.  526. 

stripping  them,  i.  527. 

rate  of  their  traveling,  i.  527. 

their  best  state  for  the  market,  i.  527. 

mode  of  judging  of  them,  i.  528. 

preparations  for  slaughtering,  i.  531-2. 


INDEX. 


Ill 


Cattle,  various  modes  of  slaughtering,  i.  532. 

modes  of  cuttini?  up,  i.  533,  534. 

proportion  of  ofFal,  &c.  i.  537. 

loss  sustained  by  modes  of  Cooking,  i.  537. 

salting  their  carcasses,  i.  537. 

u.ses  of  the  hide,  hoofs,  horns,  &c.  i.  538. 

Feeding  them  on  Turnips,  i.  495. 

times  of,  i.  502. 

on  Potatoes,  i.  510. — On  Oil-cake,i.511 

on  Linseed  Oil,  i.  516. 

on  Green  Malt,  i.  516. 

on  Linseed  Meal  and  Barley,  i.  516. 

Experiments  on  the  Cost  of,  i.  517. 

comparison  of,  hammels,  <5cc.  i.  520. 

treatment  of  in  spring,  ii.  266. 

fattening  of,  ii.  267. 

calculating  their  weight,  ii.  268. 

fallacy  of  these  modes  of  calculation,  ii.  269. 

their  distribution  over  the  pasture,  ii.  269-70 

grazing  them  during  summer,  ii.  274. 

sheds  for  slieltering  them,  ii.  276. 

vv'atering-pool  for  them,  ii.  275  6. 

advantages  of  Pasturage  and  Hay,  ii.  283. 

Points  to  be  cultivated  by  the  breeder,ii.427 

examples  of  the  different  Breeds  : 

the  Short-Horn,  ii.  442. 

the  Long-Horn,  ii.  444. 

the  Hereford  and  West-Highland,  ii.  445. 

the  Ayrshire,  ii.  446. 

Teeth  of;  their  development,  ii.  454. 

indications  of  age,  ii.  455. 

Cattle-man,  duties  of,  i.  504-6. 

suitable  dress  for,  i.  504. 

necessity  of  his  regularity,  i.  505. 

arrangement  of  his  tiaie,  i.  506. 

loss  through  irregularity,  i.  506. 

• usual  wages  of,  ii.  49. 

Chaff-house,  position,  &c.  on  the  steading,  i.  89. 
Charlbury  subsoil-plow,  description  of,  i.  412. 
Cheese,  making  of  ii.  314. 

preparation  of  the  Rennet,  ii.  314. 

breaking  and  straining  the  Curd,  ii.  315. 

■• machine  for  this  purpose,  ii.  315. 

vat,  the,  ii.  316. 

pressing  of,  machines  for,  ii.  316.  329,  330. 

making  of,  from  sweet  milk,  ii.  316. 

Cream,  ii.  321. 

drying  and  coloring,  ii.  316-17. 

Insects  infesting,  ii.  321. 

Cheese-press,  the  stone,  ii.  329. 

the  Compound  Lever,  ii.  330. 

Cheese-rack  or  turner,  ii.  332. 
Cheese-vat,  description  of  ii.  315-16. 
Chemical  Constitution  of  Soils:  see  Soils. 
Chemistry,  connection  of  with  Agriculture,  i.  22 

its  importance  overrated,  i.  23. 

value  of    an  acquaintance  with,  to   the 

Farmer,  i.  62. 

Professor  Law  on,  i.  25. 

its  true  value,  i.  25. 

Cheviot  breed  of  Sheep,  ii.  449. 

Cheyne,  Captain,  mixture  of,  for  his  horses,  i.548 

Chicken!?,  management  of  ii.  226. 

Childers,  Mr.,  on  feeding  Sheep  on  Tumip9,i.457 

Chine-felloD,  a  disease  in  cattle  ;    causes  and 

remedies,  ii.  277. 
Choosing  the  kind  of  farming,  i.  68. — And  a 

Tutor  for  it,  i.  69. 
Churning  of  cream,  ii.  309-10. 

of  sweet  milk,  ii.  313. 

Churn,  various  forms  of,  ii.  322. 

the  barrel,  ii.  322. 

Wedgewood's  table,  ii.  323. 

the  box  hand,  ii.  324. 

the  Irish  box,  ii.  325. 

the  plunger,  ii.  326. 

the  same,  by  power,  ii.  327. 


Churn,  the  oscillating,  ii.  328. 

comparison  of  the  various  kinds,  ii.  307. 

Cirencester  Agricultural  Institute,  i.  25,  141. 

Cistern  for  rain-water,  i.  134. 

Clas.iiification  of  corn-plants  by  the  ear,  grain 

&c.  ii.  25. 
Clay  soil,  the  pure  ;  characteristics,  i.  214. 

effect  of  sand  on  it,  i.  215. 

Clay -loam,  i.  215. 

Climates,  great  varieties  of,  i.  198. 

general  causes  of  these,  i.  201. 

local  causes  which  modify,  i.  203. 

in  Great  Britain,  i.  204. 

as  shown  in  the  distribution  of  plants  and 

animals,  i.  206. 

recent  change  of,  in  Great  Britain,  i.  208. 

causes  of  this,  i.  209. 

of  the  United  States,  i.  198. 

Dr.  Forry  on,  i.  198,  201. 

Jefferson  on  the  differences  of,  i.  203. 

geographical  distribution  of,  i.  200. 

Closed-boiler  steaming  apparatus,  i.  566. 
Clouds,  various  forms  of  i.  175. 

weather  indicated  by,  i.  175. 

prevalent  forms  of,  in  summer,  ii.  246. 

in  autumn,  ii.  362. 

Coach-house,  position,  &c.  on  the  steading,  i.  98. 

fireplace  in,  i.  98. 

Collar  for  the  plow-horse,  various  forms,  i.  388. 
Colman,  Mr.  observations  of  in  Europe,  i.  25. 

on  Chemistry  and  its  application,  i.  25. 

Colors  of  Soils,  i.  219. 

Comparative  Anatomy,  valae  of  to  Farmers,  i.  61 

Composts,  preparation  of,  ii.  66,  185. 

various  substances  used  for,  ii.  66-7. 

Concrete,  for  steading  floors,  i.  129. 
Conduits  for  drains,  building  of  i.  326. 

various  forms  of  in  drains,  i.  341. 

Constitution,  importance  of  attention  to,  ii.   431. 
Contracts  for  building  steadings,  i.  122. 
Cooked  food,  advantages  of  to  the  horse,  i.  546. 
Com,  quantity  consumed  by  farm-horses,  ii.  278. 

advantages  of,  to  young  horses,  ii.  279. 

see  Wheat,  Oats,  and  the  various  Grains. 

Corn-bam,  position  of,  on  the  steading,  i.  86. 

size,  form,  &c.,  i.  86. 

its  floor,  i.  87,  88. 

its  door,  i.  87. 

Corn-box  for  sheep,  description  of,  i.  453, 

another  fonn  of  it,  i.  476. 

Corn-bruiser  for  horses,  i.  559. 

hand,  i  559. 

power,  i.  560-1. 

Corn-chest,  best  form  of  i.  90. 
Corn-fodder,  ii.  40. 
Corn-markets,  ii.  52. 

stock  and  sample,  ii.  52-53. 

advantages  and  disadvautages.ii. 53,54 

frauds  perpetrated  in,  ii.  54. 

measure  used  in,  ii.  55-56. 

laws  relating  to  them,  ii.  56. 

Coronas  round  the  Sun,  i.  189. 

weather  indicated  by,  i.  189. 

Corrosive  sublimate,  to  prevent  Dry  Rot,  i.  141. 

Cost  of  materials,  i.  146-7. 

Coulter  of  the  East  Lothian  plow,  i.  256,  260. 

of  the  Lanarkshire,  i.  262. 

of  the  Mid-Lothian,  i.  267. 

nature  of  its  action  on  the  soil,  L  271. 

Courts  for  Cattle,  position  of  i.  109. 

their  size,  &c.,  i.  109. 

Coventry,  Professor,  i.  40. 
Cow-cabbage,  culture  of  i.  441. 
Cow-house,  its  position,  size,  &c.,  i.  99. 

its  floor,  i.  100. 

mode  of  fixing  cattle  in,  i.  101. 

form  and  size  of  window,  i.  105. 


IV 


INDEX. 


Cow-pox,  the,  ii.  277. 

Cows,  treatment  of  in  Winter,  i.  496,  498. 

feeding  of.  i.  499  ;  ii.  84,  85. 

treatment  of  while  with  calf,  ii.  82. 

■ to  ascertain  when  in  calf,  ii.  83,  104. 

diseases  to  which  then  euhject,  ii.  84. 

danger  of  slipping  the  calf,  li.  86. 

treatment  of,  to  prevent  this,  ii.  87. 

during  parturition,  ii.  89. 

the  udder,  ii.  99. 

reckoning  table  for  calving  time,  ii.  104. 

diseases  after  calving,  i   105 

their  remedies,  ii.  105. 

effects  of  spaying  on  them,  ii.  107. 

Serving  them  with  the  Bull,  ii.  107. 

in  Summer,  disca.scs  then,  ii.  277. 

causes  afTecting  their  milk,  ii.  317. 

Gueuon's  Treatise  on,  ii.  99,  100. 

Cradle-scythe,  description  of,  ii.  386. 
Cream,  churning  of,  ii.  310. 

its  chemical  composition,  ii.  318. 

cheese,  making  of,  ii.  321. 

Creaming  of  milk,  the,  ii.  309. 

Croall,  Mr.,  his  mode  of  feeding  horses,  i.  548. 

Crops  :    see    IV/ieat,  Beans:,  Pease,  Oats,  Rye. 

Crossing  live-stock,  ii.  437. 

Crosskill's  clod-crushing  roller,  ii.  352. 

Cross-plowing,  objects.  &c.,  ii.  111. 

Cultivator:  see  Grnbbei-. 

Cunningham's  plow:  see  Mid-Lothian  Ploic. 

Curd  of  milk,  composition  of,  ii.  319-20. 

Curd-cutter,  description  of,  ii.  316. 

breaker,  ii.  328. 

Curl  in  potatoes,  causes  and  prevention,  ii.  203. 
Currie  Plow  :  see  Mid- Lothian  Flow. 
Curtis,  Mr.,  modes  of  feeding  cattle,  i.  516. 
Cylinder  straw-cutter,  i.  551. 
turnip-slicer,  i.  475. 

D 

Dairy,  general  management  of,  i.  510. 

operations  in  mixed  husbandry,  ii.  305. 

Dairy-farm,  general  arrangements,  i.  67. 

modified  steading  for,  i.  124. 

grazing  cattle  on,  ii.  305. 

Dairy-maid,  duties  of,  i.  162;  ii.  308. 
Dale's  hybrid  turnip,  culture  of,  i.  437. — Its  ori- 
gin, i.  440. 
Dalrymple,  Mr.,  on  the  profit  of  draining,  i.  376. 
Damaged  wheat,  detecting,  ii.  28. 
Davy,  Sir  Humphrj-,  his  agri.  chemistry,  i.  23. 

his  theory  of  irrigation,  ii.  74. 

on  fermentation  of  dung,  ii.  191. 

Deanston  subsoil-plow  ;  its  action,  i.  408,  419. 

Deep  plowing,  advantages  of,  i.  402. 

Dew,  theory  of,  and  its  iniiucnces,  ii.  241. 

De  Rham  on  tanks,  i.  153. 

Dibbling,  sowing  wheat  by,  ii.  419. 

Dick,  Professor,  i.  43. 

Difficulties  of  the  young  farmer,  1.  5. 

means  of  overcoming,  i.  7. 

Disk  straw-cutter,  i.  554. 
Diseases  of  Sheep,  i.  476  ;  ii.  408. 

of  Cattle,  i.  522. 

of  Horses,  i.  568-69. 

of  Swine,  ii.  12,  13. 

of  C;alves,  and  their  treatment,  ii.  104. 

of  Cows  alter  calving,  ii.  105. 

of  Potatoes,  ii.  203, 

of  Poultry,  ii.  223. 

Distribution  of  labor,  i.  5,  17. 

of  plants,  i.  206. 

■  of  animals  over  the  earth,  i.  200,  207. 

Docking  draught-colts,  how  done,  ii.  217. 

Doddering  sheep,  ii.  297. 

Dog,  the  drover's,  i.  481. 

the  shepherd's,  training  of,  ii.  172. 


Dog,  varieties  of  the,  ii.  173. 

Double  mould-board  Plow,  ii.  332. — A   form  of, 

altered  into  a  Scuffler,  ii.  333. 
Drafting  sheep,  &.C.,  i.  404. 
Drag  log,  the,  ii.  147,  353. 
Draining,  winter  the  season  for,  i.  74. 

pastoral  farms,  importance  of,  i.  459 

of  the  steading,  i.  323. 

Drains  and  draining,  definition  of,  i.  302. 

universal  necessity  for  them,  i.  306. 

indications  where  -wanted,  i.  306. 

connection  of  Geology  with  i.  308. 

importance  of  knowing  principles,  i.  309 

Drains  tor  the  farm-buildings,  i.  lie. 

grating  for  them.  i.  119. 

for  liquid  manure,  i.  120. 

field,  various  kinds  of,  i.  310. 

open  ditches  and  gaw-cuts,  i.  311. 

old  mode  of,  i.  311. 

system  introduced  by  Elkington,  i.  312 

subseiiuent  modifications,  i.  312. 

various  sources  of  water,  i.  313. 

plan  of  sheep-drains  on  a  hill,  i.  317. 

the  open  drain  in  grass,  i.  317. 

the  closed,  i.  318. 

application    of   Elkington's    system   to  a 

pool,  i.  318. 

and  to  bogs  and  marshes,  i.  320. 

example  of  this,  i.  320. 

mode  practiced  in  Ireland,  i.  320. 

bog-draining,  i.  320. 

tools  used  in  making,  i.  321,  331. 

description  of  Elkington's  system, i.323,331 

mode  and  cost  of  cutting,  i.  324. 

guage  for  them,  i.  326. 

building  the  conduits,  i.  326. 

filling-ap,  and  substances  used,  i.  327. 

section  of  one,  with  well  and  bore,  L  327. 

principles  on  which  founded,  i.  331. 

Thorough,  i.  333. 

objects  sought  to  be  attained,  i.  333. 

necessary  depth,  i.  333. 

necessity  of  ducts  in,  i.  337. 

tile-ducts,  i.  338. 

the  main  drains,  i.  340. 

regulation  of  the  fall.  i.  340. 

position  of  the  small  drains,  i.  341 

their  depth,  i.  343,  352.— Ascertainingthia, 

i.  344. 

distance  between  the,  i.  345,  368. 

evils  of  too  great  a  distance,  i.  346. 

position  of,  with  the  main  drains,  i.  347 

proper  direction  of  the  run,  i.  347. 

mode  of  cutting,  and  the  tools,  i.  351. 

filling  in,  i.  353. —  Materials  used  for,  i.  353.    , 

stones  for,  i.  353. — Mode  of  preparing  them, 

i.  354. 

Implements  for  fiUing-in,  i.  354. 

view  of  a  stone-drain  completed,  i.  357. — 

Its  dimensions,  i.  357. 

time  required  for  making  a  stone,  1.  358. 

plan  of  a  thorough-drained  field,  i.  372. 

best  period  for  executing  draining,  i.  373. 

amelioration  of  the  land  by  draining,  1.374. 

its  influence  in  improving  health,  i.  375. 

examples  of  the  profit  of,  i.  376. 

Draining  in  America,  i.  303. 

in  the  Eastern  States,  i.  305. 

letter  on,  from  an  Agricultural  Inst.,  i.  306. 

Drain,  the  flat  stone,  i.  377. 

the  peat  tile,  i.  377. 

the  clay  land  shoulder,  i.  379. 

the  plug  or  wedge,  i.  379. 

the  sod,  i.  380. 

by  the  mole-plow,  j.  381. 

with  larch-tubes,  i.  382. 

with  brushwood,  i.  382. 


INDEX. 


Drain,  brick,  itsdurabilit.v.  i.  382. 

employment  of  the  plow  in  cutting,  i  3-^3 

various  plows  lor  thi.s ;  McEwan's,  i.  383. 

Green's,  and  Pearson's,  i.  383. 

scientific  principles  in  draining,  i.  384, 

Drain-guage,  i.  326. 

Drain-plows,  various:  see  Drains. 

Drain-tiles  for  main  drains,  i.  359. 

necessity  for  the  sole,  i.  359. 

size  and  form,  i.  3(50. 

number  required  per  acre,  i.  361. 

junction  of  small  and  main  ones,  i.  362. 

laying  them  down,  i.  363. 

plumb-level  for,  i.  365 

mode  of  fixing  and  covering,  i.  365 

joining  ^^•ith  the  main  drains,  i.  36(3. 

the  sub-main  drain,  position,  &.c.,i.367. 

size  of  for  the  small  drains,  i.  368. 

the  soles  for,  i.  368  —Putting  them  in, 

i  368. 

filling  up.  i  369. 

view  of  a  tile  and  sole  drain,  i,  371. 

Drain-stone  screen,  or  harp,  i.  354 

rake,  beater,  &,c.,  i.  355-6. 

Draught  of  the  plow,  i   285. 
Draught-Horses,  breaking  them  in,  ii  212. 

shoeing,  docking,  &c.,  ii.  216. 

points  desirable  to  cultivate,  ii.  439. 

the  Horse,  ii.  439. 

the  Stallion,  ii  440. 

the  Mare,  ii.  441. 

Drawing  turnips,  carrots,  &c  ,  i.  421. 
Drill  sowing-machines,  ii.  153 

Turnip,  ii  258 

Grubber,  description  of,  ii.  334 

Harrow,  ii.  334 

unsuiled  to  America,  ii.  258-9. 

Drilling,  single,  objects,  <Scc.,  ii.  117. 

double,  ii.  121 

Drive  work,  or  it  will  drive  you,  i  17. 
Driving  and  slaughtering  cattle,  i.  525. — Sheep, 

i.  478. — Swine,  ii   5,  6 
Dryness  of  American  soil,  i.  226 
Dry-rot  in  timber,  prevention  of  i.  141. 
Dry  stone  dykes,  building  of,  ii.  353 

their  varieties  in  bight.  &c  .  ii  353-4 

openings  and  stiles  in,  ii.  357. 

expedients  to  increase  the  hight,i.357. 

Dock-mire  pool,  drainage  of,  i  318. 
Ducks,  management  of,  ii.  16,  233 

gathering,  &c.,  of  their  eggs,  ii.  422,  424. 

Dudgeon,  Mr.,  on  feeding  pigs,  ii.  12. 
Dung,  farm-yard,  in  the  fields,  ii  56. 

position  of  the  heaps,  ii.  57. 

removal  from  the  cattle-courts,  ii.  60. 

laying  down  the  heaps,  ii.  60. 

gpade,  for  cutting  and  lifting,  ii.  61. 

preparation  of  for  potatoes,  ii    180 

proportion  needed  for  them,  ii.  194. 

its  distribution,  ii.  195 

turning  the  heaps,  ii.  181 

preparation  offer  turnips,  ii.  183 

necessity  of  its  fermentation,  ii.  191. 

usual  quantity  on  fallow  land,  ii.  349. 

Dung-hawk  or  drag,  ii.  193. 

Dunghills  and  composts,  management  of,  ii  180. 

Dutch  clinkers,  pavements  of,  i  132. 

plow,  description  of,  i.  253 

Dutchess  Agricultural  Institute,  i  306  ;  ii.  69. 
Dykes,  stone,  building  of,  ii.  353. 

openings  for  sheep  in,  ii.  357. 

stiles  in,  ii   357. 

means  to  increase  the  bight,  ii.  357. 

E 

Earning  for  cheese-making,  ii.  314. 
East  Lothian  or  Small's  plow,  i.  255. 


East-Lothian  drill  sowing-machine,  ii.  153. 
Ei-ciileobioii.  desi'iiplion  ol    ii   237 
Edinburgh  Uuiver.sity,  agri  chair  in,  i.  40. 

Veterinary  CollcLre  of  i.  43. 

Education,  agricultural,  i.  9,  59. 
E]gg,  chr.nges  while  batching,  ii  237. 
Egg.s,  treatment  of,  &c.,  ii.  422. 

gathering  them.  ii.  422. 

modes  of  keeping  them,  ii.  423. 

composition,  analyses  of,  &c  ,  ii.  425-6. 

trade  in  them,  ii.  427 

Egypt,  artificial  hatching  of  fowls  in,  ii.  236. 
Electricity,  relations  of  to  Agriculture,  i.  20. 

value  of  a  knowledge  of,  to  farmers,  i.  60 

influence  of  on  the  weather,  i.  180. 

its  sources,  i   180,  181. 

Electrometer  and  Electroscope,  i.  183. 
Elkington,  Mr.,  new  system  of  Draining,  i.  312 
— —  application  of  his  system,  i  312,  318. 

to  bogs  and  marshes,  i.  320. 

detailed  description  of  the  system,  i.  323. 

principles  on  which  founded,  i   332. 

its  applicability  to  Scotland,  i  333. 

Engine-house,  position  of,  i  89. 

England,  artificial  treatment  of  stock  in,  ii.  105. 

more  disease  thus  induced,  ii  105. 

the  Agriculture  of  i.  201. 

Entomology,  value  of  to  the  farmer,  i  22. 
Establishment  of  Scientific  Institutions  of  PraC' 

tical  Agriculture,  i  35,  46. 
Ethrioscope,  the,  i.  205. 
Evans.  Mr,  plug-drains  of  i.  380. 
Evaporation  as  a  source  of  electricity,  i.  181. 
Evils  of  not  studying  Agriculture,  i.  49. 
Ewe  house,  Burnett's,  ii  170. 
Ewes,  Drafting  of,  in  Autumn,  ii.  403. 

Tupping  of  ii.  404. 

Bathing  of,  ii   406  8. 

Ewes,  lambing  of,  ii.  155. 

accommodation  for,  when  lambing,  ii.  157. 

their  delivery,  ii.  157,  158. 

their  subsequent  treatment,  ii.  160. 

pasturing  them,  ii.  166. 

difi'erences  in  the  treatment  of  breeds,  ii.l67 

Diseases  at  lambing  :  Remedies,  ii.  170. 

after  lambing,  ii.  170. 

advantages  of  shearing  them  last,  ii.  294. 

mode  of  milking  them,  ii.  295. 

Experience,  advantages  of  to  the  farmer,  i.  6. 
Experimental  farms,  their  advantages,  i.  55. 


Factors,  evils  of  ignorance  of  Agriculture,  i,  52. 
Facts,  observation  of,  and  its  importance,  i.  210. 
— —  kind  of  to  be  recorded,  i.  211. 
Failure  of  the  Potato  crop  ;  its  causes,  ii.  203. 
Fallowing,  objects  of  ii.  346. 

bare,  and  soils  requiring  it,  ii.  347, 

nature  of  its  action,  ii.  351. 

Fallow-land,  weeding  it,  ii.  347. 

manuring,  ii.  348. 

liming,  ii.  349. 

Fardlebound,  a  disease  of  cattle :  remedies,i.525. 
Farm,  employments  on,  in  winter,  i.  74. 

duties  of  various  persons  employed,  i.  158 

steward,  duties  of,  i.  159. 

plowman,  i.  160. 

shepherd,  i.  247. 

field-worker,  i.  162. 

dairy-maid,  i.  162. 

see  also  Farm  Servants. 

Farmer,  the  young,  education  suited  to,  i.  59. 
Farm-house,  form  of,  i.  153. 

ground-plan  of  its  kitchen,  i.  154, 

the  cheese-room,  &c.  i.  156.; 

its  position  relative  to  steading,  i,  157. 

Farming,  different  kinds  of,  i.  64. 


VI 


INDEX. 


Farmiup,  store,  i.  G4. 

carse,  or  uraiii,  i.  66. 

in  the  iiei;,'liborhood  of  towns,  i.  6C. 

dairy,  i.  07. 

—  mixed  husbandry,  i.  68. 

choosing  the  kind  of,  i.  fiP. 

selecting  a  tutor  for  teaching,  i.  69. 

dealing  with  the  details  of,  i.  71. 

Farm- servants,  wages  of,  ii.  46. 

the  plowman's  wages,  ii  46. 

in  b()lliie.«.  ii.  47.  48. 

the  steward,  ii.  49. 

the  shepherd  and  liedger,  ii.  49. 

the  cattleman,  ii.  49. 

the  field-worker,  ii   51. 

comparison  of  their  condilion,  ii.  51. 

Farm-steading:  see  S/eading 
Farm-steward,  duties  of,  i.  159. 

wages  of,  ii   49. 

Farm-work,  modes  of  describing,  i.  15. 
Farm-yard    dung,  for    potatoes    and    tamips, 

ii  180.     See  also  Dung. 
Farquharson,  Dr.  on  hoar-frost,  i   194. 
Farrowing  of  sows,  ii  217. 
Fattening  of  sheep,  etiect  oa  the  wool,  ii.  302. 
Feathers  of  fowls,  uses  of,  ii.  23. 

how  formed,  ii  239. 

Feering  ridges,  how  done,  i.  290. 

for  cross-plowing,  ii   113. 

for  drilling,  ii.  117. 

Felleuberg,  M.  de,  agricultural  institation,  i.  44. 
Felting  power  of  wool,  ii  303. 
Fermentation  of  farm -yard  dung,  ii.  181. 

necessity  for  it,  ii   190. 

opinions  relative  to,  ii   191. 

Field-gates,  construction  of,  ii  260. 

their  posts,  ii.  260,  261. 

modes  of  constructing,  ii.  262. 

iron,  ii.  264. 

wire,  ii.  265 

their  pillars,  and  fastenings,  ii.  265. 

Field-work  advantages  of  forwarding,  ii.  108. 
Field-workers,  duties  of,  i.  162i 

their  wages,  ii  50. 

Finlayson's  grubber,  description  of,  ii.  207. 
Fireplace  in  the  coach-house,  i.  98. 
Flail,  description  of  the,  ii.  345. 
Flat  stone  drain,  how  made,  i.  377 
Flax,  pulling  of,  Jcc.  ii.  365. 

weeding  of,  ii.  365. 

steeping  and  drying,  ii.  366. 

average  value  of  the  crop,  ii  368. 

botanical  classilication.  ii  371. 

importation  of  the  seed,  ii.  372. 

Fleeces,  rolling,  packing.  &c.  ii.  298. 

average  weight  of.ii  304. 

Floor  of  the  com-bani,  i  86,  88. 

materials  for,  i.  88. 

of  the  stables,  i  93. 

of  the  riding-horse  stable,  i.  98. 

of  the  byres,  i.  100. 

Flottebeck,  Flanders,  ag.  institution  at,  i.  49. 
Flour,  grinding  wheat  into,  ii.  29. 

how  to  judge  of  its  quality,  ii.  29. 

various  adulteratio.is,  ii.  30. 

mode  of  detecting  these,  ii.  30. 

analyzing  it,  ii  31. 

its  chemical  composition,  ii.  31. 

fermentation  of  it,  ii.  32. 

mixing  potatoes  with  it,  ii.  32. 

Fly,  the  Hessian,  i.  24. 
Fly-wheels  misapplied,  i.  553. 

true  uses  of,  i.  554. 

■ —  the  theory  of,  i.  554. 

Foal,  birth  of,  ii  279. 
Fogs  causes  of,  i   197. 
Foot-rot,  treatment  of,  L  477. 


r'cri  AA^\.  iiicof-pity  of,  i.  6. 
Korry.  l)r.  <iii  t'limalc,  ii.  209. 
J'owIn  ;n-c<inini()dation  for,  i.  115. 

irealniiiifeof  ilicm  in  winter,  ii.  l."",  19. 

general  neglect  of,  ii    13,  14. 

various  kinds  on  a  farm,  ii.  14. 

Hens,  treatment  of.  ii   14,  15. 

Turkeys,  ii.  15. 

Gcepe,  ii   15. 

Ducks,  ii   16. 

Pigeons,  ii.  16. 

Prices  in  different  countries,  ii.  16. 

modes  of  judging  of  them,  ii.  17. 

their  houses,  ii  17 

daily  treatment  ii   19. 

food  for  them,  ii  20 

breeding  of,  in  winter,  ii.  21. 

cramming,  ii.  22. 

nses  of  their  feathers,  ii.  23. 

Hatching  of  them,  ii.  223. 

season  for  it,  ii  223. 

by  artificial  heat,  ii  236  7. 

development  of  the  egg,  ii.  237. 

Management  of  hens.  ii.  224. 

of  turkeys,  ii.  227. 

of  geese,  ii.  230. 

of  ducks,  ii.  233. 

of  pea-fowl,  ii.  234. 

of  pigeons,  ii.  234. 

in  towns,  their  treatment,  ii.  235. 

Diseases  to  which  subject,  ii.  235-6. 

castrating  them,  ii.  239. 

Frenchlaw,  drainage  at,  i.  320 
Frost,  definition  of,  i.  195. 

G 

Gabell's  subsoil  plow,  i.  412. 
Gaits,  setting  up  oats  in,  ii.  378. 
Galactometer,  description  and  uses  of,  ii.  318. 
Garget  in  ewes,  treatment  of,  ii.  169. 
Gates  of  the  steading,  i.  120. 

field,  construction  of,  ii.  260. 

their  posts,  ii.  261. 

various  kinds  of,  ii.  262. 

iron,  ii.  264. 

wire,  ii.  265. 

pillars  and  fastenings,  ii.  265. 

Gaw-cuts,  draining  by,  i.  311. 
Geese,  general  treatment  of,  ii.  15. 

management  while  hatching,  ii.  230. 

Geographical  distribution  of  climate,  i.  200. 

of  the  Human  Family,  i.  200. 

Geological  relations  of  soils,  i.  219. 
Geology  connected  with  Agriculture,  L  20. 

value  of  a  knowledge  of,  i.  61. 

Germination  of  seeds,  ii.  177. 

effects  of  water  and  air,  ii.  177. 

effects  of  plowing  and  sowing  on,  iL  178. 

of  wheat,  process  of,  ii.  421. 

Gimmers.  lambing  of,  ii.  163. 

drafting,  for  sale,  ii.  403. 

Glazing  of  the  steading,  i.  145,  151. 

Gluten,  Prof.  Johnston  on,  i.  31. 

Good  and  bad  plowing  and  sowing,  effects  o( 

on  germinating  seeds :  see  Germination. 
Gore-farrow,  mode  of  forming,  i.  295. 
Grain,  steaming  of,  for  horses,  i.  558. 

apparatus  for  bruising  it,  i.  559. 

chemical  constitution,  ii.  41. 

disposing  of;  the  markets,  ii.  52. 

its  sale  by  bulk  or  sample,  ii.  53. 

measures  for  it,  ii  56. 

laws  relating  to  its  sale,  ii.  56. 

comparative  statements,  ii.  179. 

reaping  of,  ii.  373-388. 

carrying  in,  stacking,  &c.  ii.  388-400. 

see  also  Barley,  Wheat,  Oats,  4r<^- 


INDEX. 


VII 


Granary,  proper  position  of,  i.   80. 

plan  and  description  of,  i.  106. 

form  of  window  for,  i.  107. 

securing  it  from  vermin,  i.  117. 

Grass  for  horses  in  summer,  ii.  281. 

land,  or  lea,  plowing  of,  i.  74. 

clearing  of  from  stones,  ii.  259. 

summer  management  of,  ii.  274. 

•  see  also  Pastures. 

Grass-parks,  season  for  letting,  ii.  82. 
Grass-seeds,  sowing  with  spring  wheat,  ii.  132. 

■  and  by  sowing-machine,  ii.  134. 

harrowing,  ii.  142. 

Grating  for  drains,  i.  119. 
Gravelly  soils,  definition  of,  i.  216. 

loams,  i.  216. 

Grazing  cattle,  ii.  274. 
Gray,  Mr.  on  moor-band  pan,  i.  418. 
Gray  slates,  not  good  for  roofing,  i.  144. 
Green,  Mr.,  drain-plow  invented  by,  i.  383- 
Green  malt,  feeding  cattle  on,  i.  516. 
Grieve,  or  steward,  duties  of,  i.  159. 
Grignon,  agricultural  institution  at,  i.  47. 
Grinding  wheat,  processes  of,  ii.  29. 

barley,  ii.  35. 

oats,  ii.  37. 

beans,  ii.  39. 

Ground  plan  of  an  existing  steading,  i.  83. 

of  a  propo.sed  steading,  i.  85. 

Grab,  the  oat :  its  ravages :  prevention,  ii.  151. 
Grubber,  Finlayson's,  ii.  207. 

Kirkwood's,  ii.  209. 

the  common  Drill,  ii.  335. 

Wilkie's  ii.  335. 

Guenon's  Treatise  on  Milch  Cows,  ii.  99. 
highly  esteemed,  ii.  99,  100. 

H 

Hail,  phenomena  attending,  ii.  245. 
Halos  around  the  sun  and  moon,  i.  185. 

indications  of  weather  from,  i.  185. 

Hammels  for  feeding  live-stock,  i.  108. 

their  position,  size,  &c.,  i.  108,  125. 

their  advantages  over  byres,  i.  520-21. 

Hams,  curing  of,  ii.  11. 
Hand  draw-hoe  for  drains,  i.  334. 
Hand  stubble-rake,  the,  ii.  388. 
Haunam,  Mr.,  on  wheat,  ii.  383. 
Harness,  position  of,  in  the  steading,  i.  93. 

of  tlie  plow-horse,  i.  386. 

its  weight  and  cost.  i.  387. 

cleaning  of,  i.  564. 

Harrow,  various  forms  of,  ii.  138. 

the  wooden,  ii.  139. 

the  iron,  ii.  141. 

the  grass-seed  and  iron-web,  ii.  142. 

the  brake,  ii.  142. 

the  drill  or  potato,  ii.  210. 

Harrowing  sowed  laud,  ii.  132,  135. 

advantages  of  in  spring,  ii.  112. 

Harvest-bug,  the,  ii.  239. 

Hatching  of  the  various  fowls,  ii.  223. 

season  for  it,  ii.  223. 

of  Hens,  ii.  225. 

of  Turkeys,  ii.  227. 

of  Geese."  ii.  230. 

Ducks,  ii.  233. 

Pea-fowl,  ii.  234. 

Pigeons,  ii.  234. 

house  for  it,  described,  i.  115. 

by  artificial  heat,  ii.  236. 

phenomena  of  its  stages,  ii.  237. 

Hatherton,  Lord,  results  of  draining,  i.  376. 
Haulm,  or  straw,  of  the  potato,  ii.  66. 

as  manure,  iL  66. 

Hawthorn  for  hedges,  i.  231. 
Hay,  for  sheep  in  winter,  i.  125. 


Hny,  cutting,  for  horses,  ii.  278. 

from  diUerent  grasses,  ii.  336. 

making,  by  manual  labor,  ii.  337 

with  lior.se  labor,  ii.  337. 

thatching  of  the  stacks,  ii.  339. 

calculating  their  weight,  ii.  340-1. 

average  weight  per  acre,  ii.  341. 

chemical  constitution,  ii.  341. 

value  of  the  crop,  ii.  342. 

Implements  in  making,  ii.  342-4. 

Tedding-machine,  ii.  342. 

Rake,  the  hand,  ii.  342-3. 

the  American  horse,  ii.  344. 

Hay  and  Straw  Cutters,  forms  of,  i.  549. 

the  Canadian,  i.  550. 

the  Cylinder,  i.  551. 

the  Disk,  i.  555. 

Hay-house,  position,  size,  &c.,  i.  90. 
I  Hay-knife,  description  of,  ii.  278. 
I  Hay-racks,  forms  of,  i.  91. 

for  the  riding-horse,  i.  96. 

for  sheep,  i.  449. 

Hay-rakes :  see  Hay. 

Hay-stacks,  building,  &c.  ii.  338. 

thatching,  ii.  339. 

calculating  their  weight,  ii.  341. 

Health,  beneficial  effect  of  Draining  on,  i.  375, 

Hedges  in  America,  i.  226-7. 

Mr.  Downing  on.  i.  227. 

the  hawthorn  for.  i.  226. 

the  Osage  Orange  for,  i.  228. 

expensiveness  of,  i.  228. 

Hedges,  Thorn,  planting,  i.  226,  236. 

proper  season  for,  i.  227. 

mode  of  making,  i.  228. 

Implements  made  use  of,  i.  230. 

choo.sing  the  plants,  i.  231. 

marking  out  the  line,  i.  232. 

bed  for,  i.  233. 

preparation  for  planting,  i.  234. 

laying  the  plants,  i.  234. 

best  weather  for  planting,  i.  235. 

dimensions  of  the  ditch,  \  235. 

view  of  a  finished  hedge-bank,  i.  237. 

obstacles  to  be  encountered,  i.  237. 

water  lodging  in,  i.  238. 

bad  effect  of  the  scarsement,  i.  240. 

planting  in  shrubberies,  i.  242. 

planting  in  curves,  i.  242. 

turf  fences  to  them,  i.  242-3. 

Hemp,  steeping  and  drying,  ii.  368. 

natural  history  of,  ii.  372. 

clas.sification  of,  ii.  372. 

Henderson,  Mr.,  on  Swine,  ii.  222. 

on  preparing  Flax,  ii.  366. 

Hens,  management  of,  ii.  11,  12. 

houses  for  them,  ii.  17. 

treatment  while  setting,  ii.  17. 

Hepburn,  Mr.,  snow-harrow  and  plow  of,  ii.l71. 

Hereford  ox,  the,  ii.  445. 

Hessian  fly,  the,  i.  22. 

Highland  and  Agl.  Soc.proposed  steadings  of, 

i.  125. 
Hill-shepherd,  qualifications  of,  ii.  168. 
Hoar-frost,  injurious  effects  of,  i.  193. 
Hoe,  the  hand,  i.  364. 
Hofwyl  agricultural  institution,  i.  44. 
Hogs :  see  Sicine. 
Hog's  lard,  properties  of,  ii.  12. 
Hohenheim  agricultural  institution,  i.  48. 
Hop,  cultivation  of  ii.  369. 

picking  of  ii.  370. 

drying  and  packing,  ii.  370. 

uncertainty  of  the  crop,  ii.  370 

duty  on  the,  ii.  371. 

amount  of  per  acre,  ii.  371. 

scientific  classification,  ii.  373. 


VIII 


INDEX. 


Hop,  natural  history  of,  ii.  373. 

exports  and  imports  of,  ii.  373. 

Hopetoun  oat.  tlie,  ii.  148. 
Horns  of  Cattle,  ii.  446. 

of  Sheep,  ii.  480. 

Horse,  tlie.  in  New-England,  i.  207. 

technicalities  of,  i.  546. 

development  of  the  teeth,  ii.  453. 

indications  of  its  age,  ii.  45\;-3. 

Horses,  Farm,  accommodation  of,  i.  90. 

treatment  during  winter,  i.  539. 

■ the  stables,  i.  99.  539. 

day's  feeding  and  work  of,  i.  539. 

cleaning  them,  i.  542. 

warm  mash  for  them,  i.  543. 

allowance  of  oats,  i.  543. 

breeding;:  tliem  on  the  farm,  i.  545. 

treatment  of  the  mares,  i.  545. 

the  youn?r,  i.  545. 

names  of  different  ages.  i.  546. 

cooked  food  for,  i.  546. 

danger  of  too  nutritive  food,  i.  546. 

. various  mi.xtures  for,  i.  547. 

regular  allowance  of  food,  i.  548. 

superiority  of  prepared  food,  i.  548. 

hay  and  straw  cutters,  i.  549. 

steaming  apparatus,  i.  556. 

corn-bruisers,  i.  559. 

choice  of  names  for,  i.  561. 

Riding  and  Harnes.s.  i.  97. 

treatment  in  winter,  i.  562. 

before  riding  out,  i.  563. 

cleaning  their  harness,  i.  564. 

Diseases  to  which  subject,  i.  564. 

Bleeding  them,  i.  564. 

Blistering,  i.  565. 

Physicking,  i.  565. 

Fomentations,  other  remedies,  i.  566. 

Pulse  of  the  horse,  i.  5G6. 

animals  infesting,  i.  566. 

the  Batt-s,  i.  566. 

Inflammation  of  the  Bowels,  i.  567. 

Colds,  i.  ,567. 

Grease,!.  567. 

the  Stagger,*?,  i.  567. 

Thrush  and  Corns,  i.  568. 

Broken  Wind,  i.  .568. 

Saddle-Galls  and  Crib-biting,  i.  568. 

AVindsucking.  i.  569. 

Dust-ball  and  Worms,  i.  569. 

Specks  in  the  eye,  i.  569. 

uses  of  its  Offals,  i.  569. 

Grazing  them  in  Summer,  ii  274. 

Feeding  them  then,  ii   281. 

Diseases,    and   Insects    infesting,    i.  566 ; 

ii.  283-4. 

Breaking  in.  ii.  212,  359. 

age  for  this,  ii.  360. 

Points  to  be  cultivated,  li.  430,  439. 

Horse,  Draught,  points  of  ii.  439. 

the  Stallion,  ii.  440. 

the  Man;,  ii   441. 

Horse-cloths,  the,  i.  98. 

Horse  chesnut,  feeding  sheep  on  the,  ii.  297 

Horse- hot,  ii.  284. 

Horse-hoe,  Wilkie's.  description  of,  ii.  335. 

Horse-louse,  description  of,  i.  566. 

Horse-ponds,  position  and  size  of,  i   136. 

Household  bread,  baking  of,  ii.  31. 

Hovcn,  a  di.sease  in  cattle,   cure  of,   i.  524. 

Howden.  Mr  ,  on  the  profit  of  Draining,  i.  376. 

experiments  by,  on  feeding  Cattle,  i.  518. 

on  the  Potato,  li.  205. 

Hurdles  for  sheep  on  turnips,  i.  466-7. 

implements  for  making,  i.  467-8. 

setting  them  up,  i.  443,  469. 

Husbandry,  Mixed,  in  the  United  States  i.  68. 


Hydrography,  value  of  a  knowledge  of,  i.  61. 
Hygrometer,  description  of,  i.  171. 


Ice.  properties  of  i.  196. 

evaporation  from  it,  i.  196. 

its  cooling  powers,  i.  196 

Imperial  bushel,  standard  capacity  of,  ii.  55. 
Implement-house,  position,  ic,  of,  i.  90, 
Implements  of  the  fanner,  i.  18. 

importance  of,  i.  18. 

deficient  varieties  of  i.  12,  18. 

Importations  of  cattle,  i    207. 

Industry  in  America,  ii  374. 

Insects  infesting  Horses,  i.  566  ;  ii.  284. 

Cheese,  ii.  321. 

Institutions  of  Practical  Agriculture,  i  25,35,  46 
Ireland,  Agricultural  Schools  in,  i.  25,  42. 

Dr  Kane  on  her  Resources,  i.  191. 

Irish  box-churn,  ii.  325. 

Iron,  its  use  on  farms,  i.  97. 

Iron  field  gates,  examples  of,  ii.  263. 

Iron  web-harrow,  ii  142. 

Irrigation,  begun  during  winter,  i.  75. 

theory  of  its  effects,  ii.  73. 

Isometrical  views  of  steading.?,  i.  82,  83. 
Italian  rye-grass,  peculiarities  of,  i.  22. 

J 

Jacob,  Mr.,  on  the  Moeglin  Agl.  Inst.,  i.  46. 
Jefferson  on  differences  of  climate,  i  203,  209. 
Joint-fellon,  a  disease  in  cattle,  ii  277. 

causes  and  treatment,  ii.  277. 

Johnston,  Prof,  on  Gluten,  ii.  31. 
on  Barley,  ii.  34. 

K 

Kane,  Dr.,  on  the  Resources  of  Ireland,  i,  191. 

Kelso,  effect  of  Draining  on  its  health,  i.  375. 

Kildrumraie  oat,  the,  ii   US. 

Kirkwood's  grubber,  ii.  209. 

Kyan's  process  to  prevent  dry-rot,  i.  142. 

L 

Labor,  variety  of  on  a  farm,  i.  5. 

distribution  of,  i.  5. 

Laboring  population  of  the  United  StateB,  ii  45. 

Laing,  Mr.,  on  subsoil  plowing,  i   413. 

Lamb,  extraction  of  from  the  mother,  ii.  158. 

treatment  of  after  birth,  ii.  166. 

bringing  up  by  hand,  ii.  163. 

castrating  of  ii.  165. 

diseases  when  young,  ii.  169. 

weaning  of  ii.  295. 

marking  and  buisting,  ii.  296. 

instruments  for  these,  ii.  296. 

Lambing  ewes,  ii.  155. 

Lanibing-park,  proposed,  ii.  167. 

Lanarkshire  or  Wilkie's  plow,  i  255. 

detailed  description  of  i.  262. 

Landowners,  evils  of  their  ignorance  of  Agri- 
culture, i.  49. 

Land-rollers,  various  forms  of  ii   146. 

Lantern  (or  the  stable,  i  544. 

Larch-tube  drains,  i.  382. 

Lame,  Ireland,  Agricultural  School  at,  i.  25,  42. 

Law,  Professor,  on  Chemistry,  i.  25. 

Law  of  the  corn-market,  ii.  56. 

Lawns,  pasturing  sheep  on,  ii.  266. 

Lawtown  turnip,  i.  437 

its  origin,  i.  440. 

Lead-work  of  the  steading,  i.  143.  149,  151. 

Lea-ground,  plowing  of  i.  394. — Modes  of  plow- 
ing, in  different  soils,  i.  395. 

Le  Couteur,  Colonel,  on  wheat,  ii.  25. 

Leicester  breed  of  Sheep,  ii.  447. 

Lever  cheese-press,  ii.  330. 


INDEX. 


IX 


Lever  turnip  slicer  for  sheep,  i.  470. 
Lifting^  potatoes,  time  for,  ii.  409. 

by  the  plow.  ii.  410. 

by  Law-son's  brander,  ii.  411. 

by  the  graip,  ii.  41'2. 

Lime,  preservation  of,  i.  137. 

preparation  of,  for  the  land,  i    137  ;  ii.  349. 

quantity  for  various  soils,  ii-  350. 

nature  of  its  action,  ii.  351. 

Liming  of  land,  ii.  349. 

Lind's  anemometer,  i.  173. 

Liudley,  Professor,  on'the  Potato,  ii.  212. 

Linseed,  feeding  cattle  on,  i.  516  ;  ii.  372. 

imported  into  Great  Britain,  ii.  372. 

expressing  the  oil,  ii.  372. 

Liqaid-manure  drain,  i.  120,  152.^ 

tank,  its  position,  &c.  i.  120  ;  ii.  63. 

farms  where  tanks  are  wanted,  ii.  64. 

expense  of  the  tanks,  ii.  65. 

application  of,  ii  65. 

best  cart  for,  ii.  68. 

cistern  and  pump  for,  ii.  69.  70. 

Littering  cattle,  i.  495. 

Littering  of  sows,  ii.  217. 

Little,  Mr.,  on  the  hill-shepherd,  ii.  168. 

Live-stock,  treatment  of  i.  13. 

importance  of  attention  to,  i.  75. 

accommodation  for,  i.  79. 

their  proper  position,  i.  80. 

providing  winter  food  for.  i.  421. 

Points  of,  to  be  cultivated,  ii.  427. 

symmetry  or  shape  of  ii.  428. 

robustness  of  constitution,  ii.  431. 

early  maturity,  ii.  432. 

selection  of  parents,  ii.  433. 

breeding  in-and-in,  ii.  436. 

Crossing,  ii.  437. 

examples  of  Horses,  ii.  439. 

Cattle,  ii.  442. 

Svrine,  ii.  451. 

see  also  Cattle,  Horses,  Sheep,  &c. 

Loam,  definition  of  the  term,  i.  213. 

clay,  i   215. 

sandy  and  gravelly,  i.  216. 

London  Veterinary  College,  i.  43. 
Long- Horn  breed  of  cattle,  ii.  444. 
Loose  box  in  the  stable,  i.  96. 

its  importance,  i.  96. 

Loudon,  Mr.,  steading  arrangement  of,  i.  125. 
Low,  Professor,  i.  41. 

his  arrangement  of  steading,  i.  125. 

theory  of  irrigation,  ii.  73. 

M 

M'Ewan,  Mr.,  his  drain-plow,  i.  383. 

Mackey  breed  of  hog.s,  ii.  8. 

Machines,  reaping,  ii.  385. 

Madden,  Dr.,  on  the  germination  of  seeds,ii. 177. 

on  the  nitrate  of  soda  as  manure,  ii.  189. 

on  the  fermentation  of  dung,  ii.  191. 

comparison  of  manures  by,  ii.  206. 

Magnetism,  value  of  a  knowledge  of,  i.  60. 
Malting  of  barlej-,  ii.  34. 

Man,  his  susceptibility  to  social  pleasures,  i.  77. 
Mangel-wurzel,  drawing  and  storing  of,  i.  431. 
Mangers  for  cows,  form,  &c.,  i.  100. 

supplying  with  food,  i.  100. 

Manures,  farm-yard,  ii.  180. 

compost,  ii.  184. 

artificial  and  compound,  ii.  186-7. 

li.st  of  these,  prices,  &c.,  ii.  190. 

comparison  of  various,  ii.  206. 

bone-dust,  ii.  353. 

liquid,  i.  152-3. 

Mann's  reaping-machine,  ii.  384. 

Mares,  treatment  of  i.  545. 

management  while  in  foal,  ii.  279. 


Mares,  treatment  after  parturition,  ii.  280. 

covering,  by  the  stallion,  ii.  280. 

points  to  be  cultivated,  ii.  441. 

Market,  the  Cattle,  i  527. 

the  Sheep,  i.  482. 

the  Corn,  ii.  52. 

the  Stock,  ii.  52. 

Sample,  ii.  53. 

comparison  of,  ii.  53-4. 

frauds  in,  ii.  54. 

laws  relating  to,  ii.  56. 

Marketing,  winter  the  season  for,  i.  76. 
Marking  sheep,  and  the  instruments,  i.  479. 
Marshall,  Mr.,  on  the  influence  of  winds,  ii.  247 
Marshes,  drainage  of  i.  320. 
Mashes  for  farm-horses,  i.  543. 
Ma.son-work  of  the  steading,  i.  148,  150. 
Mathematics,  value  of  to  the  farmer,  i.  60. 
Measures  for  grain,  ii.  55,  56. 
Mechanics,  importance  of  a  knowledge  of,  i.  60 

application  of  to  Agriculture,  i.  18. 

Melvin.  Mr.,  on  subsoil-plowing,  i.  413. 

on  trenching,  i.  416. 

Merino  .sheep,  history  of  ii.  304. 

difficulty  of  fattening  them,  ii.  302. 

Meteorology,  value  of  a  knowledge  of  i.  61. 
Meteorological  tables,  use  of  i.  152. 
Mice,  prevention  of  the  ravages  of,  i.  117. 
Mid-Lothian  or  Currie  plow,  i.  255. — Detailed 

description  of  i.  267. 
Migrations  of  animals,  i.  208. 
Milk,  churning  of  ii.  307. 

yield  and  quality  of  ii.  317. 

its  constituents,  ii.  317-18. 

various  kinds,  composition  of  ii.  318-19. 

coagulation  of,  for  cheese-making,  ii.  314. 

various  preparations  for  the  table,  ii.  320. 

Milk-house,  situation,  &c.  i.  155. 

its  furnishings,  ii.  306. 

the  vessels,  and  materials,  ii.  306. 

necessity  of  cleanliness  in,  ii.  307. 

Milking  the  cow.  modes  of  ii.  94. 

vessels  for  it,  ii.  95,  96. 

Milking-pail,  best  form  of  ii.  308. 
Mists,  phenomena  attending,  i.  197. 
Mixed  farming,  i.  68. 

in  the  United  States,  i.  68. 

Moeglin  Agricultural  Institution,  i.  45. 
Moisture  in  laud  considered,  i.  303. 
Mole-plow,  description  of  i  381 

formation  of  drains  by,  i.  381. 

Moon,  effects  of  its  changes,  i.  191. 
Moor-band  pan,  destroying,  i.  418. 

chemical  composition  of,  i.  420. 

cause  of  its  injurious  effects,  i.  420. 

Mortar-cart,  the  Swedish,  i  137. 
Mould-board  of  the  plow,  i.  254. 

of  the  East-Lothian  plow,  i.  256. 

;-  Lanarkshire  or  Wilkie's,  i  262. 

Mid-Lothian  or  Currie,  i.  267. 

nature  of  its  action,  i.  274. 

scientific  principles  of  i.  278. 

formation  of  i.  278 

mode  of  analyzing  it,  i.  278. 

characters  of  the  various,  i.  280. 

mode  of  constructing,  i.  282. 

Slight's  new,  i  281. 

pattern  for  it,  i  284. 

building  the  block  for,  i  284. 

Mountain  snow-plow,  ii  171 

Movable  sheds  for  sheep,  i.  456. 

Mucilage  of  linseed,  ii.  372. 

Mud-hoe,  ii.  63. 

Mudie,  Mr.  Characteristics  of  Winter  by,  i.  77. 

on  Spring,  ii.  76. 

on  Summer,  ii  240. 

Mutton,  modes  of  cutting  np,  i.  487. 


INDEX. 


N 

Napier,  Lord,  on  the  lambing  of  ewes,  ii  167. 
Net  for  confinine  sheep,  i  444. 

tools  used  in  settinfj  up,  i.  444. 

New-Jcrsoy  schol.irs  at  Ayr.  i.  34. 
New-Knpland.  lirst  cattle  in,  i.  207 
New- York,  therniometrieal  observations  at,  for 
25  years,  i.  209-10. 

wheat  in,  ii.  2.'5. 

Nitrate  of  soda  as  manure,  ii.  189. 

o 

Oats,  sowing  and  culture  of,  ii.  148. 

varieties  of,  ii  36,  148. 

sowing  broadcast,  ii.  150. 

drill-sowing,  ii.  150. 

diseases  to  which  subject,  ii.  151. 

average  crop  of:  its  value,  ii.  37. 

weight  of  straw,  grain,  &c  ii.  42,  382. 

daily  allowance  to  farm  horses,  i.  543-4. 

quantity  consumed,  ii   278. 

advantage  of,  to  young  horses,  ii  279. 

grinding,  into  meal.  ii.  37. 

natural  history  of,  ii  36. 

classification  of.  ii.  36. 

chemical  constitution,  ii.  37. 

Crop  of  in  the  United  States,  ii.  38. 

Observing  and  recording  facts,  i.  210. 

method  to  be  pursued,  1.  211. 

Ohio,  wheat  in,  i.  25. 

Oilcake,  manufacturing,  ii.  372. 

feeding  cattle  on.  i.  511 ;  ii.  372. 

machine  for  breaking,  i  514. 

advantages,  for  calving-cows,  ii.  85. 

for  sheep  on  turnips,  i  452. 

box  for,  i.  453. 

Open  ditches,  draining  by,  i.  311. 
Osage  Orange  for  hedges,  i.  226. 
Oxen :  see  Cattle,  SfC. 
Ox-louse,  description  of,  i.  522. 

P 

Packing  -woal,  ii.  300. 
Painting  the  steading,  i.  146,  151. 
Parasitic  animals  infesting  cattle,  i.  522. 
Paring-plow,  description  of,  ii.  124. 
Parsnips,  drawing.  iScc.  i.  421. 

best  varieties,  i  441. 

Pastoral  farming,  i.  65. 

Pastoral  districts  of  the  U.  S.  i.  65. 

Pastoral  farms,  steading  for,  i.  123. 

importance  of  shelter,  i.  459. 

breeds  of  sheep  for,  i.  458  9. 

drainage  of,  i.  459. 

management  of  sheep  on,  i.  459-60. 

stells  for,  forms  of,  i.  461-3. 

■         erection  of  sheep-cots,  i.  463. 

Hill.  i.  464.— Stells  for,  i  465,  466. 

Pasturage  for  cattle,  ii.  274 

Pasturing  anc'  soiling,  comparison  o    ii.  283. 

Peafowl,  treatment  of.  ii.  23,  234. 

Pearson,  Mr  ,  drain  plow  by,  i.  383. 

Pea  crop  in  the  United  States,  ii.  41. 

Pease,  botanical  clas.sification  of,  ii.  40. 

average  crop,  ii  40. 

chemical  composition,  ii.  40. 

uses  to  which  applied,  ii.  41. 

their  straw,  or  haulm,  ii.  42. 

reaping  and  stocking  of,  ii.  379. 

carrying  in  and  stacking,  ii.  400-1. 

Peat  tile  drain,  how  made,  i.  377. 
Pennock'e  improvement  on  the  English  sowing- 
machine,  i.  31. 

revolving  rake,  ii.  344. 

Pennsylvania,  wheat  in,  ii.  25. 

Pet  lambs,  rearing,  ii.  163. 

Physical  scienceB,  importance  to  Agricaltare,i.l9 


Physicking  horses,  i.  565. 

Physioloiry  of  l)Iant8,  value  of  knowledge  of,  i.  20 

Picking  hofis.  ii.  370. 

Pickling  seed-wheat,  objects  of,  ii   126. 

Pigeons,  management  of,  ii.  16,  234. 

-^ —  houses  for  them,  i.  117  ;  ii.  18. 

Pigs,  management  of,  ii.  219,  221. 

Pig-.sties.  dimensions,  &c.  i.  114. 
I  Pitting  Potatoes,  ii  413. 

forms  of  pit,  ii.  413-14.  ; 

' the  conical,  ii.  413.  ' 

■ the  prismatic,  or  long,  ii.  413. 

, ventilation  of  these,  ii.  414. 

I  Planting  Potatoes,  ii.  192 

Plants,  geographical  distribution  of,  i.  206. 

1 their  respiration,  i.  180. 

!  Plaster-work  of  the  steading,  i.  145. 
■ specifications,  i.  149.  151. 

Plow,  the  :  its  uses,  i  245. 

expense  of,  i.  249. 

; advantages  of  iron  and  wooden,  i.  249. 

I defects  of  its  working,  i   249. 

I remedies  for  this,  i  250. 

I proper  tempering  of  the  iron,  i.  251. 

I its  early  history,  i.  253. 

] the  ca.«chrom.  a  primitive  form  of,  i.  253. 

rude  kind  still  in  use,  i  253. 

; its  gradual  improvement,  i.  253. 

first  introduction  of  Small's,  i  253. 

view  of  its  land-side,  i.  254. 

general  description  of,  i.  255. 

its  general  characteri.'Jtics,  i.  256. 

the  East-Lothian,  i.  255-6. 

the  Lanarkshire,  i.  255,  262. 

its  peculiarities,  i.  262. 

the  Mid-Lothian,  i.  255. 

detailed  description  of  this,  i.  267. 

its  general  action,  i.  271.  . 

action  of  the  coulter,  L  271.  ' 

the  share,  i.  273. 

the  mould-board,  i  274. 

principles  and  formation  of  this,  i.  279. 

its  degrees  of  draught,  i.  285. 

Ransome's  Bedfordshire,  i.  404. 

the  Two-furrow,  i.  405. 

the  Mole,  for  cutting  drains,  i.  381. 

various  others  for  drain-cutting,  i.  382. 

the  Double  Mould-board,  ii.  332. 

the  scuffling  or  cleaning,  ii.  333. 

Smith's  sub«)il,  i.  408,  418. 

other  subsoil,  i.  412. 

Yoking  the  horses  to,  i.  386. 

' ^^  harness  for  it,  i.  386-7. 

ordinary  weight  and  cost,  i.  387. 

working  with  two  horses,  i.  388. 

guidance  of  the  horses,  i.  389. 

swing-trees  for  two  horses,  i.  390. 

calculating  their  strength.  &c.  i.  390-1. 

making  the  swing-trees  of  iron,  i.  391. 

swing-trees  for  three  horses,  i.  391. 

and  for  four,  i.  393.  394. 

slowness  of  its  improvement,  i.  402. 

disadvantages  of  wheeled,  i.  402-403. 

various  makers  of  in  England,  i.  405. 

application  to  lifting  potatoes,  ii   410-11. 

Plowing,  winter  the  season  when  done,  i.  74. 

contrasted  effects  of  good  and  bad,  ii.  178. 

Hidges.  modes  of,  i.  289,  396 

various  breadths  of,  i  289. 

feering.  or  striking  them,  i.  290. 

gathering  up  from  the  flat,  i.  292. 

casting,  yoking  or  coupling,  i.  294. 

the  gore-furrow,  i.  295. 

two-ont-andtwo-in,  i.  297. 

inbreaks,  i.  298. 

twice  gatheringup.  i.  299. 

cleaving  with  and  without  gore-farrow4.300 


INDEX. 


XI 


Plowing,  Cross,  i.  301. 

Angle,  how  done,  i.  301. 

Rib,  i.  301-2. 

Stubble  and  lea  ground,  i.  394. 

order  in  w^hich  done,  i.  395. 

ways  of,  and  soil,  i.  395. 

head-ridges,  i.  396. 

characteristics  of  correct,  i.  397. 

examples  of  bad,  i.  399. 

weight  of  earth  turned  over,  i.  400. 

time  occupied  by,  i   400. 

Table  of  time  lost  in  turning,  i.  401. 

advantage  of  long  ridges,  i.  401. 

proper  length  on  steep  ground,  i.  401 

chemical  changes  forwarded  by,  i.  402. 

Deep,  advantages  of,  i.  402. 

Shallow,  when  admissible,  i.  402. 

Trench  and  Subsoil,  i.  408. 

Mr.  Smith's  plow  for,  i.  408,  418. 

necessity  of  previous  drainage,  1.  410. 

other  forms  of  plows,  i.  411. 

advantage  derivable  from,  i.  412. 

general  remarks,  i.  419. 

— —  Cross,  its  objects,  &;c.ii.  111. 

for  barley-seed,  ii.  174. 

for  autumn  wheat,  ii.  416. 

Plowing-matches,  advantage  of,  i.  406. 

ordinary  way  of  conducting,  i.  406. 

errors  in  judging,  i.  406. 

Plowman,  duties  of,  i.  160. 

best  education  for,  i.  398. 

wages  and  allowances  of,  ii.  46. 

Plug-drains,  description  of,  i.  378. 

section  of,  i.  379. 

Plumber- work  of  the  steading,  i.  143. 

measurement  and  cost,  i.  149,  151. 

Plumb-level  for  the  drain-cutter,  i.  365. 

Plunger-churn,  ii.  326. 

Pneumatics,  value  of,  i.  60. 

Poles  for  hops,  ii.  369. 

Politics  detrimental  to  the  farmer,  i.  9. 

Pond,  the  horse,  position.  &c.  i  136. 

. for  sheep-washing,  ii.  287. 

Pork,  pickling  of,  ii.  10. 

fattening,  ii.  8. 

see  also  Swine. 

Posts  of  field-gates,  ii.  260. 

Potato,  the,  mixing  with  wheat  flour,  ii.  32. 

as  food  for  Cattle  and  Pigs,  i.  510,  511 ;  ii.  6. 

Potatoes,  preparing  dung  for,  ii.  180,  183. 

planting  of,  ii.  192. 

plowing,  harrowing,  &c.  for,  ii.  192. 

dunging,  planting,  and  plowing  in,  ii.  194. 

width  of  the  drills,  ii.  199. 

best  varieties  of,  ii.  199,  200. 

effects  of  soil  on,  ii  199-200. 

various  modes  of  cultivating,  ii.  201. 

harrowing  after  planting,  ii.  202. 

Diseases  to  which  subject,  ii.  203. 

the  curl,  ii.  203. 

the  taint,  ii.  203. 

natural  history  of  the  plant,  ii.  205. 

classification  of,  ii.  206. 

introduction  into  Great  Britain,  ii.  206. 

damage  done  by  rooks,  ii.  206. 

Failure,  Prof.  Lindley  on,  ii.  312. 

Lifting  and  Pitting  them,  ii.  409. 

by  the  Plow,  ii.  410. 

:  by  the  graip,  ii.  412. 

storing  of,  ii.  412. 

forms  of  Pits  for,  ii.  413-14. 

the  conical  pit,  ii.  413. 

the  prismatic  or  long,  ii.  413. 

necessary  precautions  against  heating,ii.414 

comparison  with  Wheat,  ii.  414. 

Cobbett's  assertion,  ii.  414. 

No.  persons  supported  by  an  acre  of,  ii.  415. 


Potatoes,  Analyses  of.  ii.  415. 

changes  of,  by  boiling,  ii.  4 1."). 

Starch  and  Tapioca,  manufacture  of,  ii.  41-1. 

average  value  of  the  crop,  ii.  410. 

Potato  brander,  or  raiser,  ii.  411. 
Potato-graip,  ii.  412. 
Potato  or  drill  harrow,  the,  ii.  210. 
Potato  haulm,  or  straw,  for  manure,  ii.  65. 
Potato  oat.  peculiarities,  ii.  148. 
Potato-raiser,  the,  ii.  411. 
Potato-store,  position,  &c.  i.  117. 
Poultry  on  the  steading,  i.  115. 

management  of  in  winter,  ii  13. 

general  neglect  of,  ii.  14.' 

kinds  kept  on  the  farm,  ii.  14. 

Hens,  ii.  14. 

Turkeys  and  Geese,  ii.  15. 

Ducks  and  Pigeons,  ii.  16. 

Prices  of,  ii.  16. 

how  to  judge  of,  ii  17. 

their  Houses,  ii.  17,  18. 

daily  treatment,  ii.  19,  22. 

food"  for  them,  ii.  19,  22. 

breeding  them  in  winter,  ii.  21. 

remarks  on  cramming,  ii.  22, 

uses  of  their  feathers,  ii.  23. 

Diseases  of,  ii.  24,  223,  235. 

Indigestion,  ii.  223-4. 

Shell-less  Eg;gs,  ii.  324. 

Egg-bound,  ii.  224. 

Remedies,  ii.  224. 

Caponizing,  ii.  239. 

Hatching  them,  ii.  223,  236. 

of  Hens,  ii.  224-7. 

of  Turkeys,  ii.  227. 

of  Geese,  ii.  230. 

of  Ducks,  ii.  233. 

of  Pea-fowl  and  Pigeons,  ii.  234. 

treatment  in  towns,  ii.  236. 

Castrating  of  ii.  239. 

Poults,  management  of,  ii.  229. 
Practical  Agriculture,  teaching,  i.  35,  46. 
Practical  Husbandry,  learning,  i.  28. 

necessity  of  attention,  i.  29 

commence  in  youth,  i.  34. 

Presser-roller,  objects  of,  ii.  136. 

described,  ii.  146. 

Produce,  transporting,  by  steam,  i.  67. 

Profit  from  draining,  i.  375. 

Pulling  flax  and  hemp,  ii.  365. 

Pulse  of  the  horse,  i.  566. 

Pulse  crops :  see  Beans,  Pease,  ^c. 

Punching-nippers,  for  marking  Iambs,  ii.  236. 

mode  of  using,  ii.  296. 

Pupilage,  time  for  commencing,  i.  70. 
first  employments,  i.  71. 

Q 

duadrangular  steading,  origin  of,  i.  125. 
Cluarter-ill,  a  disease  of  cattle,  ii.  277. 
treatment  of,  ii.  277. 

R 

Rain,  appearances  of,  i.  186. 

causes  of  its  fall,  i.  186. 

Tables  of  quantities,  &c.  i.  ]  87. 

connection  of,  with  winds,  i.  190. 

effect  of  the  phases  of  the  Moon,  i.  191. 

foreign  matters  brought  down  by,  i.  191. 

Rain-water,  cistern  for,  i.  134. 
Rain-guage,  description  of,  i  174. 

mode  of  using,  i.  174. 

Rake,  the  hand  hay,  ii  343. 

the  American  horse,  ii.  344. 

the  stubble,  ii  388. 

Pennock's  revolving  horse,  ii.  344. 

Rams,  separate  feeding  of,  i.  452. 


XII 


INDEX. 


Rams,  serving  the  ewes  by,  ii.  404. 

Kansome,  Messrs.,  plow  improvements,  i.  403, 

their  F  F  or  Bedfordshire  plow,  i.  403. 

Rape,  feeding  sheep  on.  i.  455. 

Raus,  prevention  of  their  ravages,  i.  117. 

Readings,  agricultural,  i.  4i!l. 

Reaping  of  grain,  importance,  ice.  ii.  373. 

proper  ripeness  of  the  crop.  ii.  375. 

Mr.  Hannam's  experiments,  ii.  38i-3. 

superintendence  of  Uie  reapers,  ii.  376. 

mode  of  cutting  with  the  scythe,  ii.  376. 

arrangement  with  the  workers,  ii.  377. 

Gaits,  formation  of,  ii  378 

Rye,  Beans,  and  Pease,  ii.  379. 

and  Mowing  contrasted,  ii.  379. 

greater  cheapness  of  Mowing,  ii  379. 

other  advantages,  ii.  3S0. 

proportion  of  straw,  grain  and  roots,  ii.  381. 

Reaping  machines :  ii.  364-6. 

Smith's,  ii.  334. 

Bells,  ii.  384. 

Mann's,  ii.  384-5. 

compared  with  hand-reaping,  ii.  385. 

Reaping-sickles,  forms  of,  ii.  385  6. 

Reaping-scythes,  ii.  386. 

Rennet  for  cheese-making,  ii.  314. 

Rennie,  Prof.,  on  Irrigation,  ii.  73. — The  proper 

tlieorj-,  ii.  74. 
Repainng  fences,  ii.  259. 
Respiration  of  plants,  effect  on  the  air,  i.  181. 
Ribbing,  plow  for,  i.  302. 

mode  of  executing,  ii  125. 

Ricks,  hay,  building  of,  ii.  338. 
Ridges,  modes  of  plowing,  i.  289. 

different  breadths  of.  i.  289. 

mode  of  feering.  i.  290. 

gathering-up  (rom  the  flat,  i  292. 

casting,  yoking  or  coupling,  i.  294. 

the  gore-furrow,  i.  295. 

two-out-and-two-in,  i.  297. 

inbreaks,  i.  298. 

twice  gathering-up,  299. 

cleaving  with  and  without  gore-furrow, 

i.  300. 

cross-plowing,  i.  301. 

angle-plowing,  i.  301. 

rib-plowing,  i.  302. 

Ring  for  the  t  nil,  ii  297. 

the  fixing  of  it.  ii.  298. 

River-water,  peculiarities  of.  i.  135. 

Roberton,    Mr.,    preparing    stones   for  drains, 

i.  354. 

on  the  relative  expenses  of  drainage,  i.383. 

Robustness  of  constitution:  see  Live  block. 

Roller  corn-bruiser,  i.  561. 

Roller,  Crosskill's  clod-crushing,  ii.  352. 

common,  forms,  and  materials  for,  ii    146 

Rolling  after  sowing,  ii.  132. 

grass-fields,  ii  259. 

Rolling,  storing  and  packing  fleeces,  ii.  298. 
Roosting- places  for  fowls,  L  115. 
Ropes,  rein,  ii  391. 

for  the  cart,  ii   392. 

Roping  for  stacks,  varieties  of,  ii.  396-399. 
Rot  in  sheep,  i.  477  ;  ii  408. 

alleged  cure  ot  by  salt,  i.  453 

Rotherham  plow,  i.  253- 

Roville  agricultural  institution,  L  47. 

Rusky,  or  seed-basket,  ii  128 

Rye,  botanical  classification  of.  ii.  38. 

chemical  composition  of,  ii.  38. 

its  straw,  ii  42. 

manure  for,  ii  39. 

reaping  of,  ii  379. 

Rye  crop  of  the  United  States,  ii.  38. 
Rye-grass,  cultivation  for  seed,  ii  336. 
Italian,  peculiarities  of,  i.  22. 


Saddle-horses,  treatment  of,  i.  562 

breaking-in,  ii  359. 

proper  age,  ii.  360  ^ 

Salt  for  the  rot  in  sheep,  i.  453. 

mode  of  purifying,  ii.  312 

Salting  butter,  ii  311. 

Sample  grain-market,  ii.  52  — AdTaotag;eB  and 

disadvantages,  ii  52-3. 
Sandy  soils,  definition  of,  i  215. 

loams,  i  216 

Scab  in  sheep,  treatment  of,  i  457. 
Scarscment  on  hedge-bank,  i.  240. 
Scarifier  or  grubber,  ii  207. 
Finlayson's  ii.  207. 

Kirk  wood's,  ii.  209. 

the  common  Drill,  ii.  324. 

'Wilkie's.  i.  335. 

Schools,  Agricultural,  i.  25.  41,  42. 

Sciences,  the  Physical,  and  Agricnlture,  i.  15. 

value  of,  to  the  farmer,  i.  59. 

Scoop,  the  bog-drain,  i.  322. 

the  earth  drain,  i.  352. 

Scot.  Mr.,  on  larch  tube,  draining  i.  382. 
Scotland,  Agricultural  Society  of,  i.  25. 
Scott,  Mr  ,  on  feeding  horses,  i.  548. 
Scuffling-plow,  ii   333. 
Scythe,  the  patent,  for  hay,  ii.  282. 

cutting  grain  with  the,  ii.  376. 

advantages  over  the  sickle,  iL  379. 

variou.s  forms  of,  ii.  376.  386. 

Seasotis,  fall  of  rain  in  the,  i.  189. 

the  Agricultural,  i.  15,  16. 

Sea-ware  for  manure,  ii  66. 

its  composition,  ii.  67. 

way  in  which  applied,  ii.  67. 

Sea-water,  freezing  of.  i.  196. 

Seed-wheat,  preparation  for  sowing,  ii.  126. 

choosing,  ii.  28. 

marks  of  good,  ii.  28. 

preparation  for  autumn-sowing.ii.418. 

saving  effected  by  dibbling. &c..ii.4 19. 

process  of  germination  in,  ii.  421. 

Seed-basket,  the  English,  ii.  128. 
Seeds,  germination  of.  ii.  177. 

necessity  of  water  and  air,  ii.  177-8. 

■  effects  of  good  and  bad  plowing,  ii.  178. 

effects  of  good  and  bad  sowing,  ii.  178. 

Selection  of   parents  in  breeding    live-stock 

ii.  433. 
Selles,  Marcel  de,  on  the  Migration  of  Animals, 

i.  208. 
Shallow  plowing,  when  admissible,  i.  402. 
Share  of  the  East  Lothian  plow,  i.  256,  259. 

of  the  Lanarkshire,  i.  262,  264. 

of  the  Mid-Lothian,  i.  267,  269. 

nature  of  its  action,  i.  273. 

Shearing  sheep,  ii.  289. 

Shed  for  carts,  form.  <5cc  i.  114. 

Sheep.  providinL'  winter  food  for,  i.  421. 

cost  of  feeding  on  turnips,  i.  436. 

Tumip-slicers  for,  i.  470,  472,  475. 

Diseases  in  Winter,   i.  476. 

in  Summer,  ii.  297. 

in  Autumn,  ii.  408. 

Purging,  i.  476. 

Parasites,  i.  476. 

Scab,  i.  477. 

Foot-rot,  i.  477. 

Wildfire,  i.  477. 

Braxy.  i.  477. 

Scald-head.  ii.  297. 

Rot,  ii.  408. 

Pining,  ii.  409 

Feeding,  on  turnips,  i.  442 

on  rape,  i  455. 

the  ewes  in  lamb,  i.  454. 


INDEX. 


XIII 


Sheep,  Hurdles  for  confining,  i.  443. 

Nets,  and  setting  them  up,  i.  444. 

precaution  to  be  observed,  i.  446. 

selection  for  putting  on  turnips,  i.  447. 

explanation  of  names  given  them,  i.  448. 

strav^  or  hay  rack  lor,  i.  449. 

turnip-trougli  for,  i.  450. 

mode  of  arranging,&c.  on  turnip-field,i.451. 

separate  feeding  of  the  tups,  i.  452. 

oil-cake  or  grain-box  for,  i.  453,  476. 

alleged  benefit  of  salt,  i.  453. 

shelter  for,  while  on  turnips,  i.  455. 

movable  sheds  for.  i.  456-7. 

fixed  sheds  at  the  steading,  i.  457. 

advantages  of  these  modes,  i.  457. 

breeds  for  different  localities  i.  458. 

on    pastoral  and    hill  farms,  i.  460. 

various  forms  of  Stells  for,  i.  461,463,  465. 

Driving  and  Slaughtering,  i.  478. 

best  time  for  driving,  i.  478. 

way  of  marking,  i.  479. 

proper  length  of  day's  journey,  &c.  i.  480. 

qualifications  of  the  drover,  i.  481. 

Marketing  them,  i.  482. 

rules  of  the  market,  i.  482. 

deposition  of  fat  on,  i.  483. 

judging  of  tlieir  condition,  i.  484. 

Slaughtering  them,  i.  486. 

modes  of  cutting  up,  i.  48 

merits  of  the  various  parts,  i.  488. 

characteristics  of  the  flesh,  i.  489. 

best  age  for  killing,  i.  489-90. 

kinds  preferred  at  different  markets,  i.  490. 

shipping  them  to  cities,  i.  490. 

superiority  of  steam  convejance  for,  i.  491. 

Meat  and  Otfal,  quantity  of,  i.  492. 

loss  sustained  in  cooking,  i.  492. 

curing  into  Hams,  i.  492. 

preparation  of  the  Suet,  i.  493. 

— ^  uses  of  its  parts,  i.  493.  -.' 

constitution  of  its  skin,  i.  494 

Grazing  of,  ii.  274. 

Feeding  them  in  Summer,  ii.  285. 

Washing  them,  ii.  287. 

pool  for  it,  ii.  287-8. 

Shearing  them,  ii.  289-93. 

appearance  of,  when  new-clipped,  ii.  294. 

Weaning  the  Lamb.  ii.  295. 

Marking  and  buisting  them,  ii.  296. 

Management  of,  in  Autunir,  ii.  403. 

Drafting  ewes,  &c.  for  sale,  ii.  403-404. 

Tupping  of  the  ewes.  ii.  404. 

Total  number  of.  in  Great  Britain,  ii.  304. 

the  Merino  breed,  ii.  304. 

Points  to  be  cultivated,  ii.  447. 

examples  of  these,  ii.  448. 

the  Leicester,  ii.  448. 

the  Cheviot,  ii.  449. 

the  South-Down,  ii.  449. 

the  Black-faced,  ii.  450. 

Sheep-cots,  disadvantages  of,  i.  463. 
Sheep-farms:  see  Pastoral  Farms. 
Sheep-flakes,  making  of,  i.  466. 
Sheep-hurdles,  making,  i.  443,  467. 

setting  up.  i.  468. 

Sheep-nets,  working  of,  i.  470. 
Shelter,  importance  of,  i.  243,  458. 

■ advantage  of,  in  grazing,  ii.  276. 

Shepherd,  duties  of  the,  i.  161. 

his  general  qualifications,  ii.  168. 

ordinary  wages  and  allowances,  ii,  49. 

duties  in  the  lambing-season,  ii.  155. 

the  skillful  and  the  unskillful,  ii.  155. 

number  of  ewes  he  can  attend,  ii.  167. 

the  Hill,  qualifications  of,  ii  168. 

Shepherd's  crook,  uses  of,  ii.  164. 
Shepherd's  dog,  training,  &c.  ii.  172. 


Shepherd's  dog,  varieties  of.  ii.  173. 

instruction  of,  ii.  174. 

ShirrefF,  Mr.  on  the  Potato  failure,  ii.  204. 
Shoeing  draught  colts,  ii.  216. 
Shoulder-drain,  the,  i.  378. 
Shovel,  the  ditcher's,  i  231. 

the  broad-mouthed,  i.  321. 

the  lime  or  frying-pan,  i.  356. 

Sickle,  forms  of,  ii.  385-6. 

Sinclair,  Sir  John,  breeding  stock  in  histime,i.65 

Skinner  breed  of  hogs,  the,  ii.  9. 

Slating  of  the  steading,  i.  143. 

specifications  of,  cost,  &c.  i.  151. 

Slaughtering  cattle,  i.  486. 

sheep,  i.  532. 

Slight.  Mr.,  his  new  mould-board,  i.  284. 
Slinking  or  slipping  the  calf,  ii.  86. 

its  causes,  ii.  86. 

prevention  of  it,  ii.  87. 

Small's,  or  East-Lothian  plow,  i.  253-256. 
Smith.  Mr.,  his  subsoil  plow,  i   408,  418. 

his  reaping-machine,  ii.  384. 

Smith-work  of  the  steading,  i   149,  151. 
Smithy,  advantage  of,  on  the  steading,  i.  121. 
Snow,  nature  of,  i   192. 

its  various  forms,  i.  192. 

storms  during  spring,  ii.  76. 

Snow-harrow  and  plow,  ii.  171. 
Sock  of  plows  :  see  Share. 
Sod-draining,  i.  380. 

tools  used  for.  i.  380.  . 

Soiling  and  pasturing  cattle,  ii.  283. 
Soils  and  subsoils,  i  213. 

importance  of  an  acquaintance  with,  i.  213 

Characters  of  the  different,  i.  214-216. 

the  pure  clay,  i.  214. 

the  sandy  clay,  i  215. 

the  clay -loam,  i.  215. 

the  pare  sand,  i  21.5. 

the  gravelly,  i  216 

sandy  and  gravelly  loams,  i.  216. 

Definition  of,  i.  217. 

effects  of  the  subsoil  on  the  soil,  i.  217. 

Terms  applied  to  them,  i.  218. 

their  colors,  i.  219. 

geological  relations,  i.  220,  221. 

agencies  by  which  produced,  i.  220. 

causes  preventing  accumulation,  i.  221. 

scientific  definition  of,  i.  222. 

mechanical  analysis  of.  i.  223. 

Stones  in,  their  purposes,  i  223. 

Chemical  constituents,  i  224. 

Liebig's  analyses  of,  i.  225. 

Sole-shoe  of  Small's  plow,  i  260. 

of  the  Lanarkshire,  i.  265. 

of  the  Mid-Lothian,  i.  269 

South-Down  sheep,  ii.  449. 
Sow,  farrowing,  ii.  217. 

sty  for  her,  ii  218. 

necessity  of  attending  in  parturition,  ii.  219. 

food  for  her  after  it,  ii.  220. 

Diseases  of;  treatment,  ii.  221. 

number  to  be  kept  on  the  farm,  ii.  222. 

Insects  infesting,  ii.  13. 

Sowing  spring-wheat  and  grass-seeds,  ii.  125. 

of  oats.  ii.  148. 

of  barley  seed,  ii.  174. 

by  drill,  i   150. 

by  hand,  how  done,  i.  130. 

effects  of  good  and  bad  on  seed,  i.  179. 

of  Turnips,  manyel-wurzel.  &c.  ii.  252. 

Sowing-sheet  and  basket,  ii.  129. 
Sowing-machine  for  grass-seeds,  ii.  134. 

for  grain,  ii   142. 

in  tiie  United  States,  i.  31. 

Pennock's  improved,  i.  31. 

SovvTi  and  natural  grasses  compared,  ii.  336. 


XIV 


INDEX. 


Spade,  the  narrow  drain,  i.  352. 

the  done,  ii.  61. 

Spaying,  effect  of,  ii.  107. 

Spottiswoode.  improvement  of  by  draining,].; 

Spirit-level,  nses  of,  i.  362. 

Sprinp  and  Winter:  contrasted,  ii.  76. 

the  weather  dorine.  ii.  77-8. 

farm  operations  of,  ii.  79. 

Spring  wheat,  eielection  of,  ii.  137. 

sowing  with  grass  seeds,  ii.  125. 

preparing  tlie  land  for.  ii.  126. 

preparation  of  the  seed,  ii  126. 

Spring-water,  impurities  of,  i.  135. 
Springs,  origin  of,  i.  313. 

on  a  uniform  surface,  i.  313. 

on  a  varied  ditto,  i.  314. 

appearances  of  soil,  explained,  i.  307. 

Stable-forks,  i  5-13. 

lantern,  i.  .')44. 

Stables  for  workhorses,  i.  90. 

proper  flooring  for,  i  93. 

roofing  and  ventilating,  i.  95. 

for  riding-horses,  i.  96. 

the  windows,  i    10.5. 

should  be  dry.  i  98. 

Stacks,  thatchins  of,  ii.  393. 

roping,  modes  of,  ii.  394. 

Covering  in  wet  weather,  ii.  399. 

Stack-yard,  position,  &c.  i.  80. 

arrangement  of,  L  116. 

Stacking  grain,  ii.  389. 

staihels  for.  i  116. 

stools  for,  ii  390. 

building  the  stacks,  ii.  390. 

Stallion  and  the  mare,  ii.  280. 

points  to  be  cultivated,  ii.  440. 

Stalls  for  the  work-horses,  i.  94,  199. 
■  ■        for  cows,  i.  99. 
Starch,  manufacture  of,  ii.  33. 
Stathel  for  stacks,  ii.  116. 
Steading,  description  of,  i.  78. 

best  situation  for,  i.  78. 

should  be  complete,  i.  79. 

causes  of  defects,  i.  81. 

description  of  the.=e,  L  82. 

ground-plan  of,  i.  83. 

a  propo.sed.  i.  84. 

advantages  compared,  i.  85. 

importance  of  draining,  i.  118. 

modifications  of,  i.  121. 

beet  mode  of  contrasting,  i.  122. 

for  pastoral  farms,  i.  123. 

a  carse  farm,  i.  124. 

a  dairy  farm,  i.  124. 

origin  of  the  quadrangular,  i.  125. 

specifications  connected  with,  i.  126. 

diggine  its  foundations,  i.  128. 

the  walls,  i.  127. 

the  doors,  comers.  &c.  i.  127. 

onlside  walls,  and  stairs,  i.  129. 

the  floors,  i.  129. 

supply  of  water,  i.  134. 

building-stone  for,  i.  136. 

its  wood-work,  i  138. 

kinds  of  wood  employed,  i.  140. 

the  plumber-work,  i.  143. 

slating,  i.  143. 

plastering,  i.  145. 

• glazing,  i.  146. 

painting,  i.  146. 

measurements  and  prices,  i.  148-152. 

Steam,  facility  of  transportation  by,  i.  67. 
Steam-engine,  position,  Sec.  of,  i.  89. 
Steaming  apparatus  for  turnips,  &c.  L  555. 
Steeping  flax.  ii.  366. 

6tell8,varioae  forms  of,  for  sbeep-farms,L461,' 
with  hav-racks,  i.  465. 


Stephens,  Geo  ,  on  irrigated  meadows.  L  71-75. 
Stephenson,  Mr.,  on  feeding  cattle  i.  519. 
Steward,  duties  of,  i.  159. 

wages  of  ii.  49. 

Stock  frrain  market,  ii.  52 

advantages  and  disad%-antage8  of.  ii.  53. 

Stone  for  the  steading,  i.  136. 
.Stone  cheese-press,  ii.  329. 
Stone-ducts  in  drains,  i  337 
Stone-dykes,  building  of,  ii.  353. 

openings  in,  ii   357. 

Stones,  removing  them  from  fields,  ii.  259. 
Stools  for  stacks,  making,  i.  116  ;  it  390 
Store  for  tnmips,  i.  111. 

for  potatoes,  i.  117. 

Store-farming:  see  Pastoral  Farms. 
Storing  potatoes,  ii   412. 

turnips,  cabbage,  &c.  i.  421,  429. 

of  wool,  i.  299. 

Siathaven,  fattening  calves  in,  ii.  105. 
Straw,  composition  of  Wheat,  ii.  41. 

Barley,  ii   42. 

Oat  and  Rye,  ii.  42. 

Pease  and  Beans,  ii.  42. 

composition  of.  ii  43. 

inattention  usually  paid  to,  ii.  43-4. 

imjKirtance  of  its  right  management,  iL  44. 

its  value,  ii  44. 

quantity  of  different  crops,  ii.  45. 

Straw-barn,  position  of  i.  80. 
Straw-cutter,  forms  of.  i.  549. 

the  Canadian,  i.  550. 

the  Cylinder,  i.  551. 

the  Disk,  i  555. 

Straw-racks,  forms  of.  i  110. 

iron,  i.  111. 

for  sheep,  i.  449. 

Straw-ropes,  twisting,  ii.  401-2. 

Implements  for,  ii.  402. 

Street  manure,  ii.  207. 

and  stable  dung,  ii.  207. 

Stubble  ground,  plowing,  i.  394. 

different  ways  of,  i.  395. 

Stubble-rake,  the  hand",  ii.  388. 

Student,  hints  to,  i.  9,  10,  17,  18,  22,  74,  77.  191. 

Sty  for  swine,  i.  114. 

for  the  brood-sow,  ii.  218. 

Subsoil,  definition  of,  i.  217. 
■         effect  on  the  soil,  i  217. 

see  also  SoUg, 

Subsoil-plowing,  its  objects,  i.  408. 

Smith's  plow  for  it.  i.  408,  418. 

not  always  good,  i.  410. 

when  injurious,  i  410. 

other  plows  for  it,  i.  412. 

proposed  modification,  412. 

advantages  from,  i.  412. 

compared  with  trenching,  i.  416. 

general  remarks,  i.  419. 

Summer,  characteristics  of.  ii.  240 

phenomena  of,  ii.  240-1. 

state  of  the  weather,  ii.  255-6. 

farm-work  during,  ii.  248. 

Summer-fallowing,  ii.  346. 

soils  requiring,  ii.  347. 

nature  of  its  action,  ii.  351. 

Surface-draining,  i.  315. 
Suters  for  plug-draining,  i.  379. 
Swedish  mortar-cart,  i.  137. 
Swedish  turnips,  sowing,  Ac.  ii.  251. 
Swine,  driving  and  slaughtering,  ii.  5. 

treatment  of  the  pigs,  ii.  6-7. 

cooked  v»  raw  food  for,  ii.  6.  i 

best  food  for,  ii.  6. 

times  to  be  fed,  ii.  7. 

names  at  different  ages,  ii.  7-8. 

judging  of  their  condition,  ii.  8. 


INDEX. 


XV 


Swine,  troughs  for  them,  ii.  9,  10. 

Slaughtering-,  ii.  10. 

cutting  up,  ii.  11. 

loss  of  flesh  in  cooking,  ii.  11. 

digesting  their  flesh,  ii.  11. 

pickling,  ii.  11. 

curing  the  hams,  ii.  11. 

composition  of  the  Fat,  ii.  12. 

uses  of  do.,  ii.  12. 

the  skin,  bristles,  &c.  ii.  12. 

experiments  in  feeding,  ii.  12. 

Diseases  of,  ii  12. 

Insects  infesting,  ii  12,  13. 

points  to  be  cultivated,  ii  431,  452. 

examples  of  this,  ii.  452. 

in  America,  ii.  5,  8. 

Mac  key  breed  of,  ii.  8. 

the  Skinner  breed,  ii.  9. 

American  treatment  of,  ii.  219. 

their  usefulness  ii.  219. 

food  for,  ii.  219. 

Swing-trees  for  the  plow,  i  390. 

for  two  horses,  i.  390. 

for  three,  i.  391. 

for  four,  i.  393,  394. 

Symmetry  of  live-stock,  ii.  428. 
Sympiesometer,  its  uses,  i.  168. 


Taint  in  potatoes,  ii.  203. 
Tank  for  liquid  manure,  i.  119. 

cost,  &c.  of,  i.  119.  152  ;  ii.  65. 

farms  where  required,  ii.  64. 

maiyire,  De  Rham  on,  i.  153. 

Tar  manufacture,  i.  142. 

importation  of,  i.  142. 

Tartarian  oat,  ii.  148. 
Teddingmachines  described,  ii.  337. 

the  English,  ii.  342. 

Teeth  of  domesticated  animals,  ii.  452. 

indications  of  age  from,  ii.  453. 

of  the  Horse,  ii.  453. 

in  the  Ox,  ii.  454. 

in  the  Wild  Boar,  ii.  454. 

Templemoyle,  Agricul.  Seminary  at,  i.  41. 
Ten-hour  system  of  labor,  i  541. 
Thaer,  Von,  his  School  at  Moeglin,  i.  46. 
Thatching  hay-stacks,  ii.  339. 

corn-stacks,  ii.  394-9. 

Thermometer,  the,  i.  168. 

history  and  uses  of.  i.  169. 

the  self-registering,  i.  169. 

Thermometrical  observations,  i.  209. 
Thorn-hedges,  planting  of,  i  226. 

season  for,  i  227. 

how  made,  i.  228. 

implements  used  for,  i.  228-30. 

choosing  the  plants,  i.  230. 

planting  in  the  shrubberies,  &c.  i.2H. 

turffences  to,  i.  242-3. 

see  also  Hedges. 

Thorough-draining,  objects,  &c.  i.  322. 

depths  of  drains,  i.  333. 

necessity  of  ducts,  i.  337. 

the  main  drains,  i.  339. 

the  small  drains,  i.  342,  343,  352. 

distance  between  drains,  i.  345,  367. 

the  run  of  the  drains,  i.  347 

cutting  them,  i.  351 

tools  used  for,  i  351. 

filling  them  in,  i.  353. 

materials  used  for.  i.  353-4. 

preparation  of  stones  for,  i.  353. 

a  stone-drain,  dimensions.  &c.  i.  357-8. 

the  sub-main  drains,  i.  367. 

a  tile  and  sole  drain,  i.  371. 

plan  of  a  tliorough-d  rained  iield,  i.372. 


Tliorough-draining,  the  tiles  for,  i.  359. 

Elxaniples  of  profit  of,  i  375. 

the  flat  stone  drain,  i.  377. 

the  peat-tile,  i  377. 

the  clay-land  shoulder,  i  378. 

the  plug  or  wedge,  i.  379. 

the  sod  drain,  i  380. 

by  the  mole  plow,  i.  381. 

with  larch-tubes,  i.  382. 

with  brushwood,  i.  382. 

durability  of  brick,  i.  382, 

cutting,  with  the  plow,  i.  383. 

Principles  on  which  necessary,  i.384. 

Threshing,  by  the  hand  flail,  ii  345. 

Threshing-machine,  i.  80. 

position,  &c.  of  i.  80. 

Throw-crook,  ii.  395. 

description  of,  ii.  402. 

Thunder-storms,  ii.  242. 

their  prevalence  in  Summer,  ii.  252. 

Tile-draining,  i.  359. 

the  ducts,  i.  338. 

the  main  drains,  i.  339. 

the  small  drains,  i  342,  352. 

the  main-drain  tiles,  i.  359. 

necessity  for  the  sole,  i  359. 

size  and  form  of  tiles,  i.  360. 

number  on  an  acre,  i  361. 

junction  of  the  tiles,  i.  362. 

laying  them  down,  i  363. 

fixing  and  covering  i.  365. 

size  of  the  tiles,  i  368. 

soles  for  small  drains,  i.  368. 

laying  these  down,  i.  368. 

filling  the  drains,  i.  369. 

view  of  a  tile  drain  completed,  1.  371. 

see     Draining,  Thorough    Drain- 
ing, SfC. 

Tiling  of  roofs,  i.  134. 

Timber,  preserving  from  dry-rot,  i.  141. 

proper  season  for  felling,  ii.  76. 

Training  and  working  the  shepherd  dog,  ii.  172. 

Transplanting,  sowing  wheat  by,  ii.  419. 

Transporting  produce  by  steam,  i.  67. 

Treatment  of  domestic  animals,  i.  540. 

Trees  for  hedges  in  America,  i.  227. 

Trenching  with  the  spade,  i.  408. 

early  use  of  the  spade,  i.  408 

substitution  of  the  plow,  i.  408. 

Trenching,  objects,  &c.  i.  414. 

with  the  spade,  i.  414. 

expense  of  it,  i.  415. 

with  the  plow,  i.  415. 

effects  on  the  soil,  i.  416. 

compared  with  subsoil-plowing,  i.  416. 

advantage  derived  from,  i.  419. 

Troughs  for  pigs,  ii.  9,  10. 

■ turnip,  for  cattle,  i.  110. 

water,  i.  111. 

Trowel,  for  laying  tile-soles,  i.  364 
Tups,  separate  feeding  of,  i.  452. 

serving  the  ewes  by,  ii.  404. 

Turkeys,  management  in  winter,  ii.  15. 

management  while  hatching,  ii.  227. 

treatment  of  the  young,  ii.  227. 

Turnips,  preparing  dung  for,  ii.  183. 

sowing  of  ii.  250-2. 

preparation  of  the  ground  for,  ii.  250. 

plowing,  dunging,  &c.  ii.  250-1. 

best  varieties  of,  ii.  251. 

drill  and  broadcast  sowing  of,  ii.  252. 

raising  them  by  bone-dust,  ii.  253. 

store  for.  i.  Ill 

position  of  the  store,  i.  111. 

proportions  to  be  eaten,  i.  423. 

stripping  the  ground  of,  i.  424. 

carting  them,  i.  427-8. 


XVI 


INDEX. 


Turnips,  pulling,  toppine:  au<\  tailing,  i.  425. 

best  weather  Cor  renioving,  i.  428. 

the  triangular  store,  i.  4.30. 

tilling  and  coveripig  it,  i.  430. 

other  ways  of  storing,  i.  430. 

Varieties  of.  i.  432. 

the  White  Globe,  i.  432. 

the  Yellow,  i.  433. 

the  Swedish,  i.  434. 

remarkable  Crops,  i.  434. 

superiority  of  the  Swedish,  i.  43.5. 

specific  gravity  of  the  different  kinds,  i.  436 

nutritive  matter  of,  i.  436. 

ordinary  prices  per  acre,  i.  436. 

hybrid  varieties,  i.  437. 

protection  of  during  snow,  i.  437. 

illustrations  of  badly  formed,  i.  438. 

Number  of  roots  per  acre,  i.  439. 

examples  of  heavy  crops,  i.  440. 

their  History,  i.  4-io. 

• introduction  and  cultivation,  i.  440. 

feeding  sheep  on,  in  winter,  i.  440. 

best  form  of  picker,  i.  442. 

Trough,  for  sheep-feeding,  i.  450. 

Slicers,  i.  470.  473.  475. 

Feeding  Cattle  on,  i.  495. 

wire- basket  for,  i.  499. 

slicing  and  cleaning,  i.  503. 

apparatus  for  steaming,  i  556. 

Turnip-drill,  history  of.  ii  258. 

Turnip-picker,  i.  45o. 

Turnip  slicers  for  sheep,  i   470,  473,  475. 

for  Cattle,  i.  511. 

Turnip  stemmed  cabbage,  i.  441. 
Turnip-troughs  for  Cattle,  1.  110. 

for  Sheep,  i.  450. 

Turn-wrest  snow-plow,  ii   171. 

Tutors,  agricultural,  i  40:  see  Ag.  Scliools. 

Two  furrow  plow,  i.  405. 

Twisters  of  straw-ropes,  ii.  402. 

u 

Udder  of  the  cow,  ii.  98. 

structure  of,  ii.  98-9. 

— -  Diseases  of,  in  Summer,  ii.  277. 

United  States,  mountain  ranges  of,  i.  65. 

grazing  districts  of,  i.  65. 

mixed  farming  in,  i.  68. 

iron  on  farms  in,  i.  97. 

climate  of,  i.  198-9. 

Grain  produce  of,  ii.  25,  34.  38,  41. 

Laboring  population  of,  ii.  45. 

—' Applicability   of  the   Book   of  the 

Faum  to:  see  Book  of  the  Farm, 
Observaliotis  of  Am.  Ed. 

Upper-barn,  plan,  &c.  i.  106. 


V 

Vapor,  quantities  of,  in  the  air,  i.  187. 
Vegetation  as  a  source  of  electricity,  i.  180. 
Ventilators  for  the  stable,  i.  95. 
Vermin,  preserving  barn-floors  from,  i.  88. 
Veterinary  Colleges,  i.  43. 

• the  London,  i.  43. 

the  Edinburgh,  i.  43. 

Von  Thaer,  M.  agricultural  institution  of,  i.  45. 

w 

Waddell,  Mr.  construction  of  floors  bv,  i.  129. 
Wages  of  farm-servants,  ii.  45. 

of  the  plowman,  ii.  46. 

when  living  in  bothies,  ii.  47-8 

of  the  steward  and  shepherd,  ii.  49. 

of  the  hedger.  ii.  49. 

of  the  cattle-man,  ii.  49. 

of  the  field-worker,  ii  50. 

Walton,  Mr.  on  breeding  the  Alpaca,  ii.  451. 


Walker,  Mr.  experiments  in  feeding  cattle,  i.517 

on  feeding  pigs,  ii.  12. 

Warnes,  Mr.  mode  of  feeding  cattle,  i.  516. 

Washing  sheep,  ii.  286-7. 

Water,  supply  of.  for  the  farm,  i.  132. 

causes  and  cure  of  its  hardness,  i.  135. 

supplying  cattle  with,  i.  112. 

great  expansion,  when  freezing,  i.  196. 

agency  of,  in  forming  soils,  i.  219. 

preventing  its  lodgment,  i.  238. 

sources  of  supei-fluous,  i.  313. 

efl^ect  on  germination,  ii.  178. 

Water-furrowing,  ii.  136. 

Watering-pots  for  stock,  ii.  275. 

mode  of  constructing,  tec.  ii.  275,  358. 

Water-meadows,  management  of  in  winter,  i.71 

Weaning  calves,  ii.  266,  270. 

Weather,  instruments  for  indicating,  i.  165-174 

the  Barometer,  i   166. 

Sympiesometer,  i.  168. 

Thermometer,  i.  1 68. 

Hygrometer,  i.  171. 

Weathercock,  i.  172. 

Anemometer,  i.  173. 

Rain-guage,  i.  174. 

indications  from  the  Clouds,  i.  175-80. 

agency  of  electricity,  i.  180. 

indications  of  from  the  Aurora  Borealis 

i.  185. 

other  atmospheric  phenomena,  i.  185. 

in  \Vinter,  general  uncertainty  of,  i.  76. 

in  Spring,  ii.  76. 

in  Summer,  ii.  240. 

in  Autumn,  ii.  363. 

Wedge  •r  plug  draining,  i.  378.  * 

Wedgewood's  table-churn,  ii.  323. 
Weighing  wool.  ii.  300. 
Weight  of  fat  oxen,  rules,  ii.  267. 

fallacy  of  these  rules,  ii.  269. 

Wells,  Dr.  his  theory  of  dew,  ii.  242. 
W'ells.  sinking  of,  on  the  farm,  i.  132. 
W'est  Highland  ox,  ii.  445. 
Wheat,  spring,  sowing  of,  ii.  125. 

classification  by  the  ear,  ii.  26. 

by  the  grain,  ii  27. 

judging  of  quality,  color,  &c.  ii.  28. 

kinds  for  various  purposes,  ii.  28-9. 

the  best  for  seed,  ii.  28. 

detection  of  dama.ged,  ii.  28-30. 

preserving  in  granaries,  ii.  28. 

grinding  of,  ii.  29. 

flour  and  bran,  ii.  29. 

chemical  composition,  ii.  31. 

microscopic  structure,  ii.  32. 

nutritive  matter  in,  ii.  33. 

manufacture  of  Starch  from,  ii.  33. 

Straw  of,  ii.  41. 

Varieties  of,  ii.  137. 

Cutting,  i.  17  ;  ii.  382. 

Prof.  Johnston  on  the  Gluten  of,  i.  31. 

proper  ripeness  for  cutting,  ii.  382. 

Cutting  of,  ii.  373. 

Carrying  in  and  Stacking,  ii.  388. 

Weight  of  Grain.  Straw,  Ice.  ii.  382. 

Autumn,  sowing  of,  ii.  416. 

plowing,  (See.  the  land,  ii.  416-17. 

various  modes  of  this,  ii.  417. 

thorough-draining  for  it,  ii.  418. 

preparation  of  the  seed,  ii.  418. 

sowing  by  dibbling,  <5cc.  ii.  419. 

and  by  transplanting,  ii.  419. 

expense,  and  saving  of  seed,  ii.  420. 

the  process  of  germination,  ii.  421. 

W^heeled  plow,  the,  i.  404. 

"^Vheeled  turnip-slicer,  for  sheep,  i.  473. 
Wildfire,  a  di.sease  in  sheep,  i.  477. 
treatment  of,  i.  477 


IKDEX. 


XVI. 


Wilkie's  drill-grubber  and  harrow,  ii.  335. 

horse-hoe,  ii.  336. 

plow,  i.  2r.5,  262. 

"Wilson,  Dr.  on  Drainage,  i.  375. 
Windows  for  stables,  i.  105. 


for  byres,  i.  105. 

for  the  granary,  i.  107. 


Winds,  relation  of  to  rain,  i.  190. 

influence  on  weather  in  Summer,  ii.  246. 

Winsboro',Grov.,and  the  cattle  of  N.Eng'd.i  207 
Winter,  farm  operations  in,  i.  74. 

importance  of  these,  i  74. 

uncertainty  of  weather  in,  i.  76. 

arrangement  of  field-work,  i  301. 

wheat,  sowing,  &c.  ii    416. 

Wire  field-gates,  ii.  265. 

turnip-basket,  i  499. 

Womb  of  the  cow,  the,  ii.  84. 

Wood,  Kyanizing,  i.  141. 

^'ood  floor  for  the  corn-barn,  1.  87. 

r—  advantages  of,  i.  87. 

preserving  it  from  vermin,  i.  88 

Wood-paving,  advantages  of,  i.  130. 

various  kinds,  i.  130. 

comparative  expense,  i.  131. 


Wood-work  of  the  steading,  i   138. 

measurement  and  cost,  i.l38,  148,15  J 

Wool,  washing,  ii.  298. 

clipping,  ii.  298 

storing,  weighing.  &c.  ii.  298. 

qualities  of,  ii.  301. 

effects  of  fattening  on  its  qusility,  ii.  302. 

chemical  analysis  of,  ii.  303. 

microscopic  examination,  ii.  303. 

causes  of  its  felting,  ii.  303-4. 

Wool-room,  plan  and  description  of,  i.  106-7 

Wool-shears,  ii.  289. 

Working  the  shepherd's  dog,  ii.  172. 

Y 

Year,  agricultural,  divisions  of,  i.  15. 

Yeast  for  baking,  ii.  31. 

Yoking  horses  to  the  plow,  i.  386. 

the  young  draught-cojt,  ii.  215. 

to  the  cart,  ii  216 

Youatt,  Mr.,  observations  on  wool,  ii.  303 


Zinc,  employment  for  roofing,  i.  143. 
Zones  of  the  earth,  the.  i.  201. 
Zoology,  value  of  a  study  of,  i.  61. 


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